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FertilizerResearch 40: 149-154, 1995.

149
@ 1995KluwerAcademicPublishers. PrintedintheNetherlands.

H u m a n urine - Chemical composition and fertilizer use efficiency

H. K i r c h m a n n & S. P e t t e r s s o n
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Soil Sciences, Box 7014, S-75007 Uppsala, Sweden

Received26 September1994;acceptedin revisedform23 January1995

Key words: heavy metals, ionic composition, ~SN- and 32P-tracer, plant nutrients, pot experiment

Abstract

Stored human urine had pH values of 8.9 and was composed of eight main ionic species (> 0.1 meq L - 2), the cations
Na, K, NH4, Ca and the anions, C1, SO4, PO4 and HCO3. Nitrogen was mainly (> 90%) present as ammoniacal
N, with ammonium bicarbonate being the dominant compound. Urea and urate decomposed during storage. Heavy
metal concentrations in urine samples were low compared with other organic fertilizers, but copper, mercury, nickel
and zinc were 10-500 times higher in urine than in precipitation and surface waters. In a pot experiment with 15N
labelled human urine, higher gaseous losses and lower crop uptake (barley) of urine N than of labelled ammonium
nitrate were found. Phosphorus present in urine was utilized at a higher rate than soluble phosphate, showing that
urine P is at least as available to crops as soluble P fertilizers.

Introduction of toilets have two outflows using only 0.2-0.8 L of


water flushing urine and ca. 2 L of water flushing fae-
There is no literature available on the use of human ces. Urine and faeces are transported in different pipes
urine as a fertilizer, only on human urine in combi- and stored in separate tanks, thereby avoiding dilution
nation with faeces. Physiological measurements indi- and mixing with other household wastewater (bath,
cate that the amounts of plant nutrients excreted via dishwash, laundry etc.). As about 20% of all house-
urine per person and year (2.5-4.3 kg nitrogen, 0.7- holds in Sweden are not connected to a sewage plant
1.0 kg phosphorus and 0.9-1.0 kg potassium) are (SNV, 1980), on-site treatment of wastewater followed
larger than the amounts excreted via faeces (0.5-0.7 by on-site infiltration in soil is still an important sys-
kg nitrogen, 0.3-0.5 kg phosphorus and 0.1-0.2 kg tem. For these households an alternative method could
potassium), (Geigy Scientific tables, 1981; Guyton, be to restrict infiltration to bath, dishwash and laundry
1986; Hallmann, 1960; Kungl. v~ig- och vattenbyg- wastewater and store separated toilet effluents prior to
gnadsstyrelsen, 1966; Rydberg et al., 1922). Thus, collection and recirculation to agricultural land. The
separation of urine means that 60-90% of the plant vision is to treat faecal effluents anaerobically after
nutrients N, P and K ingested can be retrieved in solu- collection for biogas production but apply collected
tion. Faeces containing both carbon compounds from human urine without further treatment on agricultural
food residues, bacteria and nutrients (Geigy Scientific land.
Tables, 1981) are not suitable for direct field applica- The question whether the use of human urine on
tion due to disease-carrying properties. agricultural land is suitable is one of the key questions
The current sewage treatment allows a potential in a system as outlined above. Different aspects related
recirculation of 16% N, 5% K and 90% P present to the use of human urine on agricultural fields, such as
in wastewater to agricultural fields via sewage sludge hygienical and toxicological as well as the agronomic
(Kirchmann and Witter, 1991). The aim to increase the value, need to be investigated. In this paper, the chem-
recirculation of N and K present in sewage water to ical composition and the N and P fertilizer value of
agricultural land has led to the construction of urine- human urine separated in toilets is presented.
and faeces-separating toilet models. These new types
150

Materials and methods Pot experiments

Human urine In two pot experiments the uptake of N and P from


urine was determined using one type of urine (Sten-
Human urine was derived from the ecological vil- sund) only. Ammoniacal urine N was labelled with a
lage Akesta near V~ister~isand the County High-school small amount of lSN-labelled ammonium sulfate with
Stensund near Trosa. At/~kesta, urine was collected a high atom % (99.3%), resulting in a final enrichment
from a closed septic tank which was used by five house- of 5.937 atom % in the urine applied. 15NH415NO3
holds. At the time of sampling, urine had been stored (5.846 atom %) was used as a standard of compari-
for a maximum of 3 months. At Stensund, stored urine son. Labelled urine and labelled fertilizer was applied
was collected from a closed septic tank to which one at two rates, 1.388 g and 2.776 g total N per pot. In
urine-separating toilet was connected, but which had the other pot experiment, the soil was labelled with
been out of use for the last six months. The urine in the carrier-free 32p, activity 12.3 MBq per pot, left for one
septic tanks was stirred before sampling, transported in week, after which unlabelled urine and dipotassium
air-tight containers and kept at low temperature prior hydrogen phosphate were applied at a rate of 0.200 g P
to analysis and use. per pot. Nutrient solutions based on the ionic species of
urine, one without N and another without P, prepared
Chemical analysis from inorganic salts and taking into account all species
present in urine except heavy metals, were used as con-
Electrical conductivity, pH, redox potential and chlo- trols. Pots (Kick-Brauckmann) were filled with 8.50 kg
ride concentration were determined electrochemical- Pustn~ts soil (sandy topsoil of a Typic Udipsamment,
ly using specific probes (Table 1). Total nitrogen 92% sand, 6% silt, 2% clay, pH 6.2, 1.45% organ-
was determined on a macro-Kjeldahl apparatus (Teca- ic C, 0.12% total N), forty seeds of barley (Hordeum
tor, Sweden) and urea according to Bremner (1982). vulgare L. variety Fillipa) were sown on May 10 and
Ammoniacal nitrogen, nitrite and nitrate nitrogen were crops were harvested on July 6, 65 days after sowing.
determined by colorimetric methods (Keeney and Nel- Four replicates per treatment were run.
son, 1982) on an autoanalyser (TrAAcs, Germany).
The distribution of ammonium ions and ammonia in Calculations
urine was calculated from the total ammoniacal con-
centration [Na], using the dissociation constant k, and Nitrogen data were subjected to analysis of vari-
the actual pH values, [NH3,aq] ** k [Na]/[H +] + k. ance using the procedure ANOVA within the Sta-
Uric acid including protein-N was analyzed by a col- tistical Analysis System (SAS, 1985). Nitrogen bal-
orimetric procedure (Marquardt, 1983). The elemental ances including plant uptake, remaining amounts in
composition was analyzed on an inductively coupled soil and gaseous losses were based on calculation of
plasma apparatus (Perkin Elmer, Plasma II, Germany) 15N atom% excess. The agronomic evaluation of urine
and the heavy metal concentrations through atomic P was based on indirect labelling of the soil with 32p
absorption (Perkin Elmer 5000) after digestion with (Fried, 1954).
concentrated nitric acid. The urine pH buffer capacity
was determined through titration with acid of known
concentration and pH recording. Two replicates per Results and discussion
sample were analyzed, showing very close agreement
in all analyses. Nitrogen composition
Crop and soil samples were analyzed for total N
and 15N on an automated nitrogen and carbon analyzer- Total nitrogen concentrations varied between 1.79 and
mass spectrometer (Europa Scientific, UK). Pelletized 2.61 g L -1 of which 95% was present as ammoniacal
crop samples were analyzed on 32p using a GM counter nitrogen (Table 2). The high pH values of 8.9 result in
(Landis-Gyr, Switzerland). Total P in crops was deter- ca 30% of the ammoniacal N being present as dissolved
mined as described above for urine. ammonia. However, no urea or uric acid was detected
in any of the samples, indicating that complete decom-
position had occurred since excretion. Only traces of
151

Table 1. Some characteristic properties of human urine separated in toilets and


derived from septic tanks

Origin Dilution Conduc- Redox


and urine:water Colour pH tivity potential
storage (mS cm -2) (mV)

.X.kesta 1:2 brownish- 8.96 13.4 - 90


(0-3 months) yellow
Stensund 1:2 yellowish- 8.90 19.0 +236
(6 months) brown

Table 2. Nitrogen composition of human urine separated in toilets. Figures in parentheses show the percentage
distribution

Origin Total N NH+ -N NH3,aq -N Amino acid -N NO3 -N NO~- -N


(g L -1) (#g L -1 )

]tkesta 1.795 (100) 1.117(62.2) 0.574 (31.9) 0.104 (5.8) 45 (0.002) 10 (0.001)
Stensund 2.610 (100) 1.726(66.1) 0.773 (29.6) 0.110 (4.2) 45 (0.002) 20 (0.0007)

nitrite and nitrate were detected. The remaining part of tions of chlorine and sodium found in human urine
the nitrogen (5%) was identified as amino acid-N. are also typical of cow and pig urine (Kemppainen,
In undiluted fresh human urine the total N con- 1989).
centration ranges from 7-9 g L -1 (Guyton, 1986), in The equivalent concentrations of the ionic species
which the sum of urea-N, ammonia and uric acid-N with concentrations greater than 0.1 meq L -1 are
amounts to 90-95% of the total N. Urea is the main summarized in Table 4, showing that 8 ionic species
nitrogenous compound, amounting to 85% and the determined the gross ionic composition. The cation-
concentration of total amino acid N varies between ic species were sodium, potassium, ammonium and
1-5% (Geigy Scientific Tables, 1981). Fresh normal calcium and the anionic species were chloride, sul-
urine has a slightly acid reaction and uric acid and fate, phosphate and bicarbonate. Cations that can form
urate are sparingly insoluble. However, at an alkaline strong bases (sodium, potassium) were completely bal-
reaction, which was caused by the decomposition of anced by anions forming strong acids and the ammo-
urea during storage, urate and uric acid became readily nium ion was mainly balanced by bicarbonate. This
soluble and could therefore be decomposed. indicated that the alkaline reaction was caused by the
decomposition of urea to ammoniacal nitrogen and
Total elemental composition and buffer capacity bicarbonate.
The pH-acid titration curves for urine are shown
The elemental analyses given in Table 3 show that in Figure 1. The buffer capacity for urine decreased
besides nitrogen, the following elements were found, curvelinearly between the initial pH and pH values of
chlorine 2.3-2.5 g L-2, potassium 0.9-1.1 g L -1 , sodi- 6.5. Below pH 6.5 and 5.5 the buffer capacity was
um 0.94--0.98 g L -1, phosphorus 0.20-0.21 g L -1, approximately linear. To reach the pH of 7.0, amounts
and sulfur 0.17-0.22 g L - l . Calcium and magnesium of 39 and 63 #eq acid mL -1 urine needed to be added
were present at lower concentrations, amounting to being equivalent to 13 and 21 #tool acid m L - i undilut-
13-16 mg Ca L -1 and 1.5-1.6 mg Mg L -1. Plant ed urine. Assuming that 350 L urine are produced per
micro-nutrients, i.e. copper, zinc, iron and boron, were person and year (Geigy Scientific Tables, 1981) and an
present at levels of micrograms per liter. No manganese acidification to pH 7 is required, then about 7 eq acid
was detected. Aluminum concentrations were similar need to be added, being approximately equivalent with
to those of the micro-nutrients. The high concentra- 1 L of concentrated sulfuric acid.
152

Table 3. Elementalcompositionof humanurine separated in toilets and derived from septic tanks

Origin P K S Na C1 Ca Mg Mn Fe B A1
(gL -1) (mgL -1)

~kkesta 0.210 0.875 0.225 0.982 2.500 15.75 1.630 0.000 0.205 0.435 0.210
Stensund 0.200 1.150 0.175 0.938 2.235 13.34 1.500 0.000 0.165 0.440 0.185

pH Table 5. Heavymetalconcentrationsmeasuredin humanurine from


9.0- separatingtoilets comparedwith concentrationsin precipitationand
surface waters

Surface
8.0-
Urine from Urine from Precipitationa watersb
Metal .~kesta Stensund (min-max) (median)

~ ~~tensund
7.0- (/~gL-1)

Cadmium(Cd) 0.2 0.2 0.03-0.14 0.01


6.0- Chromium (Cr) 2.0 4.0 n.d. 0.2
Cobalt (Co) 1.0 12.0 n.d. 0.4
. . . . . . . . . ~k?ta Copper (Cu) 155 155 0.5-1.9 1.5
5.0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Mercury (Hg) 0.55 0.44 n.d. 0.001
gmol [H+I ml"I urine Nickel (Ni) 15 227 n.d. 0.5
Lead (Pb) 2.0 2.0 1.8-8.1 0.2
Fig. 1. The effect of HC1 additionon urine pH
Zinc (Zn) 110 70 4-16 5.0

Table 4. Equivalent concentrationsand balance of the main


ionic species in human urine separated in toilets and derived a from SNV (1987);
from septictanks bfrom SNV (1993);
n.d = not determined.
Ion species Urine (h&esta) Urine(Stensund)
(meq L- 1)
1977) or garden-produced composts (Kirchmann and
Cations
Wid6n, 1994). However, compared with precipitation
Na 42.73 40.80
(SNV, 1987) and surface waters (1990), concentrations
K 22.30 29.40
of copper, mercury and nickel were 100-500 times
NI-h 79.78 123.30
Ca 0.20 0.17 higher and those of cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead
Total cations 145.01 193.67 and zinc about 10 times higher, in urine. Thus, appli-
cation of urine according to agronomic practices will
Anions not result in increased heavy metal levels in soil.
C1 70.52 63.04
SO4 3.51 2.73 Urine nitrogen utilization
HPO4 3.39 3.23
Total anions 77.42 69.00 Nitrogen in stored urine was mainly present in the
form of ammoniacal N with bicarbonate as the main
Balancedby HCO3 67.59 124.67 anion (Table 5). With respect to nitrogen, stored human
urine is an ammonium bicarbonate solution. The pot
experiment with 15N-labelled urine showed that urine
N was less effective than labelled a m m o n i u m nitrate
H e a v y metal contents (figures given in Table 6) with a crop uptake of 42% for
urine compared with 53% for a m m o n i u m nitrate. The
The heavy metal concentrations found in urine (Table balance sheet indicated about 6 - 7 % gaseous losses in
4) were 50-1000 times lower than in soils (Andersson,
153

Table 6. Crop uptake of labelledurine nitrogenby barley (floweringstage) and balance sheet in a pot
experiment. Means and standard deviationof four replicatepots

Treatment Total Labelled Soil Crop Soil Gaseous


and rate N N N uptake recovery losses
Harvested N, mg pot-1 % of labelledN

No-N, nutrientsolution 692+26az 0 692


15N-urine, 1.388 gN 1153+12c 5844-13a 569 42 514-10 a 7
15N-urine,2.776 g N 9404-54 b 6104-41a 330 22 724-10ab 6
15NH4 15NO3, 1.388 g N 12444-38c 7354-33b 508 53 474-6 a 0
15NH4 15NO3, 2.776 g N 1106-4-98bc 7774-79b 329 28 70-t-13 b 2

ZTukeygrouping. Differentletters indicatesignificantdifferenceat the 0.0001 probabilitylevel.

Conclusions
Table 7. Phosphorusutilizationof urine P compared with a soluble
phosphorus source. Means of four replicates and standarddeviation
The main nitrogen source in stored urine is ammonia-
Treatment Activityin crops P derived from cal nitrogen, the ammonium being paired with bicar-
(cpm32pmg-I p) fertilizer(%) bonate. Urea and urate decompose during storage and
stored urine has a high pH value. Eight ionic species (>
No-R nutrient solution,32p 12184-36
0.1 meq L-1 determine the composition of urine, Na,
K2HPO4, nutrient solution,32p 11024-41 9.5
K, NH4, Ca, C1, PO4, 504 and HCO3. Heavy metal
Urine, 32p 10704-9 12.2
contents are much lower than in solid wastes but high-
er than in rain and surface waters. The N fertilizer use
efficiency of urine is lower than of a m m o n i u m nitrate
due to larger gaseous N losses from urine. The P fertil-
izer use efficiency is higher than of soluble phosphorus.
the urine treatments but low losses in the ammonium Amounts of acid additions to urine to keep the pH at 7
nitrate treatment. Decreasing uptake rates at higher are small enough to be relevant from a practical point
fertilizer levels in this pot experiment were due to a of view.
too high N application rate.
A m m o n i u m bicarbonate is mainly used as a N fer-
tilizer in China with low crop uptake rates (10-30%) References
if surface applied and with normal uptake rates (40-
70%) if deeply placed in the soil (Li and Chen, 1980). AnderssonA (1977) Heavymetals in Swedish soils: On their reten-
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Page AL et al. (eds) Methods of Soil Analysis,Part 2, 2nd edition,
source). This indicated that urine P is equivalent to
pp 643-698. AgronomySeries No. 9. Madison,Wisconsin
soluble P sources.
154

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