Flexo Printing

Flexo Printing Technology Published in cooperation with the German speaking EI ig flexo printing MITA association and Prof. Karl-Heinz Meyer 4" new and revised editionPRINTING Bris WN HS FLEXOGRAPHIC PRINTING Afinitely variable FOR INCREASED PRODUCTION FLEXIBILITY. he BHS Invention — proven success In converting plants for many years: Printing any repeat length as in gravure printing, without format gears UR em RL a a) Printing in register on pre-printed materials — Pc RC eRe Py i mee eM) iS CU ue Ce SC UU RU Ly ae cue) COU CLt a BHS In-Line Press Configuration: NS my Individual print stations allow for long dryers ecg Me UR eee aa Ce) CecMeMC ROR Matick I SSCA RUE ary Pffective flexo printing process. COC NT el em Oe Ck LT nnovative. ti iqeais stated) 2} CeCe koa CaN en unos a Poa Creat Poon eens TEL (001) 410-666-2700 FAK ..2985 ceMcer Rie ar eee ustomer-oriented. E-MAIL: BHSPRINT@AOL.COM Eevee mee estatFlexo Printing Technology Published in cooperation with the German speaking parE fexo printing IHL TIPTN association and Prof. Karl-Heinz Meyer 4 new and revised edition COATINGLibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data ‘Main entry under title: Flexo Printing Technology Published in cooperation with DFTA and Prof. K.-H. Meyer 4th new and revised edition St.Gallen, Coating, 2000 Coating Fachbiicher (Coating - Books for specialists) Copyright 2000 Verlag Coating Thomas & Co., CH-9001 St. Gallen All rights reserved including the rights of translation. No part of this work covered by the copyrights hereon may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means - graph: ic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information and retrieval systems without written permission of the publisher. Print: Druckerei H. Brigger, CH-9001 St.Gallen ISBN 3-85599-005-0Foreword ‘The fourth edition in German was such a roar- ing success that many buyers of the manual suggested its translation into Dutch and English. The Dutch version was published in autumn 1999. Once the publication of an English version was decided, the publishers felt that a simple translation would not do. They therefore encouraged the authors to update their editorial contributions. This is why the English publication in many ways reflects the state of the art of spring 2000. This book owes its publication first and foremost to the help of Martin White, the edi- tor and publisher of the FlexoTech magazine - among others. We gratefully acknowledge his contribution based on his profound knowledge of flexographic printing - and hence its technical terms. We also gratefully acknowledge the work of Thomas Berner and Wilhelm Bolter of our editorial staff who successfully motivated translators, authors and printers to doa good job. COATING Publications Books for specialists ‘The Publishers Foreword fourth edition When the 1st edition of the manual "Techno- logy of Flexo Printing" appeared at DRUPA "82, no-one was able to anticipate the high level of interest that would be shown in this book and all its subsequent editions. What was originally the German version of an American manual had already become a separate work in its own right that presented the state of the art in flexo printing by the time the completely revised 2nd edition was published in 1986. A further improvement in quality was achieved with the re-designed 3rd edition in 1991, in which the 2nd edition was updated and a section about quality assurance was included. The 4* edition is now available. It differs considerably from the previous editions. Care was taken right from the beginning of the planning phase to make sure that the proven blend of research and scientific theory on the one hand and practical advice and guidance on the other hand could be maintained. The services of more than 80 authors from both areas were finally obtained. As in the past, illustrations have been included to make the content easier to understand. In view of the large number of authors and the diversity of their backgrounds, it is inevitable that different opinions are voiced on occasions which the publishers do not necessarily share. Although the publishers and the publishing company have made careful attempts to smooth out these differences of opinion - and in particular to include consistent specialised terminology - they agreed that readers should not in every case be de- prived of the opportunity to weigh up differing views. This diversity makes "Flexoprinting Technology" thought provoking to read, while it is an additional intention to stimulate technical debate as a result, No-one can claim to hold the one and only opinion where this printing process is concerned. Another problem that we underestimated in the co-ordination of more than 80 authors was timing. The assignment here was to involve the authors and to avoid repetition in the articles they wrote. This has led to a brief delay in the date of publication, for which we apolo- gise to our readers. It has been worthwhile. As has been noted already in the previous editions flexo printing has in the meantime assumed a substantially more important role. If vthe development that has taken place over the past ten years continues, the flexo printing process will be pushing the offset process into Ind place in packaging printing in Europe shortly after the beginning of the new millen- nium, The dramatic increase in the quality of the flexo printing process in particular has made this development possible. Computer- to-plate technology suggests that further progress can be expected here. This has made it even more necessary to publish another reliable compendium for professionals associated with the flexo printing process that outlines the latest developments as well as describing the basic principles of the process. Thanks to the tremendous advances that have been made, the flexo printing world in 1999 is no longer the same as in 1991 In order to underline its claim to be a refer- ence book, the 4th edition has for the first time been provided with a subject index. This will help to make the 4th edition of "Flexo Printing Technology" an indispensable guide in everyday business operations as well as for students and apprentices The purpose of the system descriptions that have also been included for the first time in the 4th edition is to take account of our reader’ s interest in practical solutions by including initial information about specific systems. Companies at the same time have been given an opportunity to present their products. The companies themselves are therefore solely re- sponsible for the content of these system descriptions, The system descriptions are identi fied as such and have been printed in italics. ‘We would like to express our thanks first and foremost to our more than 80 different VI authors, who have written what are in some cases extremely detailed articles in spite of their - in most cases - heavy workload. It is thanks to their efforts that we are now able to benefit from the 4th edition Without the support of the scientists at the institutes associated with the DFTA, at Darm- stadt Technical University, at Leipzig, Munich and Stuttgart Polytechnics and at the Amalga- mated University of Wuppertal as well as numerous companies, it would not have been possible to produce this 4th edition. Our thanks go to them too We would also like to thank the companies that have placed advertisements and the authors of the system descriptions, whose support has made the new edition a viable proposition Last but not least, we would like to thank the Coating Verlag publishing company and its staff as well as the Hermann Brigger printing company for a pleasant cooperative relationship throughout. ‘We hope that this 4th edition will be as well received as its predecessors Senator Wolfgang C.-O. Kurz DFTA President Professor Karl-Heinz Meyer Scientific Director of DFTA-TZ Polytechnic for Printing and Media, Stuttgart (Hochschule fiir Druck und Medien - HDM, Stuttgart) Runald Probst General Director of DFTA and DFTA-TZAuthors A H. Andreas, AKL Flexo Technik GmbH, D-Warburg U. Bogl, Albert Bauer KG, D-Hamburg Dr. G. Bolte, TDZ Gesellschaft fir innovative Ober?4achenbehandlung mbH, D-Lippstadt E. Briinnel, Connex Datensysteme und Beratungsgesellschaft mbH, D-RoBdorf U. Buckmann, Praxair Surface Technologies S.A., CH-Meyrin H. BuBhoff, Rotec GmbH, D-Ahaus c M. Cramme, Haug GmbH & Go. KG, D-Leinfelden-Echterdingen M. Curtoni, Schiavi S.p.A., Piacenza D D. Decker, LTG Metal Decorating GmbH, D-Stuttgart B, Diebels, Stork Screens B,V., NL-Boxmeer F van Dooren, Barco Graphics NV, B-Gent M. Dotzler, Hueck Folien GmbH & Co. KG, D-Weiden E B. Enning, Polywest Sleeve Systems, D-Ahaus J. Erdmann, Ahlbrandt System GmbH, D-Lauterbach \W. Erling, BHS Druck- und Veredelungstechnik GmbH, D-Weiherhammer F R. Fiebig, Tetra Pak Deutschland GmbH, D-Berlin H. Flohr, RAM GmbH, D-Hattersheim Dr. F Forster, SOFTAL electronic GmbH, D-Hamburg. G Dr. L. Gall, D-Frankenthal A. Grivel, Bobst S.A., CH-Lausanne S. Grune, Fildos Filtrations- und Dosiersysteme GmbH, D-Erkrath VilProf. Dr. Chr. Hars, Technische Universitit Darmstadt — Fachbereich Maschinenbau, Fachgebiet Druckmaschinen und Druckverfahren, D-Darmstadt F Hasselmann, Windméller & Hélscher, D-Lengerich H.-W. Hauer, Koenig und Bauer AG, D-Wirzburg Dr. K. Heger, Siegwerk Druckfarben GmbH & Co. KG, D-Siegburg J. Heidrich, Gretag-Macbeth GmbH, D-Neu-Isenburg Prof. Dr. U. Herzau-Gerhardt, Fachhochschule Leipzig M. Homschuh, Albert Bauer KG Graph, Werkstitten, D-Hilter D. Huck, Mark Andy AG, CH-Allschwil M. Hiittemeyer, Neemann Verpackung, D-Leer-Logabirum K H. A. Kalt, Proceg §.A., CH-Zitrich Dr. R. Kldden, Microspace Me®- und Sensortechnik GmbH, Chemnitz U. Kretzschmar, Mark Andy AG, CH-Allschwil O. Kiinzler, M. Datwyler AG, CH-Bleienbach-Langenthal W. Kuhm, Heinrich Hermann GmbH & Co., D-Stuttgart L U. Linke, Warburger Klischee Anstalt GmbH & Co. OHG, D- Warburg G. Lebig, Leybold Systems GmbH, D-Hanau T. Ludwig, Eltex Elektrostatik Gesellschaft mbH, D-Weil am Rhein M D. Maier, icoma FBS GmbH Packtechnik, D-Achern Prof. K.-H. Meyer, FH Stuttgart ~ Hochschule fiir Druck und Medien, wissenschaftlicher Leiter DFTA-TZ, D-Stuttgart A. Michel, Bobst S.A., CH-Lausanne H. Mihthéfer, ER-WE-PA Davis Standard GmbH, D-Erkrath N B. Nielsen, Neltec Denmark A/S, DK-Bevtoft K. Niggemeier, Kurt Zecher GmbH, D-Paderborn Prof. Dr. K. Nitzl, Fachhochschule Minchen — Fachbereich 05 Studiengang Verfahrenstechnik Papier - Kunststoff, D-Miinchen 0 K. Oppelt, Asahi Chemical Industry Deutschland GmbH, D-Frankfurt/Main VILP H. Pieper, BASF Drucksysteme GmbH, D-Stuttgart M. Podlesny, STS Breitstreckwalzen GmbH, D-Ratingen B. Prinsen, MacDarmid Benelux B.V., NL-Ettenleur E. Prinz, SOFTAL electronic GmbH, D-Hamburg P. Rachel, Gretag-Macbeth GmbH, D-Neu-Isenburg R. Rafflenbeul, Rafflenbeul Ingenieure, D-Frankfurt/Main Dr. S. Reichert, Siegwerk Druckfarben GmbH & Co. KG, D-Siegburg S. Riechert, Du Pont de Nemours Deutschland GmbH, D-Neu-Isenburg R Riethausen, Institut fir Rationalisierung in der Druckindustrie — IRD e.V,, D-Hanau Dr. B. Runge, Hostmann-Steinberg GmbH, D-Celle s J. Sauter, Wetzel GmbH, D-Grenzach-Wyhlen J. Scharfenberg, DuPont de Nemours Deutschland GmbH, D-Neu-Isenburg G. Schmiedel, F. Battcher GmbH & Co. KG, D-Kéln M. Schneider, Beiersdorf AG, D-Hamburg D. Scholler, Klischeewerkstatt Scholler GmbH, D-Nurnberg, CC Schultze, Opti-Color GmbH, D-Bad Salzdetfurth Dr. H. Schweiger, Zeller + Gmelin GmbH & Co., D-Eislingen Dr. W, Sondergeld, W. Haldenwanger GmbH & Co. KG, D-Berlin F Spindler, DuPont de Nemours Deutschland GmbH, D-Neu-Isenburg M. Suhr, G. H. Krimer GmbH & Co. KG Lufttechnik und Filteranlagen, D-Grinberg St J. StrauB, Papiertechnische Stiftung, PTS, D-Manchen G. Strohschein, Vereinigte Papierwarenfabriken GmbH, D-Feuchtwangen T. Studer, Gallus Ferdinand Ritesch AG, CH-St. Gallen U Prof. Dr. P. Urban, Bergische Universitat, Gesamthochschule Wuppertal - Fachbereich fiir Kunst, Kunstpadagogik und Druck Ww W. Wallmann, Windméller & Halscher, D-Lengerich J. Weirauch, 3M Belgium, B - Diegem ‘A. Wandt, Agfa Deutschland Vertriebsgesellschaft mbH & Cie., D-Kéln ‘A. Weitmann, BASF Drucksysteme GmbH, D-Stuttgart K.-H. Wirth, Leybold Systems GmbH, D-HanauContent 1. Introduction Professor Dr U. Herzau-Gerhard 1.1 Development of flexo printing 1.1.1 From stamp printing to flexo printing 1.1.1.1 Historical sources oo 1.1.1.2 Initial technical developments. : 1.1.2 Development up to about 1950 1.1.2.1 The Twenties B 1.1.2.2 The Thirties and Forties . . 1.1.3 Development up to 1990 1.1.3.1 New printing substrates 1.1.3.2 Improvement in printing inks 1.1.3.3 Photopolymer printing plates 1.1.3.4 New generations of printing machines 1.1.4 State of the art 1.2 Summary of printing technology 1.2.1 The printing processes used nowadays and their application areas 1.2.1.1 Letterpress printing . 1.2.1.2 Letterset printing . 1.2.1.3 Security printing ... 1.2.1.4 Rotogravure printing 1.2.1.5 Tampon printing 1.2.1.6 Stone printing . . 1.2.1.7 Offset printing . . 1.2.1.8 Collotype printing 1.2.1.9 Screen printing 1.2.1.10 Digital printing .... 1.2.2 Printing processes - comparison and combination W. Erling 1.2.2.1 Offset printing 1.2.2.2 Gravure printing 1.2.2.3 Flexo printing 1.2.2.4 UV flexo printing . 1.2.2.5 Flexo printing with infinitely variable printi ing, lengths 1.2.2.6 Combination of processes 1.2.2.7 Prospects 1.3 Flexo printing -a form of relief printing Professor Dr U. Herzau-Gerhardt a 14 14 15 16 17 AZ 18 18 XI1.3.1 Printing process Professor K.-H. Meyer 1.3.2 Printing ink transfer 1.3.3 Summary . 1.4 Printing substrates... Professor Dr U. Herzau-Gerhard 2. Flexo printing machines F Hasselmann 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Types of printing machine 2.2.1 The supplementary printing unit . . 2.2.2 Compact multi-cylinder machine . 2.2.3 Multi-cylinder printing machine with a central wheel 2.2.4 Multi-cylinder printing machine with printing units arranged in series 2.2.5 Machine with a central cylinder 2.2.6 In-line machines / machine combinations 2.2.7 Promotion article by Schiavi SPA. . . 2.3 Printing machines for narrow-web applications T. Studer 2.3.1 Flexo printing machines in label printing 2.3.2 Printing machine concepts 2.3.3 Modular machine concepts 2.4 Printing machines for corrugated board printing A. Grivel A. Michel 2.4.1 Direct printing or pre-printing 2.4.1.1 Direct printing or post-printing .... 2.4.1.2 Pre-printing 2.4.2 Direct printing process 2.5 Flexo printing machines for newspaper printing. F Hasselmann 3. Individual elements of printing machines F Hasselmann, 3.1 General - machine automation . 3.2 Printing unit configurations... . 3.2.1 The 3-roller printing unit or duct-roller printing unit 3.2.2 The 2-roller printing unit or doctor-blade printing unit XIL 18 AD 20 20 23 23 23 23 25 27 27 30 29 32 33 3B 34 35 36 36 36 36 37 38 Al AL 41 Ad A43.3. The most important printing unit elements cece AS 3.3.1 The impression cylinder ee 3.3.1.1 Impression cylinder on multi-cylinder machines... 0-0. ers 3.3.1.2 Impression cylinder on machines with a central cylinder . 65 peeee te ao) 3.3.2 The printing cylinder ........ ce : 46 3.3.2.1 Conventional cylinders ..... : ce 46 3.3.2.2 Hollow cylinders .... et eee 46 3.3.2.3 Air cylinders cece etn e nee 46 3.3.24 Printing lengths - choice of gearwheel ......00.0.--- vovveeeee 44 3.3.3 Printing unit adjustment ...... re a cece AT 3.4 Individual elements of printing machines for narrow-web applications _ 48 D. Huck U. Kretzschmar 3.5 Newspaper flexographic printing nen wee 5D H.-W. Hauer 3.5.1 The gearless printing couple .. ae weve 5D 3.5.1.1 Ink supply es re cee 52 3.5.1.2 Printing unit : veces wee 52 3.5.1.3 Platelimpression cylinder... Goosuaonaoeood eee 52 3.5.1.4 Second plate cylinder cee bee gnsoeeee peed 3.6 Further printing unit components . . oo ; we 5B K. Niggemeier 3.6.1 The anilox roller - function and location . : 2 5B 3.6.1.1 General factors that affect ink transfer . . : ce beowks 3.6.1.2 Engraving specifications 54 3.6.1.2.1 Lines per cm - screen width wees BeG6 54 3.6.1.2.2 Engraving depth ee eee eee sees 55 3.6.1.2.3 Side angle ........ Scos8bouacHoon 55 3.6.1.2.4 Engraving angle ..... we eee eee 5 : 55 3.6.1.2.5 Cell/partition ratio . . oD ee ‘i 54 3.6.1.2.6 Volume 5 cerns 56 3.6.13 Aniloxroller designs... - . cee eeeee eee ST 3.6.1.4 Types of anilox roller ee . 58 3.6.1.4.1 Chromium-faced anilox rollers senseereees wees aeeeeoo) 3.6.1.4.1.1 Structure wees ee oe boobecHasdeoed) 3.6.1.4.1.2 Types- production ......... geoeabousboecu 5 oe 59 3.6.1.4.1.2.1 Grooving covet eee eee : = 60 3.6.1.4.1.2.2 Electronically controlled er engraving . . . 60 3.6.1.4.1.2.3 Others... rn - . -- 60 3.6.1.4.2 Laser-engraved ceramic anilox rollers . we ences .- 60 U. Buckmann 3.6.1.4.2.1 History and development of ceramic anilox rollers pecan 60 3.6.1.4.2.2 The roller body . 61 XI3.6.1.4.2.3 The ceramic layer fee eeeeeee eee 3.6.1.4.2.4 Anilox roller sleeves 3.6.1.4.2.5 Laser technology ‘ 3.6.1.4.2.6 Geometrical aspects of laser- engraved cells wee 3.6.1.4.2.7 Specifications of laser-engraved ceramic anilox rollers 3.6.1.4.2.8 Inking properties... 3.6.2 Evaluation of anilox rollers .. Dr W. Sondergeld Professor Dr P. Urban 3.6.2.1 General information 3.6.2.2 Analysis ofthe screens through the microscope . DrR. Kléden 3.6.2.3 High-speed scanning for the touchless measurering of cell topographies 3.6.2.4 Capacitive measureing of surfaces 3.6.3 Cleaning of anilox rollers .. Professor K.-H. Meyer 3.6.4 The doctor blade in flexo printing O. Kanzler 3.6.5 Sleeve technology B. Enning 3.6.5.4 Description ofthe Polywest System 3.6.5.2 Description ofthe Rotec System 2... ccccceseeceeseeeeeeeee H. Bubhoff 3.6.5.3 The TWINLOCK system - Description by Macdermid Benelux B.V. - B. Prinsen 3.6.5.4 Sleeve technology - System AKL Flexo Technike H. Andreas 3.6.5.5 System description by Stork Screens B.V. Sleeve tecbique B. Diebels 3.6.6 Pan roller - application - function - design .. . G. Schmiedel 3.6.7 Ink circulation and viscosity control C. Schultze 3.6.7.1 Viscosity measurement and control... 3.6.7.2. Measuring system for viscosity . XIV 61 61 61 62 63 63 64 64 67 - 68 68 68 69 72 73 274 75 76 79 79 803.6.7.2.1 Rotation dip sensors 3.6.7.2.2 Falling ball system . . 3.6.7.2.3 Inline rotation sensors 3.6.7.3 Viscosity control systems 3.6.7.3.1 Single or central stations 3,6.7.3.2 Special features for viscosity control 3.6.7.3.3 Scaling functions 3.6.7.3.4 Interval function for valve 3.67.36 Data transfer, printer function and interfaces 3.6.7.4 Tank- and pumping systems 3.6.7.4.1 Ink tank 3.6.7.4.2 Solvent tank 3.6.7.4.3 Rotaring pump, clip version 3.6.7.4.4 Membrane and peristaltic pumps 3.6.7.4.5 Stirrer units . 4. Web threading in the flexo printing machine Professor Dr Chr. Hars 4.1 Introduction - objective 4.2. Web tensioning and web control in the rotary web fed flexo printing machine 4.2.1 Significance of the web tensioning equipment 4.2.2 Flatness and straight-edged web guidance 4.2.2.1 Web tension - length and crosswise stretching 4.2.2.2 Repeat length and effects on the web 4.2.2.3 Registration accuracy 4.2.2.4 Wrinkling 4.2.2.5 System description by STS Breitstreckwalzen GmbH M, Podlesny 4.2.3 Elements of web guiding Professor Dr Chr. Hars 4.2.3.1 The tensioning unit 4.2.3.1.1 The step-based tensioning unit 4.2.3.1.2 The traction force tensioning unit 4.2.3.1.3 The individual drive . 30 4.2.3.2 The control or web guidance roller 4.2.4 Interaction between several different tensioning units 4.2.4.1 Web guidance sections 4.2.4.2 Combination of step based/step based tensioning u units 4.2.4.3 Combination of traction force/step-based tensioning units 4.2.4.4 Combination of step based/traction force tensioning units 4.2.4.5 Combination of traction force/traction force tensioning units 4.2.4.6 Practical hints ....... 4.2.5 The path of the web through the rotary web-fed flexo printing machine 4.2.5.1 Tension control or pressure roller 4.2.5.2 The flexo printing machine and speed changes 4.2.5.3 Approximate data for web tension setting 80 81 eral 84 -. 82 - 82 - 83 - 83 83 - 83 83 84 86 84 84 85 85 85 85 85 - 86 . 86 87 87 88 89 89 90 90 91 92 93 93 94 95 96 96 97 97 98 100 1014.2.6 Web path regulation 4.2.6.1 The assignment 4.2.6.2 Method of operation 4.2.6.3 Centre and edge regulation 4.2.6.4 Web behaviour 4.2.6.5 Web control systems 4.2.6.6 Winder control systems 4.2.7 Register regulation 4.2.7.1 General information 4.2.7.2 Register regulation in flexo printing 4.2.73 The regulation operation: measurement, comparison, position/web and cylinder scanning . 4.2.7.4 Web/web and web/cylinder comparison 4.2.7.5 Standard or consecutive regulation : 4.2.7.6 The register system on flexo printing machines 5 4.2.7.6.1 Register adjustment on multi-cylinder flexo printing machines 4.2.7.6. Register adjustment on flexo printing machines with a central cylinder 4.2.77 Register adjustment with and without any tensioning unit action 4.2.7.7.1 Register adjustment without tensioning unit action 4.2.7.7.2 Register adjustment with tensioning unit action 4.2.7.7.3 Cylinder and register roller adjustment . 4.2.7.8 Overprinting 4.3 Additional equipment 4.3.1 Web monitoring in general 4.3.1.1 Stroboscope 4.3.1.2 Mirror roller systems 4.3.1.3 Video systems... 4.3.2 Slitting equipment 4.3.3 Turning unit/ turning bars / turning cross 4.4 Drying units 44.1 Air driers 4.4.1.1 Aircirculation . 4.4.1.2 Regulation, concentration . 4.4.1.3 Intermediate and bridge drying systems 4.4.1.4 Cooling 4.4.2 Radiation driers 4.4.2.1 IRdrying 4.4.2.2 UV drying... 5 4.4,2.2.1 Continuous UV radiation driers 4.4,2.2.2 Intermittent UV radiation driers 4.4.2.2.3 Excimer .. 4.4.2.3 Electron beam drying 4.4.2.4 Shortwave driers/microwave driers XVI E102) - 102 102 103 103 104 105 106 106° 106 107 108 109 109 109 109 110 110 110 1 Att 1 111 112 112 113 La palit) 116 117 117 119 119 120 120 120 121 121 21 A 122 - 1225. Pre-press technology... 123 A. Wandt 5.1 General introduction . . : oo Se 123 5.1.1 Basic information about printing original production 6 124 5.1.2. Text reproduction in flexo printing wees oe ee 126 5.2 Picture production - reproduction... 0.2.0... 0c eee vee ee ee eee eee 127 U. Bagl 5.2.1 Proofs and proof standards . ceceeee wee 127 5.2.2 Production of fine and continuous tone motifs 127 5.2.2.1 Fundamental procedures, the digital workflow 127 5.2.2.2 Separation of motifs into primary colours via scanners 127 5.2.2.3 Digital photo retouching and page assembling with DTP/high end systems ........ 128 5.2.2.4 Digital photo retouching 2129 5.2.2.5 Digital page assembly - : +130 5.2.2.6 Digital screening, tonal value reduction and RIP distortion ......... iat 5.3 Film production, proof printing 5 a . 131 D. Scholler 5.3.1 Introduction . ABT 5.3.2 Film for the production of photopolymer flexo. printing plates . . peers.) 5.3.2.1 Density 132 5.3.2.2 Transparency .............ceee pee ay 132) 5.3.2.3 Matt surface .......... : a 5 eo ABD 5.3.3 Proof printing in lexo printing .. Bape = eee ABD 5.3.3.1 Proof printing processes ...... oe . wee 133 5.3.3.2 Contact proofing systems a wee 133 5.3.3.3 Digital proofing systems . . : wee cece ABB 5.3.3.3.1 Soft proof cece 133 5,3.3.3.2 Thermal sublimation printers seteeenes eee oe 133, 5.3.3.3.3 Inkjet systems ..... Baonesu6K oo ABS 5.3.4 Proof printing - adaptation to flexo printing . wo DB4 5.4 Comparison of imaging tehnologies for digital flexo plates ...... 135 FE van Dooren 5.4.1 Imaging time comparison ee pee 135) 5.4.2 The optical system 135 5.4.2.1 YAG laser vestus laser diode arrays 135 5.4.2.2 High laser power demand . .. 135 5.4.2.3 Autofocus for different plate thicknesses cee eee oe ABS 5.4.2.4 Focal depth a 135 5.4.2.5 Wide range of resolutions 136 5.4.3 Versatile mechanical system 136 5.4.4 RIP and screening technology . 136 5.4.4.1 RIPs 136 XVII5.4.4.2 Screens .. 5.4.5. Proofing .. 6. Printing plates in flexo printing M. Hornschuh 6.1 Printing plates/cylinders in specific processes 6.1.1 Introduction... . 6.1.2 Printing plates - structure depending on the printing substrate 6.1.3 Effect of printing plate surface tension on the printing results 6.1.4 Relationship between the printing plate and the ink system . . 6.1.5 Relationship between the printing plates and the materials used to make them 6.2 Photopolymer printing plates (solid systems) S. Riechert 6.2.1 Basic principles of polymerisation 6.2.2 Unprocessed photopolymer plates . 6.2.2.1 Measurement of plate thickness and hardness. 6.2.2.1.1 Measurement of plate thickness 6.2.2.1.2 Measurement of plate hardness 6.2.2.2 Storage and handling of unprocessed photopolymer plates . 6.2.2.3 Handling and storage . . 6.2.2.4 Cutting unprocessed photopolymer plates . . 6.2.3 Basic operations in photopolymer printing splat production 6.2.3.1 Reverse side exposure ; - 6.2.3.1.1 Reverse side exposure test, general instructions 6.2.3.1.2 Instructions for the reverse side exposure test . 6.2.3.1.3 Determination of reverse side exposure . 6.2.3.1.4 Effect of reverse side exposure 6.2.3.1.5 Correct reverse side exposure 6.2.3.1.6 Reverse side exposure too short 6.2.3.1.7 Reverse side exposure too long 6.2.3.1.8 Selection of the relief depth 6.2.3.2 Main exposure / motif exposure operations 6.2.3.2.1 Instructions for the conventional main exposure operation with a negative . 6.2.3.2.2 Instructions for the main exposure operation with an integral mask (digital photopolymer plates) 6.2.3.2.3 Effect of the main exposure time on the motif structure 6.2.3.2.4 Selection of the exposure times and main exposure test .. 6.2.3.2.5 Test negatives for determining the main exposure operation 6.2.3.2.6 Instructions for the main exposure test 6.2.3.2.7 Determination of the optimum main exposure time for conventional plates... 6.2.3.2.7.1. Combination of screened and line work . 6.2.3.2.7.2. Main exposure operation too short 6.2.3.2.7.3, Main exposure operation too long 6.2.3.2.8 Exposure range - the accuracy of motif information transfer from film to plate 6.2.3.3 Washing process 6.2.3.3.1 Instructions for the washing process 6.2.3.3.2 Parameters that influence the washing process XVIIL 136 136 “137 137 137 137 139 140 140 141 141 141 143 143 143 143 144 144 144 145 145 145 146 147 147 147 147 147 147 148 148 148 149 149 149 150 150 150 150 151 151 151 1516.2.3.3.3 Effect of different washing conditions 6.2.3.3.4 Regeneration of the washing solution 6.2.3.4 Drying a 6.2.3.4.1 Instructions for the drying process . 6.2.3.4.2 Effect of the drying process 6.2.3.5 Finishing 6.2.3.5.1 Effect of finishing 6.2.3.5.2 Instructions for finishing 6.2.3.5.3 Important safety information 6.2.3.5.4 Light finishing test . 6.2.3.6 Final exposure 6.2.3.6.1 Purpose of final exposure 6.2.3.6.2 Instructions for final exposure . . 6.2.3.6.3 Effect of final exposure . . 6.2.3.7 Identification and elimination of faults 6.2.3.7.1 Vacuum faults 6.2.3.7. Surface faults ea 6.2.3.7.3 Locally inconsistent polymerisation . 6.2.3.7.4 Blurred, watery relief 6.2.3.7.5 Relief depth inadequate 6.2.3.7.6 Polymer residue 6.2.3.7.7 Wavy lines, dots or screens is washed away, 6.2.37.8 Missing motif details, polymerisation in non-printing areas 6.2.3.7.9 Uneven, muddy plate surface 6.2.3.7.10 Orange peel effect, drying marks on solid areas 6.2.3.7.11 Sticky plate surface .. 6.2.3.7.12_ Lifting of the substrate film (delamination) 6.2.3.7.13 Cracks in the plate surface 6.3 Photopolymer printing plates (liquid systems) K. Oppelt 6.3.1 Photopolymer resins for producing flexo plates .. 6.3.2 The process of plate making 6.3.2.1 Preparation 6.3.2.2 Exposure 6.3.2.3 Resin recovery . . 6.2.3.4 Wash-out 62.3.5 Alter-treatment/finishing . 6.3.3 The APR Capping system 6.4 Printing plate production equipment . A, Weitmann 6.4.1. Presentation of the equipment (solid systems) 6.4.1.1 Imagesetters 6.4.1.2 Washing equipment 6.4.1.3 Driers 6.4.1.4 Finishing equipment - 157 - 158 158 151 152 153 153 fr ia3) 153 153 153 154 154 ASA 154 154 154 155 155 155 155 156 156 156 156 156 157 157 157% 157 158 158 158 158 158 158 159 159 159 159 160 161 161 XIX6.4.2 Presentation of the equipment technology (liquid systems) .. K. Oppelt 6.4.2.1, Laminator, exposing unit : 6.4.2.2 Liquid polymer recovery, washing, after-treatment, post-exposure, drying . 6.4.2.2.1 Liquid-polymer recovery .. 6.4.2.2.2 Wash-out . 6.4.2.2.3 After-treatment 6.4..2.4 Dryer 6.4.2.3 Supply container 6.5 Storage and handling of unprocessed photopolymer plates ..........+ H, Pieper 6.5.1 Unprocessed plate transport and storage 6.5.2 Handling 6.5.3 Cutting the unprocessed plates 6.5.4 Handling and storage of photopolymer printing plates before and after use . 6.6 New developments in photopolymer printing plate production U. Linke 6.6.1 Direct laser imagesetting of photopolymer printing plates 6.6.2. CTP technology in practice . 6.6.3 Prospects in a nutshell 6.7. Flexo printing with endless printing formes J. Sauter 6.7.1 Laser engraved rubber printing formes . 67.1.1 History ...... 6.7.1.2 Fields of application 6.7.1.3 Production of a laser engraved rubber rolles “workflow 6.7.1.4 Reproduction 6.7.1.5 Production of a rubber printing forme 6.7.1.6 The engraving system 6.7.1.7 The printing forme 6.7.1.8 The relief 6.7.1.9 Comparison between a laser-engraved printing forme and a photopolymer plate 6.7.1.10 Other laser engraved rollers 6.7.1.10.1 Anilox rollers 6.7.1.10.2 Gravure rollers 6.7.1.10.3 Web guide and idler rollers 6.7.1.10.4 Embossing rollers 6.7.1.1 Prospects 6.7.2 Seamless photopolymer printing formes... H. Andreas XX 161 162 162 162 162 162 162 162 163 163 163 164 - 164 - 164 - 164 167 168 168 168 168 168 168 168 169 169 170 171 71 aia ATI 171 171 171 2172 17268 Printing plate assembly J. Scharfenberg F Spindler 6.8.1 Introduction 6.8.2 Basic assembly principles 6.8.2.1 Assembly instructions and layout 6.8.2.2 Method of operation 6.8.2.3 Different supports 6.8.2.4 Plate distribution 6.8.3 Accuracy in assembly 6.8.3.1 Printing operation 684 Deployment of equipment in printing plate assembly 6.8.4.1 Manual assembly . 6.8.4.2 Register systems 6.8.4.3 Mirror equipment 6.8.4.4 Camera systems 6.8.5 Assembly in the corrugated board field 6.8.5.1 Pre-printing of corrugated board 6.8.5.2 Direct printing of corrugated board 6.8.5.3 Manual assembly 6.8.5.4 Register systems . 6.8.5.5 Mirror equipment 6.8.5.6 Camera systems 6.8.6 Pressure-sensitive adhesives Professor Dr K. Nitzl 6.8.6.1 Chemical structure of pressure-sensitive adhesive formulations . 6.8.6.2 System description of plate mounting tapes from tesa 'M. Schneider 6.8.6.3 The complete line of 3M™ flexographic mounting tapes J. Weirauch 7 Printing substrates in flexo printing W. Wallmann 7.1 Introduction A . 7.1.1 Fibre materials - paper, board .. 7.1.2 Plastic films as a printing substrate 7.1.3 Aluminium foil 7.1.4 Laminate films 7.1.4.1 Solvent-based lamination 7.1.4.2 Solvent-free lamination 7.1.4.3 Laminate film topography 7.2 Fibre materials as a printing substrate J. Strauss 173 173 73 73 ATA 175 176 176 176 77 ted 178 178 179 - 181 - 181 - 181 - 182 182 183 183 183 184 185 186 187 187 187 187 188 189 189 189 189 190 XXI7.2.1 General information +2190 7.2.2 Paper production +190 7.2.2.1 Raw materials + +190 7.2.2.2 Auxiliary materials +192 7.2.2.3 Paper production 193 7.2.2.4 Surface finishing 194 7.2.3 General paper properties 195 7.2.4 Corrugated board 196 7.2.4.1 General information 196 7.2.4.2 Types of corrugated board - structure ............. a see W. Wallmann 7.3 Use of plastic monofilms in flexo printing ....... 00.66... 6020 cece eee wees LOD 7.3.1 Most important types of film .. 199 7.3.2 Application areas .. 199 7.3.2.1 Polyethylene 199 7.3.2.2 Polypropylene .. 199 7.3.2.3 Polyester films .. ae : eee a see eee 7.3.2.4 Polyamide films ......... wee fee 9D 7.3.3 Properties and special features of the different types of film ......................,.199 7.3.3.1 Polyethylene film - LDPE - LLDPE - HDPE - 7.3.3.2 Polypropylene film - PP - 7.3.3.3 Biaxially oriented polypropylene films (OPP films) 7.3.3.4 Polyester film - PET - o 7.3.4 Raw material input 7.3.5 Range of raw materials 7.3.6 Distinctions between the different types of film and their technical properties ....... 204 7.3.6.1 Polyethylene - LDPE - . 204 7.3.6.2 LDPE = low-density PE 204 7.3.6.3 LLDPE = linear low-density PE see 204 7.3.6.4 HDPE = high-density PE ... . cee seeeeee vee 204 7.3.6.5 Polypropylene (PP) wane we 204 7.3.6.6 Polyester (PET) . ao eee ree cece 205! 7.3.6.7 Polyamides (PA or OPA) 3 ‘ 205 7.3.7 Requirements on packaging films / general properties of films ...................., 206 7.3.8 Film production 7.3.8.1 Extrusion in general 7.3.8.2 Blown film extrusion 7.3.8.3 Cast film extrusion . . 7.3.8.4 Film cooling as a major factor influencing film properties 7.3.8.5 Comparison between the different production processes . 7.3.8.6 Orientation of films 7.3.9 Inline web inspection . feceeeee : 210 H. Flohr 7.4 Metal foil - : Gboneedcavecaane 2 M. Dotzler XXII7.4.1 General information ee ee epee 7.4.2 Application area ... bene fe eee epee 7.4.3 Raw material basis/ production ...... voce eeee eee eeeee DID 7.4.4 Special factors in the printing of aluminium foil 212 7.4.5 Summary 213 7.5 Material combinations ........ cote Seer 213 G. Strohschein 7.5.1 Introduction ... wees 213 7.5.1.1 Structure of amaterial combination : 214 7.5.1.2 Production of material combinations by solvent. free / solvent. based. coating and lamination cee posannueddo ween DS 7.5.1.3 High-speed film lamination - comparison of solvent-free or extrusion lamination .. ..215 H. Miihlhofer 7.5.1.3.1 The product 215 7.5.1.3.2. Machines : 216 7.5.1.3.3 Costs of the materials used 216 7.5.1.3.4 Quality control 216 7.5.1.3.5 Conclusion . 216 7.5.2. Production of material combinations by coextrusion - multilayer films - wee DIT W. Wallmann 7.5.2.1 Coextruded films in general ........ . cee 217 7.5.2.2 Processes for the production of coextruded films eee . a 217 7.5.3 Composite materials for non-carbonic acid beverages ......... eee) R Fiebig 7.5.4 Metallised Plastic Films and papers - the most attractive appearance in packaging 219 G. Labig K.-H. Wirth 7.5.41 The processes eee cee wee 2 219 7.5.4.2 The environment . . cee veces sperabsedb 220 7.5.43 The balance of energy ....... ao : cee 220 7.6 Printing pre-treatment ......... cece vee cece 220 DrF Férster E. Prinz 7.6.1 General information eee oa oo fr 220 7.6.2 Testing the pre-treatment . 222 7.6.3 Information about the pre-treatment 223 7.6.4 Innovation is the key to success - Ablbrandt System GmbH peer EEceer220) J. Erdmann XXIIE8 Printing inks in the flexo graphic printing sector Dr K. Heger DrF Reichert 8.1 Legal regulations... 8.1.1 Food packaging 8.1.2 Classification of gravure and flexo graphic printing according to the hazardous substances decree 8.2. Requirements and use of solvent containing flexo graphic printing inks 8.2.1 Printing ink and printability 8.2.1.1 Printing of paper . 8.2.1.2 Printing of aluminium foil . 8.2.1.3 Printing of polyethylene, polypropylene and coextruded polypropylene films 8.2.1.4 Printing of polyamide and polyester film 8.2.1.5 Printing of metallized films .. 8.2.2 Odour and solvent retention 8.2.3 Heat effect on the printing ink ..... 8.2.3.1 Heat effect during the manufacturing of packaging materials 8.2.3.1.1 Hot melt coating .. 8.2.3.1.2 Lamination . 8.2.3.1.3 Hot calandering . 8.2.3.1.4 Deep-drawing packaging 8.2.3.2 Influence of warmth during the rocessing of packaging materials in the packing machines 8.2.3.2.1 Side-sealed bags 8.2.3.2.2 Cut sealing .. 8.2.3.2.3 Cover Lids . 8.2.3.2.4 Pasteurization and sterilization resistances 8.2.4 Fastness and resistances 8.2.4.1 Scratch resistance 8.2.4.2 Wrinkle resistance 8.2.4.3 Adhesive tape resistance 8.2.4.4 Rub resistance . 8.2.4.5 Blocking resistance ... 8.2.4.6 Odour verifications .. 8.2.4.7 Sealing resistance 8.2.4.8 Heat sealability 8.2.4.9 Laminations and lamination values 8.2.4.10 Water resistance... 5 8.2.4.11 Alkali-, soap- and detergent resistance . 8.2.4.12 Cheese-, edible fat-, paraffin wax- and spice resistance 8.2.4.13 Special further fastness properties and resistances 8.3 Composition of flexo printing inks voeeteeeees 8.3.1 Solvent- and water based flexo graphic printing inks . 8.3.1.1 Binders XXIV 229 229 229 230 231 231 231 232 232 233 234 234 235 235 235 236 237 237 237 237 238 2+ 238 238 239 239 240 240 240 240 240 240 241 241 241 242 242 242 242 era 2438.3.1.2 Additives 8.3.1.3 Dyesand pigments 8.3.1.3.1 SolubleDyes 8.3.1.3.2 Pigments 8,3.1.3.3 Metal pigments 8,3.1.3.4 Pearlescent pigments 8.3.1.3.5 Fluorescent pigments and dyes 8.3.1.4 Solvents . : ee000a0d 8.3.1.4.1 Important physical properties of solvents eee eee 8.3.1.4.1.1 Evaporation and volatilization 8.3.1.4.1.2 Flash point and ignition temperature 8.3.1.4.1.3 Maximum workstation concentration; MAK-value 8.3.1.4.1.4 The most important solvents for flexo graphic printing inks and their physical data 8.3.2 Two-component inks .. 8.4 Production of flexo graphic printing inks 8.4.1 Basic principle behind the production of liquid inks 8.4.2 Pigment dispersal 8.5 Processing of printing inks 8.5.1 Solvent-based flexo printing inks 8.5.2 Working with two-component inks. 8.5.2.1 Handling of liquid two-component inks . 8.5.2.2 Hardening the printed ink film 8.5.3 Water based flexo graphic printing inks . .. 8.5.4 Viscosity of flexo printing inks 8.5.5 Rapid tests for production control purposes 8.5.5.1 Colour examination 8.5.5.2 Tape resistance 8.5.5.3 Scratch resistance . 8.5.5.4 Wrinkling resistance (dry / wet) 8.5.5.5 Rub resistance 8.5.5.6 Deep-freeze resistance 8.5.5.7 Odour . 8.5.5.8 Sealing resistance . 8.5.5.9 Sealability .. 8.5.5.10 Resistance to variuos filling goods 8.5.5.10.1 Spreadable and liquid fillin goods, like e.g. fat, oil, mayonnaise etc. 8.5.5.10.2 Solid fillin goods, like e.g. sausages, cheese etc. with a melting above 100° C 8.5.5.11 Correct adjustment of two component inks or lacquers 8.5.5.12 Lamination adhesion 8.6 Mixing of colours 8.6.1 Manual ink mixing 8.6.2 Use of spectrophotometers for ink formulation E. Briinnel 244 245 245 245 246 246 246 246 247 247 248 249 +. .250 - 250 251 251 251 252 252 253 253 254 254 255 255 256 256 - 257 - 257 257 257 257 257 257 258 258 258 258 258 258 258 261 XXV8.6.3 System description by Gretag-Macbetb P. Rachel 8.6.4 Ink formulation using spectrophotometers and software E. Briinnel 8.6.4.1 Ink formulation software for printing ink manufacturers 8.6.4.2 Ink formulation software for printers 8.6.4.2.1 Software packages 8,6.4.2.2 Databases 8.6.4.3 General aspects 8.7 UV inks technology DrB. Runge 8.7.1 Introduction 8.7.2 Composition 8.7.3 Reactivemechanisms - 8.7.3.1 The mechanism of radicals 8.7.3.2 The cationic mechanism . . 8.7.3.3 Other radiation curing systems 8.7.4 Properties of the ink systems 8.7.5 Handling of UV flexo graphic inks. . DrK. Heger DrE Reichert 8.7.5.1 General information . 8.7.5.2 Industrial hygiene 8.7.5.3 UV-radiation . 8.7.5.3.1 Generation of UV-radiation 8.7.5.3.2 Endangering through UV-radiation 8.7.5.3.3 Protection against UV radiation 8,7.5.3.4 UV-radiation and formation of ozone 8.7.5.4 UV inks 8.7.5.4.1 Ink misting .. 8.7.5.4.2 Odour 8.75.43 Disposal of waste = 8.7.5.5 Detergents and cleaning agents . 8.7.6 UV curing systems - a technical summary Dr G. Bolte 8.7.6.1 Introduction 8.7.6.2 Energy generation 8.7.6.3 What characteristics is a FLEXO UV system required to have? 8.7.6.4 The reflector systems 8.7.6.5 The cooling systems . 8.7.6.6 New developments . 8,7.6.6.1 Excimer . XXVI 263 264 - 265 266 266 266 267 268 268 268 - 269 270 270 271 271 273 273 274 274 274 274 275 275 275 276 - 276 -.276 276 277 277 277 278 278 - 280 281 2818,7.6.6.2 Use of inert gas 8.7.7 UV flexo printing - from the point of view of laboratory staff. . DrH. Schweiger 8.7.7.1 Anilox roller 8.7.7.2 Viscosity 87,73 Working width and viscosity 9 Waste disposal and environmental protection S. Grune 9.1. Disposal of printing inks 9.1.1 Basic information . 9.1.2 Treatment 9.4.3 System description of the company icoma FBS GmbH Packtechnik D. Maier 9.2 Disposal of discharge air . R. Rafflenbeul 9.2.1 Legal regulations . 9.2.2 Preliminary planning for discharge air purification 9.2.3 State of the art with discharge air purification processes for flexo printing 9.2.4 Choice and evaluation of processes 9.2.5 Combustion-based discharge air purification processes 9.2.5.1 Heat recovery . 9.2.5.2 Thermal discharge air ‘purification . 9.2.5.3 Catalytic discharge air purification plants . 9.2.5.4 Regenerative discharge air purification (thermal reactor) 9.2.6 Solvent recovery processes 9.2.7 Other processes and process combinations 9.2.8 Less suitable processes 9.2.9 Purification of discharge air containing ozone (corona treatment equipment discharge air) 9.3 Waste in general - disposal M. Suhr 9.4 System description by LTG Metal Decorating GmbH D, Decker 10 Make-ready operations on flexo printing machines . G. Strohschein 10.1 Work preparation - basic principles and specifications 281 281 281 282 282 283 283 283 283 284 285 286 286 287 288 288 288 289 290 291 294 295 295 296 296 297 299 299 XXVII10.2 Introduction and general conditions for printing .......... . 300 M. Hiittemeyer 10.2.1 General conditions . 10.2.2 Preparatory work 2.0.0.0... 10.2.3 Make-ready operations on the machine 10.2.3.1 Basic operations . 300 10.2.3.2 Setting the printing conditions 301 10.2.3.3 Co-ordination of printing . : : . . : o 301 10.2.3.4 Co-ordination of the printing parameters... oc sscc cen eeee ee B02 10.3 Production printing ........... cee eeeee eee - ce eeeeee 302 10.3.1 Basic production monitoring operations 302 10.3.2 Controlling the machine in operation ceieceees cee 302 W. Wallmann 10.3.2.1 Web tension . . ee ce ce . oe 302 10.3.2.2 Web alignment regulation 303 10.3.2.3 Winding 303 10.3.2.4 Temperatures . 303 10.3.2.5 Speed 303 10.3.2.6 Ink viscosity 02.0606... e eee eee . - ce 304 10.3.2.7 Ink quantity . re a i o . . 304 10.3.2.8 Automatic colour monitoring .....0000. 0.606 cee cece eee eeeeeee cee B04 B. Nielsen 10.3.2.8.1 Benefits from monitoring colour on the running press 304 10.3.2.8.2 Measuring units for correct tolerances : - : 305 10.3.2.8.3. Essential features of an in-line colorimeter ............... 305 10.3.2.8.4 Operating an in-line colorimeter . 305 10.3.3 Checking the printing while the machine is in operation 305 W. Wallmann 10.3.4 Checking the printed product after reel changes + 306 10.3.4.1 General colour accuracy ee 306 10.3.4.2 Special colour accuracy 306 10.3.4.3 Ink adhesion 06 , ee 305) 10.3.4.4 Printing quality in general . 306 10.3.4.5 Register - cece 306 10.3.4.6 Repeat length . cove eee eee - oe 306 10.4 Printing problems — cece teens ce cee eeeee ee 307, 10.4.1 General information 307 10.4.2 Examples, causes, possible solutions . cee 307 10.4.2.1 Smearing of fine screens aeeeere oe ceo 307 10.4.2.2 Streaks vee eeee ee 307 10.4.2.3 Tooth streaks See eee 307 10.4.2.4 Unprinted areas ...0.... 0006 ce ec eeeeeeeee ve eeeee eee «308 XXVIIL10.4.2.5 Pinholes 10.4.2.6 Bleeding . oe 10.4.2.7 Register fluctuations 10.4.2.8 Ghosting ... 10.4.2.9 Blocking 10.4.2.10 Moiré : 10.4.2.11 Printing ink removal 10.4.2.12 Longitudinal streaks 10.4.2.13 Formation of wrinkles 10.4.2.14 Scratches 10.4.2.15 Spots 10.4.2.16 Odour 10.4.2.17 Patterns in solid areas 10.4.2.18 Haloes . 10.4.2.19 Ink deposits . 10.4.2.20 Ink adhesion 10.4.2.21 Too much ink . 10.5 Production controls, methods, quality standards . G.Strohschein 10.6 Thoughts about technical development in label production W. Kuhm 10.6.1 Introduction a 10.6.2 Flexo printing process in label production 10.6.3 Prospects 10.7 Electrostatic charging in flexo printing . T. Ludwig 10.7.1 Electrostatic charging - causes 10.7.2 Electrostatic charging - effects 10.7.3 Measures to counter electrostatic charging 10.7.4 Measuring instruments for electrostatics M. Cramme 10.7.6 System HAUG Static solutions HAUG STATOMETER IIT 10.8 Testing rolls: hardness, curv and profile... HA. Kalt 11 What is colour? DrL. Gall 11.1 Light as the basic condition for "colour" 11.1.1 Light 11.1.2 The coloured object 308 308 308 308 309 309 309 309 309 310 310 310 310 310 311 311 B11 312 313 313 313 315 316 316 316 317 317 318 319 321 321 321 322 XXIX11.1.3 Eye and brain 11.2 Colorimetric system 11.2.1 Reason why objects appear coloured - spectral reflection 1.2.1.1 Spectrophotometer . 11.2.2 The CIE system 11,.2.2.1 From the reflection curve to the tristimulus values X, Y and Z 11,2.2.2 The standard spectral values 11.2.2.3 Determination of the tristimulus values X, Y, Z 11,2.2.4 Standard light types in colour measurement 11.2.2. 5 Metamerism 11.2.2.6 Tristimulus value shares and CIE colour table 11.3 Colorimetric quality control 11.3.1 CIELab 11.3.1.1 Chroma and hue 11,3.1.2 Calculation of AE and its components . 11.3.1.3 Maximum achievable colours 11.3.1.4. The problem of colour tolerances 11.3.2 Corrected colour differences according to CIE94 11.4. Characteristic curve evaluation of printing inks - the “internal connection" between L, Cand h 11.5 Ink mixing principles 11.5.1 Continuous tone ink mixing . 11.6 Densitometry J. Heidrich 11.6.1 Introduction to densitometry, 11.6.1.1 Basic information .... 11.6.1.2 Colour density 11.6.1.3 Printing control strips 11.6.2 Densitometers 11.6.2.1 Reflection densitometer 11.6.2.2 Transmission densitometer 11.6.3 Evaluation 11.6.3.1 Solid area density 11.6.3.2 Percent dot area 11.6.3.3 Dot gain 11.6.3.4 Printing contrast 11.6.3.5 Grey scale 11.6.3.6 Trapping : 11.6.4 Additions / measurement of special colours 11.6.5 System description of the Gretag densitometer D1 oC XXX 322 323 323 323 324 324 324 325 325 325 326 327 327 328 328 329 330 330 331 332 332 332 332 332 334 334 334 334 336 336 - 336 - 337 . 337 337 337 337 338 33812 Quality management R.Riethausen 42.1 Quality - a vital issue 12.2 Change in thinking about quality .. 12.2.1 Self-control instead of outside control 12.2.1.1 Quality planning 12.2.1.2 Quality promotion 12.3 Quality policy / quality objectives 12.3.1 Commitment of everyone to quality 12.3.2 Quality policy 12.3.3 Quality objectives 12.4 The quality of the organisation 12.4.1 Customer orientation 12.4.2 Process orientation 12.4.3 Staff orientation 12.5 The quality of the management / staff 12.5.1 Change in management principles 12.5.2 Assignments, responsibility, authority 12.6 The quality of the processes 12.6.1 Process control . 12.6.2 Production planning 12.6.3 Production implementation 12.6.3.1 Availability 12.6.3.2 Processability . 12.6.3.3 Qualification 12.6.3.4 Motivation 12.7 The quality of the products . 12.7.1 Definition of the quality characteristics 12.7.1.1 What is quality? 12.7.1.2 Quality characteristics 12.7.1.3 Setting - limit - tolerance 12.7.1.4 Fault catalogue 12.7.2 Fault recording / fault analyses 12.7.2.1 Fault recording . 12.7.2.2 Fault analyses = 343 341 341 342 342 343 343 343 344 344 344 345 345 345 345 345 346 347 347 347 348 348 348 348 349 349 349 349 350 350 351 351 351 351 XXXI12.8 Quality controlling as the basis 12.8.1 Recording and evaluating quality-related costs 12.8.1.1 Recording of quality-related costs 12.8.1.1.1 Cost and performance accounting 12.8.1.1.2 Financial accounting ......... 12.8.1.1.3 Internal reporting system 12.8.1.2 Evaluation of quality-related costs 12.8.1.2.1 Performance-oriented quality indicators. 12.8.1.2.2 Capability-oriented quality indicators .. .. 12.8.1.2.3 Cost-oriented quality indicators 12.8.1.3 Summary 12.8.2 Corrective and preventive measures 12.8.2.1 Arrangement and implementation 12.8.2.2 Monitoring effectiveness ..........0.... 12,9 ISO environmental logistics - general introduction G Strohschein List of advertisers... System description directory ... Subject index XXXII 353 353 354 354 355 355 355 355 355 355 355 356 356 356 356 358 361 3631 Introduction Fora number of years, flexo printing has been one of the most important processes (together with the offset and gravure) for the printing of packaging and other products in the high quality required. The particular advantages of flexo printing are fast, inexpensive production of the printing plates, high flexibility with regard to the materials that can be printed and a steady improvement in printing quality. Since digital technologies were introduced in prepress operations, all printing processes have been affected by technical changes - which are on going with continual development of multimedia technology. Printing as an ‘output medium is being given new significance which is very different from its traditional role. The printing technology today is highly automated in all phases of processing. Produc- tion times have shortened, while the quality of the final product has been improved steadily. If the statistics are to be believed, flexo printing is one of the printing processes in which the fastest advances are being made in machine and technological development. 1.1 Development of flexo printing Flexo printing is a direct relief printing process just like letterpress printing. It differs from letterpress in that inks are of a different composition, the printing plates are flexible and it has the ability to print very different substrates. Flexo was known originally as aniline printing because it used aniline printing inks. In 1966 the German standards authority defined flexo printing in DIN 16 514 as a “relief printing process in which the printing plate is made from rubber or an elasticated plastic and the print motif is transferred to the substrate using inks which dry by means of the evaporation of solvents"! The German standard merely implemented in the mid-60s what had already become reali- ty in October 1952 in the United States, when aniline printing was renamed "flexography" The name "aniline printing" had led to some confusion because it was a constant reminder of the harmful side-effects of the coaltar deri- vatives that aniline printing inks contained. In spite of the proof provided to the "Federal Bu- reau of Animal Industries" in 1949 that aniline printing inks contain the same pigments as printing inks used in other printing processes, aniline printing was unable to shake off its negative image, particularly as far as food products were concerned. In 1951 Franklin Moss (Mosstype Corpora- tion) initiated a competition to find a better name for aniline printing. He received a good response and flexography was chosen as the new name from more than 200 different suggestions. The definition of flexo printing was improved again, i.e. was adapted to take account of technological developments in the 80s. Ac- cording to this definition, flexo printing is a direct rotary printing process with elastic, raised printing plates that can be attached to plate cylinders of different circumferences. Ink is applied with a roller or an anilox roller with a doctor blade and the liquid printing inks (solvent and water based inks) or pasty printing inks (UV inks) are transferred to printing substrates of any required kind 1.1.1 From stamp printing to flexo printing 1.1.1.1 Historical sources Historians are very vague in the information they provide about the origin of flexo printing, so that it is very difficult to specify a precise date when the printing process was "born" Publications about the history of wallpaper Bl DIN 16 514 (issued in 1982): Drucktechnik (Begriffe {arden Hochdruck), Beuth Verlag, 1982printing report that aniline inks were already being used to print wallpaper around the middle of the 19th century. Web fed relief printing machines were used for this purpose that had a large impression cylinder around which up to twenty inking units were arranged. This technology was disclosed in 1890 in the English patent no. 13 198 issued to Bibby & Baron Ltd. from Newton Mill, Lancashire. According to the patent specification, sheets or reels of paper could be used to produce paper sacks. This printing machine is considered to be the forerunner of the machines with a central cylinder but work on developing it was not continued at that time There are also uncertain references to the use of aniline inks in the production of wrapping papers ("design printing") with the help of manually cut rubber rollers by the printer Oskar Sperling from Leipzig / Germany in 1890. Because of the inaccuracy of the sources, the date normally given for the introduction of flexo printing is the beginning of the 20th century, with the invention of aniline printing being attributed to the machine manufacturer Carl Holweg. In 1907, Carl Holweg from Strasbourg / Al- sace protected a process in a German patent (DRP no. 200697) in which a paper web could be printed on a rotary printing machine installed at the start of a paper bag machine by means of elastic rubber printing plates and aniline inks dissolved in alcohol. The description of the advantages of this technology? is still interesting to read even today: in contrast to the letterpress printing inks used at the time, the aniline printing inks were dry immediately. The printing results produced on the rough printing substrates by the flexible printing plates were considerably better than those produced with the rigid letterpress printing plates 1.1.1.2 Initial technical developments Where are the roots that led to this development? Three different inventions that were made almost parallel to each other in the second half of the 19th century can be traced: BW 2 Lilien, OM, Gerhards, C.W.: Geschichte der Druck verfahren, Band 3, Anton Hiersemann, 1978 1.4 US patent for the development of rubber compounds for the production of stereo- types as printing plates was granted as early as 1853. The first rubber stamps were developed from this, 2. The company Badische Anilin- und Sodafa- brik succeeded in synthesising the aniline dye in the 1860s. 3. The first rotary letterpress printing machines were designed. Major difficulties were encountered in the initial stages in controlling the interaction between the aniline printing ink, the rubber ste- Teo, the printing substrate and the machine, so that the beginning of aniline printing as the forerunner of what is now flexo printing must be dated back to the 1920s. The printing of wrapping papers as the most important packaging materials of the time was supposed to be integrated in the production process for bags and sacks if at all possible. After Holweg, the German company Wind- miller & Hélscher and the English company Strachan & Henshaw presented machine designs of their own for the printing of paper bags around 1912. The machines designed by Holweg and Windméller & Hélscher were stack type machines (with multiple cylinders), while Strachan & Henshaw also experimented with central cylinder configurations. Aniline printing was introduced to America in 1924, when Windmiller & Hélscher set up an independent location for the USA and Canada. Under the management of Harald H. Heinrich, aniline printing units were launched successfully in America as equipment installed before bag production machines. 1.1.2 Development up to about 1950 1.1.2.1 The Twenties The advantages of aniline printing in the printing of packaging material made of paper helped the process to be integrated with almost no problems at all in the bag and sack production process at the beginning of this century. The quality of the printing was unfortunately very poor, which gave aniline printing a badreputation and led to its classification as a simple form of stamp printing. The muddy print fnotif (attributable to clogging of the printing plate) and the gear marks were all too easy to fee in visual inspections. These results were due to the simple design of the printing machines, the inadequate transfer properties of the printing inks and the shortcomings of the printing plates used. “The first printing machines had a very simple structure. They operated with open inking ystems, which consisted of a rubber-coated duct and ink application roller and the printing cylinder. The printing ink was metered by changing the pressure level between the duct and ink application roller. The excess ink was collected in the ink duct. Ink transfer was carried out by moving the ink application roller into gentle contact with the printing cylinder ("kiss impression"). The printing machines did not have any automatic facilities, all the settings had to be made manually. There was uncontrolled splashing of the liquid printing ink due to fact that the printing units were open. The printing inks were made from water soluble coaltar dyes with alcohol used as the vehicle. Attempts were made to counter bleeding of the printing inks on the printing substrate by adding acetic acid but the success of this was limited and it led to blurred reproduction of fine texts and lines in particular. The poor light fastness properties and resistance levels of the printing inks were additional weaknesses of the aniline printing inks. At the end of the 20s, Geigy developed additives which made the printing inks more water- resistant and also improved their light fastness properties. Production of the printing plates was another problem in the early days. Since little was known about the differences in the reproduction technology of the new printing process by comparison with the other printing processes, more or less improvised results were produced when manufacturing the rubber stereos. The inadequate quality of the rubber plates (inconsistent thickness, bubbles due to poor vulcanisation) caused further difficulties Simple procedure was followed in printing plate assembly. The printing plates were stuck to a backing sheet that was cut to match the dimensions of the printing cylinder. This sheet was then secured to the printing cylinder by simple clamping bars . The subsequent preparation of the printing plate/cylinder to produce consistent printing pressure led to make-ready times that amounted to several hours, 1.1.2.2 The ‘ies and Forties The second stage in the history of flexo printing was triggered off by the development of new packaging materials, The Paris company S.A. La Cellophane started to produce a new packaging material as early as 1912. The companies DuPont and Kalle began production in the mid-20s. Cellulose film (also known as Cellophane) was an interesting material for aniline printing, so particular priority was given to development of the aniline printing process during this period. Due to the oily printing inks, offset printing and letterpress printing were unable to produce a consistent ink layer that bonded effectively to this print-ing substrate. Ink transfer caused practically no problems in gravure printing but this process was not suitable because of the high costs of printing cylinder production and the high costs of ‘operating the printing machines. For the aniline printing process, however, printing on cellulose film meant a further optimisation of the parameters that influenced the ink transfer process and thus the results of the printing operation. To enable them to be used for printing non- absorbent cellulose films, the printing machines had to be equipped with drying equipment to make sure the printing inks dried sufficiently between the printing units, if at all possible. This problem was solved initially by retrofitting heating elements, hot air fans or gas burners to existing machines. The first machines with hot air driers between the printing units and before the winding equipment (including a fan for extraction of the solvent la- den discharge air) were developed at the end of the 30s. Another advance made in machine manufacturing, apart from further development of the drying systems was the introduction of va- 3tiable-speed drives and electric registration monitoring. It was now possible to produce from reel to reel, so that the application area for aniline printing could be extended to include flexible packaging materials, gift wrapping papers, cupboard lining papers, box wrappers and other products. The integration of additional operations (e.g. cross cutting, punching, waxing) helped to make the process even more versatile. As far as the printing unit configurations in aniline printing presses were concerned, stack type printing machines dominated. Only a few printing machine manufacturers (e.g. Holweg) supplied single cylinder printing machines. The printing machines reached speeds of between 50 and 65 m/min. Anilox rollers were introduced towards the end of the 30s. As in gravure printing, these mechanically engraved metal rollers started to be used with the aim of improving ink application, This development did not make a major improvement in the aniline printing field until after the Second World War. The new materials led to further development work on printing inks with opaque properties. The first white pigmented aniline printing ink was introduced in 1931, primarily to print transparent materials as a background colour. It was followed by yellow and orange pigmented printing inks. The first metal pigmented printing inks as well as red, green, blue and black pigmented inks became available in 1934. Bonding and abrasion resistance were improved by special additives. Water based inks were launched on the market for the first time in 1938 but they were only suitable for absorbent printing substrates. Printing plate production was stabilised in the 30s. Better vulcanisation technologies and rollers for seamless motifs were developed. Printing plate assembly was made considerably easier - while being improved at the same time - by the introduction of double-sided adhesive tapes, lines on the printing cylinders and registration holes in the printing plates. The first assembly and testing device for printing plates, with which printing plates could be made ready for printing off the printing machine, was introduced in the 40s. 4 1.1.3 Development up to 1990 The third phase in the history of the develop. ment of flexo printing started in the 50s. Follow- ing a period of stagnation due to the Second World War, the importance of flexo printing increased very quickly because a very large number of different materials could be printed by this process. Fast progress was made in machine technology (not only in Europe) as demand for flexo printing increased. The producers of printing inks and printing plates also played a prominent role in the improvement of printing quality by developing formulations that were specially modified for flexo printing The advances made in polymer chemistry in the Fifties had an impact on all areas of industry. The printing industry was also affected very strongly by this (printing substrates, printing plates). The consequence of the introduction of the new name in 1952 was that the trade groups set up in Europe and the United States were able to devote themselves inten- sively to the investigation of the flexo printing process, its process technology and printing machine manufacturing. It is due to no small extent to the help of these organisations - with the support of the companies associated with flexo printing - that the professional skills of flexo printers were improved more and more by means of training courses and symposia, 1.1.3.1 New printing substrates Numerous new films were launched on the market in the 50s and 60s following the development of new process technologies in the plastics industry. Cellulose film, which had been in successful use up to this time, faced serious competition in the packaging field from polyethylene in particular. In contrast to the materials used in the past, the mechanical and thermal properties of the new films could be modified by the inclusion of additives. Print- ability represented a problem to start with because the printing inks bonded poorly to the surface of the film. The film surface is now prepared in such a way by means of special treatment (generally corona discharge treatment) during the production process itself (e.g. film extrusion) or on the printing machine shortlybefore the printing operation - as is necessary in the case of a number of different films - that the printing ink can bond effectively. In the mid-60s a start was made on printing corrugated board (preprinting) and solid board on wide web flexo printing machines. The more or less absorbent materials are now printed successfully on different types of flexo printing machine, generally using water based inks. The changes in consumer's requirements led to an increase in the production of self- adhesive labels. Flexo printing became the dominant printing process here in the 80s. ‘Webs of self-adhesive labels are printed from very different materials on narrow web printing machines combined with processing stations, e.g. for punching and lacquering. Flexo printing succeeded in gaining a foothold in the newspaper industry in the 80s. The use of water based inks on the thin, absorbent newsprint grades improved newspaper performance because no offsetting occurs - in contrast to offset and letterpress printing. Whereas flexo printing is used successfully for newspaper production in the USA and, to some extent, in Great Britain and Italy, this technology has not been able to make any major break- throughs against the established offset printing process. The range of printing substrates that can be printed by the flexo process can be extended to include aluminium foil or metallised plastic films. In this area flexo printing has been subject to direct comparison with gravure printing, where it has always been judged by the printing quality that can be achieved. 1,1,3.2 Improvement in printing inks The properties of printing inks were adapted to the smooth new surfaces of cellulose film, plastic films and aluminium foil in the 50s and 60s. Printing inks were modified to provide the necessary resistance properties (heat, light, water, fat, alkali barriers) and to suit the characteristics of the different printing substrates by including appropriate additives. Changes in attitudes to the environment led to the introduction of water based inks, which are used primarily to print papers. In the 70s and 80s a start was made on the reproduction of halftone print motifs in flexo printing, which became possible in particular because of an improvement in ink formulations. 1.1.3.3 Photopolymer printing plates The development of dimensionally stable printing plates was a major reason why it became feasible to print more delicate screens in flexo printing as well. Photopolymer printing plates, which have an advantage over rubber plates due to their single stage photomechani cal production process, were introduced successfully in the 70s. Initial sensitivity to the solvents incorporated in the printing inks was eliminated in the course of the next few years. Photopolymer printing plates encouraged the development of more delicate screens in flexo printing as well, so that it now became possible to print screen widths of up to 48 lines/em. 1.1.3.4 New generations of printing machines Following the introduction of cellulose film and then plastic films as packaging materials, further development work was done on single cylinder machines, which have definite advantages over multi-cylinder machines as regards registration accuracy in the printing of stretchable materials in particular. Multi-cylinder machines dominated the market initially, however. With the growth in production of flexible packaging materials and printer's demand for better ways to separate motifs in ink application for quality reasons, the central cylinder or single cylinder printing machine began to take over the market in the mid-80s. Eight colour flexo printing machines replaced six colour printing machines for high quality applications. High quality printing is only possible, however, ifall the different elements of the printing machine are perfectly co-ordinated with each other. As long ago as the 60s, web transport was improved in the same way as on other rotary printing machines by means of better web tension control in unwinding and winding, by better side edge control facilities and by automatic reel changing systems. Semi or fully automatic adjustment systems for the cylinders 5cut printing machine make-ready times considerably and increased registration reliability. The increasing use of halftone printing made it necessary to introduce more sensitive inking systems - a demand that was met by using anilox rollers with very different geometric ratios. The inking systems were now equipped with doctor blade units to guarantee more exact metering of the printing inks in the individual printing units. The positive doctor blade that was used initially was replaced by a negative doctor blade with the aim of stabi- lising ink transfer. The disadvantages of the open systems were eliminated in the 80s by the introduction of doctor blade chamber technology. 1.1.4 State of the art Growth is still being recorded in flexo printing even today. Flexo printing is in constant competition with the offset and gravure printing processes, particularly in the packaging field. The standard for comparison is always the printing quality that can be achieved at the lowest possible cost. In this context flexo printing now has advantages in the printing of materials in web form - from paper to film The printing quality levels that can be reached only differ minimally - if at all - from those possible with other printing processes, 60-line screens are no longer a problem in flexo printing today. Due to the use of extremely thin photopolymer printing plates which can already be produced digitally (computer-to-plate technology); highly automated printing machines with easily cleaned inking systems that guarantee precise metering; video web monitoring equipment for non-stop quality control and rapidly changed sleeve cylinders instead of the traditional printing and anilox cylinders, reproduction qualities are reached in flexo printing in spite of unavoidable dot gain which make it probable that flexo printing will be extended to cover other new markets and technologies (e.g. folding cartons, UV technology). This development is being supplemented successfully by further progress in the 6 adaptation of the printing inks to the specific printing conditions (machine speeds of up to 650 m/min) and the increasingly delicate screens (up to 500 lines/cm) that are possible with the new, ceramic-coated anilox rollers due to laser technology. Better control of the interaction between all the materials involved in the printing process on flexo printing machines is reflected in particular by the efforts that are being made to standardise the prepress operations and the printing process, which are being given top priority in the entire digital prepress stage of all printing processes in the form of colour management strategies. The advanced stage reached in flexo printing development can also be seen by the impact that short inking unit technology - which has been in successful operation for many years now - has had on other printing pro? cesses in recent years (lacquer quantity metering via anilox rollers with doctor blade chamber technology in offset printing, short anilox inking units in offset and letterpress newspaper printing, short printing units in digital offset printing machines that operate without water) 1.2 Summary of printing technology The use of different printing technologies is necessary because of the variations in the properties of the numerous materials that have to be printed (printing substrates), All the printing processes include prepress operations, printing and further processing, while the technologies used differ from process to process. Printing can be defined in general to mean the reproduction of two-dimensional originals consisting of text and image elements in any required quantity by transferring a printing ink or colouring substances from a_ printing plate/cylinder to a printing substrate. In a more specific definition, the term "printing" refers to the individual operation of machine proof printing or production printing, i. transfer of the ink to the printing substrate in a printing machine, On the basis of the ink transfer procedure, it is possible to distinguish betweenimpact and non-impact printing technologies ‘The printing ink as the means to communicate information is transferred by the action of forces (impact printing) in what are known as conventional printing machines. In contrast to this, advantage is taken in digital printing machines of physical principles for ink transfer that work on a non-contact basis (non-impact printing). Depending on the printing process and the type of machine involved, the printing substrate can be printed in sheet, web or body form. The nature of the printing substrate (sheets or web) determines the design of the printing machine toa very large extent because of the differences in the material transport systems. While high machine speeds can be reached on web fed printing machines due to the continuous transport of the web of printing substrate, the output of sheet fed printing machines is strongly influenced by the mechanics of the systems for transporting the sheets (or blanks). The ink transport operations in printing machines can be broken down into the following steps: 1. Inking of the printing plate/cylinder 2. Transfer of ink from the printing plate/cylinder to the printing substrate, either directly or indirectly via an intermediate substrate 3. Drying of the printing ink The inking units / systems on printing machines are structured very differently, depending on the viscosity of the printing ink and its drying properties. A distinction is made between roller inking units (transport and distribution of highly viscous printing inks) and short inking units (transport of low viscosity printing inks). The film of printing ink transferred to the printing substrate is dried by physical means (absorption, evaporation) or chemical means (polymerisation). The use of special drying equipment which can be designed as hot air driers, IR, UV or - a recent addition - electron _beam driers, depends on the properties of the printing ink and the printing substrate as well as on the machine speeds. Steps generally have to be taken to make sure that drying equipment is combined with systems for the continuous extraction and purification of the air thats discharged, State of the art equipment is available to do this by means of thermal or catalytic incineration and recovery plants. 1.2.1 The printing processes used nowadays and their application areas Printing processes are normally classified according to the geometric design of the printing plate/cylinder, i.e, how are the printing and non-printing elements on the printing plate/cylinder distinguished? A basic distinction is made between four main printing processes: relief printing, gravure printing, lithographic printing and screen printing, These conventional printing processes are supplemented by digital technologies which do not require a printing plate/cylinder to transfer ink The printing elements on the printing plate in relief printing (Illustration 1) are higher than the non-printing elements, which leads to what are known as halo effects (accumulation of ink on the edges of printing elements) after the ink has been transferred to the printing substrate, with clear separation from the unprinted areas. Letterpress printing, flexo printing and letterset printing are relief printing processes 1.2.1.1 Letterpress printing Letterpress printing is one of the oldest printing processes and is closely associated with the name Gutenberg who introduced movable Impression Le ane cylinder Printing ink. am) lust. 1: Basic principle of the relief printing process type as long ago as the end of the 15th century. Letterpress printing was the dominant printing process for the production of commercial stationery and books until offset printing was 7developed. Letterpress printing was replaced more and more on the market in the 60s, so that very few products are now produced on letterpress printing machines. Letterpress printing machines are available on the market as both sheet fed and web fed processes, The machine output depends to a very large extent on the principle behind the printing process (Illustration 2). Letterpress printing is carried out on platen printing machines (printing principle: flat - flat), cylinder printing machines (printing principle: round - flat) or rotary printing machines (printing principle: round - round). In contrast to the classic lead-based printing formes, the latter machines operate today with photopolymer printing plates and are used in newspaper printing as well as for the production of self-adhesive labels. The highly viscous printing ink is transferred directly to the printing plate and from there a proportion of the ink is passed on to the printing substrate (paper, board) in web or sheet form via complicated roller inking units, Delicate screens can be transferred just as well as solid areas. The high pressure levels lead to plastic deformation of the printing Pont as Impression cylinder Printing substrate Printing plate e Impression cylinder Printing substrate Printing plate IMluste 2: Printing principles (a flat - flat; b flat - round, round - round) substrate and to what is known as indenta- tion on the back of the printed material Good printing quality depends on the pro- 8 duction of consistent pressure, which nec- essitates time consuming preparation of the classic letterpress formes. 1.2.1.2 Letterset printing Letterset is an indirect relief printing process The highly viscous printing ink is transferred to the photopolymer printing plate via a roller inking unit and reaches the printing substrate via an elastic intermediate substrate (rubber cylinder). The letterset process is used for the printing of packaging materials (such as plastic tubs and lids) as well as forms. The printing presses are designed as special machines for multicolour printing jobs in accordance with the geometry and properties of the printing substrate. In view of its indirect method of operation, letterset Impression Printing substrate Printing plate Illustr. 3: Basic principle of the gravure printing process printing is also known - incorrectly - as dry offset printing. The gravure printing process (Illustration 3) is characterised by printing cylinders in which the printing elements are recessed in relation to the non-printing elements. Security printing, rotogravure printing, and tampon printing are gravure printing processes. 1.2.1.3 Security printing As its name suggests, security printing is the main process that is used in the production of securities (e. g. bank notes, cheques, holo- grams etc.). On security printing machines the highly viscous printing ink is transferred directly to the printing substrate from line- shaped recesses in the printing cylinder produced by engraving oretching. Security printing machines are sheet fed machines, The ink transfer process enables the printing elements to produce well defined outlines, while the application of appropriate forces leads to additional embossing,1.2.1.4 Rotogravure printing Rotogravure printing (which is normally refer- red to in abbreviated form as gravure printing) is the classic gravure printing process for the production of printed materials that are required in large quantities (magazines, catalo- gues, advertising materials, packaging) ‘Among the halftone printing processes, rotogravure printing is the process that produces the best printing results, particularly in the reproduction of halftone images. Low viscosity printing inks are transferred directly from the recessed cells of the gravure printing cylinder to the printing substrate in the gravure printing of both magazines and packaging. The printing cylinder is inked either by immersing the printing cylinder (with or without an application roller) into an ink duct ot by pumping the printing ink up (Illustration 4). The excess printing ink is removed from the surface of the cylinder by an adjustable doctor blade. ‘The pressure cylinder exerts the pressure that is needed for transferring the ink and for emptying the cells in the gravure printing cylinders by capillary action. In addition to guiding the printing substrate through the printing unit, the pressure cylinder's job is also Mluste, 4: Ink pumping unit ina gravure printing machine Ink duct, Ink storage container, Ink supply line, Ink application system, Printing cylinder, Pressure cylinder, Doctor blade unit, Ink return system to compensate for any possible deflection of the gravure printing cylinder. This assignment is carried out either by an additional steel pressure cylinder or by special pressure cylinders (mechanical, pneumatic or hydraulic compen- sation for deflection by means of a movable pressure cylinder shell and a fixed steel core) Two or three cylinder systems therefore are found in gravure printing machines lillustr. 5). Ink transfer is improved by using electrostatic pressure cylinders that can influence the emptying of the screen cells with the help of electrostatic forces. Since all the printing elements are screened, gravure printed products can be recognised by the uneven edges of the text and line elements ("sawtooth structure”) Illustr. 5; Two and three cylinder systems in a gravure printing machine (1 Printing cylinder, 2 Pressure cylinder with ‘an elastic cover; 3 Steel pressure cylinder) The terms depth variable, area variable and area/depth variable gravure printing are used depending on the way the printing cylinder is produced (etching or engraving). While area/depth variable printing dominates in magazine printing due to the use of engraved printing cylinders, both area variable printing (etched printing cylinders) and area/depth variable printing are found in the gravure printing of packaging, ‘Today, highly automated web fed printing machines with web widths of up to 3.68 m and speeds of up to 15 m/s are used in the gravure printing of packaging nowadays. The high toluene (solvent) content of the printing ink makes it necessary to install complicated discharge air purification plants. Aqueous printing inks designed to reduce or avoid harmful emissions have not yet been developed far enough to permit their practical use for this printing process. Not only web fed printing machines with web widths of up to 2.5 m and speeds of up to 10 mis but also sheet fed printing machines can be found in the gravure printing of packaging. Sheet fed machines are used primarily in 9the carton field (to finish sheets that have been printed in advance by the offset process as well). Different solvents are included in the printing inks in the gravure printing of packaging, depending on the properties of the printing substrates (plastic films, aluminium foil, material combinations). Rotogravure printing is also used in the decorative printing machines operated in the fur- niture industry as well as for transfer printing to special paper in the textile industry. 1.2.1.5 Tampon printing Tampon printing is another gravure printing process that is chosen to print materials in the packaging industry in particular when they have unusual geometric shapes (e.g. bottle closures, WT 2 d lust 6: Ink transfer in a tampon printing machine (a Home position; b Return movement of the printing plate; d Ink transfer to the printing subtrate, 1 Tampon 2 Inking/Printing unit; 3 printing substrate) 10 keyboard keys). Tampon printing is an indirect gravure printing process in which an elas. tic tampon acts as an intermediate substrate and accepts the solvent based printing ink from a steel plate (etched or engraved) or a photopolymer pririting plate (Illustration 6). By comparison with screen printing, it is possible for more delicate screens (up to 60 lines/cm) to be reproduced in multicolour tampon printing, although the printing format is extremely limited, The feature all printing processes belonging to the lithographic printing process have in common is that there is practically no difference in height between the printing and non- printing elements on the printing plate (Illus- tration 7) Impression- Printing substrate cylinder Printing ink Printing plate llust. 7: Basic principle ofthe lithographic printing process A distinction is made in lithographic printing between stone printing, offset printing and collotype printing. 1.2.1.6 Stone printing Historically speaking, stone printing is the forerunner of modern offset printing and was developed by Alois Senefelder at the end of the 18th century. Special limestone slabs are used as printing plates, which are given oleophilic (ink-receptive) and oleophobic (ink-repellent) layers on their surface by means of chemical treatment. Damping with water is also carried out in order to repel the oily printing ink from the non-printing areas. Printing is carried out on special stone presses, which include roller inking units and damping units to transfer printing ink and damping agents to the printing plate and are designed to operate as sheet fed printing machines. Stone printing is only used nowadays for special printing applications, however.1.2.1.7 Offset printing The most important lithographic printing process is offset printing. The basic idea behind stone printing was developed into an indirect lithographic process at the end of the 19th century following a number of interim stages. Specially coated aluminium plates are used nowadays instead of stone plates. The operation of “offsetting” the printing ink from the printing plate to a cylinder covered with a rubber blanket before itis transferred to the printing substrate gave the most commonly used printing process of the present time its name. Asis the case in stone printing, the principle behind offset printing is based on the separation of printing and non-printing areas on the printing plate by means of chemical preparation of the surface, ie. the production of ink-receptive (oleophilic) and ink-repellent (oleophobic) areas on the printing plate. The non-printing areas are also made water-receptive (hydrophi lic), in order to improve the inking of the printing elements by using damping agents, The damping agent used in offset printing is water, the pH level (about 4.8 - 5.3), hardness (about 8 - 10° dH) and surface tension (about 30 - 40 mN/m) of which are stabilised by the addition of special chemicals so that its characteristics are ideal for printing. The addition of surface-active substances (surfactants) reduces the surface tension of the water considerably, which leads to an improvement in the wetting of the printing plate (more even and thinner layer) as well as to a stable ink - damping agent emulsion on the printing plate. The surfactant that is used in most offset printing machines is isopropyl alcohol. Increasingly tough discharge air legislation has led in recent years to a reduction in the alcohol concentration levels in offset printing machines from 10 - 15% by volume to 5 - 10% by volume, Attempts are being made to solve the technical problems encountered as a result in printing by using what are known as alcohol substitutes and/or by making changes to the design of the rollers that transport the damping agent. Waterless offset printing is an alternative, which uses special printing plates that enable damping to be eliminated completely. Elimination of the damping unit in this way can lead to thermal problems (heating of the printing cylinder in production printing), as the damping solution is no longer available to act as a cooling agent. The range of different offset printing machines extends from small-size sheet fed offset printing machines to high-speed web fed rotary printing machines for newspaper production, Characteristic sub-assemblies of offset printing machines are the inking unit, damping unit, printing unit and web or sheet guidance units. The inking units (Illustration 8) in offset printing machines consist of numerous rollers that have to carry out three assignments: ink supply (roller 14: lifter roller; roller 15: ink ductor), ink distribution (rollers 1 - 4: ink dis- tributors that move laterally; rollers 9 - 12: ink transport rollers), ink application (rollers 5 - 8) The diameters and material properties (elastic or rigid) of the rollers vary. Conventional ink supply systems can feed the ink on a non- continuous (lifter inking units) or continuous (film inking units) basis. The printing ink can be metered across the width of the cylinder with the help of metering elements (metering cylinders or slides and/or ductor knives with zone screws). The printing ink is distributed to produce a consistent film of ink by transporting the ink over a number of engaged rollers that are capable of lateral movement too. At least two application rollers make sure that theprinting cylinder is inked without ghosting Shortened inking units are also used in addition to these very sluggish inking unit systems in order to cut waste on newspaper printing machines, These anilox offset printing inking units take advantage of the benefits of the short inking unit technology familiar from flexo printing by including an anilox roller with doctor blade chamber inking. The elimination of zone metering does, however, make it essential to prepare the printing plates very exactly. The purpose of the damping units in offset printing machines is to supply the damping agent to the printing cylinder either directly or indirectly (via the inking unit) on a continuous basis. Roller systems (Illustration 8) are used here as well, which can consist of three to five rollers, depending on the damping agent added (c.g. isopropyl alcohol) (see Illustration 8 16 Damping agent distributor; 17 Damping agent application rollers, 18 Lifter damping agent roller; 19 Damping agent ductor). The printing units consist of a group of cylinders (printing cylinder, rubber blanket cylinder and impression cylinder) and transfer the ink to the printing substrate indirectly. The arrangement of the cylinders varies and ranges from the traditional three-cylinder printing unit in sheet fed offset printing machine to four, five and six cylinder systems (web fed printing machines) and satellite printing units, which correspond to the central cylinder printing unit in a flexo printing machine. The theological properties of the printing inks (which contain mineral oil) allow wet-on-wet printing in the offset process, so that itis possible for several different inks to be transferred at the same time in a multi-cylinder printing unit. In ts capacity as an intermediate substrate, the rubber blanket transfers a proportion of the printing ink to the printing substrate. By maintaining a specific level of compressibility, it makes sure pressure remains consistent throughout the time the ink is transferred to the entire substrate, Sheet fed offset printing machines are used nowadays for printing paper and board (job printing, printed advertising materials, folding cartons, labels) as well as tinplate and - a recent addition - plastic films. The latter is possible 12 either by using special printing inks that can be cured with the help of UV radiation or by resorting to waterless offset printing (e.g cheque cards). Lacquers are applied on sheet fed offset printing machines in special lacquering units fitted after the printing units, Web fed offset printing machines dominate in the newspaper printing field but they are used for printed advertising materials or job printing as well. Special web fed offset printing machines are available for the production of forms and - again a recent addition - self-adhesive labels. There is no dispute about the quality of offset printing and this quality is being improved all the time by using new technologies in the prepress operations (frequency-modulated screens, colour management). Offset printing can be identified by uniform inking of the printing elements with well defined outlines as well as by the rosette structure caused by the screen angle (depending on the screen width in the elements of the motif) 1.2.1.8 Collotype printing Collotype printing is another lithographic printing process. This direct printing process takes advantage of the light-sensitivity of chromate salts, that lead to a different amount of swelling of the gelatine layer in connection with organic colloids (gelatine) when exposed with a halftone negative. The gelatine layer is applied to a glass plate before the exposure operation. The printing areas of the gelatine layer that cannot swell any more and are located somewhat deeper accept the printing ink and a layer of printing ink is produced in accordance with the swelling of the chromate gelatine that appears to the observer to be inconsistent. The "reticulated structure" cre? ated as a result looks comparable to the frequency-modulated screen that is used nowadays in digital pre-press operations. In spite of the advantages it offers in the reproduction of halftone images, collotype printing is only used rarely nowadays (c.g. for painting reproductions, facsimile printing) because of the instability of the printing plate (maximum print run: 1 500). Screen printing (Illustration 9) is the last of the four main printing process categories. Inkis transferred here by pressing the printing ink through a screen ora stencil _Doctor screen t Doctor Screen frame _ / Printing substrate Printing ink Ilusr. 9: Basic principle of the sereen printing process 1.2.1.9 Screen printing Screen printing is a very old printing process. Its roots go back to the history of the Chinese dynasties. Nowadays this printing process is applied successfully for many different printing assignments as well as for coating applications. Screen printing is used under the name serigraphy for the production of very short runs in the art printing field. Ink is transferred in several different stages in screen printing. The printing ink first of all has to be spread evenly on the screen (in its frame) with the help of an ink return blade. The printing ink is then moved through the openings in the screen fabric onto the printing substrate by a screen printing doctor blade. If pressure on the blade is relieved, the screen detaches and printing ink transfer is therefore interrupted. The maximum possible thickness of the layer of ink depends to a large extent on the fineness of the fabric and the thickness of the threads in the fabric. In contrast to other printing processes, it is possible in screen printing to transfer high ink layer thicknesses (up to 100 p) and to produce a three-dimensional effect in addition to the desired colour. The composition of the printing ink is another special feature of screen printing. In addition to the traditional pigmented printing inks that can reproduce rich and bright colour sensations on a dark background too, transparent inks are used in halftone screen printing - like in other printing processes - as well. With halftone screen printing it is possible nowadays to reproduce halftone images up to a screen width of about 40 lines/em. This technology is an attractive proposition for poster printing in particular Screen printing machines are available in numerous different configurations, which can print not only web and sheet fed printing substrates but also objects, Manual printing units, partly automatic, semi-automatic and fully automatic machines and rotary screen printing machines can be supplied, depending on the degree of automation required. The round screens installed in these machines make it possible to process large web widths and are used successfully in textile printing. Round screens have been introduced recently in narrow web label printing machines too, which can process not only classic solvent based inks but also UV inks in multicolour printing applications. The advantages of screen printing over the other printing processes are the versatility with which different materials - from paper to wood, from tinplate to film - can be printed as well as the printing formats that are possible. Short print runs or very small quantities can be produced inexpensively by screen printing as well. Another group is added here to the four main printing process categories outlined above, even though it does not fit in with the definition of printing (use of a printing plate/cylinder to transfer ink): digital printing. 1.2.1.10 Digital printing Four different physical principles are exploited to transfer ink on the basis of digital data in genuinely digital printing machines (without a printing plate/cylinder): electrophotography, thermography, inkjet printing and magnetography. While either electric or magnetic potential differences are used in electrophotographic or magnetographic printing systems to apply a liquid or solid toner to a charged drum with subsequent transfer and heat bonding to the printing substrate, coloured films are fused to the printing substrate in the printing areas via electrodes in thermographic machines. In inkjet printing, on the other hand, a liquid ink is atomised into minute drops and these drops are deflected onto the printing substrate to transfer a print motif, With the exception of magnetography, all digital printing systems can produce four-colour prints that are only 13slightly inferior to the conventional printing processes in their quality or are in some cases just as good. The flexibility (e.g. personalisation) and speed of these technologies are changing the printing market and are making, it possible to implement new ideas in the design of printed products. Printing Printing process prinieple nO | Flat-fiat | Flat-round | Round-round Lettefet Platen printing, | Cylinder press, | Seif adhesive printing no pachaging [possibly cartons| labels Flexo printing - ‘onlycoru-— | exible pack- gated board | aging, sacks, irect printing | oidng cartons, andcartons.| closure fms), foils labels Letterset printing - - Tubs ds Rotgravure = = exible packa printing ging, beverage cartons, fins hing of folding ‘cartons Tampon Bottle dasures, = 5 printing plastic bottles Offset . ‘only proof | Labels, folding printing printing | cartons, tinpla machines | _teprinting Screen Wooden or plastic | Bottles, | Sel-adhesive Printing boards, bottle crates) cans, labels lathesve labels Table 1: Characteristics of the printing processes used in packaging printing Unlike the genuinely digital printing machines, there are digital offset printing machines that are able to produce the printing plate directly on the printing machine (computer-to-plate) from the current data files (without film). Inking of the waterless offset printing plate that is produced in this way is carried out either in the traditional way (with roller inking units) or via short inking units. In contrast to the genuinely digital printing ma- PACKAGING PRINTING IN EUROPE Ilustr. 10: Packaging printing in Europe - market shares in % 14 chines, personalisation is not possible inthis case The characteristic features of the printin; processes with regard to the printing principle used in the printing machines are summarises in Table 1 for printed products that are used fo packaging purposes. 1.2.2 Printing processes - comparison and combination Flexo printing is the process that has recordec the highest growth rates on the market by com parison with the classic gravure and offset print ing processes. All three of these processes havi been in competition with each other for decades Each of these printing processes has its ow: specific characteristics and application area but flexo printing has developed more dynami cally than either of the other classic printin, processes in recent years. In the final analysi this has led to an increase in the share of the market held by flexo printing at the expense o gravure and offset printing. The following analysis relates in particula to reel-to-reel packaging printing. 1.2.2.1 Offset printing This dominant printing process is only touched on in this context. It is, in most cases designed for specific sizes and is used mainly for paper and board products that are proces sed in sheets. In spite of its very high quality and advanced state of development, it has los market share over the past fifteen years, parti cularly because it is somewhat inflexible bu also because of market and product develop: ments which other printing processes have been able to cover more effectively. 1.2.2.2 Gravure printing ‘The main and characteristic advantages of gra vure printing over flexo printing are: - ideal reproduction of photographic motifs and - optimum reproducibility throughout the long life of the printing cylinders. The process is particularly suitable for longer printing runs and guarantees consistent ané very high printing quality thanks to the use o!IMlustration 11: Typical configuration of a gravure printing machine with 7 printing units and automatic winding equipment for non-stop operation ra] chromium faced cylinders for the printing operation. Further advantages are a high degree of automation and a very advanced level of printing standardisation and quality monitoring. The range of materials that can be printed is very wide, including practically any materials with a smooth surface structure that can be processed on a reel-to-reel basis. To present a complete picture it needs to be mentioned here that sheet fed gravure printing machines are also in operation, although they do not play a role of any significance on the market. The basic principle of the gravure printing process has remained unchanged for decades. A very great deal of development work on the other hand has been carried out on the machine technology, particularly in the machine control, printing quality/production monitoring and automation fields. This process is still continuing. New developments include individual drives for the printing units (which lead to even higher printing quality), further progress in cylinder engraving techniques and sleeve technology. The impressive advantages of gravure printing are unfortunately offset by a number of serious disadvantages, particularly the costs and time required to produce the printing cylinders. This is definitely proving to be a negative factor in view of the trend towards small orders that has been observed for many years and has led to the loss of market share to flexo printing. 1.2.2.3 Flexo printing In the course of recent decades this process has developed from simple aniline ink and rubber plate printing to a high quality printing process that almost satisfies most of the requirements of the printing industry already. Flexo printing was underestimated by the more popular offset and gravure printing processes for a long time but it has now developed into one of the leading printing processes for the packaging sector. The main reasons for this are: ¢@ It involves a simple system and can be used universally ¢@ It is suitable for different inks systems (water based inks - solvent based inks - LIV inks ‘© Suitable for practically all substrates © Achievement of increasingly high printing quality due to advances made in peripheral flexo printing operations ¢@ In-house printing plate production is possible even for smaller businesses, so costs can be cut faster Gravure printing] Fox prntng In] Flexo printing | AIG 2 i AOE 1. Pressure cyindor | 1. impression cyinder | 1. impreeson oyinaer 2 Gravure pining | 2. Pring onder | 2. Printing eyinder cinder 3. anloxcyinder | 3. Anioxoyinder 3. Dostordlade — | 4, oueteyinder | 4. Doctor ade 4. Inet 5. Ik et chamber 1 Iluste, 12: Comparison between gravurelflexo printing units ¢@ Use of inexpensive sleeve systems @ High technical standards It should not be forgotten in this context that the peripheral machine equipment and the printing units have gone through a very innovative phase in recent decades and that this has been one of the crucial factors in improving the quality and economic viability of the printing process. The most important areas affected here have been the anilox roller, the 15printing plate, the printing ink and last but by no means least, the prepress operations, Devel- opments have not yet been completed in any of these areas, i.e. the innovative phase in flexo printing is continuing, so we can expect further interesting results to be produced. Some examples here are flexo printing with UV cured solid inks and no discharge air emissions or infinitely variable flexo printing with direct printing cylinder drive facilities. A fundamental distinction is made between, two different systems as far as flexo printing machine design is concerned: © Machines with a central cylinder © Compact machines with individual cylinders arranged in series ‘Compact multi-cylinder machines that were used in most cases in the past are preferred nowadays only for simple flexo printing applications as supplementary printing units on in- line printing machines because of the problems experienced with in-register printing Machines with a central cylinder were originally developed to print stretchable films that could not be processed effectively on gravure printing machines. As a result of an impressive amount of technical innovation, these models have become high performance machines that now dominate the market. Working widths of up to about 3 m have been introduced. The series configuration established itself first of all with narrow web machines of the kind that are, for example, used for high quality label printing and is absolutely dominant in this field for working widths of up to 500 mm. Market penetration was sluggish with larger widths in the early stages. However, it has been affected to a larger extent by demands to be able to use similar drying and process combinations in flexo printing to those standard in 16 Ilustr. 13: Machine with a central cylinder and a typical configuration with 6 satellite printing units (up to 8 [10] printing units are possible) gravure printing. These demands relate, in particular, to major drying after every printing unit and easy extension to more than ten print. ing units. Extremely simple access to all parts of the printing unit leads to very short make- ready times, which is becoming a more and more important production requirement. The trend in the market towards shorter and shorter printing runs is influencing decision making processes about machine systems to a decisive extent. This type of machine is being used increasingly nowadays for the non-stretchable film substrates that are gravure printed. 1.2.2.4 UV flexo printing Whaat is involved here is the use of UV cured ink systems (UV = ultraviolet). They are processed on machines specially designed for this purpose. Flexo printing machines arranged in series are more suitable for this process which has economic and quality advantages that are preconditions for market acceptance These LV ink systems have been in operation in the label field for many years - not just for printing but also for lacquering. It has only recently become feasible to use them for food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and medical product packaging. The crucial factor here has been the development of appropriate inks, such as cationic ink systems with their automatic curing process, The advantages can be summarised as follows: @lnks made from 100% solids, so there is no discharge air emission © Considerable savings on investments in hot/discharge air equipment and, above all, no longer any need for air purification plants Higher printing quality, thus making the process more competitive by comparisonMluste. 14: Flexo printing machine ‘with 4 printing units arranged in series (can be extended to include up to 10 or ‘more printing units) De A with gravure and offset printing ¢ Highly consistent printing of the motif @ Better ink fastness properties e Universal application for most substrates without the need for any changes @ Reduction in storage requirements as a result @ Shorter cleaning times since, for example, no cleaning is needed at the end of a shift @ Straightforward start-up procedure @ Less ink waste @ No explosion protection needed 1.2.2.5 Flexo printing with infinitely variable printing lengths This system, which was launched on the market in 1992, is creating completely new possibilities for flexo printing. In contrast to conventional flexo printing, in which lengths can be varied but only in increments that depend on the gear wheel installed (5 mm, 1/4", 10 mm etc.), infinitely variable printing lengths ate possible with the new system. This is due to direct driving of the printing cylinder with a separate motor. The printing units are synchronised with each other via an electronic shaft co-ordination system to guarantee print Photo 1: Flexo printing machine arranged in series with direct printing cylinder drive (courtesy of BHS GmbH, Wei- herhammer/Germany) registration. Unusual sizes can now be printed as well, as has been the case in gravure printing for decades. This has made it possible to switch gravure printing orders directly to flexo printing, particularly in view of the fact that flexo printing quality is becoming more and more similar to the quality achieved in the classic offset and gravure printing processes. This is especially important due to the trend towards small orders, for which an inexpensive alternative is now available. Printing can in addition be deliberately chosen to be "longer" or "shorter" with the same printing cylinder size, although this is restric- ted to a specific range (+ 1 - 3 mm for example). Material shrinkage or stretching as a result can be taken into account in processing operations. In register overprinting of preprinted material is also possible. Special control mark tolerances of the kind required by high speed packaging machines can be set in advance electronically without any difficul- ty and can be altered as and when required without changing the printing cylinder size. 1.2.2.6 Combination of processes High production flexibility is becoming more and more important because orders are being switched to inexpensive flexo printing from other printing processes to an increasing extent. Additional process operations are being demanded and need to be integrated. Further requirements are the irreversible trend towards small orders and, above all, short delivery times. Some typical examples: there is strong support for the combination of different printing processes within the same machine in the case of narrow web equipment - for printing labels with working widths of up to 500 mm, for example - and such solutions have already been implemented in practice too. It is certain that there will be more cases of this in future. Com- 17plete printing unit decks for each of the processes can be exchanged. This definitely can have advantages when complex products are being manufactured. Part of the investment made is not then in productive operation how- ‘Gravure | Gravure |: printing | printing | foxaton [Yes [Werearears Yes” Orlacquring Yes | Winstone Ves Penting of the reverse side | Yes | ~-NO- Yes Soldin ery pining unt | Yes | Wheaties Yas ‘Lamination Yes | Winwesiow Yes Camohston wh apne | Wikis | No Yes: mrsamgme Yes Yes Respecaingianycuinpbeasng Yes “Yes Yes es aing Yes: Yes Faonatcaateaeecon Yes | Wihwaiios Yes "seer oleae | Yes ve Yes Hettol embossing Yes | Waar Yes | Trfintly variable natn range | Yes. Not Yet ‘Yes ‘Wit Not et | Werweerere | Yes Combinaton wie grave pring ~ Yes | Yes. "Embossing Yes | Yes Yes Table 2: Examples of some combined processes ever, which means that this solution is uneconomic if there is a large proportion of these additional units, It is not as simple to combine printing units directly on wide web machines because of the larger investments involved, particularly since changeover times are longer and the requirements on the operating personnel are higher. This situation however, will be influenced by the increasingly advanced technical standards of the individual printing unit drives with electronic shaft co-ordination facilities. 1.2.2.7 Prospects The electronic printing processes, such as direct digital printing, laser printing and similar systems, should not go unmentioned These processes are recording good growth rates in the market. Combinations of electronic printing processes and the classic processes will become more and more common. In the packaging field we will be regularly confronted with new product developments, which will be influencing machine development processes to a larger extent than we can imagine at the 18 present time in view of the shortness of product lives in future. The future is going to be as interesting as ever. 1.3 Flexo printing - a form of relief printing Flexo printing is a relief printing process. It differs from conventional relief printing in the printing plate and printing ink used as well as in the ink transfer process itself. Printing is carried out primarily on a rotary basis, i.e. the printing substrate is processed in reels. Sheet fed printing machines are only used in the direct printing of corrugated board. 1.3.1 Printing process The printing plate is the first of the special features of flexo printing that should be mentioned. While rigid printing plates made of metal or plastic are required in conventional letterpress printing, elastic printing plates are used in flexo printing. These elastic printing plates react sensitively to any pressure that is applied to them, with the result that the printing relief is deformed. A certain amount of pressure is needed in every printing process to transfer ink from the printing plate to the printing substrate Whereas pressure is applied to the whole of the surface in offset and gravure printing and this pressure can be relatively high, pressure is only exerted on the printing elements themselves in letterpress printing due to the raised printing relief, The pressure level required in the printing process has to be adapted to the motif and the printing substrate in accordance with its surface roughness. The general principles of printing pressure can be summarised as follows: The finer the printing elements, the lower the pressure that is required, The rougher the surface of the printing substrate, the higher the printing pressure. These fundamental principles have been taken into account in letterpress printing by the application or removal of pressure on theprinting elements with the help of more or less complicated make-ready operations. It is not possible to differentiate the printing pressure applied in the flexo printing process because of the rotary nature of the printing process and because of the differences in printing lengths. Large differences in height can to some extent be compensated for by underlaying the printing plate. Apart from this, the only possibility involves the parallel adjustment of the printing cylinder to the impression cylinder with the printing substrate until all the printing elements produce satisfactory results. The quality of the printed motif is determined not only by the printing elements themselves but also by the surface roughness and compressibility of the printing substrate. What has already been said about the pressure necessary in the printing operation applies here as well. The pressure applied leads to deformation of the printing relief, with the following results: high dot gain in screened printing (a regularly discussed problem), halo effects and muddy printing of line work and solid areas. It is possible to adapt more effectively to the pressure levels required in the printing process and thus to improve the printing quality by separating the individual colours of a motif and thus by using several different printing units for screened, solid and line printing. This separation process does, however, involve considerably higher costs. Attempts are being made to reduce the separation of the different elements of motifs by carrying out new developments in the printing plate and printing plate assembly areas. 1.3.2 Printing ink transfer The printing inks used in conventional letterpress printing contain grease and are highly viscous. The ink film that is applied dries oxi- datively and by means of absorption/penetration, The drying process takes a relatively long time. The highly viscous printing inks also require complicated ink distribution units that level out the ink layer so that it can be transferred in the required thickness. Low viscosity printing inks are, on the other hand, used in flexo printing. While UV ink has only minimal flow properties, low viscosity inks based on organic solvents or water, flow much more effectively in the transfer process, i.e they display better distribution of the ink film on the printing plate surface and the printing substrate. If too much ink is used, these flow properties can lead to muddy printing. The printing inks are dried by cross-linking the UV ink and by evaporating the solvents. In the case of fibrous materials, the ink film is also absorbed. In view of the flow properties of flexo printing inks, itis possible to transfer the printing ink using a single roller with a defined cell surface structure - the anilox roller with a doctor blade. This ink transfer process is comparable to the ink transfer operation in gravure printing. The amount of ink that has to be transferred in any printing process depends on the motif and the printing substrate that is being used. The fundamental rule is that the individual printing elements have to be covered by an uninterrupted ink film. As far as the motif and the printing substrate are concerned, this means The finer the elements are, the smaller the amount of ink supplied should be, so that the elements are printed cleanly and with crisp edges. Elements that cover large areas, on the other hand, require more ink to make sure they print effectively, The rougher the surface of the printing substrate, the larger the amount of ink that has to be supplied so that an uninterrupted ink film is produced. A thicker layer of ink is required with absorbent printing substrates (because the ink pene- trates and is absorbed) than is the case with non-absorbent printing substrates. Whereas it is possible to adapt the amounts of ink across the printing width and in machine direction as required by the motif and the printing substrate involved by adjusting zone screws in ink distribution units when pasty printing inks are being processed, this option is not available in flexo printing The anilox roller used to transfer ink, transfers a specific amount of ink in accordance with the fineness of the cells, the cell geometry 19and the general nature of the surface. If different amounts of ink are required because of the print motif and the printing substrate, it is necessary to use different anilox rollers and thus different printing units, i. separation and thus the use of several different printing units are required here too. 1.3.3 Summary Since it is a letterpress printing process with flexible printing plates and the transfer of a constant amount of ink by the anilox roller, the flexo printing process requires separation of the print motif into more than the four basic colours. This fact, which seems to be negative at first glance, is not, however, critical in relation to packaging printing overall, because the motifs in packaging printing in general, ie. in offset and gravure printing, are also printed on a wide variety of different printing substrates using more than four printing inks. The reasons for the adoption of this procedure - with the other printing processes as well - can be applied to all packaging printing processes and can be interpreted as follows: There are colour fluctuations in any printing process. Ifall the secondary and decorative colours required in packaging printing are also printed in pure four colour printing, the fluctuations of the individual colours are considerably larger when they are all printed together, with the result that there are changes in shade and thus unacceptable colour fluctuations within the production run. Intensive, pure colours are generally required for backgrounds, logos and headlines in packaging printing. These powerful, pure colours are difficult to produce in four colour printing because of the laws of colour mixing, if they can be produced at all. Colours can be achieved more accurately and with less pro- nounced colour fluctuations if authentic inks, i.e. printing inks with pure pigments, are used - thus involving a need for additional printing units. Use of the different printing processes themselves and differences in the production conditions at individual printing companies 20 are further reasons for separating screened motifs and additional decorative colours. It is becoming more and more frequent that motifs are printed by different printing processes and on different printing substrates. Identical packs are in addition printed at several different com. panies because of the volume required or as a precaution, The printing results always have to be identical all the same. The general rule is always: "the results must always be the same, no matter what printing process is used and who does the printing.” IF flexo printing is assessed with these factors in mind, the negative impact of the problems encountered in flexo printing that have been outlined above is limited. It is important to achieve a printing quality that is as close as possible to the quality of the other printing processes by specifying standards relating to ink transfer, printing plate deployment and sub-structure technology. 1.4 Printing substrates Packaging is the main application area for flexo printing. The functions of packaging are not only to transport and protect goods but also to provide information. The latter function is carried out by printing Packaging is produced nowadays from many different materials. The diversity of these printing substrates explains the relatively large number of very special flexo printing machines. The following packaging product groups and other articles are printed by the flexo process: @ Packaging made from paper and board @ Packaging made from film/foil ‘@ Packaging made from material combinations Pre-printed forms / office materials ¢ Lottery coupons / school exercise books @ Labels @ Wallpaper © Decorative, gift wrapping and tissue papers @ Newspapers About half of all packaging materials are made from paper and board. Packaging material can be given very different properties eitherby finishing the surfaces and by incorporating special substances. Paper and board with basis weights of between 40 and 600 g/m? are used for bags, carrier bags, wrapping papers and solid board packaging as well as for corrugated board. In flexo printing machines it is possible to print these printing substrates in one or several colours with line or screened motifs. In the printing of corrugated board a distinction is made between direct post-printing and preprinting. If the corrugated board liner paper is pre-printed from reel to reel, better printing qualities can in general be achieved than in direct printing. The plastic films, metal foils or combinations of these materials with paper that are printed by the flexo process are used for flexible packaging (bags, carrier bags), for vending machine packaging and for special films/foils (closure films/foils). Thermal and mechanical stresses have to be taken into account in the modification of the printing substrates. The same applies to the printing inks that are used When different materials are combined, they can be used in the beverage industry for packaging fruit juice and milk. As is the case with all food packaging materials, the printing inks processed in flexo printing machines have to guarantee that the legal regulations are observed while maintaining high quality standards Easily adjustable flexo printing machines are particularly suitable for the printing of forms and other office materials. Special printing machines are required when multipart forms need to be processed. It is easy to print special colours in the production of office materials for one specific company when flexo printing machines are involved. Simple line drawings are printed in high quality on lottery coupons and school exercise books when the flexo process is used. 2412 Flexoprinting machines 2.1 Introduction This chapter deals with flexo printing machines, the different types, additional equipment and machine components and a number of in-line machines and machine combinations. A very large and varied area needs to be covered here, nevertheless an attempt is to be made to provide an outline of the different flexo printing machines and their components. The individual elements are explained below in order to make the overall structure of flexo printing machines and different combinations that are possible understandable to the reader. Development work on the aniline printing process - named after the aniline dyes used in the printing ink - started as long ago as 1897 and the first aniline printing units were introduced on the market at the beginning of the 20th century in connection with paper bag machines. The first reel-to-reel aniline printing machine came into operation in 1914, It is the forerunner of our modern flexo printing machines, so flexo machine manufacturing can now look back on a history that spans almost a century. Aniline/flexo printing machine manufacturing really started to take off from about 1950 onwards. The first flexo printing machine with a central cylinder was also developed during this period in order to process plastic films more effectively. What are known as multi-cylinder printing machines (with the cylinders arranged in series) were developed in the following years. They are used primarily to print alumini um foil and board. The increase in demand for packaging materials and the more demanding quality requirements led in the Sixties to new generations of machines with higher production speeds, greater precision and the first equipment that allowed partial automation. Flexo printing did not, however, start to become a more important process until photopolymer printing plates were introduced in the Seventies. Because they made it possible to produce the first somewhat more delicate and better halftone print motifs on high quality printing machines. This gave the flexo printing machine industry another boost and the first high speed machines with automatic units began to be produced all over the world. They were then supplemented by many different machine combinations involving in-line operations with flexo printing and simultaneous material finishing. The first flexo printing units for the newspaper industry were developed and tested in the USA around 1980. Other printing machine manufacturers - from Europe as well - tackled this new challenge too and the first flexo machines for newspaper printing with maximum, production speeds of up to 12 m/s were launched in the following years. At roughly the same time, some flexo printing machine manufacturers started to work on the preprinting of corrugated board liner webs Ilustr, 15: Structure of a printing machine 1) Unwinding unit, 2) Preliminary tensioning unit, 3) Printing section with 8 printing units, 4) Additional printing unit, 5) Control cabinet, 6) Winding unit 23and designed multi-cylinder and central cylinder machines for the corrugated board industry with widths of 2.20 to 2.50 m. Following the success of this development, corrugated board pre-printing became a significant area of the flexo printing market and is now an alternative to the direct printing of corrugated board, which has been standard practice for many years, Many flexo printing machines about 200 - 400 mm wide however, were developed and built during this period. Most of these small multi-cylinder or central cylinder machines are used to print and produce labels. Forms and a variety of small products are printed on these machines too. There has been more and more automation of the wider flexo printing machines for the packaging industry in particular in recent years. The main requirements made on machine manufacturers nowadays are a reduction in machine downtime and material waste, as well as very high printing quality. Flexo printing has now established itself as an industrial printing process alongside offset and gravure printing. The most important details about all the types of machines that have been mentioned are explained in the following sections. ‘Most rotary flexo printing machines have the same general structure. They consist first of all of the unwinding unit and preliminary tensioning unit, which makes sure material is supplied continuously at a constant web ten sion level. The web is then transported to the printing unit(s), where the individual inks are printed (including intermediate drying). When the printing operation has been completed, the printed web goes through a final drying operation, in which the film of ink is dried completely. After this, the web is cooled down to normal temperature by a cooling roller and is passed on to the winding unit at a specific web tension level. The web is wound into reels with straight edges on the winding unit. 24 2.2. Types of printing machine The following distinction can be made between two main categories of flexo printing machines with several additional sub-categories. ‘© Multi-cylinder printing machines ‘© Supplementary printing units in processing lines © Compact printing machines @ Printing machines with printing units arranged in series @ Central cylinder printing machines Machines from both categories can be used to create in-line systems and printing machine combinations involving different printing processes as well. Alll of the different types of machine are used to print a wide range of packaging materials - from the thinnest of plastic films to thick board - as well as wallpaper, labels, books, school exercise books and other special products, There is no need - and not enough space - to list each and every application area here because the printing process and the machines are basically the same, irrespective of the final product. It is, however, extremely important to choose the right machine for a specific application, in order to achieve as optimum a solution as possible in every respect. 2.2.1 The supplementary printing unit The forerunners of the current supplementary printing units were the aniline printing units that were developed around the beginning of the 20th century. They were attached to paper bag machines and were designed to carry out one or two colour printing or "mechanised stamping" of the paper bags. This process was later extended to include the printing of paper sheets and sacks as well. In the middle of the 20th century there were as a result, several thousand machine combinations in operation around the world consisting of a paper processing unit and supplementary printing ;units for the simultaneous production and printing of paper bags, sacks, sheets and reels. This efficient method of operation was applied to low density polyethylene as well, after this plastic was developed. Many different combinations of supplementary flexo printing units and blown film production machines therefore have been installed by processing companies in recent years. It can be claimed today that any paper and film processor who also finishes his products has to use supplementary flexo printing units in order to be able to operate economically and efficiently. This solution saves a separate operation, additional reel transport, production space and operating personnel, while less waste is also produced. The working widths of these supplementary printing units range between 250 and 3 200 mm. Depending on the output of the processing equipment, speeds of up to 400 m/min are reached. Printing equipment with three or four printing units are in common use on the market but printing systems with one colour or up to a maximum of six colours are also built and installed. With very few exceptions, only multi-cylinder machines, i.e. printing units with individual impression cylinders, are used. The supplementary printing unit is generally driven by the processing machine via mechanical links. There are, however, combinations in which a separate drive motor is required instead. Hot air drying facilities after the individual printing units are always needed on faster running machines. Supplementary printing units are not suitable for every print motif, so it is important to know the technical possibilities and limitations. The standard motifs produced on supplementary printing units are line drawings, solid areas and texts. It would be not only wrong but also uneconomic to use such printing units for superimposed multi-colour solid printing or for delicate line and halftone printing. In general they do not have the necessary Ilustration 16: Four-colour supplementary printing unit on a bag ‘machine additional equipment for this that is available on reel-to-reel flexo printing machines and that can only be operated economically on them. Quite apart from this, the personnel operating processing machines does not in most cases have the specialised knowledge required for flexo printing. A very clear distinction therefore has to be made here, because really high quality flexo printing can only be carried out on a fully fledged rotary flexo printing machine. 2.2.2 Compact multi-cylinder machine The first reel-to-reel flexo printing machine was a multi-cylinder machine that was developed from a supplementary printing unit of the kind outlined above. A multi-cylinder machine normally has 4 to 8 printing units, with two to four colours being located above each other ‘on each side of the printing unit frame. The compact structure of such machines is almost exactly the same no matter which manufacturer produced them. The web of material is fed in from a simple unwind unit or an unwind unit with reel- changing facilities to the printing unit frame via a preliminary tensioning unit. Multi-colour printing is carried out on the printing units, the surface to which the ink has been applied being dried after every printing unit. After the final printing unit, the web of material is transported through a drying section or other final drying facilities - in which the ink applied has to be dried absolutely thoroughly - to the winding unit via a cooling cylinder with tensioning equipment. Multi-cylinder machines are used to print many different stable printing substrates. The longitudinal registration accuracy of such machines amounts nowadays to + 0.2 mm. Central cylinder machines should be used for flexible materials and higher registration accuracy levels, In practice, paper is printed at 25up to 600 m/min on multi-cylinder machines. The working widths are between 600 and 2 500 mm. This type of machine, which was the preferred choice about 30 years ago, has been replaced to an increasing extent by central cylinder machines in recent years, ‘Multi-cylinder machines consist in most cases of a basic printing unit frame made from grey cast iron or steel, to which printing units can be attached on one or both sides. There are configurations in which up to maximum of 5 printing units are located above each other on only one side as well as other ones in which 3 to 5 printing units can be fitted above each other on both sides. This means that such a printing machine can be equipped with between 1 and a maximum of 10 printing units This is not as a rule done so that eight-colour printing is possible; the aim is instead to print on some of the printing units, while being able to prepare for the next order at the same time on the others. The basic frame needs to be stable and precisely machined, because it carries the impression cylinders over which the web of material is guided and which have to run perfectly parallel to each other. The necessary gearboxes are also fitted to the frame, while the wheels for driving the individual impression cylinders and printing units are supported on it and the necessary tensioning equipment is housed in it too. The fittings for the inking units are either cast as part of the frame or are screwed onto it at the side or front. High stability and accuracy are required here too. ‘The individual printing units can be structured differently. Three roller printing units are, for example, used that consist of a duct roller, an anilox roller and a printing cylinder, Two roller printing units consisting of an ani. lox roller with a doctor blade and a printing cylinder are used on rotary printing machines in particular. Other special configurations are found on the market too but they are of no significance as far as flexo printing machine manufacturing in general is concerned. Practically all the machines are designed for variable formats, i.e. different printing lengths can be produced. To make this possible, it is necessary to change the printing cylinder, a printing cylinder with a circumference that corresponds to the required printing length always has to be used. The printing length ranges of the individual machines vary. On smaller machines the range is between 250 and 800 mm, on wider machines it is between 350 and 1 000 or even 1 600 mm, while there are also systems for printing length ranges of 500 to 2 600 mm or even longer. One major advantage of multi-cylinder printing machines is their ability to print the front and back of the material at the same time - something that is also known as recto and verso printing. One, two or three of the printing units can be used to print the reverse side of the web simply by changing the web guidance system and reversing the drive of the printing units in question. In such cases, appropriate additional drying equipment and possibly cooling rollers as well have to be provided to guarantee perfect drying of the inks. A hot air fan with facilities for extraction of the drying air containing solvents is normally located after every printing unit in order to dry the ink on the substrate surface after the printing operation. Since the web of material is sometimes Mlustration 17: Four colour multi-cylinder reel-to-reel machine for the two colour printing of the front and back of the web, incorporating a gusseting unit 26only supported by a single guide roller between printing units, slight vibration of the web of material occurs due to the effects of the drying air in particular, which leads to fluctuations in longitudinal registration between the individual printing units that are exacerbated by the small amount of play in the drive system of the printing units, With the present state of the art therefore it is not possible to achieve a better longitudinal registration tolerance than + 0.2 mm on multi-cylinder printing machines A central cylinder printing machine has to be used instead if higher printing quality is required. 2.2.3 Multi-cylinder printing machine with a central wheel Multi-cylinder printing machines with a special drive system have been available on the market for some time. They have a stack system in which the 6 or 4 printing units of the machine are all driven by one central wheel. The central wheel makes sure that printing units on this machine are synchronised very effectively. Since the web of material runs un- supported between the individual inking units, this type of machine can be used only for stable materials. The longitudinal registration accuracy level is + 0.1 mm. It is not possible to use individual printing units to print the back of the web. 2.2.4 Multi-cylinder printing machine with printing units arranged ‘in series This machine has the same structure as a gravure printing machine. Only one colour can be printed on each printing unit frame. Any number of printing unit frames, however, can be located behind each other and are driven with the help of cardan shafts or electrically linked drives. This machine requires a great deal of space and high investment. It has the advantage of long drying distances between the individual printing units, so that printing can be carried out at high speeds These machines require what is known as a register roller between the individual printing units, in order to be able to correct longitudinal registration faults when they occur, as well as additional electronically operated longitudinal register control and regulation units. It goes without saying that the front and back of the material web can be printed with as many colours as necessary by fitting a turning bar unit or modifying the web guidance system. Due to the design of the frame structure, it is possible in this case to use different modules, eg. UV drying, gravure printing and offset printing units etc. Machines with printing units arranged in series that have large printing widths are used mainly to process aluminium, board and paper at speeds of up to 600 m/min Mention should also be made here of a machine configuration in which printing unit frames are fitted with printing units on both sides. tis possible in production either to used both printing units directly or to re-equip/prepare the printing units that are not in use at the moment for the next order while production is still going on. Stoppages of only a few minutes, are needed on such machines when a change is made to a different order. NC controlled units permit fast and accurate changes to a different printing length and a new order. This machine spends a very high percentage of its time in actual production. One printing unit with the standard 3 roller or roller configuration is located on both the left and the right of a printing unit frame with a joint impression cylinder. A special drive clutch system makes it possible to print with one printing unit and to prepare the other printing unit for a new order. It is easy to remove and fit the printing cylinder and the anilox roller has its own drive so that it can con- tinue running on its own The most recent developments in this area make it possible to carry out flying order changes. Under this system, the printing units that are not required are prepared for the new order as production is going on. The printing cylinders and the anilox rollers are brought up to production speed shortly before the order ends and a switch is then made to the new order with practically no material waste. Very impressive rationalisation benefits are genera- 27ted as a result with shorter order runs in particular. The printing units are followed by a joint, drying section, a cooling roller and possibly, a register roller before the next printing unit frame; or instead the printing unit frame can be equipped with a differential gear unit for longitudinal register regulation between the individual printing units. If the advantage of short changeover times is not required, then all or several of the printing units can be used for one order, although it has to be taken into account that the drying facilities between the two printing units on one frame are minimal. ‘The printing unit frames of a flexo printing machine with printing units arranged in series are structured as on gravure printing machines, i.e. each printing unit frame contains a printing unit, the impression cylinder, a tensioning unit, drying facilities, a cooling roller, a register roller and the complete web guidance system. As many printing unit stands as required can be located one after the other. The normal number is between 5 and 8, which means that a5 - 8 colour print is the maximum that can be produced. Printing machines with up to 12 printing unit frames, however, have been supplied as well. All the printing units are linked either mechanically or electrically. The printing cylinder is supported securely in the frame and is connected to the printing unit drive via mechanical or hydraulic clutches. The cylinder on wide machines in particular is changed with a cylinder cart system. The structure of the printing unit itself can vary. There are models with a duct and anilox roller and an open doctor blade system and others with an anilox roller and a doctor blade chamber system. Doctor blade inking units with reverse doctor blade wiping of the anilox roller are preferred nowadays, particularly on machines with a working width of more than 1 400 mm and configurations for high production speeds up to a maximum of 600 to 720 m/min because more consistent inking is achieved as a result. The duct roller inking units on the other hand allow ink application to be modified quickly without changing the anilox roller by altering the gap between the duct roller and the anilox roller. 28 The web of material is fed into the printing process via an infeed roller, the tensioning unit and then the impression cylinder. Immediately after the printing operation, the web enters the drying zone, which consists in heating cylin. ders or - a recent development - one or two drying hoods. The web of material is then transported to a register roller and the next printing unit and/or a winding unit via a water cooled guide roller and control rollers. Due to the long drying sections - about 4 m on high- speed printing units - it is possible with these printing machines to apply large amounts of ink at high speeds and to print solid areas of colour on top of each other. In this respect, such a printing machine is far superior to a compact multi-cylinder machine or a central cylinder printing machine. The standard longitudinal registration accuracy level is + 0.2 mmand can - like on a rotogravure printing machine - only be reached and maintained at high production speeds with a register roller and an electronic longitudinal registration regulation unit. To make this possible, every printing unit except the first one has to be equipped with an optical scanning head that compares printed register marks and issues a command to the register roller adjustment motor whenever deviati- ons occur. This lengthens or shortens the length of the material web between two printing units and the longitudinal registration fault is corrected again. As an alternative, there are also printing machines available on the market that operate without register control. Registration is set and maintained by means of a register roller on these machines. This simple form of material control however, is possible only with stable printing substrates. ‘What has been said so far indicates that this isa flexo printing machine with special technical possibilities that is also relatively complicated too. For this reason, a version of the printing unit has been developed in recent years in which the printing unit consists of a module that can be moved into and out of the printing unit frame very quickly. This enables the make-ready times between orders to be reduced tremendously, so that the production output and thus the economic performance of the printing machine can be improved.2.2.5 Machine with a central cylinder ‘The first central cylinder machine (which is also known as a single cylinder machine), in which the inking units are located like satel- lites around a large impression cylinder, was developed and presented to the trade in 1953/54. The incentive to build this machine came from the plastic films industry because a machine with more precise guidance of the material web during the printing process was needed in order to print such flexible film materials. This requirement was met by the central cylinder printing machine that was developed because the web of material runs from the unwinding unit over a tensioning unit to the joint impression cylinder before the first printing unit. The web is pressed to the impression cylinder and does not leave this cylinder again until after the final printing unit. This means that the web of material is held in position firmly so that no register fluctuations can occur during the printing process. With an appropriate drive system, the maximum longitudinal registration tolerance amounts to 0.1 mm. Therefore this is the rotary printing machine with the highest registration accuracy level - without any additional mechanical or electronic assistance or supplementary equipment. The 4 to 6 colour printing machines available on the market are now being replaced more and more by 8 colour printing machines. With them it is possible to combine four colour halftone printing with up to four decorative colours. Printing motifs as a result can be produced on many different printing substrates (including flexible ones) by the flexo printing IMlustr, 18: Modern eight-colour central cylinder machine process that come very close to the quality of gravure printing or offset printing. Very many central cylinder machines today are already used universally, for printing not only flexible plastic films but also stable materials such as multilayer combinations and paper. Such machines have been installed to print wallpaper and to preprint corrugated board as well. The biggest central cylinder machines have an impression cylinder diameter of more than 2 300mm and a working width of up to about 2 500 mm. The printing lengths on standard packaging printing machines are limited to about 1200 mm, while maximum printing lengths of 1 600 or even 2 000 mm are feasible on special machines for printing paper or for preprinting corrugated board. Maximum speeds of 250 m/min are reached on the large format machines, while standard machines with a printing width of up to 1 700 mm operate at production speeds of up to 465 m/min, Stable frames made from grey cast iron or welded steel structures are always used for single cylinder printing machines nowadays because these frames have to support the joint impression cylinder and the drive gearwheel (which is just as big), both of which have to ro- tate vibration free and run very true. Six to ten printing units are normally arranged around this impression cylinder in a satellite pattern. The printing machine in most common use is the 8-colour machine, on which delicate halftone prints can be produced in excellent quality nowadays. The printing lengths are determined by the number of printing units that are grouped around the impression cylinder and the latter's diameter. Standard diameters are between 29FF == — IMlustr. 19: 8-colour central cylinder machine with in 1500 mm on 6-colour machines and 2 300 mm. on 8-colour machines. Larger diameters are used only on corrugated board preprinting machines. The printing widths possible on central cylinder printing machines range between about 300 mm and a maximum of 2 500 mm, What really guarantees a high level of registration accuracy and printing quality is of course the temperature regulated impression cylinder that forms the heart of the central cylinder printing machine. Top of the line models today have rotation inaccuracy levels of a maximum of 0.005 mm and surface roughness amounting to 0.002 mm. It is very important to keep the impression cylinder at a constant ‘temperature - which is generally done with water - because the rotation accuracy and cylindricity of the cylinder across the machine width change during the printing process, due in particular to the effects of the drying air. This leads then to gaps in the printing, to inconsistent printing results and to poor printing quality. It is also very important to work cautiously on the impression cylinder and to take good care of it. On central cylinder printing machines, the web of material comes from the unwinding unit and/or a tensioning unit and is pressed firmly onto the impression cylinder by a rubber coated pressure roller, so that no air can get in between the cylinder and the web of material and so that the web rests firmly on the cylinder. It is transported past the printing units in this way and does not leave the cylinder again until after the final printing unit. This means that even a flexible web of material cannot change its position from printing unit to printing unit and no register fluctuations therefore occur. Even the air blown by the drying unit that is located between the individual printing 30 lamination units cannot cause any vibration of the web of material - even at high air speeds - so that there are no registration faults. Due to the design of the machine, every printing cylinder gearwheel directly engages the central cylinder gearwheel, which corresponds in its pitch circle to the diameter of the impression cylinder. There is practically no tooth play between the individual printing units as a result, The use of the most advanced control and drive technology allows for excellent register accuracy on C.l. presses featuring direct plate cylinder drive. It provides a new dimension to flexo printing, especially with the ability to run any repeat length with no gear pitch limitations. Irrespective of plate and material thickness, optimised print quality is ensured through precise surface speed settings for the plate cylinders - speed mismatch between C1. drum and plate cylinder is reliably prevented. The central cylinder printing machine is the best basis for a universal flexo printing machine for the production of optimum printed products, with which practically any printing substrates can be printed with the highest possible printing quality. 2.2.6 In-line machines / machine combinations In-line machines - reel-to-reel flexo printing machines combined with other processing operations - have been available in many different configurations for about 4 decades. But- ter wrappers made from laminated aluminium foil, for example, were printed in up to six different colours with simultaneous embossing and subsequent punching. Precise registrationIustr, 20; 8-colour central cylinder machine with an in-line gravure printing unit was not possible but overprinting with sizeable registration tolerances and lacquering could be carried out. Following a period of stagnation in development of this equipment, further progress started to be made about 20 years ago - sti- mulated in particular by the introduction of flexo printing in the wallpaper industry. This industry required in-line machines for printing and lacquering involving combinations of flexo printing and gravure printing and high levels of registration accuracy. In response to these demands, the mechanical drive and connection elements were improved and new electric and electronic equipment was introduced. At the same time, the first flexo printing machines were also equipped with additional winding units, in order to carry out in-line dry lamination operations with a few minor changes to the flexo printing machine. These efficient combinations led to the development of other machines for the economic production of specific packaging materials and/or products. With the acceptance of solvent free lamination on the packaging market, a possible way was available to produce a multilayer material with internal flexo printing at relatively low cost in a single operation. All the in-line machines mentioned above eliminate additional operations, material transport and operating personnel as well as reducing waste. The make-ready times for such machines of course, have to be as short as possible and the individual orders should be relatively large so that the machines can operate economically. A combination that in the meantime has proved to be successful on many occasions is a central cylinder flexo printing machine with one or two gravure printing units for printing a web of material with subsequent primer and/or PVC coating or for applying cold seal agent in-register on the back of the web of material. Hot melt can also be applied if the gravure printing unit has the appropriate equipment. The result is a line for the efficient production of special packaging materials of the kind that are required in the confectionery and food industries. The steady increase in raw material prices in recent years and ongoing increases in personnel costs will force machine manufacturers to design and build further in-line machines in liaison with packaging producers. Flexo printing machines have many different applications ahead of them. IMlustr. 21: Bight-colour central cylinder machine for in-line lamination and with a gravure printing unit for applying cold seal agent 31Promotion 2.2.7 Promotion article by Schiavi S.p.A. Schiavi S.p.A. isa world renowned manufacturer of printing and converting equipment for the flexible packaging, wallpaper, label, gift paper and transfer printing industries. Established in 1927, Schiavi comprises a team of 400 people operating from Piacenza headquarters and Mo- dena production plant to supply solutions, products and services of proven reliability, performance and profitability. Since 1987, Schiavi has been an associated company of the Bobst Group, the world foremost supplier of converting equipment and services for the solid and corrugated board packaging industry. A wide distribution and support network in over 100 countries provides timely and effective after-sales service world-wide. Schiavi production includes: rotogravure presses for printing with solvent or water based inks; Cl flexographic presses for printing with solvent, water based or UV inks; gearless Cl and in-line flexographic printing presses; coating and laminating machines using different interchangeable coating systems to produce multi- layered laminates with solvent, water based or solventless adhesives; combined rotogravure or flexographic printing with different in-line con- el ‘The Alpha GLINC8-C1 32 verting operations; slitter rewinders, The latest development in Schiavi flexographic presses range is the ALPHA GL/NC8-CI and 8-colour central impression, infinitely variable printing flexo press in the 850 to 1250 mm web range The hallmarks of the "one man" Alpha flexo press are the digital AC vector drive and gearless technologies applied to the innovative design of the printing decks, allowing for quicker job changes - as no gears are to be prepared and meshed - for increased repeat length flexibility - as there are no gear pitch limitations - and for reduced manpower, as the press is run by one operator. Therefore it is particularly suited to meet today's just-in-time require ments for top quality graphics. The deck design is dedicated to sleeves for anilox and plate rollers. The deck positioning for sleeve change, printing pressure adjustments and rack in/out is achieved by stepper motors. The press performance is further enhanced by a high efficiency drying system with optimised air distribution and exhaust between the colours and the drying tunnel, A superior fully digital control system electronically matches the excel- lence of the press mechanical features. End of the system description ed2.3 Printing machines for narrow web applications The typical application areas for flexo printing were originally in paper bag, sack and corrugated board printing. Flexo printing has reached the position it now holds among the different processes used in the printing industry as a result of the triumphant progress it has made in the printing of flexible packaging materials made from plastic film. The printing of reels of self- adhesive labels is another area of the market in which the flexo printing process has already been in use for many years in the USA in particular. The flexo printing machines designed for label printing incorporate printing unit technology involving both 3 and 2 roller systems with an open doctor blade and doctor blade chambers. The machines operate on a reel-to-reel basis and generally turn out printed and in-line cut self-adhesive labels as their end product. To distinguish this field from the flexo printing of packaging, where wider web widths of 600 mm and upwards are standard, “narrow web" machines is the term used in this context. Flexo printing is definitely on the increase at global level particularly as far as narrow web label printing machines are concerned. Development of the printing processes. used for self-adhesive labels (in per cent) Oreo ~ tee on om Combination of screen om saes 99019042000 Ilustr.22: Development of the printing processes used on the market for self-adhesive labels (Figures in percent) 2.3.1 Flexo printing machines in label printing Since inches are the normal unit of measurement in the USA, the standard working widths in the narrow web field start at seven inches, which is the equivalent of 177.8 mm in the metric system. In line with this, narrow web machines for label printing in Europe start at printing widths of about 180 mm. The most common web widths are in the 200 to 330 mm range. Some machine manufacturers also supply printing machines with working widths of up to 520 mm for this sector. Such models are, however, only used in practice here where sufficiently large print runs are available to utilise the capacity of these machines to an economically viable extent. In the past few years, narrow web machines have also been installed in isolated cases at printing companies that produce flexible packaging materials or folding cartons. This development has been triggered by the general trend towards smaller and smaller print runs and increasingly short delivery periods. Nar- row web machines meet the requirements of such assignments by providing inexpensive and flexible machine concepts. The fact that they can be equipped with in-line facilities which enable finishing or processing such as lacquering, cutting, slitting, creasing etc. to be carried out ina single operation at the same time as printing, makes them a particularly attractive proposition for users. Flexo printing has been increasing its share of the label printing market more and more successfully for years now. Illustration 22 shows that-rotary letterpress printing, which still accounts for the majority of the existing production basis on the European market for reels of self-adhesive labels, is primarily being replaced by the installation of numerous new flexo printing machines. In fact, letterpress printing is still the dominant process for the production of reels of labels on the Japanese market. In contrast to job printing, where a complete switch has been made from letterpress printing to offset printing, the offset process has only been able to gain a foothold to a minimal extent in self-adhesive label printing with special applications or in the form of machines with translative web transport. Although film materials are recording high growth rates in the self-adhesive label field, paper still accounts for the majority of the printing substrate material processed into labels. This explains why water based ink systems are 33very common in the flexo printing of labels. The use of chemicals can be kept to a minimum as a result. Development work in this area has led to the production of inks with powerful colours and good bonding properties to most printing substrates. Either hot air driers or IR driers are preferred as drying technologies. The labels are frequently finished with a coating of matt or glossy UV lacquer (either solid or limited to the print motif alone) Following the introduction of the flexo printing process on the market on a large scale, UV flexo printing is now proving to be a new trend in the label printing field. The use of UV cured ink systems, together with the new generation of ceramic anilox rollers, is leading to considerable improvements in quality and eco- nomics. Tougher environmental regulations are also stimulating the use of solvent-free ink systems. Both radically and cationically cured flexo printing inks are being used in label printing. Combinations of both systems - known as hybrid inks - are also found. The knowledge developed in the past by flexo printing companies only applies to a limited extent today, in view of the completely different rheology of UV ink systems compared with conventional inks. Conversion from conventional flexo printing with water based printing inks to LIV flexo printing involves a switch to a new printing process that is still largely unexplored and also involves a new drying technology. The printing unit technology has to be adapted when UV ink systems are introduced. Doctor blade chamber systems are, for example, an advantage, on the one hand to keep ink transfer constant at high production speeds and on the other hand to be able to operate ink circulation systems, so that there is no need to have ink processing monitored by operating staff on an ongoing basis. UV flexo printing has major advantages in that it does not emit any environmental pollutants, the ink does not dry during machine stoppages, the amount of ink applied is very consistent, cleaning times are substantially shorter, explosion protection expenditure is not incurred and printing quali- tyis better. 34 2.3.2 Printing machine concepts One reason why narrow web machines are so successful in label printing is because they satisfy the requirements of customers from this area of the industry very precisely. The following factors need to be taken into particular account when developing machine concepts nowadays: The length of print runs is falling. About 70% of printing orders amount to about 100 000 labels or fewer. More than 50% ofall printing orders are in fact for 50 000 labels or fewer. About 35 to 40% of the total volume of self-adhesive material combinations processed are accounted for by orders for up to 100 000 labels. The quality requirements are increasing High resolution print motifs and screened vi- gnettes of high quality are expected. The print motifs themselves are becoming more sophisticated, Print motif design increasingly involves combined motives including solid printing, continuous tone reproductions, fine screened colours and picture elements located close to each other. Changes in printing are being made at increasingly short notice. Shorter product life cycles are leading to more and more frequent adaptation of labels in product design. There- fore, it has to be possible for text and image changes to be made inexpensively and without any delay even directly before printing begins. ‘The processing of new and more difficult materials is increasing. Due to the high growth rates that are being recorded with films (8 to 10% per year), it is inevitable that printing machines will have to be particularly suitable for processing heat and stretch sensitive materials in future. Environmental factors have to be taken into account to an increasing extent. The use of solvent free ink systems and drastic reductions in waste are unavoidable requirements that printing machine manufacturers need to include in their development activities too. The requirements made by customers as listed above make it clear that the printing machine manufacturer's aim, to a less and less extent, can be to propagate a specific printing process as the most suitable method. On the contrary, theRotary sereen| printing Rotary flexo printing printing Ilustr. 23: Four different printing processes are interchangeable on modern label printing machines thanks to the modular design machine manufacturer needs instead to be able to supply his customers with all the printing and processing technologies that can be used in the industry and to make new technologies available in good time whenever needed. Whereas a distinction was made only between letterpress printing machines and flexo printing machines in the 80s, hybrid machines are now being established more and more, 2.3.3 Modular machine concepts Two of the characteristics of label production are the large number of materials that need to be processed as well as the many different uses to which the labels are put. The machine ma. nufacturing industry is responding to thi tuation by supplying a wide range of different Rotary letterpress Rotary hotfoil embossing Printing unit processes, so that the machines can be operated as universally as possible. It is necessary therefore to be able to equip label printing machines with all the standard Printing, finishing and processing technologies As far as label printing is concerned, it is a logical consequence to combine different processes in a single printing machine and to make the different combinations as flexible as possible for the customer. In order to meet the requirement for high operational flexibility, printing machines for the production of reels of labels are designed with a high resolution structure. The basic cle- ments of such machines are universally built modules that are equipped to hold different printing and processing units, The interfaces for the necessary mechanical, electrical and pneumatic connections are designed on a plug- in basis, so that the user can replace a printing unit smoothly within only a few minutes Depending on the machine design concept, the choice of printing processes can consist of rotary letterpress printing, flexo printing, rotary screen printing, offset printing and hot foil embossing (dry offset printing). Practically any number of these processes can be incorporated in a machine on their own or in combination. The individual printing positions of these Reverse printing unit web guidance system Rotary Nexo printing with chamber Ilustr. 24: A typical ‘example of a latest ‘generation modular Rotary sereen printing unit flexo printing machine concept that consists of flexo printing units with a doctor blade chamber system, a rotary screen printing section and fa cilities for printing the reverse side of the substrate 35machine systems are located vertically in series in order to guarantee flexible choice of the process required in any particular case. This concept leads to compact and efficiently arranged production machines. The machine equipment generally includes a processing section. Since it is expected of these machines that they supply cut labels as their end product, it is essential that they are equipped with a cutting unit and trim removal facilities. Perforation or cross-cutting stations are often included as well. A choice of such processes as lacquering and lamination needs to be available for product finishing purposes. Machine configurations with up to ten or even more printing units to meet specific production requirements can be produced thanks to the modular structure of machine parts. It is possible to extend machines at a later date after they have been installed. The demands for machines that combine different processes means, as far as the production of flexo printing machines is concerned, that the conventional structure generally used in machine manufacturing until now is being replaced by modular concepts - ie. interchangeability - at the process level. The processes used on latest generation flexo printing machines can be extended and switched. Rotary screen printing is frequently integrated in the printing section, in order to take advantage of the special printing characteristics and the particular suitability of this process for printing film in combination with flexo printing. Further development work on the printing unit technology used in UV flexo printing in addition has been focussed on improving the consistency of inking over the whole range of printing speeds as well as the adjustment facilities in the areas of the inking rollers and printing cylinders. The result is a UV flexo printing unit with the option of an ink supply system with a doctor blade chamber and a loading unit for the printing cylinder with advance setting of the register and the printing facilities. The increasingly common use of flexo printing machines for manufacturing products from monomaterials such as films, board etc. is making it more and more necessary to be possible to print the reverse side without damaging the 36 front of the substrate. Specially developed units for printing the reverse side with an appropriate material web transport system satisfy these requirements. 2.4 Printing machines for corrugated board printing 2.4.1 Direct printing or preprinting 2.4.1.1 Direct printing or post printing Post printing is the simplest and oldest method of printing corrugated board. Post printing means to print on a finished sheet of corrugated board. It is obvious that, when printing, very little pressure must be applied to the board (kiss-printing) in order to maintain its characteristic: rigidity. This is done by using soft printing plates made of rubber or polymer. These slightly resilient plates allow for good printing, even if the surface of the board shows some "washboard effect". Years ago, corrugated board was printed with oil based inks, needing a long drying time therefore making it impossible to print and convert inline. Nowa- days, practically all post printing on corrugated board is done with flexographic inks drying very quickly and therefore allowing for in-line converting. In the corrugated industry, the print runs are generally rather short. Being the simplest to bring into play, post printing is the most used printing method of corrugated board. Its market share is more than 90%, 2.4.1.2 Preprinting Pre-printing started about 30 years ago. As high speed dedicated flexo printing machines did not exist and post printing quality was not very good, the idea was developed of printing on a large C.l. flexo press where the reel is placed on the corrugator and processed as an outside liner. Photocells read the marks printed on the liner making sure that the transversal knife of the comrugator cuts the sheet in regi ter with the printing. The drawback is that the preprinting is meant for large orders. Pre print-user, 25: Inline machine ‘with three printing stations. ing presses are usually as wide as the corrugator, i.e. more than 2.45 m. For cost reasons, one reel at least, should be printed, meaning about 15000 m2. To be really economical, one should print at least 3 reels, approx. 45000 m2. In shops and markets, pro- spective customers are very fond of so called "promotion", "special offer" etc., resulting in shorter printing orders. In this respect, a large amount of preprinted board means lack of flexibility in constantly changing markets. Market share of preprint varies from country to country, from 2% to 8% or 10%, averaging about 5% 2.4.2 Direct printing process The regular slotted container (RSC) is the type of package which is most commonly manufactured on inline machines such as a flexo-folder- gluer. Regular slotted containers which are also known as slotted boxes account for about 70% of the total output of corrated board packages. The dimensions of the flexo-folder-gluer (FFG) depend on the minimum and maximum sizes of the sheets to be converted. The operating principles of the various models of machine may vary slightly. In a flexo- folder-gluer, the sheets are: I.conveyed by an automatic press feeder (optional) 2.fed in by the feeder 3. printed by the flexo printing unit(s) 4.the slotter makes the creases, the slots and the glue lap 5.the diecutter, which is an optional unit, makes additional cuts, for example, hand- holes 6.The folder-gluer makes the joint by gluing, stitching or taping, folds, counts and stacks the containers Ilustr. 26: Folding and gluing stations ‘An off-line flexo press consists of an automatic loader (optional) 1, a suction feeder 2, printing units 3 and a pile delivery 4 (see illustration 27). Ilustr, 27: Sheet printer for printing on corrugated board, 372.5 Flexo machines for News- paper printing The flexo printing unit that was developed by several flexo printing and newspaper printing machine manufacturers about 20 years ago to print daily newspapers should be mentioned at this point. Following the introduction of offset printing in the daily newspaper field, requests started to be made (in the USA in particular) for a simpler machine. After the American Newspaper Printers' Association (ANPA) developed a prototype itself, there were initially very few printing machine manufacturers that showed any interest in this assignment and started appropriate design work Individual flexo printing machine manufacturers from the packaging field as well as a number of newspaper and magazine printing machine manufacturers around the world are involved in this area now. The first trial printing units, which were either lightweight configurations or compact versions for attachment to or incorporation in existing letterpress or offset newspaper printing machines or were designed for separate use, therefore have led in the meantime to the production of different kinds of flexo printing units and the installation of several flexo printing machines around the world. A number of printing units and smaller machines were put into operation solely for trial purposes or for special assignments at the start. Several complete machines are now in daily operation in the USA and West- ern Europe, while more machines are being installed or have been ordered. The positive results produced in black and white and colour printing and the better economic performance of this process have prompted additional newspaper printing companies, in the USA in particular, to place orders for the delivery of complete flexo newspaper printing lines. Using the flexo printing process has the following advantages for these printing companies: a simple process, user-friendly printing units and machines; a minimum of waste; use of thinner papers, relatively little showing through of the printing ink; no ink abrasion but well-defined screen dots in the processing of water based inks; lower energy consump- 38 lf ‘ Mlustration: 28: Flexo newspaper printing system with 4 printing units JN uC 5 ae tion, and inexpensive machines Ahigh speed 4-colour unit is to be described here as an example of the several different designs that are available on the world market. This printing unit is designed for a paper web that is about 1 500 mm wide. It has a section length of about 600 mm and two section lengths in relation to the circumference, i.e the plate cylinder diameter is about 380 mm. It is built for a maximum speed of 750 m/min, which is the equivalent of about 75 000 newspapers/h. What is involved here is a four- colour flexo unit for printing newspapers that satisfies the requirements made nowadays on offset of letterpress printing machines. For this reason, all the cylinders are supported extremely precisely in large roller bearings that are housed in stable, box shaped cast iron frames, Particularly high quality ground gearwheels that run in an oil bath are used for driving purposes. The production of excellent printing results depends on high accuracy levels in the rotation of all the cylinders. Rela- tively large anilox rollers are used to apply ink to the flexible elastic photopolymer printing plates which are attached to the plate cylinders with a foam rubber support by means of mechanical or magnetic clamping units. The anilox rollers are provided with ink with the help of what is known as an ink chamber and excess ink is wiped off the surface cleanly by a negatively positioned doctor blade. Smooth and consistent ink transfer and printing plate inking are achieved as a result up to the maximum printing speed. The basic machine equipment includes pneumatic pressure application and release fa-cilities, longitudinal and lateral register control units, an automatic ink infeed system, viscosity control equipment and automatic ink washing as well as other mechanical, pneumatic and electronic monitoring and control units This printing system can be supplied with 2 or 3 printing units instead but the decision about this is determined by the configuration of the complete printing machine line in each individual case. The direct flexo printing unit which is familiar to many from packaging printing - with an impression cylinder, a printing cylinder (with a flexible elastic printing plate) and an anilox roller (with a doctor blade) for processing water based inks - is the preferred choice at the present time above all in the USA but also to some extent in England and Italy. While the indirect flexo printing process with an impression cylinder (incorporating a rubber support), a printing cylinder (with rigid printing plates), ink transfer rollers (with a rubber coated surface) and an anilox roller (with a doctor blade) is used with oil based inks e.g. in Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland. This is attributable primarily to the fact that the high quality that is standard in offset printing in these countries is not yet matched in flexo printing, with the equipment currently available. Increased, widespread use of flexo printing units in newspaper printing and in the production of simple magazines and telephone direc- tories could give the flexo printing process a tremendous boost and put flexo printing on an equal footing with the established offset and gravure printing processes. The difference in quality between very many American newspapers and quite a few daily newspapers in some Western European countries should not be forgotten in this context.3 Individual elements of printing machines 3.1 General - machine automation Shorter and shorter order runs and increasing cost pressure are making it essential to improve the utilisation of printing machine capacity all the time. Therefore it is necessary to minimise make-ready times by automating machine operations. It is possible to shorten changeover times while reducing start-up waste by up to 70% at the same time with a highly automated machine. ‘Automation can be carried out by the following means: © Preprogrammable overhead robots They make it possible to change anilox rollers and printing cylinders automatically within the shortest possible time @ Advance preparation of unused printing units Printing units that are not in use can be equipped for the next order while production is still going on - without any danger for the staff involved. This reduces downtime when a change is made to the new order. © Automatic gearwheel engagement Printing cylinder wheels are automatically engaged with the gearwheel of the central cylinder with the help of sensors, taking advance registration into account. © Autoregister During proof printing, the Web Video cal- culates the values for register correction and transfers them to the printing press. Based on these correction values, the register is set automatically by means of the CNC color deck positioning system. © nfinitely variable repeat lengths through direct drive technology Separate drive motors are provided for both plate cylinder and anilox roll. In this way, any repeat length can be run and repeat length changes are achieved by matcl the plate cylinder speed. @ NC adjustable printing units permit automatic movement of the printing unit and absolutely precise adjustment to the printing position. © Automatic washing system forcleaning the parts of the machine that come into contact with the ink within minutes © Order data storage in order to monitor quality and retrieve repeat orders from the memory. © Operation from a central control facility All the machine functions are displayed at the central control facility, the machine can be operated by one person. Time required to change orders 6 colour order with different degrees of machine automation nat charge Sings ay Ne ping heen RAAT ing aay raat Mlustr, 29: Impact of machine automation on the time it takes to change orders on a central eylinder machine © Programmable printing monitoring An optional feature with automatic fault monitoring that simplifies the detection of printing faults and therefore helps to avoid waste. © Viscosity regulation reduces the machine operator's workload by measuring and regulating ink viscosity automatically. 3.2 Printing unit configurations The printing units are the most important components of a flexo printing machine, so a detailed description is to be given of them here. Only two different printing unit configurations are in fact still of any general interest 41today: the 3 roller printing unit or duct roller printing unit (in the form of a squeezing system or with an open doctor blade system) and the 2 roller printing unit or doctor blade printing unit. The 2 roller printing unit has become increasingly important in the recent past and is a standard feature on new machines in combination with a doctor blade chamber. 3.2.1 The 3 roller printing unit or duct roller printing unit The 3 roller printing unit in the form of a squeezing printing unit which was originally developed many decades ago, has been improved at regular intervals ever since and is still the most frequently used printing unit in flexo printing all over the world. It is relatively simple to operate and set, is flexible in its capabilities and until a few years ago satisfied all the requirements made by users. The conventional 3 roller printing unit is mounted on a frame and normally consists of a pair of corner brackets to support the printing plate cylinder and a pair of supports for the anilox and duct roller. A device to support the ink duct is normally attached to it as well. The doctor blade holder is also provided whenever a doctor blade system is involved, IMlustr. 30: Roller printing unit or duct roller printing unit To change the printing cylinder, ie. to print a different printing length, the printing cylinder with the corner brackets is moved horizon- tally away from the impression cylinder either 42 mechanically, hydraulically or with motor assis tance. The same is done with the second support for the duct and anilox roller with the ink duct. The equipment that is available on the market to adjust the printing units is dealt with in the section entitled "Printing unit elements". The printing cylinder and the duct / anilox roller are driven by gearwheels that used to be located inside the machine frames but are now provided outside the machine frames in almost all cases. The reason for this change is to keep cylinder and roller lengths as short as possible - on wide machines in particular - and thus to reduce roller deflection to a minimum as a result. ‘When the machine is stationary, i.e. when printing is not being carried out, the printing cylinder has to be raised from the impression cylinder and/or the web of material, so that the stereo and the printing substrate do not stick together. This is done by lifting or moving the printing cylinder slightly in the horizontal or vertical direction. The printing cylinder at the same time has to come to a stop and dis- connect from the anilox roller, so that no more ink is transferred to the stereo. The operations of raising the printing cylinder and/or re- leasing/applying pressure are carried out by springs or by hydraulic cylinders. The entire mechanical system, however, needs to be designed in such a way that pressure application in particular is reproducible. If this is not the case, the printing results vary and corrections have to be made in each case. The printing cylinder has to come toa stop when it has been disconnected, so that it is possible to clean the stereos and make any mi- nor corrections that are necessary in the machine. The duct and anilox rollers have to con- tinue running so that the inks do not dry on during this time as well as during other machine stoppages. Separate electric, pneumatic or hydraulic motors make sure they keep running. There is frequently a difference in speed between the duct roller and the anilox roller in printing units operating by the squeezing system when printing is being carried out. The duct roller speed is reduced via exchangeable gearwheels with the speed ratios 1:2, 1:3 and - in some cases - 1:4. The speed is reduced in or-der to vary the quantity of ink and to restrict or avoid ink splashing The circumferential speeds of the anilox roller surfaces must always be identical to the speeds of the stereo surface on the printing cylinder, so that there is no erasing and destruction of the printing plates. Motors with which itis possible to change the speed ratio on an infinitely variable basis up to a maximum of about 1:8 are generally used on high speed machines to keep rollers moving and to carry out the printing operation. A finer and more consistent film of ink is achieved in this way even when there are speed changes in faster operating ranges. Proper adjustment of the duct roller in relation to the anilox roller is also very important in order to make sure that ink is transferred to the anilox roller consistently. This adjustment is made mechanically, to a less frequent extent pneumatically and electrically or hydraulically in the case of wide, high speed machines. The setting must be identical on both sides of the roller and the pressure level must not be too high because otherwise deflection of the rollers occurs and consistent ink transfer is no longer guaranteed. The quantity of ink that is to be applied to the printing substrate can be varied by changing the gap between the duct roller and the anilox roller. This is a major advantage of the 3 roller printing unit. However, it has the disadvantage that there are differen- Ilustr. 31: Duct roller printing unit with an additional doctor blade unit ces in the quantity of ink transferred when speed or viscosity changes occur, which lead to fluctuations in the colours of the print motif. Toavoid this and to transfer really specific, constant amount of ink to the surface of the stereo, the surface of the anilox roller has to be wiped with a doctor blade so that only the amount of ink in the cells and no ink from the surface of the anilox roller is transferred to the stereo surface. A start was made on equipping 3 roller printing units with a doctor blade unit for this reason a number of years ago. This doctor blade is located above the anilox roller and wipes the excess ink off the surface of the anilox roller either in or against the direction of rotation - depending on the direction of rotation and the doctor blade setting - in a similar way to the doctor blade unit on the printing cylinder in the gravure printing process. This does of course mean that there is constant wear on the anilox roller, which hardly ever occured with conventional duct roller printing units. It has proved possible to minimise this wear by using ceramic anilox rollers Further development work on optimisation of the printing units has not been stopped by this however. New solutions had to be found in response to the demand for consistently higher printing quality with halftone motifs and at higher speeds in particular. The 2 roller printing unit therefore was developed as an alternative to the proven 3 roller printing unit Illustr. 32: Modern 2 roller printing unit with anilox roller and printing cylinder supports and a closed inking chamber / NC adjustment 433.2.2 The 2 roller printing unit or doctor blade printing unit This modern version of the flexo printing unit was developed at the beginning of the Eighties and has since then succeeded in establishing itself all over the world in practically all flexo printing machines that are used in high quality flexo printing. The 2 roller printing unit consists in the printing cylinder and the anilox roller with a doctor blade unit, The comer bracket supporting the printing cylinder is the same as in the 3 roller printing unit. The supports for the anilox roller and the duct roller, on the other hand, now only hold the anilox roller, while the duct roller has been replaced by the doctor blade unit. The printing unit settings have remained unchanged and an electric motor keeps driving the anilox roller when the machine has stopped. Some doctor blade units are equipped so that dirt or ink particles sticking to the doctor blade are removed automatically by a lateral oscillating unit In many cases, adjustment between the doctor blade and the anilox roller is now carried ‘out pneumatically - with very precise regulation of the pressure level possible - or against a External inking unit Internal inking unit Ilustration 33: 2 roller or doctor blade printing unit with a doctor blade chamber variable stop. Whereas doctor blade wiping was carried out both in and against the direction of rotation - ic, positively and negatively - doctor blade wiping with a negative doctor blade angle is in the meantime standard practice due to the greater simplicity and consistency of the process. The doctor blades are normally made of steel, although plastic doctor blades are also used sometimes with ceramic rollers, Doctor blades with a specially ground phase have established themselves in recent years. Doctor blades need to be handled carefully, as damage can lead to destruc- 44 tion of the anilox roller. If the anilox roller is to be wiped fully effectively by the doctor blade, it is essential that the clamping length of the doctor blade and the support specified by the manufacturer is observed and that care is taken to make sure the angle of the doctor blade is correct. Doctor blade printing units guarantee finer, more consistent and defined ink application across the whole width of the web and throughout the machine's speed range. The doctor blade printing unit has the advantage of metered and repeatable ink transfer that is dependent on the anilox roller. Mlustr. 34: Closed doctor blade chamber with a negatively. setworking doctor blade and a positively set closing doctor blade. The blade and gaskets can be changed without the need for any toolsInk can be circulated via what is known as an open doctor blade chamber with ink re- turned from the chamber into the ink duct and on into the storage container or - in the case of a closed doctor blade chamber - directly into the storage container, missing out the ink duct. The advantages of the open chamber are very simple operation and a pressure free doctor blade chamber. The advantages of the closed chamber are minimum solvent evaporation and the small minimum quantity of ink required. The closed ink chamber also makes it possible to clean the anilox rollers and all the parts that come into contact with ink automatically, so that order and colour/ink changes can be made without any manual cleaning operations 3.3 The most important printing unit elements The different elements of a printing unit have been mentioned on several occasions in the course of this chapter so far. The most important elements are now to be dealt with in rather more detail in this section, with attention being drawn to significant details and special demands that are made on these parts or units, Excellent high quality printing units cannot be produced for any flexo printing machine without observing specific tolerances and satisfying certain requirements 3.3.1 The impression cylinder 3.3.1.1 Impression cylinder on multi cylinder machines A look is to be taken first of all at the individual impression cylinder on multi cylinder printing machines. A steel jacket with welded necks is generally used today. The cylinder must be designed to withstand the necessary strains; if this is not the case, deflection will occur that makes it impossible to print consistently across the whole of the web width. Rotation accuracy on modern machines is 0.010 mm and roller bearings are preferred. The surface is normally precision ground; in rare cases it is chromium faced or treated instead. The impression cylinder may be water cooled on high speed machines in order to maintain a low / constant printing substrate / ink (Cylinder jacket Cylinder neck Welded Illustration 35: Standard impression cylinder temperature. In the case of printing substrates that are permeable to ink, it is also possible for doctor blade wiping to be carried out on the cylinder, so that the ink does not accumu- late. Undriven or rubber coated impression cylinders are only used rarely today because they no longer meet the quality requirements 3.3.1.2 Impression cylinder on machines with a central cylinder The joint impression cylinder - the heart of central cylinder printing machines - is made of either steel or specially cast iron. The rotation accuracy of top of the line models is 0.005 mm. The surface is ground under temperature-controlled conditions, with a plasma coating or chromium facing in some cases. The bearings used for smaller cylinders with a diameter of up to about 1 500 mm are still sometimes high precision slide bearings, whereas roller bearings are preferred for big, very heavy cylinders. In most cases, an automatic lubrication system involving an oil pump and a double control unit makes sure there is always an oil film in the bearings, so that the cylinder constantly runs true. Single wall and double wall impression cylinders are used. The cylinder surface needs to be kept at a constant temperature in both cases because otherwise the diameter of the cylinder changes across its width - due to the effects of the drying air in particular - and leads to inconsistent printing results. Special equipment designed to keep the temperature at a constant level of about 32 °C with a tolerance of + 1 °C is used to maintain 45cylinder rotation and surface accuracy during printing. Automatic water spraying equipment Ilustration 36: Double wall impression cylinder with water inlet and outlet that sprays the cylinder constantly from inside and removes the water again by suction is the solution chosen for single wall cylinders. The double walled cylinders are kept at a constant temperature by an automatically operated water pump unit. There are also central cylinders that are equipped with an internal pipe system. Water of the required temperature flows through these pipes. Brakes that slow the enormous masses down when the machine stops may be installed on the cylinders for safety reasons in the case of large cylinder diameters and high speed machines In view of the precision requirements, impression cylinders are relatively sensitive and expensive and therefore need to be looked after very carefully and treated cautiously in practical operation. In some cases it is possible to repair minor damage on the printing machine, in all other cases the damaged cylinder has to be re- paired and reground by the manufacturer. eq berrzrer rrr hd lustration 37: Printing cylinder with welded necks Best IMlustration 38: Push-on printing cylinder with a shaft and. 46 3.3.2 The printing cylinder 3.3.2.1 Conventional cylinders Different printing cylinders can be manufactured to allow a variety of printing lengths to be produced. The printing cylinder that is still used very often today on high speed machines and wide machines in particular consists of a steel jacket with welded necks. Printing cylinders for long printing lengths are also produced from aluminium or composite fibre materials in isolated cases. Printing cylinders with welded necks normally have the highest level of rotation accuracy. It is said to amount to about 0.01 mm, 3.3.2.2 Hollow cylinders Hollow cylinders with shafts are still being used in production, The hollow cylinder is pushed onto the shaft and is secured at the ends with cones. Sizeable tolerances can occur very easily with push-on hollow cylinders, if the cones are not handled cautiously and if assembly is not completed carefully. 3.3.2.3 Air cylinders ‘There is increasingly widespread use of sleeve systems nowadays due to the shorter and shorter length of order runs and the need as a result to change to different orders more and more frequently. Thin sleeves of various kinds made from nickel and fibre glass reinforced plastics are involved here that are applied and removed with the help of compressed air. The advantages of these systems are the possibility of efficient storage of frequently used stereos on the sleeves for repeat orders and the cost savings generated by using air cylinders with sleeves of different thicknesses for different printing lengths. The disadvantages are the higher overall rotation inaccuracy level (sleeve and basic cylinder) and the lower degree of stiffness, particularly with short printing lengths and large printing widths. A system with cylinder mandrels that are firmly integrated in the machine, onto which plastic sleeves are pushed manually on the machine, has developed for working widths of up to 1 m. These sleeves cover the entire length range. In view of the sleeve thickness, atten-Photo 2: Since their walls are so thin, nickel sleeves fit on the stereo cylinder like a second skin, which guarantees Jow tolerance levels and consistently high long term printing quality tion has to be paid to low weight with long printing lengths in particular. Practically all cylinders are statically and dyna- mically balanced on high speed machines in order to avoid vibration and unprinted areas during production at higher machine speeds. The cylinder wall thickness has to be calculated carefully in order to avoid major cylinder deflection. High precision slide bearings or needle bearings with staggered rows of needles are used to support the printing cylinders. Care must be taken to make sure that the bearings are lubricated efficiently and continuously. Some cylinder bearings are equipped with a central lubrication system. It must be simple to change the cylinders fast, in order to keep machine stoppages short when changes are made to new orders, Bearing locks that are automatic or easy to operate are extremely important for this reason. When they have heavy printing cylinders, modern flexo printing machines are generally provided with lifting equipment in order to make it easier for the machine personnel to change the printing cylinders. The diameter of the printing cylinder (including the thickness of the adhesive film and the printing plates) determines the required printing length. The thicknesses involved can vary considerably, so the cylinder manufac turer must know these exact dimensions. 3.3.2.4 Printing lengths - choice of gearwheel The "pitch" the machine is required to have, i.e. into what increments the printing lengths are to be divided, must be specified when the machine is bought, because the design of the gearwheels for the printing cylinders and the drive wheels on the machine are based on this; 10 and 5 mm pitches are standard in Europe, whereas inch pitches 1/4 Cp, DP 10 and DP 16 are still required in England and overseas. Gearwheels produced with extreme preci sion are essential if high quality printing results are to be achieved, as every fault is reflected in the print motif, The latest developments in measurement and control technology make direct electric motor driving of the printing cylinder possible without mechanical links to the impression cylinder, This means that the printing length can be chosen independently of pitch constraints, i.e. any printing length is possible, as is the case in gravure printing, So- phisticated drive regulation facilities may be needed, according to the level of registration accuracy required. The investments in printing cylinder wheels are not necessary. 3.3.3 Printing unit adjustment Various systems are available on the market for setting duct and anilox rollers or the anilox roller with a doctor blade in relation to the printing cylinder and for setting the printing cylinder in relation to the impression cylinder, What is particularly important is that all the adjustment facilities work extremely accurately and if at all possible allow both approximate and precise adjustments to be made. The differences between the alternatives are mainly in the accuracy of the adjustment and the time required to change the machine. A distinction can be made between the following four configurations: 1.Simple spindle adjustment, in which every printing unit has four threaded spindles that have to be adjusted manually. This system is only used in isolated cases today - generally on small printing machines, 2. What is known as the "quick adjustment system’, in which the four adjustment spindles are combined via two gear units and are connected by a shaft. This shaft can be used to make the necessary adjustments manually or with a motor. a7‘Simple spindle adjustment Quick adjustment | L lor assisted quick adju: | l NC-controlled adjustment by | B IMlustr. 39: Four different printing unit adjustment systems Four hand wheels are also available to permit precise adjustment to the printing conditions. 3.In the motor assisted adjustment system, the hand crank and/or simple motor is replaced by a controlled electric motor. The required setting, i.e. the printing length, can in addition be chosen on a pre-selection counter, so that the printing cylinder and the anilox roller are moved into what is practically their printing position at the press of a button, Precise corrections to the final printing setting have to be made by hand. 4, The NC controlled printing units, which are becoming more and more popular, are equipped with extremely accurate recircula- ting ball spindles - to which four motors are connected - instead of simple threaded spindles. The printing units move to their printing position with an accuracy level of about 0.001 mm on the basis of the order data such as the printing length, stereo thickness etc, Any final corrections that are needed can be made via a manual control panel. Changeover times are shortened by about 48 50% when this equipment is used instead of manual adjustment systems. Operation of such machines is considerably simpler and easier. In addition to these very different printing unit adjustment systems, advance registration units in combination with the motor-assisted or NC controlled printing unit adjustment systems are also marketed and supplied today. They shorten machine downtimes during changeovers to new orders and reduce waste. These units position the cylinders of all the printing units and engage the printing cylinder wheels with the drive in such a way that only a minimum of start-up time is required before the motif is being printed excellently in-register. 3.4 Individual elements of printing machines for narrow web applications When discussing the individual elements of the printing machines, it is necessary by way of introduction to draw attention to the different flexo printing machine concepts. There can be no doubt that what are known as series configurations definitely hold a dominant position in narrow web applications. In addition to this, there are also suppliers of narrow web machines on the market that produce not only machines with a central cylinder but also compact machines with several cylinders located on top of each other (generally known as stack presses). Irrespective of the production concept chosen in each case, it can be assumed that specific individual elements of crucial importance can be found in all narrow web flexo printing machines, although they may be i cluded to a more or less extensive or advanced extent, depending on the equipment the machine incorporates, The following description of the individual elements of the printing machines is based on the sequence of the components as they are found in a classic series configuration. The reel unwinding station is found in each of the machine concepts outlined above. Its purpose is to hold the printing substrate inreel form. Its capacity may vary according to the machine concept and printing width; external reel diameters of 700 - 1 000 mm are standard, with a reel core diameter that generally amounts to 76 mm (3 inches). The reel is held by a spindle that is supported on either ‘one or both sides and is in most cases designed to have pneumatic clamping facilities. In view of the heavy weight of the reels, reel unwinding stations are often equipped with pneumatic lifting units, while mechanically or electronically controlled end of reel warning systems are also very common. ‘An adjustable tension control roller that follows the unwinding station compensates for any imbalance that can be caused by inconsistent reel winding tension. A splicing table is located after the tension control roller and makes it simple to stick the end of one material web to the beginning of the new reel of material. This is followed by a web edge control unit, that is becoming a standard feature on in-line machines to an increasingly common extent and generally operates electronically. This unit guarantees that the web of printing substrate follows a straight path throughout the printing and processing sections of the line. What is known as the web tensioning system, which consists of a clamping roller unit located after the reel unwinding station and a pair of tensioning rollers directly before the material rewinding station at the end of the printing machine, is provided to permit precise regulation of the web tension that is required for in register printing. This system, which can be adapted to the printing substrate being processed in each individual case (material thickness, stretching properties) is supported and regulated in more sophisticated systems by an additional transducer roller that measures the web tension and corrects the settings whenever needed. Depending on the materials that are to be printed, this section of the machine is also where space is provided for integrating corona discharge treatment and web cleaning systems. ‘After it has passed through these units, which are located before the actual printing area, the material web enters the printing units, which vary according to the requirements as far as their number and process are concerned, 4-8 colour machines are standard but up to 14 printing units can also be used for special assignments. Every printing unit is equipped with drying / curing equipment, with hot air or in- frared drying (conventional flexo printing with solvent based ink) or UV curing (when UV flexo printing inks are being processed) being used according to the printing process concerned. Care needs to be taken to make sure that the ink applied in the previous printing unit is dry in each case before the next printing ink is applied in the following printing unit, ie. that printing is not carried out on a wet-on-wet basis, On machines that are designed for processing solvent-based inks, we very often find that an additional UV printing unit is provided after the final printing station for applying UV cured protective or high gloss lacquers. Depending on the machine's assignment, the actual printing section of the flexo printing machine that we have just described above is followed by a more or less extensive converting section in narrow web applications. The label industry, with its sometimes complex requirements, has played a particularly central role in determining the development of this section of the machine. Depending on the machine configuration, the emphasis here is on ‘one or more cutting units - especially for cutting part of the way through self-adhesive laminates or all the way through monomaterials (board or plastic combinations in particular). Due to the way technology has developed, reciprocating cutting units are still very common in Europe and make it possible to use flat steel rule dies. The low tool costs are the main advantage of this technology, the disadvantages are the definite restrictions on the operating speed of the line as a whole that are attributable to this technology, as well as the high investment costs incurred when buying the cutting unit. Rotary cutting technology is ex- periencing fast growth. In this area, narrow web machine manufacturers supply rotary cutting modules with 2 or 3 cutting positions. En- graved cutting cylinders or magnetic cylinders 49with appropriate magnetic cutting plates act as the cutting tool. The higher prices of rotary cutting tools by comparison with reciprocating cutting tools are compensated for to a very large extent by the higher operating speeds that are possible in the rotary cutting process. The considerably lower purchase prices of rotary cutting modules compared with reciprocating cutting units are another advantage when determining the hourly costs of running the printing machine. The trim rewind unit is an essential part of reciprocating and rotary cutting systems. It is designed to remove the trimmed material around the cut self-adhesive label from the substrate paper in-line directly after the cutting operation and to wind it on a spindle that is supported on one side Any longitudinal cutting units that are required are integrated in the converting section of the line. Either squeezing knife or scissor knife concepts are used here, depending on the material that needs to be processed. These units are used not only to slit the parent reel in- to whatever number of narrow reels are needed but also to trim the edges of the web. On most of the series configurations available on the market one finds the central control panel for the machine operator in the converting section of the machine, together with all the main drive and control facilities for the line. Depending on the degree of machine automation, this central panel can control the ele- mentary functions of the whole line as well as the corrections to the line that are necessary in the course of production printing. Machines with sophisticated control systems have appropriately automated electronic control units. When the machine is equipped with video web inspection technology - which is also very widely used - the assignments required of the machine operator are limited to general monitoring of the printing machine as well as regular checks on the quality of printing and processing. The pair of tensioning rollers needed for regulation of web tension is provided at the end of the converting section. Most lines have another final cutting station before the ultimate reel winding operation. This station uses rotary 50 cylinders to carry out transverse perforation or complete cutting of the material web before the material reaches the reel winding station integrated at the end of the machine. This winding station winds the printed web up, again holding it on a pneumatically clamped spindle supported on one or both sides. De- pending on the machine model, the maximum capacity of this winding station is an external diameter of 500 - 1 000 mm. Systems with 2 winding spindles are very common, because they allow several different individual reels to be wound in a staggered pattern. Many machine manufacturers make it possible for a shingled delivery belt to be integrated in their systems quickly for reel-to- sheet production. In such cases, the web is cut into individual sheets by a rotary crosscutting cylinder located in the last cutting/crosscutting station. These sheets are then transferred to the delivery belt that is running more slowly than the printing machine. This operation does not have, as a general rule, any effect on the machine speed that can be reached and enables very cleanly cut individual sheets to be produced within minimum tolerance limits. The design principle followed in the development and production of machines that are arranged in series makes it possible for these printing machines to have a modular, extend- able structure that is not feasible when other principles are adopted. When a new rotary flexo printing machine is being installed, its modular structure means that it can be con- figured precisely to satisfy the individual user's particular requirements This applies to the number of printing units required, the drying process preferred, the configuration of the converting section and the selection of the necessary accessory equipment, that can normally be chosen from a very wide range of different alternatives. A particular advantage of this design concept is the fact that a machine configuration that is specified at one point in time can be adapted to a new situation without any major problems at a later date, i.e. further printing units, cutting modules or additional accessory equipment can be fitted whenever required.Manufacturers of flexo printing machines that are designed in this way generally supply a very extensive programme of accessory equipment, the most important examples of which are described in detail below. ‘As was mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, the corona discharge treatment and web cleaning systems that are essential in the processing of plastic materials and films can be integrated between the reel unwinding station and the first printing unit. The increase in the surface energy of the material web that can be achieved with a corona discharge treatment system leads to more optimum wetting as well as to an improvement in the bonding of ink, lacquers etc. Web cleaning systems are part larly necessary in the processing of plastics and films that tend to attract more dust due to electrostatic charging. The delaminating/relaminating unit permits ink to be printed on the reverse side of self-adhesive material that is coated with adhesive in the case of flexo printing machines that are specially designed for self-adhesive label applications. To make this possible, the upper material protection paper of the material combination is delaminated at the first printing sta~ tion, so that the actual label material with the adhesive layer facing upwards is fed into the printing unit and is printed. Following the printing and subsequent drying operation, the upper and lower material are combined to form a laminate again in the relamination station. The web turning unit that can be integrated between any pair of printing units makes it possible to turn the material web over in the smallest of spaces, so that both the front and the reverse side of the web can be printed in one pass. Depending on the number of printing units that are available, this therefore means - in the case of a 6 colour machine - that 3 colours can, for example, be printed on the front and 3 colours on the back or 4 colours can be printed on the front and 2 colours on the back - and so on. Depending on the degree of automation chosen for the flexo printing system, a selection of electronically controlled support equipment for the operator is available, i.e. register control, preregister and insetting systems. Electronically controlled register control units enable automatic scanning of every printed colour as well as the cutting pattern. Devia- tions from the acceptable register tolerance limits are recorded optically and the necessary plus or minus corrections are made by the system automatically. Preregister systems allow the individual printing units to be set in the correct, practically in register position in advance, which saves a very great deal of time and material. Depending on the model and the manufacturer, rotary flexo printing machines can also be supplied with what is known as an insetting system, This makes itis possible for a material web that has been printed in an initial pass on the machine to be overprinted in register in a subsequent second pass In order to present a full picture, attention is also drawn to the following accessory equipment that is not described in any detail: © Ink pumps to guarantee continuous ink supply to the ink containers / the doctor blade chamber; © Laminating unit integrated in the converting section of the machine to apply a transparent plastic film as surface protection, cither on a self-adhesive basis or in a mono configuration for UV gluing via the final printing unit; © Hot foil embossing unit, generally designed to match the rotary cutting unit; for in register rotary application of embossed foil with a hot embossing cylinder, © Video web inspection systems, available ina wide range of different configurations with more or less sophisticated features. Based on a stroboscopic camera/screen system, for close checking of the quality of the print motif and registration accuracy. © Drive unit for folding equipment, located directly at the discharge end of the machine (reel winding module), for driving a linked concertina folding unit for in-line production of EDP labels etc. 513.5 Newspaper flexographic printing Today, the technology of flexographic printing is used for newspaper printing mainly due to the simplicity of the process, the reliable results and smear-free printing. The water based inks environmentally friendly recently have gained more importance 3.5.1 The gearless printing couple 3.5.1.1 Ink supply The ink is supplied via a pump filling a doctor blade chamber. This chamber consists of a basic frame with seals on the side and doctor blades The doctor blade chamber is adjacent to the anilox roller. A return pipe ensures permanent flow. A collecting trough below the doctor blade chamber collects the dripping ink and leads it back to the tank 3.5.1.2 Inking unit The plates are inked uniformly, keyless along the width with an anilox roller, its cells are always immediately refilled by means of a doctor blade chamber. Hence ghosting never occurs with this single roller because rotating the anilox roller provides immediately a new uniform ink film, It is not necessary to preset the inking to adust it to the individual ink requirement The position of the axis to the frame is specified. The drive is effected directly via a clutch to the anilox roller. To change the rollers, the clutch is engaged and the roller exchanged by means of a vehicle with lifting device 3.5.1.3 Plate cylinder/impression cylinder A soft, self-adhesive underlay is applied to the plate cylinder. Only after wear or damage will this underlay be exchanged. The plate holder is mounted onto the underlay by means of locks. A plastic coated metal holder is used. The register system is integrated in the locks. Fine adjustment of the plate cylinder to the anilox roller as well as impression on/off movement is effected via cams. Fine adjustment of the plate cylinder to the impression cylinder as well as impression on/off movement is effected via another cam. In order to carry out the movement of the plate cylinder axis compared to the motor axis fastened on the frame, the axes are connected with a propeller shaft. The pressure position is in the part of the propeller shaft that is not curved. By taking this measure, a direct motor drive can be realized for the plate cylinder as well The impression cylinder has a double spindle tension for one underlay and one coating. The underlay is a special multiple blanket improving print quality. The coating is a plastic foil bringing about a reduction in offsetting in reverse printing. The position of the axis is specified to the frame. The drive is effected direct via a separate motor to the impression cylinder. Mustr, 40: Double printing station with two plate cylinders. 1) impression cylinder 2) plate cylinder 3) anilox roller 4) plate cylinder3.5.1.4 Second plate cylinder The geometric arrangement of the plate and impression cylinder and the anilox roller is specified in such a way that a second plate cylinder can be arranged as an so that both or each individual plate cylinder can be alterna- tively brought into contact with the anilox roller and/or the plate cylinder. This procedure makes a mounting aid necessary for the second plate cylinder to achieve a favourable operation of the first plate cylinder. The second plate cylinder as well is equipped with a direct drive system enabling independent slowing down and acceleration of both plate cylinders. Since all cylinders are equipped with an encoder, a synchronisation true to register of the alternating cylinder may be carried out before a selection of the changeover of cylinders. Together with the presetting free inking unit, an optimum waste reduction for the flying plate change is achieved. The configuration of the printing couples in one printing unit is arranged in such a way that in principle one two-sided print is possible. The web is led between both, leaving sufficient drying time for the top side print to avoid offsetting on the impression cylinder of the reverse side: Furthermore, good staggering is possible. The printing units are configurated prefera- bly on top of each other for the full-color printing. Four staggered printing units, each one extended with two printing couples, enable the four colour print. If the eight changeable (plate) cylinders are removed, the full four colour change is possible economically. For the half-width four colour print only an extension for example on the left side is necessary with four additional cylinders while a side lay and circumferencial registering is possible independent of top and reverse printing. If another top printing couple is mounted on the right side, a double width four/one print with full four colour change can be run. ‘An exceptional feature, apart from the web lead already described, is the possibility of a non-impact web lead from printing couple to printing couple enabling the lead with improved paper qualities with a smooth, closed surface vertically through one printing tower. This is a solution for the print of semi-commercial products and products similar to com- mercials. 3.6 Further printing unit components 3.6.1 The anilox roller - function and location Although the ink transfer process in flexo printing is based on a very simple principle, the quality of the final printing results is determined by a large number of different factors. In addition to the printing ink itself (and its specific rheology), the crucial factors that decide the printing results are the amount of ink transferred by the anilox roller - coordi- nated with the print motif and the printing substrate - and the consistency with which the ink is transferred, Numerous parameters which have an impact on the quality of the printing results are involved in this process, which has only been described in a very abbreviated form above One decisive point is, for example, how the printing ink is applied to the individual printing elements. The anilox roller plays a central role here. The German term for this roller ("Raster- walze") is taken from the screening of the roller surface to produce uniformly distributed cells ("Raster" = screen). Since flexo printing is a rotary process, it is correct to use the word "roller" in this context. The technical term used in English - "anilox roller" - has, on the other hand, been taken from what is known as the aniline ink system, The name itself reveals part of the roller's function in both cases: to distribute ink uniformly by screening the roller surface. The anilox roller's assignment also determines its location in the printing unit. It is associated with the printing cylinder and is designed to transfer the printing ink to the surface of the printing plate. Ink has to be applied to the anilox roller first of all. This operation is carried out by the duct roller 53in the 3-roller system, by immersing the anilox roller in the ink in the 2-roller system or by supplying the ink to the doctor blade chamber. Whereas the amount of ink transferred is varied by adjusting the position of the duct and anilox roller in squeezing printing - possibly involving differences in surface speeds as well - all the ink on the surface of the anilox roller is wiped off when the anilox roller is used in combination with the doctor blade process and only the ink that is left in the recesses - the cells - of the anilox roller is transferred. The shape of these cells (including their opening and geometry) and the anilox roller material decide the amount of ink that can be stored and released by the roller surface, icc. the quantities of ink that are finally transferred to the printing substrate 3.6.1.1 General factors that affect ink transfer The quality of ink transfer depends on many different factors. As far as the anilox roller is concerned, the following main factors should be mentioned: @ The engraving operation itself, as outlined in the comprehensive description of the engraving specifications below. @ The nature of the roller surface. Chromium, for example, has different ink transfer properties than ceramics. Porosity, roughness and uniformity of the cell partitions are further parameters here. @ Levelling of the ink film by the doctor blade system. The angle of the doctor blade, the opening distance of the chamber, the ink pressure, the blade pressure etc, are some important factors. Attention should also be drawn to the properties of the doctor blade itself (consistent hardness, parallelism, strength of the operating phase), correct installation and freedom from damage etc © Inksystem All the rheological properties play a significant role here. Apart from the important viscosity parameter, the level of pigmenta- tion and the film formation properties help to determine ink flow and to avoid gradual contamination, 54 © Mechanical variables As far as the roller is concerned, runout, balance, cylindricity and alignment of the axles are important to watch. The bearings and the bearing housings should also be in perfect condition. As far as the inking unit is concerned, the decisive features are sufficient stiffness, inking unit clamping, adjus- tability and the maintenance of pressure settings. © The setting of the surface of the printing plate and the printing substrate as well as their respective properties have an impact on the ink transfer process, Balanced coor- dination of the degrees of hardness and elas- ticity in the plate / adhesive substructure system are particularly important. © Upkeep and maintenance are essential Many printing problems are attributable to poor handling in the machine environment. It is not out of the question for bearings and roller surfaces to be damaged by hardened ink. A reduction in printing quality is often due to inadequate cleaning of the anilox rollers in particular. 3.6.1.2 Engraving specifications The purpose of the anilox roller is to transfer ink to the surface of the printing plate in line with the technical conditions in the printing operation. In contrast to a gravure printing cylinder, the aim is not to transfer an image: all that is required is to apply a specific amount of ink to the surface of the printing plate consistently across the required width in the direction of press movement. In this sense the surface structure of the anilox roller can be compared toa technical screen in gravure printing. Many different parameters have to be taken into con- sideration in anilox roller engraving, so that the requirements of the printing process are satisfied. Every single parameter is important in this context, as they all affect the transfer process as regards the quantity of ink and the consistency of the ink film. 3.6.1.2.1 Lines per cm - screen width Ina similar way to the screen that is familiar from the repro field, the number of lines per cm indicates the distance that elements are lo-cated apart. The number of elements - in the case of the anilox roller it is the number of cells. ~ is counted along a row over a specific distance. This distance is 1 centimetre, which is why the unit used is lines per cm (L/em). In the ‘Anglo-Saxon system of measurement the cor- responding distance is 1 inch, so the unit used is lines per inch (Linch). These two units are easy to convert by multiplication (100 Lim = 254 Linch) The direction in which the count is made is always at the angle in which the cells are arranged. It is less common to express this measurement in cells per m?. The number of cells then relates to a specific area and already takes the angle into account. The engraving alterna tives that are used in practical everyday printing range nowadays from 60 L/cm to 500 L/cm Finer engraving (e.g. 1 000 L/cm) is perfectly feasible from the technical point of view, but no sensible uses have been found for this so far in flexo printing technology. The number of lines per cm or the screen width give an indication at the same time of the width of a cell, ie. it provides information about the fineness of the engraving, 3.6.1.2.2 Engraving depth The depth of the cells produced determines to a very large extent the volume available in the cells. The engraving depth does not, however, necessarily provide any information about the volume or about an appropriate cell shape and is therefore certainly an important factor, but only one of them Although engraving may be very deep, this - in combination with the size of the cell - does not have to affect the emptying of the cell ‘The engraving can on the other hand be very shallow in certain fine cases, while the possible capacity in view of the cell width is not exploited to the full. If a smaller volume is required in such a case, it may be worthwhile considering the use of finer engraving. The engraving depth is generally measured with a microscope and is indicated in micrometres (11). 3.6.1.2.3 Side angle If the shape of a pyramid is imagined, it is obvious that a specific side angle is created depending on the relationship between the width of the opening and the engraved depth. The shallower the engraving, the larger the side angle. The side angle here is the angle between the sides of the pyramid, With regard to optimum emptying properties, it should, however, be pointed out that a steep side leads to better emptying and offers larger volume This explains, for example, why a change was made at a very early stage from the engraving of standard pyramid shapes to the engraving of pyramids with a flattened base. The cell volume can be influenced very specifically by varying the side angle while maintaining the number of lines per cm and the engraving depth This fact also needs to be applied in laser engraving, where its more accurate to talk about a domed shape than a pyramid shape. The physical laws are the same. The side angle is measured in degrees (°) 3.6.1.2.4 Engraving angle The engraving angle indicates the arrangement of the individual cells in relation to each other on the surface of the anilox roller. The engraving angle is expressed as the angle of the cells to the roller axle, This angle is identified when viewing the engraving from above. In view of the rules of geometry, only 4- comered or 6-cornered shapes can be grouped together without leaving any gaps?. This fact is reflected in anilox roller engraving. Either 4-cornered shapes (= squares) at an angle of O° or 45° to the roller axle or 6-corered shapes (= hexagons) at an angle of 30° or 60° to the roller axle are found. In considering the drawing below, itis important to note that one side of the ces is parallel to the roller axle at the angles of 0° and 30°. The point of the cells is in line with the roller axle at the angles of 45° and 60°. Taking the mechanical properties into account, e.g. in doctor blade operation, the angles with the cells in line with the roller axle [BB 3: Take the time to make yourself some octagonal shapes and then try to fit them together without leaving any gps It will not be possible 55(ie, 45° and 60°) have a definite advantage The "pointed configurations" have an advantage from the point of view of cell filling too. In view of the process operations, the point is immersed in the ink first. This means that the cell can fill slowly via the sloping edge. When it leaves the ink, there is no abrupt, parallel end; the cell gently slides out of the ink via its point instead. For these reasons, an engraving angle of 45° soon established itself in the early stages of flexo printing development. These mechanical reasons also led in the final analysis to a situation where the angles chosen for the repro colour separations have had to take account of the screen angle. An offset repro angle of 45° is not compatible with an angle of 45° on the anilox roller and leads to moiré patterning. For geometrical reasons, there is a considerable difference between a square cell arrangement anda hexagonal cell arrangement, On an area basis - e.g. 1 m? - there are substantially more cells in a hexagonal arrangement on the surface than in a square cell arrangement. This means that the packing density is higher with a hexagonal arrangement. The purpose and function of an anilox roller is to transfer ink as homogeneously as possible, This assignment (Chromium roller - engraving 90° | Chromium rer - engraving 45° ‘Chromium rolr- engraving 20° | Chromium rl - engraving 60° | ee Chromium rller- ined sereen (Chromium roter- grave pining engraving Mlustration 41; Engraving angles 56 can be carried out more effectively with a larger number of cells and a higher cell packing density. The conclusion that could be drawn from this - that a 60° angle is always preferable for these reasons - is not, however, correct. An angle of 45° can definitely have advantages in combination with a specific ink system or coating medium, viscosity levels etc. This has to be determined by carrying out printing trials in each individual case. The engraving angle is expressed in degrees (°) in relation to the roller axle. The engraving angle also indicates the direction in which the lines per cm are counted. 3.6.1.2.5 Cell/partition ratio It has already been explained that the number of lines per cm provides a basic indication of the cell width. The purpose of this section is now to outline the connection between the cell width, the partition width and the opening width Put in a nutshell, the following formula applies partition width + opening width = cell width The partition provides the necessary support for the doctor blade and limits the size of the cell. The design of the partition has many di ferent effects on the transfer properties of the engraving. A partition can, for example, be provided solely at the points where the cells meet. Ora partition can sag by a certain amount. Or a partition can be deliberately interrupted at specific points (communicating cells) etc. Whatever alternative is chosen, a direct effect on ink transfer and the properties of the doctor blade can always be identified. This is the source or solution of any number of printing problems. The conviction has in the final analysis been accepted that a 100% enclosure of the cell and therefore a high doctor blade support repre- WE 4: You can easily test the mechanical effects yourself take a notepad (= your doctor blade) and slide it over a tiled surface (= your anilox roller). When you move your notepad doctor blade parallel to the joint, you will heara distinct "klack-Klack" noise in every joint (= vibration). Slide it across the tiles at an angle of 45° to the joints and xyou will find that it moves smoothly. Your notepad doctor blade is supported all the time.sent the situation that can be controlled best. ‘This means that a flat, consistent partition is necessary. Account is taken of this requirement by adding a final operation after engraving, in which the surface is finished (or polished) The cell opening - or to be more exact: the opening area - is the contact area between the ink and the stereo. The bigger the contact area, the more homogeneously the stereo can be inked [| £ = Parton ratio fe.tu-t) ‘Sezoon pitch eit wiath ase with Parton wieth Cell depth Opening angle Yop nve Ilustration 42: Cell/partition ratio Example: engraving with 100 L/cm means that the cell width is 100 p. If the engraving is designed in such a way here that the partition width is 50 p, then the opening width is also 50 yp. In this case the cell/partition ratio is said to be 1:1 If the partition width is 10 1, the opening width is 90 p. The cell/partition ratio here is therefore 1:9. It is evident from this example that the relatively wide partition is not available for inking purposes when the cell/partitiori ratio is, for instance, 1:1. The drops of ink from the (in this case) 50 1 opening to the right and the left have to spread out across a non-inked partition width of 50 pon the stereo and/or the printing substrate. The general consequence of this is a relatively porous or unsteady print motif. The conclusion could therefore be drawn that a minimum partition width is the optimum solution to guarantee consistent inking. There can be no doubt that this conclusion is right in theory. In practice, however, it must not be forgotten that the partition also has to take the entire mechanical strain. A compro- mise between theory and practice needs to be found here in each case, depending on the number of lines per cm, the required volume, the application area etc. A mininium partition width has to be provided in general, in order to give the partition the necessary mechanical stability, The partition width and/or the opening width also give an indication of the optimum engraving depth. In the Anglo-Saxon countries, a ratio of depth to opening is even quoted separately here. This information is in actual fact already included in the data about the number of lines per cm, the cell/partition ratio and the depth. The cell/partition ratio can be ascertained effectively with conventionally manufactured. anilox rollers thanks to the uniform geometry involved. The partition is not produced so evenly in the laser engraving of anilox rollers, so that a percentage calculation of the cell opening is more exact. Determination of the percentage cell opening does, however, involve the use of more sophisticated measuring technology - microscopy and image processing. 3.6.1.2.6 Volume The aim of all the engraving specifications described above is to make the required volume and as a result the necessary amount of ink available for the printing job: Since the central function of an anilox roller is to be a storage medium, one is often tempted to focus primarily on the volume that is provided. This is legitimate, but it should not be overlooked as a result that the ink transfer properties on the one hand and the volume itself on the other are a function of all the above- mentioned engraving specifications Due to the shape of the cells, a space is created below the partition support that is available to hold ink. Cells with the same number of lines per cm and the same volume may have a different cell shape. Different emptying properties are the consequence. The request that is often made for information about the volume that is in fact emptied can only be answered very unsatisfactorily 357‘The emptying properties and the ink transfer properties are determined not only by the shape of the cells but also by such parameters as ink viscosity, acceptance of the ink by the printing plate and printing substrate, pressure that de- velops in printing etc. This list could be continued and it is obvious that all the parameters need to be co-ordinated in order to achieve a standardised printing process. Volume data represent one indicator for orientation purposes and reveal the fundamental capacity of the engraving. Volume is expressed in cubic centimetres per square metre (cm3/m2). If the specific density is disregarded, cm*/m? can be converted as follows 1 cm’/cm? = 1 player, in relation to one square metre. This is an interesting piece of information, because it indicates a way to characterise an ink layer thickness of 1 In Anglo-Saxon countries volume is quoted in billion cubic microns BCM (1 BCM = 1.55 mien). 3.6.1.3 Anilox roller designs The very wide area of application for anilox rollers in various types of machine makes it necessary for many different roller designs to be used. Since a roller always rotates, the requirements on runout (often quoted as TIR = Total Indicated Runout), parallelism and balanced operation are very high in every case. In addition to the basic stability of the roller, the mechanical requirements are becoming more and more important, particularly as a result of the higher running speeds of printing machines nowadays. Avoiding and damping the effects of oscillation are crucial for good printing quality. The weight of an anilox roller also plays a prominent role and has led to a trend away from solid-core rollers. In relation to the weight of the roller body, it is possible to distinguish the following categories: © Solid-core steel roller The neck and the body are produced from a single piece of material © Stel tube roller The body and the neck are produced sepa- 58 rately. The neck is shrunk, glued or welded to the body. It is advisable to use extremely high-quality steel grades - even VA steel - to provide protection against corrosion. © Lightweight steel The thickness of the steel tubing is reduced toa minimum, taking the mechanical stability requirements into account @ Lightweight aluminium An aluminium tube is used instead of a steel tube. The neck continues to be made of steel. In most cases the neck is simply glued into the tube. Aluminium should be given particularly thorough corrosion protection. © Lightweight carbon fibre reinforced plastics The body is made from a carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP). Extremely low weight and oscillation-damping properties are advantages of this material. The fact that it is still very expensive today is a disadvantage. The steel necks are glued in this case too. © Flanged rollers The necks are generally bonded to the roller body and cannot be separated from them. Itis rarer for rollers to be designed in such a way that the neck is flanged to the roller body via a screw connection Depending on the printing unit design, this can be an appropriate way to permit the anilox rollers to be exchanged. © Anilox rollers as sleeves The use of anilox roller sleeves has proved to be a popular and successful solution over the past few years. Although different requirements have to be made on a plate support sleeve by comparison with an anilox roller sleeve, they are based on the same concept and have similar advantages. They can be changed quickly, which enables the printer not only to shorten make-ready times but also to respond flexibly to the demands of the colour profile needed in any individual case. The anilox roller sleeve has a ceramic coating on the outside, to which the engraving is then applied. As far as the engraving is concerned, there is no difference from a conventional anilox roller. However, it only makes sense to use such a sleeve concept if the print-ing unit is also designed in an appropriate way to make it possible to take advantage of the benefits of shorter make-ready times. 3.6.1.4 Types of anilox rollers 3.6.1.4.1 Chromium-faced anilox rollers 3.6.1.4,1.1 Structure ‘A distinction between two fundamental types can be made in the production of anilox rollers. The difference is in the material used for the engraved anilox roller surface. A different engraving process has to be used for them due to the differences in the properties of the surface material The chromium-faced anilox roller can be considered the original type of anilox roller. Roller surfaces that were simply blasted and/or roughened were initially used fora rotary relief printing process. Since this solution was not effective enough to guarantee controlled, ho- mogeneous ink transfer, an idea was borrowed from gravure printing cylinders In order to obtain a roller surface that is suitable for regular engraving, the unprocessed roller is giving a copper surface by electroplating. Copper has the characteristic that it is ductile (= formable) and can be treated effectively by electroplating to provide the necessary hardness and crystallinity as well This copper-plated surface is then engraved. Since copper is a relatively soft material, a chromium-facing operation is carried out after engraving to increase the resistance of the surface to wear. The term "chromium-faced roller" is therefore attributable to the external layer that is applied to the outside at the end. What is actually engraved is, however, the copper surface, so that the term ‘copper roller" would be just as accurate. The quality of a chromium-faced roller is determined not only by the engraving but also and above all by the surface properties of the external layers. Chromium is not just a hard- wearing material; it is also a material that is eminently suitable in view of its ink transfer properties too. A chromium facing can be applied by electroplating in different qualities. Alongside standard chromium facing for protective purposes, there is also what is known as "double- hard" chromium facing that has the advantage of being extremely dense and compact. This in particular adds corrosion protection to the existing characteristic of resistance to wear. When we are talking about wear and tear, it is interesting to note that the wear which occurs is generally more a displacement of the chromium layer rather than abrasion of it. To improve the situation here, processes have been developed in which nickel-silicon carbides are incorporated in the chromium layer. These carbides are very hard, non-wearing crystals which prevent displacement of the chromium considerably and therefore increase resistance to wear. Although the chromium facing provides protection against wear, it should not be forgotten that the substructure made from copper is a relatively soft material and is sensitive to denting. Printing damage, e.g. because of hardened rubber rollers and dry ink, can be caused by this. Regular upkeep and cleaning of all surfaces is necessary for this reason as well. Contaminants in the ink system should be avoided for the same reason. Metal or dried ink particles and dust in the ink circulation system scratch the surface continuously and can lead to the formation of doctor blade streaks Chromium-fced anilox rollers have proved to be successful in squeeze printing units operating by the 3-roller system for decades now and still represent an optimum solution today. The limitations of chromium as a material are, however, revealed when a chromium- faced surface is combined with a doctor blade to level the ink film. Considerable wear is the consequence and the useful life of the chromium-faced roller is shortened. The conventional engraving methods relate solely to the chromium-faced roller. When the unprocessed roller has been produced from steel, this core is given a copper surface. This copper layer is now engraved using one of the following processes. When the engraving operation has been successfully completed, a chromium facing is applied for protective purposes, which explains why we talk about chromium-faced anilox rollers. 593.6.1.4.1.2 Types - production 3.6.1.4.1.2.1 Grooving The most commonly used engraving process is known as grooving. A grooving tool has to be produced here first ofall Itis a knurled tool, with the engraving pattern incorporated in the surface. The grooving tool is rolled over the copper surface under high pressure and the engraving pattern is im- pressed in the copper. A special grooving tool has to be produced from hardened steel for every engraving pattern in this process. Very coarse screens of e.g. 1 or 2 Liem can also be produced with one of these grooving tools 3.6.1.4.1.2.2 Electronically controlled engraving A diamond tool is used in electronic engraving. An industrial diamond is ground in accordance with the required pyramid shape and is then attached to a tool. This diamond is now re- sponsible for giving the cell its fundamental form. Every single cell is produced individually by this diamond using an appropriately designed electronic control system. This means that very high levels of precision and repetition accuracy can be reached. The advantage of this process is that the parameters of engraving depth and cell/partition ratio can be influenced very precisely via the electronic control system. The mechanical capacity of the diamond is in addition sufficient even for steep side angles, so that it is possible to optimise volume in the case of fine engraving patterns. 3.6.1.4.1.2.3 Others Processes that need to be mentioned in this "Others" section are used in the production of gravure printing cylinders too, They are on the one hand the process for etching the copper surface and on the other hand engraving with a heliostat. The heliostat also uses a diamond tool, although it is handled differently. In electronic engraving the diamond hits the surface vertically and the cells are produced by dis- placing and compressing the material. On the heliostat, the diamond makes an oscillating 60 movement and cuts the cells out. This is easy to identify in the engraving pattern from the curved shape of the cell structure. This oscillating system was developed for the modula- tion of image information on gravure printing cylinders, but is only suitable for anilox rollers toa limited extent. Both of these processes (etching and heliostat) tend to be uncommon in the production of anilox rollers. To complete the picture, mention should also be made of the sandblasting of roller surfaces. What is involved here is, however, surface roughening rather than a controlled engraving process. 3.6.1.4.2. rollers Laser engraved ceramic anilox 3.6.1.4.2.1 History and development of ceramic anilox rollers The short inking unit - as known in the printing industry for example for newspaper anilox offset printing - can produce an ink coat thickness on the substrate from 0.5 pm to a few um. In conventional offset printing this is achieved by quite a number of ink distributing rollers. In flexoprinting this can only be achieved by the anilox roller. Therefore, the anilox roller must meet rigid requirements regarding precision When looking at the development of flexo printing one can say that mechanically engraved chrome rollers were a big step forward as regards controlled ink transfer. By varying cylinders it was possible to produce different volumes. However, doctoring of chromium rollers lead to a fast wear out, so that consistent ink transfer over long periods of time was not possible. Therefore the industry looked for a surface that was as wear-resistant as possible. It was the mechanical properties of ceramic coat ings that induced Union Carbide at the end of the 70s to introduce ceramic rollers into the market. In 1982 the company started with the industrial manufacture of these rollers. In the meantime, ceramic anilox rollers have reached great acceptance in those fields where - on account of high quality printing, varnishing or coating processes - an exact transfer of media

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