CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

CE454(D) RAILWAY TUNNEL AND AIRPORT ENGINEERING

Note : The given notes are for quick review and basic understanding of subject
and topics to be covered , for indepth details on a particular topic please refer
reference books given in the syllabus.

Syllabus

Railway: Characteristics of railway transport, classification of railway, track standard terminology, track
sections in embankment and cutting, engineering survey.
Railway Track Gauge: Different gauges on indian railways, loading gauge, construction gauge, unigauge,
problems caused by change of gauge.
Track and Track stresses: Requirements, forces acting on track, coning of wheels, tilting of rails, rails: functions,
types of rails, rail joints, rail failure, function suitability and drainage, treatment, defects, standard rail sections.
Sleeper: Functions, requirements, types of sleepers; concrete sleepers, pre stressed, sleeper density,
manufacturing and spacing of sleepers, ballast: function, specifications of track ballast, track fittings: fittings

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and fastening.

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Alignment of Railway lines: Importance, basic requirements of an idealalignment, selection of a good alignment,
geometric design of track: necessity for geometric design, gradients, grade compensation on curves, super
elevation, equilibrium cant, cant deficiency, maximum permissible Speed, negative super elevation.
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Resistance to Traction: Resistance to‐friction, wave action, causes of creep, effects of creep, measures to
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reduce creep. speed, track irregularity, wind, gradient, curvature. stress in rails, sleepers, ballast and formation.
Construction and Track maintenance: Plate laying method, operations involved Tools & common items of track
maintenance.
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Points and crossings: Important terms, types of track layouts and sketchesof turn out, diamond crossing,
triangle, double junction, scissors cross over, single slip, double slip, gathering line, signalling and interlocking:
objectives of signalling, classification of signals, CTC and ATC system, interlocking & it’s principles.
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Railway Stations and yards: Classification of railway stations, Purpose, facilities required at railway stations,
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requirements of station yard, types of yards,

Modernization in railways: Types of railways, high speeds, improvementsin track structure: components,
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automation, safety aspects, introduction to skybus, monorail & metro rails.

Tunnels: Necessity, types, advantages and disadvantages of tunnels compared to open cuts, tunnel alignment,
size and shape of tunnels, tunnel lining,drainage, ventilation & lighting of tunnels, tunnelling methods for soft
ground and hard ground, method of mucking, drilling, and blasting.
Airport: Agencies controlling national and international aviation, various surveys to be conducted,
airport,classifications (ICAO), selection of site for airportAirport obstructions: Zoning laws, imaginary surfaces,
approach and turning zone.
Runway and Taxiway Design: Orientation of runway, wind rose diagram, basic runway length and corrections,
runway geometric design standards, drainage, introduction to pavement design airport layout, terminal area,
unit terminal concept, apron, apron layout, aircraft parking, hangers, environmental guidelines for airport
projects, heliports, main characteristics of helicopters, nature of helicopters transport, site selection for
helicopters

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

Chapter 1 Railway :-

History of Railway :
The first public railway in the world was opened to traffic on 27 September 1825
between Stockton and Darlington in the UK. The first railway line in India was opened
in 1853. The first train, consisting of one steam engine and four coaches, made its
maiden trip on 16 April 1853, when it traversed a 21-mile stretch between Bombay
(now Mumbai) and Thane in 1.25 hours.Starting from this humble beginning, Indian
Railways has grown today into a giant network consisting of 63,221 route km and
criss-crossing this great country from the Himalayan foothills in the north to Cape
Comorin (Kanyakumari) in the south and from Dibrugarh in the east to Dwarka in the
west. Indian Railways has a glorious past of more than 150 years.
Different Modes of Transport
Our environment consists of land, air, and water. These media have provided scope

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for three modes of transport—land transport, air transport and water transport.Rail

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transport and road transport are the two components of land transport. Each mode of
transport, depending upon its various characteristics, has intrinsic strengths and
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weaknesses and can be best used for a particular type of traffic as given below.
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Rail transport : Owing to the heavy expenditure on the basic infrastructure required,
rail transport is best suited for carrying bulk commodities and a large number of
passengers over long distances.
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Road transport : Owing to flexibility of operation and the ability to provide

door-to-door service, road transport is ideally suited for carrying light commodities
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and a small number of passengers over short distances.

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Air transport : Owing to the heavy expenditure on the sophisticated equipment

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required and the high fuel costs, air transport is better suited for carrying passengers
or goods that have to reach their destinations in a very short period of time.
Water transport : Owing to low cost of infrastructure and relatively slow speeds,
water transport is best suited for carrying heavy and bulky goods over long distances,
provided there is no consideration of the time factor.
Railway as a Mode of Land Transport
There are two modes of land transport, railways and roads, and each has its relative
advantages and disadvantages.

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

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Indian Railway
Indian Railways (IR) is at present the biggest public undertaking of the Government of
India, having a capital-at-charge of about Rs 560,000 million. The enactments
regulating the construction and operation of railways in India are the Indian
Tramway act of 1816 and the Indian Railway Act of 1890 as amended from time to
time.

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

Indial Railway Zones

The entire railway system was earlier divided into nine zonal railways. To increase
efficiency, the Railway Ministry decided to set up seven new railway zones. Presently,
Indian Railways is divided into 16 zones, each having different territorial jurisdictions
which vary from 2300 to 7000 route km.

Zone Railway Headquarter

Central CR Mumbai

Eastern ER Kolkata

Northern NR Delhi

Southern SR Chennai

Western WR Mumbai

East Central ECR Hajipur

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North Central NCR Allahabad

South Central SCR

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West Central WCR Jabalpur

North Eastern NER Gorakhpur

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North Western NWR Jaipur

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South Eastern SER Kolkata

South Western SWR Hubli

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South East Central SECR Bilaspur

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Northeast Frontier NFR Malegaon

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East Coast Northern EcoR Bhubaneswar

The zonal railways take care of the railway business in their respective areas and are
responsible for management and planning of all work. Each zonal railway is
administered by a general manager assisted by additional general managers and
heads of departments of different disciplines. The typical organization of a zonal
railway & The duties of the various heads of departments are given below;

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

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Strengths of Indian Railways

The following are the strengths of the Indian Railways system.
a. For a vast country with great distances and a large population, the railways
have an inherent advantage over other modes of transport in their suitability
for movement of large volumes of passenger and goods traffic over long
distances.
b. The movement of steel wheels on steel rails in the railway system has the basic
advantage of low rolling resistance, which reduces energy requirements and
haulage costs.

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

c. Railways are an energy-efficient mode of transport, particularly for freight

traffic, and can use different forms of energy. Railways also cause relatively less
environmental pollution than roadways.
d. In densely populated urban centres, a rapid transit rail-based system is the
most appropriate mode of transport for suburban intra-urban travel, as part of
a city’s integrated transport system.
e. Indian Railways is a well-established organization with a large pool of skilled
and trained personnel.
Weaknesses of Indian Railways
The following are the weaknesses of the Indian Railways system.
a. A large portion of the railway’s infrastructure is overaged, and in urgent need
of replacement or rehabilitation. This includes track, motive power and rolling
stock, signalling, operational, and maintenance equipment.

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b. In certain parts of the infrastructure, the technology is 20–25 years behind some

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of the developed railway systems. Consequently the productivity levels are
comparatively low.
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c. Indian Railways has a large force of unskilled manpower. The training facilities
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need augmentation and modernization.

d. A persistent resource constraint in the past has adversely affected the Railways’
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development.
e. Indian Railways carries a substantial ‘social burden’ in the form of continued
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operation of un-remunerative branch lines, subsidies on passenger and

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suburban travel, and even freight subsidy on certain commodities.

f. In certain areas, pilferage and vandalism seriously affect operational efficiency.
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g. Railways are not suited for carriage of small quantities of freight particularly
over short distances.
h. Heavy investments are needed to build up railway transport capacity and the
gestation periods are long.
i. Transport capacity is volatile and cannot be recouped if not utilized
continuously.
Classification of Railway Lines in India
The Railway Board has classified the railway lines in India based on the importance of
the route, the traffic carried, and the maximum permissible speed on the route. Indian
railways line are classifieds in two major types :
Broad Gauge Routes :-
All the broad gauge (BG) routes of Indian Railways have been classified into five

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

different groups based on speed criteria as given below.

1. Group A lines : These lines are meant for a sanctioned speed of 160 km/h:
2. Group B lines : These lines are meant for a sanctioned speed of 130 kmph:
3. Group C lines :These lines are meant for suburban sections of Mumbai, Kolkata,
and Delhi.
4. Group D and D Spl lines : These lines are meant for sections where the
maximum sanctioned speed is 100 km/h.
5. Group E and E Spl lines : These lines are meant for other sections and branch
lines.
6. D Spl and E Spl routes : Based on the importance of routes, it has been decided
that few selected routes presently falling under D and E routes will be classified
as D special and E special routes. This has been done for the purpose of track
renewal and priority allotment of funds

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Metre Gauge Routes :-

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Depending upon the importance of routes, traffic carried, and maximum permissible
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speed, the metre gauge (MG) tracks of Indian Railways were earlier classified into
three main categories, namely, trunk routes, main lines, and branch lines. These track
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standards have since been revised and now the MG routes have been classified as Q,
R1, R2, R3, and S routes as discussed below.
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1) Q routes : Routes with a maximum permissible speed of more than 75 kmph.The

traffic density is generally more than 2.5 GMT [gross million tonne(s) per km/
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annum].
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2) R routes : Routes with a speed potential of 75 kmph and a traffic density of more
than 1.5 GMT. R routes have further been classified into three categories
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depending upon the volume of traffic:

a) R1—traffic density more than 5 GMT
b) R2—traffic density between 2.5 and 5 GMT
c) R3—traffic density between 1.5 and 2.5 GMT
3) S routes : Routes with a speed potential of less than 75 kmph and a traffic
density of less than 1.5 GMT. These consist of routes that are not covered in Q,
R1, R2, and R3 routes. S routes have been further subclassified into three routes,
namely, S1, S2, and S3.
a) S1 routes : are used for the through movement of freight traffic,
b) S3 routes : are uneconomical branch lines, and
c) S2 routes : are those which are neither S1 nor S3 routes.

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

Permanent Way
The track or permanent way is the railroad on which trains run.

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It consists of two parallel rails fastened to sleepers with a specified distance between
them. The sleepers are embedded in a layer of ballast of specified thickness spread
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over level ground known as formation. The ballast provides a uniform level surface
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and drainage, and transfers the load to a larger area of the formation. The rails are
joined in series by fish plates and bolts and these are fastened to the sleepers with
various types of fittings. The sleepers are spaced at a specified distance and are held
in position by the ballast.
Each component of the track has a specific function to perform. The rails act as
girders to transmit the wheel load of trains to the sleepers. The sleepers hold the rails
in their proper positions, provide a correct gauge with the help of fittings and
fastenings, and transfer the load to the ballast. The formation takes the total load of
the track as well as of the trains moving on it.
The permanent way or track, therefore, consists of the rails, sleepers, fittings and
fastenings, the ballast, and the formation as shown in Fig.
In the early days, a temporary track used to be laid for carrying earth and other
building material for the construction of a railway line; this temporary track used to
be removed subsequently. The track is also called the permanent way in order to

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

distinguish the final track constructed for the movement of trains from the temporary
track constructed to carry building material.

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By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

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Construction of a New Railway Line
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The construction of a new railway line is a capital-intensive project and each

kilometre of a new railway line costs in the range of Rs 6 to 10 million depending
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upon the topography of the area, the standard of construction, and such other
features. It is, therefore, natural that a lot of thought be given when making a final
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decision as to whether a new railway line is at all necessary or not.

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Need for Construction of a New Railway Line

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The need for construction of a new railway line arises because of one or more of
following considerations.
• Strategic reasons : It is sometimes necessary to extend the existing railway line
to a new point of strategic importance so that the defence forces can move
quickly to the same areas in case of any emergency such as the threat of war.
• Political reasons : A new line sometimes becomes necessary to serve the
political needs of the country, for example, the railway line from Pathankot to
Jammu.
• Development of backward areas : Railway lines are sometimes constructed to
develop backward areas. Experience has shown that once railway
communication is available, backward areas develop very fast. The Assam rail
link can be classified in this category.
• To connect new trade centres : Sometimes new trade centres are connected

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

with railway lines for the quick transportation of goods between two trade
centres or from the point of production to the point of consumption.
• To shorten the existing rail link : The existing routes between two important
points may be longer than required. New railway lines are constructed on a
shorter alignment in such cases. A short route is not only economical, but also
helps in the faster movement of goods and passengers. The Konkan Railway is a
typical example.
Doubling of existing single railway lines is also done in a few cases to cope up with the
additional requirement of traffic. Recently, a large number of projects have also been
under taken for converting the existing metre gauge lines into broad gauge lines in
order to have a uniform gauge for the smooth flow of traffic.
Preliminary Investigations for a New Railway Line
Whenever the construction of a new railway line is under consideration, preliminary

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investigations are done by the railway administration to determine how the proposed

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line will fit in with the general scheme of future railway development. The
preliminary investigations are normally based on a careful study of the following:
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a) Existing topo sheets and other maps of the area
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b) Published figures of trade and population of the area to be served

c) Statistical data of existing railway lines in similar terrain in other areas
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As a result of these investigations, it becomes possible to decide whether or not the

new railway line is required and surveys should then be undertaken to get more
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details of the new line being contemplated.

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Types of Surveys
Once a decision has been taken during preliminary investigations about the general
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feasibility and desirability of a railway line, surveys are undertaken before the
construction of the new line. The following types of surveys are normally conducted:
(a) Traffic survey
(b) Reconnaissance survey
(c) Preliminary survey
(d) Final location survey
Traffic Survey
Traffic survey includes a detailed study of the traffic conditions in the area with a
view to determine the
(a) most promising route for the railway in the area,
(b) possible traffic the railway line will carry, and

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

(c) standard of railway line to be followed.

Traffic surveys are normally undertaken in conjunction with reconnaissance or
preliminary engineering surveys so that the technical feasibility and relative costs of
alternative proposals can be formulated. The traffic survey team should work in close
cooperation with the engineering survey team. The survey team should visit all trade
centres in the area and consult local bodies, state governments, and prominent
citizens regarding trade and industry and propose the most suitable alignment for the
new line.
Traffic survey consists of an economic study of the area keeping in mind the various
considerations, information on which should be collected in detail, like Human
resources, Agricultural and mineral resources, Pattern of trade and commerce,
Industries located and projected, Prospects of tourist traffic, Existing transport
facilities etc.
The traffic survey team should make an assessment of the traffic likely to be carried

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by to the new line. While carrying out the survey, details of traffic likely to be offered

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by various government organizations, public bodies, or private enterprises should be
gathered.
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At the end of the survey, a report should be formulated by the officer-in-charge of the
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survey. The formation of the report is governed largely by the nature of the terms of
reference and the investigations made. The traffic survey report should normally
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contain the following information: History of the proposal and terms of references,
Potentials and prospects, Industrial and economic development and traffic
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projections, Population projection and volume of passenger traffic, Existing rates and
rates to be charged, Location of route or routes examined, alternate routes, and
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possible extensions, Station sites and their importance, Train services, section
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capacity, and various alternative ways of increasing capacity etc.

Reconnaissance Survey
This survey consists of a rapid and rough investigation of the area with a view to
determine the technical feasibility of the proposal as well as the rough cost of one or
more alternatives to the new line. The reconnaissance survey (RECCE) is normally
based on contoured survey maps and other data already available without carrying
out detailed investigations in the field. With the help of the maps, different alternative
alignments of the new line are studied.
The general topography of the country is studied by the survey team and then field
data are collected.
Preliminary Survey
The preliminary survey consists of a detailed instrumental examination of the route
to be selected as a result of the reconnaissance survey in order to estimate the cost of

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

the proposed railway line. Based on the preliminary and traffic survey reports,the
railway administration decides whether or not the proposed railway line is to be
constructed.
Instruments for Preliminary Survey
The instruments to be used for a preliminary survey will depend on the topographyof
the country and its flora. The survey instruments normally used are the following.
a. Theodolite for traversing and pegging the centre line
b. Tacheometer for plotting the main features
c. Dumpy level for taking the longitudinal and cross levels
d. Plane table for getting details of various features
e. Prismatic compass for measuring the magnetic bearings of a particular
alignment

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Data

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The following information should normally be collected during a preliminary survey.
a. Geological information such as type of soil strata and the nature of rocks.
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b. Source of availability of construction materials such as sand, aggregate, bricks,
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cement, and timber.

c. Full details of the land and buildings to be acquired.
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d. Details of existing bridges and culverts along with information about proximity
of tanks, bunds, etc., which may affect the design of bridges.
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e. Details of road crossings along with the angles of crossing and the traffic
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expected on the level crossings.

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f. High flood level and low water level of all the rivers and streams falling on the
alignment.
g. Full details of station sites along with the facilities required.
Final Location Survey
Once a decision has been taken for a particular railway line to be constructed, a final
location survey is done. The instruments used are generally the same as in the case of
the preliminary survey. Final location survey is done to prepare working details and
make accurate cost estimates in certain cases. The principal differences between the
preliminary survey and the final survey are as follows.
• In the final location survey, the alignment is fully staked with the help of a
theodolite, whereas it is not obligatory to do so in the case of preliminary
survey.
• In the final location survey, a more detailed project report is prepared and

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 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

submitted.
• All working drawings are prepared in the final location survey.
The following tasks are carried out in the final location survey.
a. The centre line is fully marked by pegs at 20 m. At each 100 m, a large peg
should be used.
b. Masonry pillars are built at tangent points of curves and along the centre line at
intervals of 500 m.
c. Longitudinal and cross levelling is done to ascertain the final gradient of the
alignment. All gradients are compensated for curves.
d. The sites for station yards are fully demarcated.
In the final location survey, the following set of drawings is prepared.
• General map of the country traversed by the project at a scale of about 20 km to

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1 cm Index map, scale about 2.5 km to 1 cm
• Index plan and sections
• Detailed plans and sections ao
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• Plans and cross section
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• Plans of station yards

• Detailed drawings of structures
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• Plans of junction arrangements

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Modern Surveying Techniques for Difficult Terrain

In difficult terrains, particularly in hills, modern techniques and survey aids can be
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utilized for the preliminary survey of railway lines. Some of these survey aids are the
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following
(a) Satellite imagery (remote sensing data)
(b) Aerial photographs
(c) Topographic maps/contour maps
(d) Digital terrain modelling (DTM)
(e) Photogrammetric plotted sheets
Modern techniques were utilized e.g., for carrying out the survey of a proposed
railway line in Kashmir valley from Udhampur to Qazigund. This area consists of
difficult terrain, full of mountains and valleys and sensitive to terrorist activities,
making fieldwork very difficult.
Construction of New Lines
The main work involved in the construction of a new line is the following.

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir

 CE454(D) : Lecture Notes

(a) Land acquisition

(b) Earthwork and bridges
(c) Station building, staff quarters, and other allied facilities, including platforms
(d) and sheds
(e) Plate laying, including ballasting of track
(f) Opening of section for traffic
# practice questions #
1. What are the different modes of transport? Compare rail transport with road transport,
listing advantages and disadvantages of both.
2. Discuss the role of Indian Railways in the social and economic development of the country.
Mention briefly the strengths and weaknesses of the Indian Railways.
3. Give the complete classification of a railway line as adopted by Indian Railways.

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4. Indian railway divided in how many zones ? State their name with headquarters.

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5. Discuss the organizational structure of Indian Railways. How are the duties distributed in a
typical zonal railway headquarter?
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6. What do you understand by a railway track or a permanent way? Mention the requirements
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of an ideal permanent way.

7. What are the component parts of a permanent way? Explain their function in brief.
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8. Draw a typical cross section of a BG double track in embankment and show therein all the
components of the track.
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9. What are the various factors to be kept in mind when conduction a reconnaissance survey
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for a railway track?

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10. Set the order in which the following surveys are carried out for a new railway alignment: (a)
Preliminary survey (b) Reconnaissance survey (c) Final location survey (d) Traffic Survey
11. Describe in detail the objectives and steps involved in the preliminary survey for a new
railway alignment.
12. List the various surveys that need to be undertaken for the construction of a new railway
line and outline their essential objectives.
13. Describe briefly the principal features of a preliminary survey.
14. Explain the following briefly (a) reconnaissance survey, (b) preliminary survey, (c) final
location survey.
15. What is the basic difference between a preliminary survey and a final location survey?
16. Describe briefly the instruments used in preliminary surveys and the details to be given in
the project report of a final location survey.

By Mr. Udayram Patil Sir