FertilizerResearch 40: 149-154, 1995.

149
@ 1995KluwerAcademicPublishers. PrintedintheNetherlands.

H u m a n urine - Chemical composition and fertilizer use efficiency

H. K i r c h m a n n & S. P e t t e r s s o n
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Soil Sciences, Box 7014, S-75007 Uppsala, Sweden

Received26 September1994;acceptedin revisedform23 January1995

Key words: heavy metals, ionic composition, ~SN- and 32P-tracer, plant nutrients, pot experiment

Abstract

Stored human urine had pH values of 8.9 and was composed of eight main ionic species (> 0.1 meq L - 2), the cations
Na, K, NH4, Ca and the anions, C1, SO4, PO4 and HCO3. Nitrogen was mainly (> 90%) present as ammoniacal
N, with ammonium bicarbonate being the dominant compound. Urea and urate decomposed during storage. Heavy
metal concentrations in urine samples were low compared with other organic fertilizers, but copper, mercury, nickel
and zinc were 10-500 times higher in urine than in precipitation and surface waters. In a pot experiment with 15N
labelled human urine, higher gaseous losses and lower crop uptake (barley) of urine N than of labelled ammonium
nitrate were found. Phosphorus present in urine was utilized at a higher rate than soluble phosphate, showing that
urine P is at least as available to crops as soluble P fertilizers.

Introduction of toilets have two outflows using only 0.2-0.8 L of

There is no literature available on the use of human
urine as a fertilizer, only on human urine in combi-
nation with faeces. Physiological measurements indi-
cate that the amounts of plant nutrients excreted via
urine per person and year (2.5-4.3 kg nitrogen, 0.7-
1.0 kg phosphorus and 0.9-1.0 kg potassium) are
larger than the amounts excreted via faeces (0.5-0.7
kg nitrogen, 0.3-0.5 kg phosphorus and 0.1-0.2 kg
potassium), (Geigy Scientific tables, 1981; Guyton,
1986; Hallmann, 1960; Kungl. v~ig- och vattenbyg-
gnadsstyrelsen, 1966; Rydberg et al., 1922). Thus,
separation of urine means that 60-90% of the plant
nutrients N, P and K ingested can be retrieved in solu-
tion. Faeces containing both carbon compounds from
food residues, bacteria and nutrients (Geigy Scientific
Tables, 1981) are not suitable for direct field applica-
tion due to disease-carrying properties.
The current sewage treatment allows a potential
recirculation of 16% N, 5% K and 90% P present
in wastewater to agricultural fields via sewage sludge
(Kirchmann and Witter, 1991). The aim to increase the
recirculation of N and K present in sewage water to
agricultural land has led to the construction of urine-
and faeces-separating toilet models. These new types
water flushing urine and ca. 2 L of water flushing fae-
ces. Urine and faeces are transported in different pipes
and stored in separate tanks, thereby avoiding dilution
and mixing with other household wastewater (bath,
dishwash, laundry etc.). As about 20% of all house-
holds in Sweden are not connected to a sewage plant
(SNV, 1980), on-site treatment of wastewater followed
by on-site infiltration in soil is still an important sys-
tem. For these households an alternative method could
be to restrict infiltration to bath, dishwash and laundry
wastewater and store separated toilet effluents prior to
collection and recirculation to agricultural land. The
vision is to treat faecal effluents anaerobically after
collection for biogas production but apply collected
human urine without further treatment on agricultural
land.
The question whether the use of human urine on
agricultural land is suitable is one of the key questions
in a system as outlined above. Different aspects related
to the use of human urine on agricultural fields, such as
hygienical and toxicological as well as the agronomic
value, need to be investigated. In this paper, the chem-
ical composition and the N and P fertilizer value of
human urine separated in toilets is presented.
150
Materials and methods
Human urine
Human urine was derived from the ecological vil-
lage Akesta near V~ister~isand the County High-school
Stensund near Trosa. At/~kesta, urine was collected
from a closed septic tank which was used by five house-
holds. At the time of sampling, urine had been stored
for a maximum of 3 months. At Stensund, stored urine
was collected from a closed septic tank to which one
urine-separating toilet was connected, but which had
been out of use for the last six months. The urine in the
septic tanks was stirred before sampling, transported in
air-tight containers and kept at low temperature prior
to analysis and use.
Chemical analysis
Electrical conductivity, pH, redox potential and chlo-
ride concentration were determined electrochemical-
ly using specific probes (Table 1). Total nitrogen
was determined on a macro-Kjeldahl apparatus (Teca-
tor, Sweden) and urea according to Bremner (1982).
Ammoniacal nitrogen, nitrite and nitrate nitrogen were
determined by colorimetric methods (Keeney and Nel-
son, 1982) on an autoanalyser (TrAAcs, Germany).
The distribution of ammonium ions and ammonia in
urine was calculated from the total ammoniacal con-
centration [Na], using the dissociation constant k, and
the actual pH values, [NH3,aq] ** k [Na]/[H +] + k.
Uric acid including protein-N was analyzed by a col-
orimetric procedure (Marquardt, 1983). The elemental
composition was analyzed on an inductively coupled
plasma apparatus (Perkin Elmer, Plasma II, Germany)
and the heavy metal concentrations through atomic
absorption (Perkin Elmer 5000) after digestion with
concentrated nitric acid. The urine pH buffer capacity
was determined through titration with acid of known
concentration and pH recording. Two replicates per
sample were analyzed, showing very close agreement
in all analyses.
Crop and soil samples were analyzed for total N
and 15N on an automated nitrogen and carbon analyzer-
mass spectrometer (Europa Scientific, UK). Pelletized
crop samples were analyzed on 32p using a GM counter
(Landis-Gyr, Switzerland). Total P in crops was deter-
mined as described above for urine.
Pot experiments
In two pot experiments the uptake of N and P from
urine was determined using one type of urine (Sten-
sund) only. Ammoniacal urine N was labelled with a
small amount of lSN-labelled ammonium sulfate with
a high atom % (99.3%), resulting in a final enrichment
of 5.937 atom % in the urine applied. 15NH415NO3
(5.846 atom %) was used as a standard of compari-
son. Labelled urine and labelled fertilizer was applied
at two rates, 1.388 g and 2.776 g total N per pot. In
the other pot experiment, the soil was labelled with
carrier-free 32p, activity 12.3 MBq per pot, left for one
week, after which unlabelled urine and dipotassium
hydrogen phosphate were applied at a rate of 0.200 g P
per pot. Nutrient solutions based on the ionic species of
urine, one without N and another without P, prepared
from inorganic salts and taking into account all species
present in urine except heavy metals, were used as con-
trols. Pots (Kick-Brauckmann) were filled with 8.50 kg
Pustn~ts soil (sandy topsoil of a Typic Udipsamment,
92% sand, 6% silt, 2% clay, pH 6.2, 1.45% organ-
ic C, 0.12% total N), forty seeds of barley (Hordeum
vulgare L. variety Fillipa) were sown on May 10 and
crops were harvested on July 6, 65 days after sowing.
Four replicates per treatment were run.
Calculations
Nitrogen data were subjected to analysis of vari-
ance using the procedure ANOVA within the Sta-
tistical Analysis System (SAS, 1985). Nitrogen bal-
ances including plant uptake, remaining amounts in
soil and gaseous losses were based on calculation of
15N atom% excess. The agronomic evaluation of urine
P was based on indirect labelling of the soil with 32p
(Fried, 1954).
Results and discussion
Nitrogen composition
Total nitrogen concentrations varied between 1.79 and
2.61 g L -1 of which 95% was present as ammoniacal
nitrogen (Table 2). The high pH values of 8.9 result in
ca 30% of the ammoniacal N being present as dissolved
ammonia. However, no urea or uric acid was detected
in any of the samples, indicating that complete decom-
position had occurred since excretion. Only traces of
 151

Table 1. Some characteristic properties of human urine separated in toilets and

derived from septic tanks

Origin Dilution Conduc- Redox

and urine:water Colour pH tivity potential
storage (mS cm -2) (mV)

.X.kesta 1:2 brownish- 8.96 13.4 - 90

(0-3 months) yellow
Stensund 1:2 yellowish- 8.90 19.0 +236
(6 months) brown

Table 2. Nitrogen composition of human urine separated in toilets. Figures in parentheses show the percentage
distribution

Origin Total N NH+ -N NH3,aq -N Amino acid -N NO3 -N NO~- -N

(g L -1) (#g L -1 )

]tkesta 1.795 (100) 1.117(62.2) 0.574 (31.9) 0.104 (5.8) 45 (0.002) 10 (0.001)
Stensund 2.610 (100) 1.726(66.1) 0.773 (29.6) 0.110 (4.2) 45 (0.002) 20 (0.0007)

nitrite and nitrate were detected. The remaining part of
the nitrogen (5%) was identified as amino acid-N.
In undiluted fresh human urine the total N con-
centration ranges from 7-9 g L -1 (Guyton, 1986), in
which the sum of urea-N, ammonia and uric acid-N
amounts to 90-95% of the total N. Urea is the main
nitrogenous compound, amounting to 85% and the
concentration of total amino acid N varies between
1-5% (Geigy Scientific Tables, 1981). Fresh normal
urine has a slightly acid reaction and uric acid and
urate are sparingly insoluble. However, at an alkaline
reaction, which was caused by the decomposition of
urea during storage, urate and uric acid became readily
soluble and could therefore be decomposed.
Total elemental composition and buffer capacity
The elemental analyses given in Table 3 show that
besides nitrogen, the following elements were found,
chlorine 2.3-2.5 g L-2, potassium 0.9-1.1 g L -1 , sodi-
um 0.94--0.98 g L -1, phosphorus 0.20-0.21 g L -1,
and sulfur 0.17-0.22 g L - l . Calcium and magnesium
were present at lower concentrations, amounting to
13-16 mg Ca L -1 and 1.5-1.6 mg Mg L -1. Plant
micro-nutrients, i.e. copper, zinc, iron and boron, were
present at levels of micrograms per liter. No manganese
was detected. Aluminum concentrations were similar
to those of the micro-nutrients. The high concentra-
tions of chlorine and sodium found in human urine
are also typical of cow and pig urine (Kemppainen,
1989).
The equivalent concentrations of the ionic species
with concentrations greater than 0.1 meq L -1 are
summarized in Table 4, showing that 8 ionic species
determined the gross ionic composition. The cation-
ic species were sodium, potassium, ammonium and
calcium and the anionic species were chloride, sul-
fate, phosphate and bicarbonate. Cations that can form
strong bases (sodium, potassium) were completely bal-
anced by anions forming strong acids and the ammo-
nium ion was mainly balanced by bicarbonate. This
indicated that the alkaline reaction was caused by the
decomposition of urea to ammoniacal nitrogen and
bicarbonate.
The pH-acid titration curves for urine are shown
in Figure 1. The buffer capacity for urine decreased
curvelinearly between the initial pH and pH values of
6.5. Below pH 6.5 and 5.5 the buffer capacity was
approximately linear. To reach the pH of 7.0, amounts
of 39 and 63 #eq acid mL -1 urine needed to be added
being equivalent to 13 and 21 #tool acid m L - i undilut-
ed urine. Assuming that 350 L urine are produced per
person and year (Geigy Scientific Tables, 1981) and an
acidification to pH 7 is required, then about 7 eq acid
need to be added, being approximately equivalent with
1 L of concentrated sulfuric acid.
152

Table 3. Elementalcompositionof humanurine separated in toilets and derived from septic tanks

Origin P K S Na C1 Ca Mg Mn Fe B A1
(gL -1) (mgL -1)

~kkesta 0.210 0.875 0.225 0.982 2.500 15.75 1.630 0.000 0.205 0.435 0.210
Stensund 0.200 1.150 0.175 0.938 2.235 13.34 1.500 0.000 0.165 0.440 0.185

pH Table 5. Heavymetalconcentrationsmeasuredin humanurine from

9.0- separatingtoilets comparedwith concentrationsin precipitationand
surface waters

Surface
8.0-
Urine from Urine from Precipitationa watersb
Metal .~kesta Stensund (min-max) (median)

~ ~~tensund
7.0- (/~gL-1)

Cadmium(Cd) 0.2 0.2 0.03-0.14 0.01

6.0- Chromium (Cr) 2.0 4.0 n.d. 0.2
Cobalt (Co) 1.0 12.0 n.d. 0.4
. . . . . . . . . ~k?ta Copper (Cu) 155 155 0.5-1.9 1.5
5.0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Mercury (Hg) 0.55 0.44 n.d. 0.001
gmol [H+I ml"I urine Nickel (Ni) 15 227 n.d. 0.5
Lead (Pb) 2.0 2.0 1.8-8.1 0.2
Fig. 1. The effect of HC1 additionon urine pH
Zinc (Zn) 110 70 4-16 5.0

Table 4. Equivalent concentrationsand balance of the main

ionic species in human urine separated in toilets and derived a from SNV (1987);
from septictanks bfrom SNV (1993);
n.d = not determined.
Ion species Urine (h&esta) Urine(Stensund)
(meq L- 1)
1977) or garden-produced composts (Kirchmann and
Cations
Wid6n, 1994). However, compared with precipitation
Na 42.73 40.80
(SNV, 1987) and surface waters (1990), concentrations
K 22.30 29.40
of copper, mercury and nickel were 100-500 times
NI-h 79.78 123.30
Ca 0.20 0.17 higher and those of cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead
Total cations 145.01 193.67 and zinc about 10 times higher, in urine. Thus, appli-
cation of urine according to agronomic practices will
Anions not result in increased heavy metal levels in soil.
C1 70.52 63.04
SO4 3.51 2.73 Urine nitrogen utilization
HPO4 3.39 3.23
Total anions 77.42 69.00 Nitrogen in stored urine was mainly present in the
form of ammoniacal N with bicarbonate as the main
Balancedby HCO3 67.59 124.67 anion (Table 5). With respect to nitrogen, stored human
urine is an ammonium bicarbonate solution. The pot
experiment with 15N-labelled urine showed that urine
N was less effective than labelled a m m o n i u m nitrate
H e a v y metal contents (figures given in Table 6) with a crop uptake of 42% for
urine compared with 53% for a m m o n i u m nitrate. The
The heavy metal concentrations found in urine (Table balance sheet indicated about 6 - 7 % gaseous losses in
4) were 50-1000 times lower than in soils (Andersson,
 153

Table 6. Crop uptake of labelledurine nitrogenby barley (floweringstage) and balance sheet in a pot
experiment. Means and standard deviationof four replicatepots

Treatment Total Labelled Soil Crop Soil Gaseous

and rate N N N uptake recovery losses
Harvested N, mg pot-1 % of labelledN

No-N, nutrientsolution 692+26az 0 692

15N-urine, 1.388 gN 1153+12c 5844-13a 569 42 514-10 a 7
15N-urine,2.776 g N 9404-54 b 6104-41a 330 22 724-10ab 6
15NH4 15NO3, 1.388 g N 12444-38c 7354-33b 508 53 474-6 a 0
15NH4 15NO3, 2.776 g N 1106-4-98bc 7774-79b 329 28 70-t-13 b 2

ZTukeygrouping. Differentletters indicatesignificantdifferenceat the 0.0001 probabilitylevel.

Table 7. Phosphorusutilizationof urine P compared with a soluble
phosphorus source. Means of four replicates and standarddeviation
Treatment Activityin crops P derived from
(cpm32pmg-I p) fertilizer(%)
No-R nutrient solution,32p 12184-36
K2HPO4, nutrient solution,32p 11024-41 9.5
Urine, 32p 10704-9 12.2
the urine treatments but low losses in the ammonium
nitrate treatment. Decreasing uptake rates at higher
fertilizer levels in this pot experiment were due to a
too high N application rate.
A m m o n i u m bicarbonate is mainly used as a N fer-
tilizer in China with low crop uptake rates (10-30%)
if surface applied and with normal uptake rates (40-
70%) if deeply placed in the soil (Li and Chen, 1980).
Low utilization rates were shown to be the result of
high gaseous losses (Cai et al., 1986). Thus the pre-
vention of ammonia losses during storage and after soil
application is important aspect for an efficient use of
human urine.
Urine phosphorus utilization
The results of the quantitative comparison of urine
P with a soluble P source through indirect labelling
with 32p is given in Table 7. The amount of phos-
phorus in urine available to crops was 28% larger
than from dipotassium hydrogenphosphate (soluble P
source). This indicated that urine P is equivalent to
soluble P sources.
Conclusions
The main nitrogen source in stored urine is ammonia-
cal nitrogen, the ammonium being paired with bicar-
bonate. Urea and urate decompose during storage and
stored urine has a high pH value. Eight ionic species (>
0.1 meq L-1 determine the composition of urine, Na,
K, NH4, Ca, C1, PO4, 504 and HCO3. Heavy metal
contents are much lower than in solid wastes but high-
er than in rain and surface waters. The N fertilizer use
efficiency of urine is lower than of a m m o n i u m nitrate
due to larger gaseous N losses from urine. The P fertil-
izer use efficiency is higher than of soluble phosphorus.
Amounts of acid additions to urine to keep the pH at 7
are small enough to be relevant from a practical point
of view.
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