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Article 30 PDF
Article 30 PDF
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SE-1316 ARTICLE 30 — TERMINOLOGY SE-1316
1. Scope
1.1 This Standard defines the terminology used in
the standards prepared by the E-7 Committee on Nonde-
structive Testing. These nondestructive testing (NDT)
methods include: acoustic emission, electromagnetic
testing, gamma- and X-radiology, leak testing, liquid
penetrant examination, magnetic particle examination,
neutron radiology and gaging, ultrasonic examination,
and other technical methods.
1.2 Section 4 defines terms that are common to all
NDT methods, and the subsequent sections include
the terms pertaining to a specific NDT method. An
alphabetical list of the terms defined in this Standard
is given in Appendix Xl, which also identifies the
section in which each term is defined.
1.3 As shown on the chart below, when nondestructive E 494 Practice for Measuring Ultrasonic Velocity in Ma-
testing produces an indication, the indication is subject terials
to interpretation as false, nonrelevant, or relevant. If E 566 Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Sort-
it has been interpreted as relevant, the necessary subse- ing of Ferrous Metals
quent evaluation will result in the decision to accept E 664 Practice for Measurement of the Apparent Attenua-
or reject the material. With the exception of accept tion of Longitudinal Ultrasonic Waves by Immersion
and reject, which retain the meaning found in most Method
dictionaries, all the words used in the chart are defined E 750 Practice for Characterizing Acoustic Emission In-
in Section 4. strumentation
E 804 Practice for Calibration of the Ultrasonic Test
System by Extrapolation Between Flat-Bottom Hole
Sizes
2. Referenced Documents
E 1033 Practice for Electromagnetic (Eddy-Current) Ex-
2.1 ASTM Standards: amination of Type F- Continuously Welded (CW) Fer-
E 127 Practice for Fabricating and Checking Aluminum romagnetic Pipe and Tubing Above the Curie Temper-
Alloy Ultrasonic Standard Reference Blocks ature
E 215 Practice for Standardizing Equipment for Electro- E 1067 Practice for Acoustic Emission Examination of
magnetic Examination of Seamless Aluminum-Alloy Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Resin (FRP)
Tube Tanks /Vessels
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SE-1316 1998 SECTION V SE-1316
E 1118 Practice for Acoustic Emission Examination of ties, and composition; and to measure geometrical char-
Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipe (RTRP) acters
E 1213 Test Method for Minimum Resolvable Tempera- Nondestructive Evaluation — see Nondestructive
ture Difference for Thermal Imaging Systems Testing
Nondestructive Examination — see Nondestructive
Testing
3. Significance and Use Nondestructive Inspection — see Nondestructive Testing
3.1 The terms found in this proposed standard are nonrelevant indication — an NDT indication that is
intended to be used uniformly and consistently in all caused by a condition or type of discontinuity that is
nondestructive testing standards. The purpose of this not rejectable. False indications are nonrelevant.
standard is to promote a clear understanding and inter- relevant indication — an NDT indication that is caused
pretation of the NDT standards in which they are used. by a condition or type of discontinuity that requires
evaluation
standardization, instrument — the adjustment of an
4. Common NDT Terms instrument, prior to use, to an arbitrary reference value.
(See also calibration, instrument.)
calibration, instrument — the comparison of an instru-
ment with, or the adjustment of an instrument to, a
5. Acoustic Emission (E 750, E 1067, and E
known reference(s) often traceable to the National
1118)
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). (See
also standardization, instrument.) acoustic emission (AE) — the class of phenomena
defect — one or more flaws whose aggregate size, whereby transient elastic waves are generated by the
shape, orientation, location, or properties do not meet rapid release of energy from localized sources within
specified acceptance criteria and are rejectable a material, or the transient waves so generated. Acoustic
discontinuity — a lack of continuity or cohesion; an emission is the recommended term for general use.
intentional or unintentional interruption in the physical Other terms that have been used in AE literature include:
structure or configuration of a material or component (1) stress wave emission; (2) microseismic activity; and
(3) emission or acoustic emission with other qualifying
evaluation — a review, following interpretation of
modifiers.
the indications noted, to determine whether they meet
specified acceptance criteria acoustic emission channel — see channel, acoustic
emission
false indication — an NDT indication that is interpreted
to be caused by a discontinuity at a location where acoustic emission count (emission count) (N) — see
no discontinuity exists count, acoustic emission
flaw — an imperfection or discontinuity that may be acoustic emission count rate — see count rate, acoustic
detectable by nondestructive testing and is not necessar- emission (emission rate or count rate) (N)
ily rejectable acoustic emission event — see event, acoustic emission
flaw characterization — the process of quantifying acoustic emission event energy — see energy, acous-
the size, shape, orientation, location, growth, or other tic event
properties, of a flaw based on NDT response acoustic emission sensor — see sensor, acoustic
imperfection — a depature of a quality characteristic emission
from its intended condition acoustic emission signal amplitude — see signal ampli-
indication — evidence of a discontinuity that requires tude, acoustic emission
interpretation to determine its significance acoustic emission signal (emission signal) — see signal,
interpretation — the determination of whether indica- acoustic emission
tions are relevant or nonrelevant acoustic emission signature (signature) — see signature,
Nondestructive Testing (NDT) — the development and acoustic emission
application of technical methods to examine materials acoustic emission transducer — see sensor, acoustic
or components in ways that do not impair future emission
usefulness and serviceability in order to detect, locate, acoustic emission waveguide — see waveguide, acoustic
measure, and evaluate flaws; to assess integrity, proper- emission
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SE-1316 1998 SECTION V SE-1316
distribution, logarithmic (acoustic emission) amplitude with a system examination threshold lower than the
g(V) — the number of acoustic emission events with evaluation threshold. For analysis purposes, dependence
signal amplitudes between V and aV (where a is a of measured data on the system examination threshold
constant multiplier) as a function of the amplitude. This must be taken into consideration.
is a variant of the differential amplitude distribution, event, acoustic emission (emission event) — a local
appropriate for logarithmically windowed data. material change giving rise to acoustic emission
dynamic range — the difference, in decibels, between
event count (Ne) — see count, event
the overload level and the minimum signal level (usually
fixed by one or more of the noise levels, low-level event count rate (Ne) — see rate, event count
distortion, interference, or resolution level) in a system examination area — that portion of a structure being
or sensor monitored with acoustic emission
effective velocity — velocity calculated on the basis
examination region — that portion of the test article
of arrival times and propagation distances determined
evaluated using acoustic emission technology
by artificial AE generation; used for computed location
emission, burst — a qualitative description of the Felicity effect — the presence of acoustic emission,
discrete signal related to an individual emission event detectable at a fixed predetermined sensitivity level at
occurring within the material stress levels below those previously applied (E 1067)
Felicity effect — the presence of detectable acoustic
NOTE 2 — Use of the term burst emission is recommended only
for describing the qualitative appearance of emission signals. Figure emission at a fixed predetermined sensitivity level at
1 shows an oscilloscope trace of burst emission signals on a back- stress levels below those previously applied
ground of continuous emission.
Felicity ratio — the ratio of the stress at which the
emission, continuous — a qualitative description of the
Felicity effect occurs to the previously applied maximum
sustained signal level produced by rapidly occurring
stress (E 1067, E 1118)
acoustic emission events
NOTE 3 — Use of the term continuous emission is recommended NOTE 4 — The fixed sensitivity level will usually be the same as
only for describing the qualitative appearance of emission signals. was used for the previous loading or test. (E 1118)
Figures 2 and 3 show oscilloscope traces of continuous emission
signals at two different sweep rates. instrumentation dead time — see dead time, instrumen-
energy, acoustic emission event — the total elastic tation
energy released by an emission event first hit location — a zone location method defined
evaluation threshold — a threshold value used for by which channel among a group of channels first
analysis of the examination data. Data may be recorded detects the signal
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SE-1316 1998 SECTION V SE-1316
floating threshold — any threshold with amplitude logarithmic (acoustic emission) amplitude distribution
established by a time average measure of the input g(V) — see distribution, logarithmic (acoustic emission)
signal (E 750) amplitude
hit — any signal that exceeds the threshold and causes overload recovery time — an interval of nonlinear
a system channel to accumulate data (E 750) operation of an instrument caused by a signal with
interval, arrival time (Dtij) — the time interval between amplitude in excess of the instrument’s linear op-
the detected arrivals of an acoustic emission wave at erating range
the ith and jth sensors of a sensor array pressure, design — pressure used in design to determine
the required minimum thickness and minimum mechani-
Kaiser effect — the absence of detectable acoustic
cal properties
emission at a fixed sensitivity level, until previously
applied stress levels are exceeded processing capacity — the number of hits that can be
processed at the processing speed before the system
location accuracy — a value determined by comparison must interrupt data collection to clear buffers or other-
of the actual position of an AE source (or simulated wise prepare for accepting additional data
AE source) to the computed location
processing speed — the sustained rate (hits /s), as a
location, cluster — a location method based upon a function of the parameter set and number of active
specified amount of AE activity located within a speci- channels, at which AE signals can be continuously
fied area, for example: 5 events within 12 linear in. processed by a system without interruption for data
location, computed — a source location method based transport
on algorithmic analysis of the difference in arrival rate, event count (Ne) — the time rate of the event count
times among sensors rearm delay time — see time, rearm delay
DISCUSSION — Several approaches to computed location are used, ring-down count — see count, acoustic emission, the
including linear location, planar location, three dimensional location, preferred term
and adaptive location.
(a) linear location — one dimensional source location requiring
sensor, acoustic emission — a detection device, gener-
two or more channels. ally piezoelectric, that transforms the particle motion
(b) planar location — two dimensional source location requiring produced by an elastic wave into an electrical signal
three or more channels.
(c) 3D location — three dimensional source location requiring signal, acoustic emission (emission signal) — an electri-
five or more channels. cal signal obtained by detection of one or more acoustic
(d) adaptive location — source location by iterative use of simulated emission events
sources in combination with computed location.
signal amplitude, acoustic emission — the peak voltage
location, continuous AE signal — a method of location
of the largest excursion attained by the signal waveform
based on continuous AE signals, as opposed to hit or
from an emission event
difference in arrival time location methods
signal overload level — that level above which operation
DISCUSSION — This type of location is commonly used in leak ceases to be satisfactory as a result of signal distortion,
location due to the presence of continuous emission. Some common overheating, or damage
types of continuous signal location methods include signal attentuation
and correlation analysis methods. signal overload point — the maximum input signal
(a) signal attenuation-based source location — a source location amplitude at which the ratio of output to input is
method that relies on the attenuation versus distance phenomenon observed to remain within a prescribed linear op-
of AE signals. By monitoring the AE signal magnitudes of the
continuous signal at various points along the object, the source can erating range
be determined based on the highest magnitude or by interpolation signature, acoustic emission (signature) — a characteris-
or extrapolation of multiple readings.
(b) correlation-based source location — a source location method
tic set of reproducible attributes of acoustic emission
that compares the changing AE signal levels (usually waveform signals associated with a specific test article as observed
based amplitude analysis) at two or more points surrounding the with a particular instrumentation system under specified
source and determines the time displacement of these signals. The
time displacement data can be used with conventional hit based
test conditions
location techniques to arrive at a solution for the source site. stimulation — the application of a stimulus such as
location, source — any of several methods of evaluating force, pressure, heat, etc., to a test article to cause
AE data to determine the position on the structure activation of acoustic emission sources
from which the AE originated. Several approaches system examination threshold — the electronic instru-
to source location are used, including zone location, ment threshold (see evaluation threshold) at which data
computed location, and continuous location will be detected
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transducers, acoustic emission — see sensor, acoustic acceptance limits — test levels used in electromagnetic
emission sorting which establish the group into which the material
voltage threshold — a voltage level on an electronic under test belongs (E 566)
comparator such that signals with amplitudes larger acceptance standard — in tubing inspection, a tube
than this level will be recognized. The voltage threshold used to establish the acceptance level with artificial
may be user adjustable, fixed, or automatic floating. discontinuities as specified in the applicable product
(E 750) standard
waveguide, acoustic emission — a device that couples acceptance standard — a tube with artificial discontinu-
elastic energy from a structure or other test object to ities specified in the applicable product standard used
a remotely mounted sensor during AE monitoring. An to establish the acceptance level (E 215)
example of an acoustic emission waveguide would be amplitude distortion — same as harmonic distortion
a solid wire or rod that is coupled at one end to a amplitude response — that property of a test system
monitored structure, and to a sensor at the other end. whereby the amplitude of the detected signal is measured
zone location — method(s) for determining the general without regard to phase (see also harmonic analysis
region of an acoustic emission source and phase analysis)
annular coil clearance — the mean radial distance
between adjacent coil assembly and test part surface
6. Electromagnetic Testing (E 215, E 243, E in electromagnetic encircling coil examination
566, E 1033) annular coils — see encircling coils
absolute coil — a coil (or coils) that respond(s) to the artificial discontinuity — reference discontinuities, such
total detected electric or magnetic properties, or both, as holes, grooves, or notches that are introduced into
of one section of a part undergoing electromagnetic a reference standard to provide accurately reproducible
test without comparison to another section of the part, sensitivity levels for electromagnetic test equipment
or to another part band pass filter — a wave filter having a single
absolute coil — a coil (or coils) that respond(s) to the transmission band, neither of the cut-off frequencies
total detected electric or magnetic properties, or both, being zero or infinity
of a part or section of the test part without comparison bobbin coil — see ID coil
to another section of the part or to another part (E 566) bucking coils — same as differential coils
absolute measurements — in electromagnetic testing, circumferential coils — see encircling coils
measurements made without a direct reference using an coil, absolute — in electromagnetic testing, a coil(s)
absolute coil in contrast to differential and comparative that respond(s) to the total detected electric and magnetic
measurements (see also absolute coil) properties of a part or section of a test part without
absolute readout — in electromagnetic testing, the comparison to an adjacent area of the same part or to
signal output of an absolute coil (see also absolute coil) another part
absolute system — an electromagnetic testing system coil, reference — in electromagnetic testing, a coil or
that uses a coil assembly and associated electronics to probe utilized to electrically balance the system in a
measure the total electromagnetic properties of a test comparator system
part without direct comparison to another section of coil size — the dimension of a coil, for example,
the part or to another part (see also absolute coil) length or diameter
absolute system — a system that uses a coil assembly coil spacing — in electromagnetic testing, the axial
and associated electronics to measure the total electro- distance between two encircling coils of a differential
magnetic properties of a test part without direct compari- system
son to another section of the part or to another part coil, test — in electromagnetic testing, the section of
(see absolute coil) (E 566) the probe or coil assembly that excites and/or detects
acceptance level — a test level above or below which the electromagnetic field in the material under test
test specimens are acceptable in contrast to rejection comparative measurements — in electromagnetic test-
level ing, measurements made in which the unbalance in the
acceptance limits — test levels used in electromagnetic system is measured using comparator coils in contrast
inspection that establish the group into which a material to differential and absolute measurements. (See also
under test belongs comparator coils.)
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SE-1316 1998 SECTION V SE-1316
comparative readout — in electromagnetic testing, the differential readout — in electromagnetic testing, the
signal output of comparator coils. (See also comparator signal output of differential coils (see also differen-
coils.) tial coils)
comparative system — an electromagnetic test system differential signal — in electromagnetic testing, an
that uses coil assemblies and associated electronics to output signal that is proportional to the rate of change
detect any electric or magnetic condition, or both, that of the input signal
is not common to the test specimen and the standard. differential system — an electromagnetic testing system
(See also comparator coils.) that uses coil assemblies and associated electronics to
comparative system — a system that uses coil assemblies detect an electric or magnetic condition, or both, that
and associated electronics to detect any electric or is not common to the areas of the specimen being
magnetic condition, or both, that is not common to tested. (See also differential coils.)
the test specimen and the standard (see comparator eddy current — an electrical current caused to flow
coils) (E 566) in a conductor by the time or space variation, or both,
comparator coils — in electromagnetic testing, two or of an applied magnetic field
more coils electrically connected in series opposition eddy current testing — a nondestructive testing method
but arranged so that there is no mutual induction in which eddy current flow is induced in the test object.
(coupling) between them such that any electric or Changes in the flow caused by variations in the specimen
magnetic condition, or both, that is not common to are reflected into a nearby coil, coils, or Hall effect
the test specimen and the standard, will produce an device for subsequent analysis by suitable instrumenta-
unbalance in the system and thereby yield an indication tion and techniques.
coupling — two electric circuits are said to be coupled
edge effect — in electromagnetic testing, the disturbance
to each other when they have an impedance in common
of the magnetic field and eddy currents due to the
so that a current in one causes a voltage in the other
proximity of an abrupt change in specimen geometry
cut-off level — same as rejection level (edge). This effect generally results in the masking of
defect resolution — a property of a test system that discontinuities within the affected region. (This effect
enables the separation of indications due to defects in is also termed the end effect.)
a test specimen that are located in close proximity to effective depth penetration (EDP) — the limit for
each other detecting metallurgical or mechanical discontinuities by
depth of penetration — in electromagnetic testing, the way of conventional encircling coils. The EDP point
depth at which the magnetic field strength or intensity is approximately three times the standard depth of
of induced eddy currents has decreased to 37% of its penetration. (E 215)
surface value. The depth of penetration is an exponential effective depth penetration (EDP) — in electromagnetic
function of the frequency of the signal and the conduc- testing, for (a) thickness, the minimum depth beyond
tivity and permeability of the material. Synonymous which a test system can no longer reliably detect a
terms are standard depth of penetration and skin depth. further increase in specimen thickness, or (b) defects, the
(see also skin effect) limit for reliably detecting metallurgical or mechanical
diamagnetic material — a material whose relative discontinuities by way of conventional continuous wave
permeability is less than unity (CW) eddy current instrumentation and sensors. The
NOTE 5 — The intrinsic induction Bi is oppositely directed to the
EDP point is approximately three times the standard
applied magnetizing force H. depth of penetration.
differential coils — two or more coils electrically effective permeability — a hypothetical quantity that
connected in series opposition such that any electric describes the magnetic permeability that is experienced
or magnetic condition, or both, that is not common to under a given set of physical conditions such as a
the areas of a specimen being electromagnetically tested cylindrical test specimen in an encircling coil at a
will produce an unbalance in the system and thereby specific test frequency. This quantity may be different
yield an indication from the permeability of the particular metal being
differential measurements — in electromagnetic testing, tested in that it takes into account such things as the
measurements made in which the imbalance in the geometry of the part, the relative position of the encir-
system is measured using differential coils in contrast cling coil, and characteristics of the magnetic field.
to absolute and comparative measurements (see also electrical center — the center established by the electro-
differential coils) magnetic field distribution within a test coil. A constant
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SE-1316 ARTICLE 30 — TERMINOLOGY SE-1316
intensity signal, irrespective of the circumferential posi- case of an inside probe for tubing. Coils of this type
tion of a discontinuity, is indicative of electrical center- are also referred to as inside coils, inserted coils, or
ing. The electrical center may be different from the bobbin coils.
physical center of the test coil. impedance — the total opposition that a circuit presents
electromagnetic testing — a nondestructive test method to the flow of an alternating current, specifically the
for materials, including magnetic materials, that uses complex quotient of voltage divided by current
electromagnetic energy having frequencies less than impedance analysis — in electromagnetic testing, an
those of visible light to yield information regarding analytical method that consists of correlating changes
the quality of testing material in the amplitude, phase, or quadrature components, or
encircling coils — in electromagnetic testing, coil(s) all of these, of a complex test signal voltage to the
or coil assembly that surround(s) the part to be tested. electromagnetic conditions within the test specimen
Coils of this type are also referred to as annular,
impedance plane diagram — a graphical representation
circumferential, or feed-through coils.
of the locus of points, indicating the variations in the
end effect — see edge effect impedance of a test coil as a function of basic test
end effect — the loss in sensitivity to discontinuities parameters
located near the extreme ends of the tube as the ends incremental permeability — the ratio of the change in
of the tube enter or leave the test coil (E 215) magnetic induction to the corresponding change in
feed-through coils — see encircling coils magnetizing force when the mean induction differs
ferromagnetic material — a material that, in general, from zero
exhibits the phenomena of magnetic hysteresis and indications — eddy-current signals caused by any
saturation, and whose permeability is dependent on the change from uniformity of a tube. These changes from
magnetizing force uniformity affect the electrical characteristic of the tube
fill factor — for internal probe electromagnetic testing, but may not be detrimental to the end use of the
the ratio of the effective cross-sectional area of the product (E 215)
primary internal probe coil to the cross-sectional area initial permeability — the slope of the induction curve
of the tube interior at zero magnetizing force as the test specimen is being
fill factor — for encircling coil electromagnetic testing, removed from a demagnetizing condition (slope at
the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the test specimen origin of BH curve before hysteresis is observed)
to the effective cross-sectional core area of the primary inserted coil — see ID coil
encircling coil (outside diameter of coil form, not inside
diameter which is adjacent to specimen) inside coil — see ID coil
filter — a network that passes electromagnetic wave lift-off effect — the effect observed in an electromagnetic
energy over a described range of frequencies and attenu- test system output due to a change in magnetic coupling
ates energy at all other frequencies between a test specimen and a probe coil whenever
the distance between them is varied
frequency — the number of cycles per second of
alternating electric current induced into the tubular magnetic history — magnetic condition of a ferromag-
product. For eddy-current testing described herein, the netic part based on previous exposures to magnetic fields
frequency is normally 1 to 125 kHz, inclusive. (E 215) magnetic history — magnetic condition of a ferromag-
gate — same as rejection level netic part under test based on previous exposures to
harmonic analysis — an analytical technique whereby magnetic fields (E 566)
the amplitude or phase, or both, of the frequency magnetic leakage flux — the excursion of magnetic
components of a complex periodic signal is determined lines of force from the surface of a test specimen
harmonic distortion — nonlinear distortion character- magnetic saturation — that degree of magnetization
ized by the appearance in the output of harmonics where a further increase in magnetizing force produces
other than the fundamental component when the input no significant increase in magnetic flux density (perme-
wave is sinusoidal ability) in a specimen
IACS — the International Annealed Copper Standard; modulation analysis — an analytical method used in
an international standard of electrical conductivity electromagnetic testing that separates responses due to
ID coil — a coil or coil assembly used for electromag- various factors influencing the total magnetic field by
netic testing by insertion into the test piece as in the separating and interpreting, individually, frequencies or
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SE-1316 1998 SECTION V SE-1316
frequency bands in the modulation envelope of the of a change in magnetic induction divided by the
(carrier frequency) signal corresponding change in magnetizing force, or (2) rela-
noise — in electromagnetic inspection, any nonrelevant tive permeability, which is the ratio of the absolute
signal that tends to interfere with the normal reception permeability to the magnetic constant (gm).
or processing of a desired flaw signal. It should be NOTE 7 — The magnetic constant gm is a scalar quantity differing
noted that such noise signals may be generated by in value and uniquely determined by each electromagnetic system
inhomogeneities in the inspected part that are not of units. In the unrationalized cgs system gm is 1 gauss /oersted and
the mksa rationalized system gm p 4p × 10−7 H /m.
detrimental to the end use of the part.
nonferromagnetic material — a material that is not NOTE 8 — Relative permeability is a pure number which is the
magnetizable and hence, essentially not affected by same in all unit systems. The value and dimension of absolute
permeability depends on the system of units employed.
magnetic fields. This would include paramagnetic mate-
rials and diamagnetic materials. NOTE 9 — For any ferromagnetic material, permeability is a function
of the degree of magnetization. However, initial permeability, mm
normal permeability — the ratio of the induction (when and maximum permeability, mm are unique values for a given
cyclically made to change symmetrically about zero) specimen under specified conditions.
to the corresponding change in magnetizing force
NOTE 10 — Except for initial permeability, mm , a numerical value for
off-line testing — eddy current tests conducted on any of the d-c permeabilities is meaningless unless the corresponding B
equipment that includes the test coil and means to or H excitation level is specified.
propel individual tubes under test through the coil at
NOTE 11 — For the incremental permeabilities mD and mDi, a
appropriate speeds and conditions numerical value is meaningless unless both the corresponding values
on-line testing — eddy current tests conducted on of mean excitation level (B or H) and the excursion range (DB or
DH) are specified.
equipment that includes the test coil and means to
propel tubes under test through the coil at appropriate phase analysis — an analytical technique that discrimi-
speeds and conditions as an integral part of a continuous nates between variables in a part undergoing electromag-
tube manufacturing sequence netic testing part by the different phase angle changes
that these conditions produce in the test signal. See
optimum frequency — in electromagnetic testing, that
also phase detection.
frequency which provides the largest signal-to-noise
ratio obtainable for the detection of an individual mate- phase angle — the angular equivalent of the time
rial property. Each property of a given material may displacement between corresponding points on two sine
have its own optimum frequency. waves of the same frequency
paramagnetic material — a material that has a relative phase detection — the derivation of a signal whose
permeability slightly greater than unity and that is amplitude is a function of the phase angle between
practically independent of the magnetizing force two alternating currents, one of which is used as a
permeability, a-c — a generic term used to express reference
various dynamic relationships between magnetic induc- phase-sensitive system — a system whose output signal
tion, B, and magnetizing force, H, for magnetic material is dependent on the phase relationship between the
subjected to a cyclic excitation by alternating or pulsat- voltage returned from a pickup or sensing coil and a
ing current. The values of a-c permeability obtained reference voltage
for a given material depend fundamentally upon the phase shift — a change in the phase relationship
excursion limits of dynamic excitation and induction, between two alternating quantities of the same frequency
the method and conditions of measurement, and also probe coil — in electromagnetic testing, a small coil
upon such factors as resistivity, thickness of laminations, or coil assembly that is placed on or near the surface
frequency of excitation, etc. of test objects
NOTE 6 — The numerical value for any permeability is meaningless probe coil clearance — the perpendicular distance
unless the corresponding B or H excitation level is specified. For between adjacent surfaces of the probe and test part;
incremental permeabilities not only must the corresponding d-c B also lift-off
or H excitation level be specified, but also the dynamic range (DB
or DH). recovery time — the time required for a test system
permeability, d-c — permeability is a general term used to return to its original state after it has received a signal
to express relationships between magnetic induction, B, reference coil — in electromagnetic testing, the section
and magnetizing force, H, under various conditions of of the coil assembly that excites or detects, the electro-
magnetic excitation. These relationships are either (1) magnetic field or both, in the reference standard in a
absolute permeability, which in general is the quotient comparative system
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SE-1316 ARTICLE 30 — TERMINOLOGY SE-1316
reference coil — the section of the coil assembly that not exceed the SDP or in heavier tube walls when
excites or detects the electromagnetic field, or both, in discontinuities of interest are within one SDP. (E 215)
the reference standard in a comparative system (E 566) test coil — the section of the coil assembly that excites
reference standard — a reference used as a basis for or detects, or both, the magnetic field in the material
comparison or calibration. In tubing inspection, a tube under electromagnetic test
with artificial discontinuities used for establishing the test coil — the section of the coil assembly that excites
test sensitivity setting and for periodically checking or detects the electromagnetic field, or both, in the
and adjusting sensitivity setting as required. [See also material under test in a comparative system (E 566)
standard (1)]. test frequency — in electromagnetic testing, the number
reference standard — a tube with artificial discontinu- of complete cycles per unit time of the alternating
ities used for establishing the test sensitivity setting current applied to the primary test coil
and for periodically checking and adjusting sensitivity test quality level — see rejection level
setting as required (E 215)
three way sort — an electromagnetic sort based on a
rejection level — the value established for a test signal signal response from the material under test above or
above or below which test specimens are rejectable, or below two levels established by three or more calibration
otherwise distinguished from the remaining specimens standards
selectivity — the characteristic of a test system that is threshold level — the setting of an instrument that
a measure of the extent to which an instrument is causes it to register only those changes in response
capable of differentiating between the desired signal greater or less than a specified magnitude
and disturbances of other frequencies or phases
threshold setting — the setting of the instrument that
sensitivity control — the control in the instrument that causes it to register only those changes in eddy-current
adjusts the amplifier gain, and is one of the factors response greater than a specified magnitude (E 215)
that determines the capacity to detect discontinuities
(E 215) NOTE 12 — Sensitivity and threshold settings usually are indicated
by arbitrary numbers on the control panel of the testing instrument.
signal gradient — same as differential readout These numerical settings differ among instruments of different types.
It is, therefore, not proper to translate a numerical setting on one
signal-to-noise ratio — the ratio of values to signal instrument to that of another type. Even among instruments of the
(response containing relevant information) to that of same design and from the same manufacturer, sensitivity and threshold
noise (response containing nonrelevant information) settings may vary slightly when detecting the same discontinuity.
Therefore, undue emphasis on the numerical value of sensitivity and
skin depth — see depth of penetration threshold settings is not justified. (E 215)
skin effect — the phenomenon wherein the depth of transducer — an electromagnetic device for converting
penetration of electric currents into a conductor de- electrical energy into magnetic or mechanical energy
creases as the frequency of the current is increased. and vice versa (E 1033)
At very high frequencies, the current flow is restricted two-way sort — an electromagnetic sort based on a
to an extremely thin outer layer of the conductor. (See signal response from the material under test above or
also depth of penetration.) below a level established by two or more calibration
speed effect — the phenomenon in electromagnetic standards
testing of which the evidence is a change in the signal wobble — in electromagnetic testing, an effect that
voltage resulting from a change in the relative motion produces variations in coil spacing (operational lift-off)
between the specimen and a test coil assembly due to lateral motion of the test specimen in passing
standard — (1) a physical reference used as a basis through an encircling coil
for comparison or calibration; (2) a concept that has
been established by authority, custom, or agreement to
serve as a model or rule in the measurement of quality
7. Gamma- and X-Radiology
or the establishment of a practice or procedure.
standard depth of penetration — see depth of pene- absorbed dose — the amount of energy imparted by
tration ionizing radiation per unit mass of irradiated matter.
standard depth of penetration (SDP) — the depth at Denoted by rad; 1 rad; p 0.01 j /kg. SI unit is gray;
which the eddy current density is reduced to approxi- 1 gray p 1 j /kg.
mately 37% of the density at the surface. Eddy-current absorbed dose rate — the absorbed dose per unit of
testing is most effective when the wall thickness does time; rads /s. SI unit, grays /s.
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absorption — the process whereby the incident particles exceeding the allowable input brightness for the device,
or photons of radiation are reduced in number or energy causing the image to go into saturation, producing a
as they pass through matter fuzzy image of degraded spatial resolution and grey
accelerating potential — the difference in electric poten- scale rendition
tial between the cathode and anode in an X-ray tube blow back — the enlargement of a minified radiograph
through which a charged particle is accelerated: usually to its original size by use of an optical direct reader
expressed in units of kV or MV cassette — a light-tight container for holding radio-
activation — in neutron radiography, the process of graphic recording media during exposure, for example,
causing a substance to become artificially radioactive film, with or without intensifying or conversion screens
by subjecting it to bombardment by neutrons or other characteristic curve — the plot of density versus log
particles of exposure or of relative exposure. (Also called the
acute radiation syndrome — the immediate effects of D-log E curve or the H and D curve.)
a short term, whole body overexposure of a person to cine-radiography — the production of a series of
ionizing radiation. These effects include nausea and radiographs that can be viewed rapidly in sequence,
vomiting, malaise, increased temperature, and blood thus creating an illusion of continuity
changes.
collimator — a device of radiation absorbent material
alphanumeric — term pertaining to both numbers and intended for defining the direction and angular diver-
alphabetical characters, typically used to designate a gence of the radiation beam
device capable of handling both types of characters
composite viewing — the viewing of two or more
alpha particle — a positively charged particle emitted superimposed radiographs from a multiple film exposure
by certain radio-nuclides. It consists of two protons
contrast sensitivity — a measure of the minimum
and two neutrons, and is identical to the nucleus of a
percentage change in an object which produces a percep-
helium atom.
tible density /brightness change in the radiological image
anode — the positive electrode of a discharge tube.
contrast stretch — a function that operates on the
In an X-ray tube, the anode carries the target.
greyscale values in an image to increase or decrease
anode current — the electrons passing from the cathode image contrast
to the anode in an X-ray tube, minus the small loss
definition, image definition — the sharpness of delinea-
incurred by the back scattered fraction
tion of image details in a radiograph. Generally used
aperture — an opening in material, space, or time over qualitatively
which an element is considered to be active
densitometer — a device for measuring the optical
array processor — a special purpose logical processing density of radiograph film
device that performs extremely fast mathematical opera-
density (film) — the quantitative measure of film black-
tions on digital arrays
ening when light is transmitted or reflected.
area of interest — the specific portion of the object
image on the radiograph that is to be evaluated
D p log (Io /I ) or D p log (IoR)
artifact — spurious indication on a radiograph arising
from, but not limited to, faulty manufacture, storage,
handling, exposure, or processing where
autoradiograph — the image of an object containing D p density
a radioelement obtained, on a recording medium, by Io p light intensity incident on the film
means of its own radiation I p light intensity transmitted
betatron — an electron accelerator in which acceleration R p light intensity reflected
is provided by a special magnetic field constraining density comparison strip — alternative term for step-
the electrons to a circular orbit. This type of equipment wedge comparison film.
usually operates at energies between 10 and 31 MEV. digital image acquisition system — a system of elec-
blocking or masking — surrounding specimens or cov- tronic components which, by either directly detecting
ering their sections with absorptive material radiation or converting analog radiation detection infor-
blooming — in radiologic real-time imaging, an undesir- mation, creates an image of the spatial radiation intensity
able condition exhibited by some image conversion map comprised of an array of discrete digital intensity
devices and television pickup tubes brought about by values (see pixel)
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equivalent I.Q.I. sensitivity — that thickness of I.Q.I. (a) aging — deterioration, before or after exposure,
expressed as a percentage of the section thickness or both, resulting from a recording medium that has
radiologically examined in which a 2T hole or 2% been stored for too long a period of time, or other
wire size equivalent would be visible under the same improper conditions;
radiological conditions (b) base — the minimum uniform density inherent
equivalent penetrameter sensitivity — that thickness of in a processed emulsion without prior exposure
penetrameter, expressed as a percentage of the section (c) chemical — resulting from unwanted reactions
thickness radiographed, in which a 2T hole would be during chemical processing;
visible under the same radiographic conditions (d) dichroic — characterized by the production of
colloidal silver within the developed sensitive layer;
erasable optical medium — an erasable and rewritable
(e) oxidation — caused by exposure to air during
storage medium where the digital data is represented
developing;
by the degree of reflectivity of the medium recording
(f) exposure — arising from any unwanted exposure
layer: the data can be altered
of an emulsion to ionizing radiation or light at any
exposure, radiographic exposure — the subjection of time between manufacture and final fixing;
a recording medium to radiation for the purpose of (g) photographic — arising solely from the properties
producing a latent image. Radiographic exposure is of an emulsion and the processing conditions, for
commonly expressed in terms of milliampere-seconds example, the total effect of inherent fog and chemi-
or millicurie-hours for a known source-to-film distance. cal fog;
exposure table — a summary of values of radiographic (h) threshold — the minimum uniform density inher-
exposures suitable for the different thicknesses of a ent in a processed emulsion without prior exposure.
specified material fog density — a general term used to denote any
film contrast — a qualitative expression of the slope increase in the optical density of a processed film
or steepness of the characteristic curve of a film; that caused by anything other than the direct action of the
property of a photographic material which is related image-forming radiation
to the magnitude of the density difference resulting gamma-radiography — a technique of producing radio-
from a given exposure difference graphs using gamma-rays
film speed — a numerical value expressing the response gamma ray — electromagnetic penetrating radiation
of an image receptor to the energy of penetrating having its origin in the decay of a radioactive nucleus
radiation under specified conditions
geometric unsharpness — the penumbral shadow in a
filter — uniform layer of material, usually of higher
radiological image which is dependent upon:
atomic number than the specimen, placed between
(a) the radiation source dimensions;
the radiation source and the film for the purpose of
(b) the source to object distance; and
preferentially absorbing the softer radiations
(c) object to detector distance.
fluorescence — the emission of light by a substance
graininess — the visual impression of irregularity of
as a result of the absorption of some other radiation
silver deposit in a processed film
of shorter wavelengths only as long as the stimulus
producing it is maintained half-life — the time required for one half of a given
number of radioactive atoms to undergo decay
fluorescent screen — alternative term for intensifying
screen (b) half-value layer (HVL) — the thickness of an absorbing
fluoroscopy — the visual observation on a fluorescent material required to reduce the intensity of a beam of
screen of the image of an object exposed to penetrating, incident radiation to one half of its original intensity
ionizing radiation half-value thickness — the thickness of a specified
focal spot — for x-ray generators, that area of the substance which, when introduced into the path of a
anode (target) of an x-ray tube which emits x-ray when given beam of radiation, reduces its intensity to one half
bombarded with electrons image definition — see definition
fog — a general term used to denote any increase in image quality indicator (IQI) — in industrial radiology,
optical density of a processed photographic emulsion a device or combination of devices whose demonstrated
caused by anything other than direct action of the image or images provide visual or quantitative data,
image forming radiation and due to one or more of or both, to determine radiologic quality and sensitivity.
the following: Also known as a penetrameter (disparaged).
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NOTE 13 — It is not intended for use in judging size nor establishing determine the maximum density of lines and spaces
acceptance limits of discontinuities.
that can be successfully imaged. The value is expressed
indication — the response or evidence from a nonde- in line pairs per millimetre.
structive examination that requires interpretation to de-
location marker — a number or letter made of lead
termine relevance
(Pb) or other highly radiation attenuative material that
intensifying screen — a material that converts a part is placed on an object to provide traceability between
of the radiographic energy into light or electrons and a specific area on the image and the part
that, when in contact with a recording medium during low-energy gamma radiation — gamma radiation having
exposure, improves the quality of the radiograph, or energy less than 200 keV
reduces the exposure time required to produce a radio-
luminosity — a measure of emitted light intensity
graph, or both. Three kinds of screens in common
use are: mA (milli ampere) — a unit of current equal to 0.001
(a) metal screen — a screen consisting of dense amperes, used to express the tube current of an X-
metal (usually lead) or of a dense metal compound ray tube
(for example, lead oxide) that emits primary electrons magnetic storage medium — a storage medium that
when exposed to X- or gamma-rays; uses magnetic properties (magnetic dipoles) to store
(b) fluorescent screen — a screen consisting of a digital data (for example, a moving drum, disk, or tape
coating of phosphors which fluoresces when exposed or a static core or film)
to X or gamma radiation; MeV (mega or million electron volts) — a unit of
(c) fluorescent-metallic screen — a screen consisting energy equal to one million electron volts, used to
of a metallic foil (usually lead) coated with a material express the energy of X rays, gamma rays, electrons,
that fluoresces when exposed to X or gamma radiation. and neutrons
The coated surface is placed next to the film to provide micro focus X-ray tube — an X-ray tube having an
fluorescence; the metal functions as a normal metal effective focal spot size not greater than 100 mm
screen.
milliamperes (mA) — the technical term is tube current
IQI sensitivity — in radiography, the minimum discern- and is defined as the current passing between the
ible image and the designated hole in the plaque-type, cathode and anode during the operation of an x-ray
or the designated wire image in the wire type image tube, measured in milliamperes (mA) and usually taken
quality indicator as a measure of x-ray intensity
keV (kilo electron volt) — a unit of energy equal to minifocus X-ray tube — an X-ray tube having an
one thousand electron volts, used to express the energy effective focal spot size between 100 and 400 mm
of X rays, gamma rays, electrons, and neutrons MV (mega or million volt) — a unit of electrical
kV (kilo volt) — a unit of electrical potential difference potential difference equal to one million volts, used to
equal to one thousand volts, used to describe the describe the accelerating potential of an X-ray tube
accelerating potential of an X-ray tube net density — total density less fog and support (film
latent image — a condition produced and persisting base) density
in the image receptor by exposure to radiation and neutron radiography (NRT) — a process of making
able to be converted into a visible image by processing an image of the internal details of an object by the
lead screen — see intensifying screen (a) selective attenuation of a neutron beam by the object
line pair test pattern — a pattern of one or more pairs noise — the data present in a radiological measurement
of objects with high contrast lines of equal width and which is not directly correlated with the degree of
equal spacing. The pattern is used with an imaging radiation attentuation by the object being examined
device to measure spatial resolution. nonerasable optical data — a nonerasable, nonre-
linear accelerator — an electron generator in which writeable storage medium where the digital data is
the acceleration of the particles is connected with the represented by the degree of reflectivity of the medium’s
propagation of a high-frequency field inside a linear recording layer. The data cannot be altered.
or corrugated waveguide nonscreen-type film (direct-type film) — X-ray film
line pairs per millimetre — a measure of the spatial designed for use with or without metal screens, but
resolution of an image conversion device. A line pair not intended for use with salt screens
test pattern consisting of one or more pairs of equal nuclear activity — the number of disintegrations oc-
width, high contrast lines, and spaces is utilized to curring in a given quantity of material per unit of time.
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Curie is the unit of measurement. One curie is equivalent radiographic contrast — the difference in density be-
to 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second. tween an image and its immediate surroundings on a
object-film distance — the distance between the surface radiograph
of the source side object and the plane of the recording radiographic equivalence factor — that factor by which
medium the thickness of a material must be multiplied in order
to determine what thickness of a standard material
NOTE 14 — In the case where the recording medium is placed
directly in contact with the object being examined, the distance is (often steel) will have the same absorption
equal to the thickness of the object. radiographic exposure — see exposure
optical density — the degree of opacity of a translucent radiographic inspection — the use of X-rays or nuclear
medium (darkening of film) expressed as follows: radiation, or both, to detect discontinuities in material,
and to present their images on a recording medium.
OD p log (lo /l) radiographic quality — a qualitative term used to
describe the capability of a radiograph to show flaws
where: in the area under examination
ODp optical density
radiographic sensitivity — a general or qualitative term
lop light intensity incident on the film
referring to the size of the smallest detail that can be
lp light intensity transmitted through the film
seen on a radiograph, or the ease with which details
optical line pair test pattern — see line pair test can be seen
pattern
radiological examination — the use of penetrating
pair production — the process whereby a gamma ionizing radiation to display images for the detection
photon with energy greater than 1.02 MeV is converted of discontinuities or to help ensure integrity of the part
directly into matter in the form of an electron-positron
radiology — the science and application of X-rays,
pair. Subsequent annihilation of the positron results in
gamma-rays, neutrons, and other penetrating radiations
the production of two 0.511 MeV gamma photons.
penetrameter — alternative term for image quality radioscopy — the electronic production of a radiological
indicator. image that follows very closely the changes with time
of the object being imaged
penetrameter sensitivity — alternative term for IQI
sensitivity. rare earth screens — see intensifying screen
phosphor — any substance that can be stimulated to real-time radioscopy — radioscopy that is capable of
emit light by incident radiation following the motion of the object without limitation
of time
photo fluorography — a photograph of the image
formed on a fluorescent screen recording media — material capable of capturing or
storing, or both, a radiological image in digital or
photostimulable luminescence — the physical phenome-
analog form
non of phosphors absorbing incident ionizing radiation,
storing the energy in quasi-stable states and emitting recording medium — a film or detector that converts
luminescent radiation proportional to the absorbed en- radiation into a visible image
ergy when stimulated by radiation of a different wave- representative quality indicator (RQI) — an actual part
length or similar part of comparable geometry and attentuation
pixel — a short form of picture element. The smallest characteristics to that of the test part(s), that has known
addressable element in an electronic image. or measurable features, or both, representing the facets
pixel, display size — the dimensions of the smallest of nonconformance for which the test part is to be
picture element comprising the displayed image, given examined
in terms of the imaged object’s dimensions being scintillators and scintillating crystals — a detector that
represented by the element converts ionizing radiation to light
pixel size — the length and width dimensions of a pixel screen — alternative term for intensifying screen
primary radiation — radiation coming directly from secondary radiation — radiation emitted by any sub-
the source stance as the result of irradiation by the primary source
radiograph — a permanent, visible image on a recording sensitivity — see contrast sensitivity, equivalent IQI
medium produced by penetrating radiation passing sensitivity, equivalent penetrameter sensitivity, IQI sen-
through the material being tested sitivity, radiographic sensitivity
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SE-1316 1998 SECTION V SE-1316
shim — a material, typically placed under the IQI, radiographic film and provides a readout of the transmit-
which is radiologically similar to the object being ted film density
imaged transmitted film density — the density of radiographic
signal — the data present in a radiological measurement film determined by measuring the transmitted light
which is directly correlated with the degree of radiation tube current — the current, measured in milliamperes,
attenuation by the object being examined passing between the cathode and anode during the
source — a machine or radioactive material that emits operation of an X-ray tube
penetrating radiation tube current — the transfer of electricity, created by
source-film distance — the distance between the radia- the flow of electrons, from the filament to the anode
tion producing area of the source and the film target in an X-ray tube; usually expressed in unit of
milliamperes
step wedge — a device with discrete step thickness
increments used to obtain an image with discrete density vacuum cassette — a flexible light-tight container that,
step values when operated under a vacuum, holds film and screen
in intimate contact during a radiographic exposure
step-wedge calibration film — a step-wedge comparison
film the densities of which are traceable to a nationally
recognized standardizing body
8. Leak Testing (E 425)
step-wedge comparison film — a strip of processed
film carrying a stepwise array of increasing photographic absolute manometer — a manometer whose calibration
density can be calculated from the measurable physical constants
step wedge comparison film — a radiograph with of the instrument and for which calibration is the same
discrete density steps that have been verified by compari- for all ideal gases
son with a calibrated step wedge film absolute pressure — pressure above the absolute zero
subject contrast — the ratio (or the logarithm of the corresponding to empty space, that is, local atmospheric
ratio) of the radiation intensities transmitted by selected pressure plus gage pressure
portions of the specimen absorption — in leak testing, the binding or incorpora-
system induced artifacts — anomalies that are created tion of gas in the interior of a solid (or liquid)
by a system during the acquisition, display processing, accumulation test — a leak test used to detect very
or storage of a digital image small leaks in which gas contained in a component
system noise — the noise present in a radiological being tested will, if a leak is present, collect for a
measurement resulting from the individual elements of specified period of time in a closed evacuated chamber
the radiological system into which the component has been placed. At the end
of the test period the chamber is opened to a leak
target — that part of the anode of an X-ray emitting detector which is sensitive to the gas.
tube hit by the electron beam
alkali ion diode — a sensor for halogen gases. See
tenth-value-layer (TVL) — the thickness of the layer also halogen leak detector (2).
of a specified substance which, when introduced into
aperture leak — a leak of such geometric configuration
the path of a given narrow beam of radiation reduces
that the length of the leakage path is much smaller
the intensity of this radiation by a factor of ten
than the shortest diameter of the path, so that the leak
tomography — any radiologic technique that provides may be considered the equivalent of an opening in an
an image of a selected plane in an object to the relative infinitesimally thin wall
exclusion of structures that lie outside the plane of atmosphere (standard) — the pressure exerted by a
interest (see tomogram and (CT) computed tomography) mercury column 760 mm in height at 0°C under standard
total image unsharpness — the blurring of test object acceleration of gravity; equivalent to 101 325 Pa
features in a radiological image resulting from any atmospheric pressure — the pressure of the atmosphere
cause(s) at a specified place and time (see Table 1)
translucent base media — materials with properties atomic mass unit (amu) — the unit of measure of the
that allow radiological interpretation by transmitted or mass of a particle (atom, molecule, ion, etc.), defined
reflected light as 1 / 12 of the mass of carbon-12. The numerical value
transmission densitometer — an instrument that mea- of the mass of a particle in terms of amu is identical
sures the intensity of the transmitted light through a with the older atomic weight.
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SE-1316 1998 SECTION V SE-1316
drift — in leak testing, the relatively slow change in gage pressure — difference between the absolute pres-
the background output level of the leak detector due sure and atmospheric pressure
to the electronics rather than a change in the level of gas — the state of matter in which the molecules are
the tracer gas practically unrestricted by intermolecular forces so that
dynamic leak test — a form of leak test in which the molecules are free to occupy all space within an
some of the tracer gas entering through a leak is enclosure. In vacuum technology, the word gas has
continually removed for sensing purposes been loosely applied to the uncondensed gas and vapor
dynamic leakage measurement — leakage determined within a vacuum system.
by measuring the tracer gas equilibrium partial pressure halogen — any element of the family of the elements
while the system is actively being pumped fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Compounds do
dynamic sensitivity of leak detector — the minimum not fall under the strict definition of halogen. However,
leak rate that the detector is capable of detecting while for the purpose of this standard, this word provides
the enclosure under test is actively being evacuated a convenient descriptive term for halogen-containing
continuously under specified conditions compounds. Of significance in halogen leak detection
equivalent nitrogen pressure — the calculated pressure are those which have enough vapor pressure to be
that a gage or another device would indicate if the useful as tracer gases.
gas in the device were replaced by nitrogen at the halogen leak detector — a leak detector that responds
same molecular density to halogen tracer gases. Also called halogen-sensitive
exhaust pressure — in leak testing, same as fore- leak detector or halide leak detector. (1) The copper-
pressure flame detector or halide torch consists of a bunsen
exhaust tubulation — same as pump-out tubulation burner with flame impinging on a copper plate or
screen, and a hose with sampling probe to carry tracer
flooded system — a system which, while being tested, gas to the air intake of the burner. (2) The alkali-ion
becomes so filled with tracer gas as to make impractica- diode halogen detector depends on the variation of
ble further leak testing positive ion emission from a heated platinum anode
flow — same as flow rate when halogen molecules enter the sensing element.
flow rate — in leak testing, (1) the rate at which gas helium bombing — a pressure-evacuation test in which
passes a given cross section of a system, determined helium is used as the test gas
by the product of the volume passing per unit time
and its (partial) pressure at the cross section; (2) a helium drift — (1) in leak testing with a probe, the
product of the (partial) pressure difference of a gas at drift from a leak or permeable gasket located at some
the ends of a conduit or across the face of an orifice, distance from the end of the probe but which is
and the conductance of the gas for the conduit or detected by the probe and can mislead the operator
orifice. Expressed in pressure-volume per unit time, into suspecting the area near the probe; (2) a gradual
such as pascal cubic metres per second. wandering of the output meter needle of the leak
detector due to slowly changing helium concentrations
fore-line — in leak testing, the line between a fore (either due to a leak or outgassing) in the detector
pump and the pump it backs tube. Expressed in scale divisions per unit time.
fore-line valve — in leak testing, a vacuum valve
helium leak detector — a leak detector using helium
placed in the fore-line to permit isolation of the diffusion
as the tracer gas
pump from its backing pump
hermetically tight seal — a seal which does not exhibit
forepressure — in leak testing, the total pressure on
leakage when dynamically tested with commercially
the outlet side of a pump measured near the outlet
built leak detectors that are sensitive to a gas on the
port. Sometimes called the back pressure, backing pres-
pressure side opposite to the side on which the leak
sure, outlet pressure, exhaust pressure, or discharge
detector is located, or which does not exhibit leakage
pressure. In discussing the action of a vapor jet, the
with any form of liquid test
term forepressure may be used to designate the total
pressure of the gas against which the jet impinges. high vacuum — see Table 2
fore pump — in leak testing, the pump that produces holding pump — a fore pump used to hold a vapor
the necessary fore vacuum for a pump which is incapable pump at operating conditions while a roughing pump
of discharging gases at atmospheric pressure. Sometimes reduces the system pressure to a point at which the
called the backing pump. valve between the vapor pump and the system can be
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detected by a given leak detector in the presence of pressure dye test — (1) a form of leak test in which
conditions existing at time of test the item or items to be tested are filled with a liquid
molecular flow — the flow of gas through a passage dye or fluorescent oil which is then pressurized for
under conditions such that the mean-free path is greater the purpose of a driving the liquid through possible
than the largest dimension of a transverse section of leakage paths with the presence of the leaks being
the passage visible when viewed from the exterior; (2) a form of
leak test in which the item or items to be tested are
molecular leak — a leak of such geometric configuration
immersed in a liquid dye or fluorescent oil which is
that gas flow through it obeys the laws of molecular
then pressurized for the purpose of driving liquid into
flow (Knudsen’s law). The flow is proportional to the
possible leakage paths with their presence being visible
difference of the end pressures and inversely propor-
when the excess liquid has been removed from the
tional to the square root of the molecular weight of
exterior.
the gas.
pressure-evacuation test — a leak test in which one
newton (N) — the SI unit of force (kg · m /s2)
or more devices are placed under gas pressure for a
noncondensable gas — a gas whose temperature is period of time, the objective being to accumulate enough
above its critical temperature, so that it cannot be gas in those devices that may leak to permit an indication
liquefied by increase of pressure alone on a leak detector sensitive to the gas when the devices
occlusion — the trapping of undissolved gas in a solid are placed in an evacuated system joined to the leak
during solidification detector
outgassing — the evolution of gas from a material in pressure probe — see probe
a vacuum. pressure testing — a method of leak testing in which
outlet pressure — see forepressure the component being tested is filled completely with
palladium barrier leak detector — a leak detector using a gas or liquid which is then pressurized. The outside
hydrogen as the tracer gas and using the principle of of the component is examined for the detection of
hydrogen diffusing through a hot palladium barrier into any leaks.
an evacuated vacuum gage probe — in leak testing, a tube having an opening at
partial pressure — the pressure caused by a gas, either one end, used for directing or collecting a stream of
by itself, or in the presence of other gases. When a tracer gas
second gas is not present, the partial pressure is the probe gas — in leak testing, a tracer gas which issues
same as the total pressure. from an orifice so as to impinge on a restricted test area
pascal (Pa) — one pascal is approximately equal to probe test — a leak test in which the tracer gas is
1 × 10−5 atm or, more precisely, 1 Pa p 0.98692 × applied by means of a probe so that the area covered
10−5 atm by the tracer gas is localized. This enables the individual
pascal cubic metres per second (Pa · m3 /s) — the leaks to be located.
preferred unit of gas flow in the SI system. One proportioning probe — in leak testing, a probe that
Pa · m3 /s is approximately equal to 10 atm cm3 /s or, can vary sample to pure air ratios between 100% sample
more precisely, 1 Pa · m3 /s p 9.8692 atm·cm3 /s. and 100% pure air without substantially changing the
Penning gage — see ionization vacuum gage total flow from the probe
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SE-1316 1998 SECTION V SE-1316
volume and temperature of the system are held constant glass vacuum systems by a spark jumping between the
during the rate of rise measurement. See isolation test. core of the coil and the pin hole
resistance (to flow) — the reciprocal of conductance spectrometer tube — the sensing element of a mass
response factor — in leak testing, the response of the spectrometer leak detector
halogen leak detector 0.3 MPa · m3 /s of refrigerant-12 spray probe — in leak testing, a device for directing
(dichloro-difluoromethane, CC12F2) or less, divided by a small jet of tracer gas on an object under vacuum
the response to the same quantity of another halogen testing
test gas. Thus, the actual leak rate of a detected leak squealer — same as audible leak indicator
will be the indication of the detector multiplied by the
response factor. The response of mixture of a tracer standard leak — a device that permits a tracer gas to
and nonhalogen gases will be the response factor of be introduced into a leak detector or leak testing system
the tracer divided by the fraction of tracer gas in the at a known rate to facilitate calibration of the leak
test gas. detector
response time — the time required for a leak detector standard leakage rate — the rate of flow of atmospheric
or leak testing system to yield a signal output equal air under conditions in which: inlet pressure is 0.1 MPa
to 63% of the maximum signal attained when tracer 6 5%; outlet pressure is less than 1 kPa; temperature is
gas is applied continuously to the system under test. 25°C 6 5°C; and dew point is less than −25°C.
Also called response. thermal conductivity vacuum gage — a vacuum gage
roughing — in leak testing, the initial evacuation of containing two surfaces at different temperatures be-
a vacuum system tween which heat can be transported by the gas mole-
cules so that changes in the temperature (or in the
roughing line — in leak testing, a line running from heating power required to maintain constant tempera-
a mechanical pump to a vacuum chamber through ture) of one of the surfaces can be correlated with the
which preliminary pumping is conducted in the rough gas pressure. Various types of thermal conductivity
vacuum range gages are distinguished according to the method of
roughing pump — in leak testing, a vacuum pump indicating the temperature change. The common types
used for the initial evacuation of a vacuum system are listed below:
sampling probe — in leak testing, a device used to (a) Pirani Gage. An increase of pressure from the
collect tracer gas from an area of the test object and zero point causes a decrease in the temperature of a
feed it to the leak detector at the reduced pressure heated filament of material having a large temperature
required. Also called a sniffing probe. coefficient of resistance thus unbalancing a Wheatstone
bridge circuit (or the circuit is adjusted to maintain
scattering — in leak testing, dispersion or diffusion in
the filament temperature constant).
various directions due to intermolecular or ionic colli-
(b) Thermocouple Gage. The decrease in temperature
sions as applied to the effect of the residual gas in a
of a heated filament as the pressure rises is indicated
mass spectrometer tube or an ion beam traversing
by decreased emf in a thermocouple circuit having the
the tube
junction in thermal contact with the center of the heated
search-gas — same as tracer gas filament.
sensitivity — in the case of a leak detector, the response (c) Thermistor Gage. A form of Pirani gage em-
of the detector to tracer gas leakage (that is, scale ploying a thermistor as the heated element.
divisions per unit of leakage rate) (d) Bimetallic Strip Gage. Deflection of a bimetallic
sensitivity of leak test — the smallest leakage rate that strip with changing temperature indicates the changes
an instrument, method, or system is capable of detecting in pressure.
under specified conditions. See minimum detectable thermocouple gage — see thermal conductivity vac-
leakage rate. uum gage
sniffing probe — same as sampling probe throttling — in leak testing, reducing the net pumping
sorption — the taking up of gas by absorption, adsorp- speed of a pumping system by partially closing a valve
tion, chemisorption, or any combination of these pro- or installing a section of pipeline with low conductance
cesses throughput — same as flow rate (1).
spark coil leak detector — a high-frequency discharge tight — in leak testing, free from leaks according to
coil of the Tesla type which indicates pin holes in a given specification
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dragout — the carryout or loss of penetrant materials lipophilic emulsifier — see emulsifier lipophilic
as a result of their adherence to the test pieces liquid penetrant examination — a nondestructive test
drain time — that portion of the dwell time during that uses suitable liquids that penetrate discontinuities
which the excess penetrant or emulsifier drains from open to the surface of solid materials and, after appro-
the part priate treatment, indicate the presence of discontinuities
drying oven — an oven used for increasing the evapora- overemulsification — excessive emulsifier dwell time
tion rate of rinse water or an aqueous developer vehicle which results in the removal of penetrants from some
from test parts discontinuities
drying time — the time required for a cleaned, rinsed, overwashing — too long or too vigorous washing, or
or wet developed test part to dry both, which results in removal of penetrants from some
dwell time — the total time that the penetrant or discontinuities
emulsifier is in contact with the test surface, including penetrant — a solution or suspension of dye
the time required for application and the drain time penetrant comparator — an intentionally flawed speci-
electrostatic spraying — a technique for attaining a men having separate but adjacent areas for the applica-
uniform coating in which the material sprayed is given tion of different liquid penetrant materials so that a
an electrical charge direct comparison of their relative effectiveness can be
eluant — a liquid used to extract one material from obtained
another, as in chromatography NOTE 16 — It can also be used to evaluate liquid penetrant
emulsification time — the time that an emulsifier is techniques, liquid penetrant systems, or test conditions.
permitted to remain on the part to combine with the penetrant, fluorescent — a penetrant that emits visible
surface penetrant prior to removal. Also called emulsifi- radiation when excited by black light
cation dwell time. penetrant, post emulsifiable — a liquid penetrant that
emulsifier — a liquid that interacts with an oily sub- requires the application of a separate emulsifier to
stance to make it water-washable render the excess surface penetrant water-washable
emulsifier, hydrophilic — a water-based liquid used in penetrant, solvent-removable — a liquid penetrant so
penetrant examination which interacts with the penetrant formulated that most of the excess surface penetrant
oil, rendering it water-washable can be removed by wiping with a lint-free material,
emulsifier, lipophilic — an oil based liquid used in with the remaining surface penetrant traces removable
penetrant examination which interacts with the penetrant by further wiping with a lint-free material lightly moist-
oil, rendering it water-washable ened with solvent remover
etching — the removal of surface material by chemical penetrant, visible — a liquid penetrant that is character-
or electrochemical methods ized by an intense color, usually red
family — a complete series of penetrant materials penetrant, water-washable — a liquid penetrant with
required for the performance of a liquid penetrant a built-in emulsifier
examination penetration time — same as dwell time
fluorescence — the emission of visible radiation by a pooling — the existence of excessive amounts of pene-
substance as a result of, and only during, the absorption trant, emulsifier, or developer in an incompletely
of black light radiation drained area
footcandle (fc) — the illumination on a surface, 1 ft2 post-cleaning — the removal of residual liquid penetrant
in area, on which is uniformly distributed a flux of 1 examination materials from the test part after the pene-
lm (lumen). It equals 10.8 lm /m2. trant examination has been completed
hydrophilic emulsifier — see emulsifier post emulsification — a penetrant removal technique
immersion rinse — a means of removing surface pene- employing a separate emulsifier
trant, in which the test part is immersed in a tank of precleaning — the removal of surface contaminants
either water or remover from the test part so that they will not interfere with
immersion rinse — a means of removing excess pene- the examination process
trant in which the test parts are dipped into an agitated rinse — the process of removing liquid penetrant
tank of water or remover examination materials from the surface of a test part
inspection — visual examination of the test part after by means of washing or flooding with another liquid,
completion of the liquid penetrant processing steps usually water. The process is also termed wash.
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solvent remover — a volatile liquid penetrant used coercive force — the magnetizing force at which the
to remove excess penetrant from the surface being magnetic flux density is equal to zero. The corresponding
examined field intensity value is indicative of the ease of difficulty
temperature envelope — the temperature range over or demagnetization.
which a particular penetrant inspection test will operate coil method — a method of magnetization in which
viscosity — the property of a fluid that presents a part, or whole, of the component is encircled by a
resistance to shearing flow current-carrying coil
visible light — electromagnetic radiation in the 400– coil technique — a technique of magnetization in which
700 (4000–7000 Å) wavelength range all, or a portion, of the part is encircled by a current-
visual adaptation — the adjustment of the eyes when carrying coil
one passes from a bright to a darkened place conditioning agent — an additive to a water suspension
wash — same as rinse that will impart specific properties such as proper
water tolerance — the amount of water that a penetrant wetting, particle dispersion, or corrosion resistance
or emulsifier can absorb before its effectiveness is contact head — electrode assembly used to clamp and
impaired support a part to facilitate passage of electrical current
wetting action — the ability of a liquid to spread over through the part for circular magnetization
and adhere to solid surfaces
contact pad — replaceable metal pad, usually of copper
braid, placed on electrodes to give good electrical
contact, thereby preventing damage, such as arc strikes,
10. Magnetic Particle Examination to the part under test
ammeter shunt — a low-resistance precision resistor continuous method — with relation to magnetic particle
with high current carrying capacity connected in parallel inspection: a method wherein the indicating medium
with an ammeter is applied while the magnetizing force is present.
ampere turns — the product of the number of turns core (of an electromagnetic inspection circuit) — that
of a coil and the current in amperes flowing through part of the magnetic circuit which is within the electrical
the coil winding
arc strikes — localized burn damage to a part from
Curie point — the temperature at which ferromagnetic
an arc caused by making or breaking an energized
materials can no longer be magnetized by outside
electrical circuit
forces, and at which they lose their residual magnetism
background — in magnetic particle examination, the [approximately 1200 to 1600°F (649 to 871°C) for
appearance of the surface of the test part against which many metals]
indications are viewed
current flow method — a method of magnetizing by
bath — see suspension
passing a current through a component via prods or
bipolar field — see field, bipolar contact heads. The current may be alternating, rectified
black light — electromagnetic radiation in the near alternating, or direct.
ultraviolet range of wavelength (330 to 390 nm) (3300
current induction method — a method of magnetizing
to 3900 Å)
in which a circulating current is induced in a ring
black light filter — a filter that transmits near ultraviolet component by the influence of a fluctuation magnetic
radiation while absorbing other wavelengths field that links the component
carrier fluid — the fluid in which fluorescent and
dark adaptation — the adjustment of the eyes when
nonfluorescent magnetic particles are suspended to facil-
one passes from a bright to a darkened place
itate their application
central conductor — a conductor passed through a demagnetization — the reduction of residual magnetism
hollow part and used to produce circular magnetization to an acceptable level
within the part diffuse indications — indications that are not clearly
circular field — see field, circular defined as, for example, indications of subsurface defects
circular magnetization — the magnetization in a part direct contact magnetization — a technique of magnetiz-
resulting from current passed directly through the part ing in which the current is passed through a part via
or through a central conductor prods or contact heads
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dry method — magnetic particle inspection in which flash point — the lowest temperature at which vapors
the ferromagnetic particles employed are in the dry above a volatile combustible substance ignite in air
powder form when exposed to a flame
dry powder — finely divided ferromagnetic particles fluorescence — the emission of visible radiation by a
suitably selected and prepared for magnetic particle substance as the result of, and only during, the absorp-
inspection tion of black light radiation
dry technique — in magnetic particle examination, fluorescent examination method — the magnetic particle
the examination technique in which the ferromagnetic examination method employing a finely divided fluo-
particles are applied in the dry powder form rescent ferromagnetic inspection medium
electromagnet — a soft iron core surrounded by a coil fluorescent magnetic particle inspection — the magnetic
of wire that temporarily becomes a magnet when an particle inspection process employing a finely divided
electric current flows through the wire fluorescent ferromagnetic inspection medium that fluo-
resces when activated by black light [3200 to 4000 Å
energizing cycle — the application of a magnetizing (320 to 400 nm)]
force to a conductor
flux density, magnetic — the strength of a magnetic
examination medium — a powder or suspension of field, expressed in flux lines per unit area
magnetic particles that is applied to a magnetized test
flux leakage field — the magnetic field that leaves or
surface to determine the presence or absence of surface
enters the surface of a part as the result of a discontinuity
or slightly subsurface discontinuities
or a change in section
ferromagnetic — a term applied to materials that can flux lines — see lines of force
be magnetized or strongly attracted by a magnetic field
flux penetration — the depth to which a magnetic flux
field, bipolar — longitudinal magnetic field within a exists in a part
part that has two poles
full-wave direct current (FWDC) — a rectified three-
field, circular magnetic — generally, the magnetic field phase alternating current
surrounding any electrical conductor or part resulting furring — buildup or bristling of magnetic particles
from a current being passed through the part or conduc- due to excessive magnetization of the component under
tor from one end to another examination resulting in a furry appearance
field, longitudinal magnetic — magnetic field wherein half-wave current (HW) — a rectified single-phase
the flux lines traverse the component in a direction alternating current that produces a pulsating unidirec-
essentially parallel with its longitudinal axis tional field
field, magnetic — the space, within and surrounding hysteresis — (1) the lagging of the magnetic effect
a magnetized part or a conductor carrying current, in when the magnetic force acting upon a ferromagnetic
which the magnetic force is exerted body is changed (2) the phenomenon exhibited by a
field, magnetic leakage — the magnetic field that leaves magnetic system wherein its state is influenced by its
or enters the surface of a part at a discontinuity or previous history
change in section configuration of a magnetic circuit indirect magnetization — magnetization induced in a
field, residual magnetic — the field that remains in a part when no direct electrical contact is made
piece of magnetizable material after the magnetizing induced current method — see current induction method
force has been removed induced field — see indirect magnetization
field, resultant magnetic — (sometimes called vector): inherent fluorescence — fluorescence that is an intrinsic
a magnetic field that is the result of two magnetizing characteristic of a material
forces impressed upon the same area of a magnetizable inspection medium — see examination medium
object
leakage field — see field, magnetic leakage
field strength — see magnetic field strength
leeches — permanent magnets or electromagnets that
fill factor — in magnetic particle examination, the ratio are attached to the electrodes carrying magnetizing
of the cross-sectional area of the part being tested to current and that are strong enough to hold electrode
the cross-sectional area of the encircling coil contact firmly
flash magnetization — magnetization by a current flow light intensity — the light energy reaching a unit area
of very brief duration of surface per unit time
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lines of force — a conceptual representation of magnetic magnetizing current — the flow of either alternating
flux based upon the line pattern produced when iron or direct current used to induce magnetism into the
filings are sprinkled on paper laid over a permanent part being inspected
magnet magnetizing force — the magnetizing field applied to
local magnetization — magnetization of a prescribed a ferromagnetic material to induce magnetization
volume or surface of a part multidirectional magnetization — the alternative appli-
longitudinal magnetization — a magnetic field wherein cation of magnetic fields in different directions during
the lines of force traverse the part in a direction the same time frame
essentially parallel with its longitudinal axis near surface discontinuity — a discontinuity not open
to, but lying near, the surface of a part undergoing
magnet, permanent — see permanent magnet
examination which produces broad, fuzzy, lightly held
magnetic field — the volume within and surrounding powder patterns
either a magnetized part or a current-carrying conductor
overall magnetization — magnetization of an entire
wherein a magnetic force is exerted
part with a single energizing cycle
magnetic field indicator — a pocket meter that is used permanent magnet — a magnet that retains a high
to locate or determine the relative intensity of leakage degree of magnetization virtually unchanged for a long
field emanating from a part period of time (characteristic of materials with high
magnetic field meter — an instrument designed to retentivity)
measure the flux density of magnetic fields permeability — the ratio of flux density produced to
magnetic field strength — the measured intensity of a magnetizing force (the ease with which a material can
magnetic field at a point, expressed in oersteds or become magnetized)
amperes per metre pole — the area on a magnetized part from which the
magnetic hysteresis — in a magnetic material, as iron, magnetic field is leaving or returning into the part
a lagging in the values of resulting magnetization due polymer technique — the examination technique in
to a changing magnetic force. (See also hysteresis.) which a polymer is used as the particle suspension
vehicle
magnetic particle examination — a nondestructive test
method utilizing magnetic leakage fields and suitable powder — see dry powder
indicating materials to disclose surface and near-surface powder blower — a compressed air device used to
discontinuity indications apply magnetic powder over the surface of a part
undergoing inspection
magnetic particle field indicator — an instrument,
typically a bi-metal (for example, carbon steel and prods — hand-held electrodes
copper) octagonal disk, containing artificial flaws used quick break — a sudden interruption of the magnetizing
to verify the adequacy or direction, or both, of the current
magnetizing field residual magnetic field — the field that remains in
magnetic particle examination flaw indications — the ferromagnetic material after the magnetizing force has
accumulation of ferromagnetic particles along the areas been removed
of flaws or discontinuities due to the distortion of the residual technique — the application of the magnetic
magnetic lines of force in those areas particles after the magnetizing force has been discon-
magnetic particles — finely divided ferromagnetic mate- tinued
rial capable of being individually magnetized and at- resultant field — see field, resultant
tracted to distortion in a magnetic field retentivity — the ability of a material to retain a portion
magnetic pole — one of two or more areas of flux of the applied magnetic field after the magnetizing
leakage on a part force has been removed
saturation, magnetic — the total magnetization produced
magnetic writing — a form of nonrelevant indication
in a ferromagnetic material, at which point the incremen-
sometimes caused when the surface of a magnetized part
tal permeability has progressively decreased to ap-
comes in contact with another piece of ferromagnetic
proach unity
material
sensitivity — the degree of capability of a magnetic
magnetization, circular — see field, circular particle examination technique for indicating surface
magnetization, longitudinal — see field, longitudinal or near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials
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the radiographic sensitivity of the particular neutron radiograph — a permanent, visible image on a recording
radiograph medium produced by penetrating radiation passing
indirect exposure — a method in which only a gamma- through the material being tested
insensitive conversion screen is exposed to the neutron radiographic inspection — the use of X rays or nuclear
beam. After exposure, the conversion screen is placed radiation, or both, to detect discontinuities in material,
in contact with the image recorder. and to present their images on a recording medium
L /D ratio — one measure of the resolution capability radiography — the process of producing a radiograph
of a neutron radiographic system. It is the ratio of the using penetrating radiation
distance between the entrance aperture and the image radiological examination — the use of penetrating
plane (L) to the diameter of the entrance aperture (D). ionizing radiation to display images for the detection
of discontinuities or to help ensure integrity of the part
linear attenuation coefficient — a measure of the frac-
tional decrease in radiation beam intensity per unit of radiology — the science and application of X rays,
distance traveled in the material (cm−1) gamma rays, neutrons, and other penetrating radiations
low-energy photon radiation — gamma- and X-ray radioscopic inspection — the use of penetrating radia-
photon radiation having energy less than 200 keV tion and radioscopy to detect discontinuities in material
(excluding visible and ultraviolet light) radioscopy — the electronic production of a radiological
image that follows very closely the changes with time
mass attenuation coefficient — a measure of the frac-
of the object being imaged
tional decrease in radiation beam intensity per unit of
surface density cm2 · gm−1 real-time radioscopy — radioscopy that is capable of
following the motion of the object without limitation
moderator — a material used to slow fast neutrons. of time
Neutrons are slowed down when they collide with
S — effective scattered neutron content. S is the percent
atoms of light elements such as hydrogen, deuterium,
background film darkening caused by scattered neutrons.
beryllium, and carbon
scattered neutrons — neutrons that have undergone a
NC — effective thermal neutron content or neutron scattering collision but still contribute to film exposure
radiographic contrast. NC is the percent background
film exposure due to unscattered thermal neutrons. sensitivity value — the value determined by the smallest
standard discontinuity in any given sensitivity indicator
neutron — a neutral elementary particle having an observable in the radiographic image. Values are defined
atomic mass close to 1. In the free state outside of by identification of type of indicator, size of defect,
the nucleus, the neutron is unstable having a half-life and the absorber thickness on which the discontinuity
of approximately 10 min. is observed.
neutron radiography — the process of producing a thermal neutrons — neutrons having energies ranging
radiograph using neutrons as the penetrating radiation between 0.005 eV and 0.5 eV; neutrons of these energies
object scattered neutrons — neutrons scattered by the are produced by slowing down fast neutrons until they
test objects that contribute to the film exposure are in equilibrium with the moderating medium at a
temperature near 20°C.
P — effective pair production content. P is the percent
total cross section — the sum of the absorption and
background exposure caused by pair production in 2
scattering cross sections
mm of lead.
vacuum cassette — a light-tight device having a flexible
pair production — the process whereby a gamma entrance window, which when operated under a vacuum,
photon with energy greater than 1.02 MeV is converted holds the film and conversion screen in intimate contact
directly into matter in the form of any electron-positron during exposure
pair. Subsequent annihilation of the positron results in
the production of two 0.511 MeV gamma photons.
process control radiograph — a radiograph which
images a beam purity indicator and sensitivity indicator 12. Ultrasonic Examination (E 127, E 494,
under identical exposure and processing procedures as E 664, and E 804)
the test object radiograph. A process control radiograph
may be used to determine image quality parameters in A-scan — a method of data presentation utilizing a
circumstances of large or unusual test object geometry. horizontal baseline that indicates distance, or time, and
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a vertical deflection from the baseline which indicates C-scan — an ultrasonic data presentation which provides
amplitude a plain view of the test object, and discontinuities
amplitude — the vertical pulse height of a signal, therein
usually base to peak, when indicated by an A-scan collimator — a device for controlling the size and
presentation direction of the ultrasonic beam
angle beam — a term used to describe an angle of compressional wave — see longitudinal wave
incidence or refraction other than normal to the surface contact testing — a technique in which the search unit
of the test object, as in angle beam examination, angle makes contact directly with the test piece through a
beam search unit, angle beam longitudinal waves, and thin layer of couplant
angle beam shear waves
continuous wave — a constant flow of ultrasonic waves,
apparent attenuation — the observed ultrasound energy as opposed to pulsed
loss. In addition to the true loss, the apparent attenuation
control echo — reference signal from a constant re-
may also include losses attributable to instrumentation,
flecting surface, such as a back reflection
specimen configuration, beam divergence, interface re-
flections, and measurement procedure. (E 664) corner effect — the reflection of an ultrasonic beam
directed at normal incidence to the line of intersection
area amplitude response curve — a curve showing the of two perpendicular planes
changes in amplitude at normal incidence from planar
reflectors of different areas located at equal distances couplant — a substance used between the search unit
from the search unit in an ultrasonic-conducting medium and test surface to permit or improve transmission of
ultrasonic energy
attenuation — a factor that describes the decrease in
ultrasound intensity with distance. Normally expressed critical angle — the incident angle of the ultrasonic
in decibel per unit length. beam beyond which a specific refracted wave no
longer exists
NOTE 17 — The attenuation parameter is sometimes expressed in cross talk — the signal leakage (acoustic or electric)
nepers (Np) per unit length. The value in decibels (dB) is 8.68 times across an intended acoustic or electric barrier
the value in nepers. If the loss over a path is 1 Np, then the
amplitude has fallen to 1 /e of its initial value (e p 2.7183. . .). (E 664) crystal (see transducer) — the piezoelectric element
attenuator — a device for altering the amplitude of in an ultrasonic search unit. The term is used to describe
an ultrasonic indication in known increments, usually single crystal piezoelectrics as well as polycrystalline
decibels piezoelectrics, such as ferroceramics.
B-scan presentation — a means of ultrasonic data DAC (distance amplitude correction) (swept gain, time
presentation which displays a cross section of the corrected gain, time variable gain, etc.) — electronic
specimen indicating the approximate length (as detected change of amplification to provide equal amplitude
per scan) of reflectors and their relative positions from equal reflectors at different depths
back reflection — indication of the echo from the far damping, search unit — limiting the duration of a
boundary of the material under test signal from a search unit subject to a pulsed input by
electrically or mechanically decreasing the amplitude
back surface — the end of a reference block that is of successive cycles
opposite the entry surface (E 127)
dB control — a control that adjusts the amplitude of
base line — the time of flight or distance trace (hori- the display signal in dB units
zontal) across the A-scan CRT display (for no signal
condition) dead zone — the distance in the material from the
surface of the test object to the depth at which a
beam axis — the acoustic centerline of a search unit’s reflector can first be resolved under specified conditions.
beam pattern ac defined by the locus of points of It is determined by the characteristics of the search
maximum sound pressure in the far field, and its unit, the ultrasonic test instrumentation, and the test
extension into the near field object
beam spread — a divergence of the ultrasonic beam decibel (dB) — twenty times the base ten logarithm
as the sound travels through a medium of the ratio of two ultrasonic signal amplitudes: dB p
bottom echo — see back reflection 20 log10 (amplitude ratio)
bubbler — a device using a liquid stream to couple delayed sweep — an A-scan or B-scan presentation in
an ultrasonic beam to the test piece which an initial part of the time scale is not displayed
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DGS (distance gain size-German AVG) — distance grazing incidence — immersion inspection with the
amplitude curves permitting prediction of reflector size beam directed at a glancing angle to the test surface
compared to the response from a back surface reflection harmonics — those vibrations which are integral multi-
distance amplitude compensation (electronic) — the ples of the fundamental frequency
compensation or change in receiver amplification neces- holography (acoustic) — an inspection system using
sary to provide equal amplitude on the display of the the phase interface between the ultrasonic wave from
ultrasonic flaw detector for reflectors of equal area an object and a reference signal to obtain an image
which are located at different depths in the material of reflectors in the material under test
distance amplitude response curve — a curve showing
immersion testing — an ultrasonic examination method
the relationship between the different distances and the
in which the search unit and the test part are submerged
amplitudes of ultrasonic response from targets of equal
(at least locally) in a fluid, usually water
size in an ultrasonic response from targets of equal
size in an ultrasonic transmitting medium (E 127) impedance (acoustic) — a mathematical quantity used in
computation of reflection characteristics at boundaries;
distance linearity range — the range of horizontal
deflection in which a constant relationship exists be- product of wave velocity and material density
tween the incremental horizontal displacement of verti- indication — that which marks or denotes the presence
cal indications on the A-scan presentation and the of a reflector
incremental time required for reflected waves to pass initial pulse — the response of the ultrasonic system
through a known length in a uniform transmission display to the transmitter pulse (sometimes called
medium (E 494) main bang)
dual search unit — a search unit containing two interface — the boundary between two materials
elements: one a transmitter, the other a receiver Lamb wave — a specific mode of propagation in which
dynamic range — a measure of the capability of a the two parallel boundary surfaces of the material under
test system to accept input signals of varying magni- examination (such as a plate or the wall of a tube)
tudes, given by the ratio of the maximum to minimum establish the mode of propagation. The Lamb wave
input signals which at constant gain will produce distor- can be generated only at particular values of frequency,
tion-free outputs having discernable changes with incre- angle of incidence, and material thickness. The velocity
mental variations in input of the wave is dependent on the mode of propagation
NOTE 18 — Dynamic range may be stated as the numerical value and the product of the material thickness and the
of the ratio, however, this is usually expressed in decibels. examination frequency.
NOTE 19 — When the output indications can be related to the size linearity (amplitude) — a measure of the proportionality
of recognized targets, such as flat-bottomed holes, dynamic range is of the amplitude of the signal input to the receiver,
sometimes expressed in terms of the maximum and minimum hole
sizes that can be displayed. and the amplitude of the signal appearing on the display
echo — indication of reflected energy of the ultrasonic instrument or on an auxiliary display
far field — the zone of the beam where equal reflectors linearity (time or distance) — a measure of the propor-
give exponentially decreasing amplitudes with increas- tionality of the signals appearing on the time or distance
ing distance axis of the display and the input signals to the receiver
focused beam — converging energy of the sound beam from a calibrated time generator or from multiple echos
at a specified distance from a plate of material of known thickness
frequency (fundamental) — in resonance testing, the longitudinal wave — those waves in which the particle
frequency at which the wave length is twice the thick- motion of the material is essentially in the same direction
ness of the examined material as the wave propagation (E 494)
frequency (inspection) — effective ultrasonic wave fre- loss of back reflection — an absence or significant
quency of the system used to inspect the material reduction in the amplitude of the indication from the
frequency (pulse repetition) — the number of times back surface of the part under examination
per second an electro-acoustic search unit is excited markers — the electronically generated time pulses or
by the pulse generator to produce a pulse of ultrasonic other indicators that are used on the instrument display
energy. This is also called pulse repetition rate. to measure distance or time
gap scanning — short fluid column coupling technique mode — the type of ultrasonic wave propagating in
gate — an electronic means of selecting a segment of the materials as characterized by the particle motion
the time range for monitoring or further processing (for example, longitudinal, transverse, etc.)
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mode conversion — phenomenon by which an ultrasonic reject (suppression) — a control for minimizing or
wave that is propagating in one mode can reflect or eliminating low amplitude signals (electrical or material
refract at an interface to form ultrasonic wave(s) of noise) so that larger signals are emphasized
other modes resolution — the ability of ultrasonic equipment to give
multiple back reflections — successive reflections from simultaneous, separate indications from discontinuities
the back surface of the material under examination having nearly the same range and lateral position with
respect to the beam axis
multiple reflections — successive echoes of ultrasonic
energy between two surfaces resonance method — a technique in which continuous
ultrasonic waves are varied in frequency to identify
near field — the region of the ultrasonic beam adjacent
resonant characteristics in order to discriminate some
to the transducer and having complex beam profiles.
property of a part such as thickness, stiffness, or bond
Also known as the Fresnel zone.
integrity
noise — any undesired signal (electrical or acoustic) saturation — a condition in which an increase in input
that tends to interfere with the reception, interpretation, signal produces no increase in amplitude on the display
or processing of the desired signal
saturation level — see vertical limit
normal incidence (also see straight beam) — a condition scanning — the movement of a search unit relative to
in which the axis of the ultrasonic beam is perpendicular the test piece in order to examine a volume of the
to the entry surface of the part under examination material
penetration depth — the maximum depth in a material scanning index — the distance the search unit is moved
from which usable ultrasonic information can be ob- between scan paths after each traverse of the part
tained and measured scattered energy — energy that is reflected in a random
plate wave — see Lamb wave fashion by small reflectors in the path of a beam of
probe — see search unit ultrasonic waves
pulse — a short wave train of mechanical vibrations scattering — the dispersion, deflection, or redirection
of the energy in an ultrasonic beam caused by small
pulse echo method — an inspection method in which reflectors in the material being examined
the presence and position of a reflector are indicated
Schlieren system — an optical system used for visual
by the echo amplitude and time
display of an ultrasonic beam passing through a transpar-
pulse length — a measure of the duration of a signal ent medium
as expressed in time or number of cycles SE probe — see dual search unit (twin probe)
pulse repetition rate — see frequency (pulse repetition) search unit — an electro-acoustic device used to trans-
pulse tuning — a control used on some ultrasonic mit or receive ultrasonic energy, or both. The device
examination equipment to optimize the response of the generally consists of a nameplate, connector, case,
search unit and cable to the transmitter by adjusting backing, piezo-electric element, wearface, or lens, or
the frequency spectrum of the transmitted pulse wedge.
radio frequency (r-f) display — the display of an sensitivity — a measure of the smallest ultrasonic signal
unrectified signal on the CRT or recorder which will produce a discernible indication on the
display of an ultrasonic system
range — the maximum sound path length that is
displayed shadow — a region in a body that cannot be reached
by ultrasonic energy traveling in a given direction
Rayleigh wave — an ultrasonic surface wave in which because of the geometry of the body or a discontinuity
the particle motion is elliptical and the effective penetra- in it
tion is approximately one wavelength
shear wave — wave motion in which the particle
reference block — a block that is used both as a motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation
measurement scale and as a means of providing an
shear wave search unit (Y cut quartz search unit) —
ultrasonic reflection of known characteristics
a straight beam search unit used for generating and
reflection — see echo detecting shear waves
reflector — an interface at which an ultrasonic beam signal-to-noise ratio — the ratio of the amplitude of an
encounters a change in acoustic impedance and at which ultrasonic indication to the amplitude of the maximum
at least part of the energy is reflected background noise
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skip distance — in angle beam examination, the distance vertical limit — the maximum readable level of vertical
along the test surface, from sound entry point to the indications determined either by an electrical or a
point at which the sound returns to the same surface. physical limit of an A-scan presentation
It can be considered the top surface distance of a video presentation — display of the rectified, and
complete vee path of sound in the test material. usually filtered, r-f signal
straight beam — a vibrating pulse wave train traveling water path — the distance from the transducer to the
normal to the test surface test surface in immersion or water column testing
suppression — see reject (suppression) wave front — a continuous surface drawn through the
surface wave — see Rayleigh wave most forward points in a wave disturbance which have
the same phase
sweep — the uniform and repeated movement of an
wave train — a succession of ultrasonic waves arising
electron beam across the CRT
from the same source, having the same characteristics,
swept gain — see DAC and propagating along the same path
testing, ultrasonic — a nondestructive method of exam- wedge — in ultrasonic angle-beam examination by the
ining materials by introducing ultrasonic waves into, contact method, a device used to direct ultrasonic energy
through, or onto the surface of the article being examined into the material at an angle
and determining various attributes of the material from wheel search unit — an ultrasonic device incorporating
effects on the ultrasonic waves one or more piezoelectric elements mounted inside a
test surface — that surface of a part through which liquid-filled flexible tire. The beam is coupled to the
the ultrasonic energy enters or leaves the part test surface through the rolling contact area of the tire.
through transmission technique — a test procedure in wrap around — the display of misleading reflections
which the ultrasonic vibrations are emitted by one from a previously transmitted pulse, caused by an
search unit and received by another at the opposite excessively high pulse-repetition frequency
surface of the material examined
transducer — an electroacoustical device for converting
electrical energy into acoustical energy and vice versa. 13. Infrared Examination (E 1213)
See also crystal.
absorptance, a — the ratio of radiant flux absorbed
transverse wave — see shear wave.
by a surface to that incident upon it
transverse wave — wave motion in which the particle apparent temperature — the temperature of an object
displacement at each point in a material is perpendicular as determined solely from the measured radiance, assum-
to the direction of propagation (E 494) ing an emissivity of unity
true attenuation — that portion of the observed ultra- background radiation — all radiation received by the
sound energy loss which is intrinsic to the medium infrared sensing device that was not emitted by the
through which the ultrasound propagates. True attenua- specified area of the surface being examined
tion losses may be attributed to the basic mechanisms
background, target — that portion of the background
of absorption and scattering. (E 664)
which is confined to the field of view
ultrasonic — pertaining to mechanical vibrations having blackbody — an ideal thermal radiator (emissivity p
a frequency greater than approximately 20,000 Hz 1.0) that emits and absorbs all of the available thermal
ultrasonic noise level — the large number of unresolved radiation at a given temperature
indications resulting from structure or possibly from blackbody equivalent temperature — the apparent tem-
numerous small discontinuities, or both (E 127) perature of an object as determined from the measured
ultrasonic spectroscopy — analysis of the frequency radiance and the assumption that it is an ideal blackbody
spectrum of an ultrasonic wave with emissivity of 1.0
vee path — the angle-beam path in materials starting differential blackbody — an apparatus for establishing
at the search-unit examination surface, through the two parallel isothermal planar zones of different temper-
material to the reflecting surface, continuing to the atures, and with effective emissivities of 1.0 (E 1213)
examination surface in front of the search unit, and emissivity, e — the ratio of the radiance of a body at
reflection back along the same path to the search unit. a given temperature to the corresponding radiance of
The path is usually shaped like the letter V. a blackbody at the same temperature
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Discussion — For a given target size, the MDTD is the minimum NOTE 22 — The irradiance varies inversely with the square of the
temperature difference between the target and its background at distance; a unique property of point sources.
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ence fringes reduce in contrast by a factor of √ 2 /2 path length diffrerence — the difference in path length
(0.707) from the point of maximum contrast. The between the object beam and the reference beam
coherence length is related to the width of the spectral phase hologram — a recording of the variations in
line emitted from the laser: Lc p c / Dv, where c is light intensity caused by the interference of the reference
the speed of light and Dv is the bandwidth of the beam with the object beam as variations in the thickness
spectral emission line. or index of refraction of the recording medium. The
variations in thickness or index refract coherent light
exposure — the product of irradiance and time required to produce the reconstruction.
to produce a suitable pattern on the recording medium real image — a reproduction of an object by an optical
fringe — one of the light or dark bands produced by system which gathers light from an object point and
the interference of the light scattered by the real object transforms it into a beam that converges toward an-
and the virtual image of the object other point
recording medium — a light-sensitive material which
holography (optical) — a technique for recording, and
detects the interference between the object beam and
reconstructing, the amplitude and phase distributions
the reference beam. Typical recording media used in
of a wave disturbance; widely used as a method of three- holography are silver halide film, thermoplastic film,
dimensional optical image formation. The technique is and electronic detectors such as video tubes and CCD
accomplished by recording the pattern of interference arrays.
between coherent light reflected from the object of
reference beam — laser radiation impinging directly
interest (object beam), and light that comes directly
upon the recording medium through optical components
from the same source (reference beam).
and which typically does not contain information about
interference — the variation with distance or time the test object. In some tests, the reference beam may
of the amplitude of a wave which results from the be reflected or scattered from a portion of the object
superposition of two or more waves having the same, surface. In this case, any object information contained
or nearly the same, frequency in the reference beam is cancelled in the object beam
by the interference between the object beam and the
monochromatic — a property of a beam of electromag- reference beam.
netic radiation in which all waves in the beam have
reference beam angle — the angle formed between
the same wavelength the centerline of the reference beam and the normal
object beam — the portion of laser radiation which to the recording medium
illuminates the test object surface, is scattered, and speckle — the random interference pattern which results
carries object information to the recording medium from the illumination of an optically rough surface
with coherent radiation. In laser systems, it results in
object beam angle — the angle between a line from
the granular effect which can be seen in a scattered
the center of the object to the center of the recording
beam.
medium and the normal to the center of the recording
virtual image — a reproduction of an object by an
medium
optical system which gathers light from an object point
path length — the distance traveled by the laser radiation and transforms it into a beam that appears to diverge
from the beam splitter to the recording medium from another point
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APPENDIX
(Nonmandatory Information)
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