Herron Osorio Topicos Previos A La Matematica Superior PDF

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FOUSF DPOKVOUPT i∩u TPO PQFSBDJPOFT CJOBSJBT FO P(A).

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PQFSBDJÓO TF MMBNB BTPDJBUJWB TJ a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c QBSB UPEP
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MBUFSBMFT B J[RVJFSEB Z B EFSFDIB TFBO JHVBMFT EFDJNPT RVF a FT VO
JOWFSTP CJMBUFSBM EF a ∈ A 4J UPEP FMFNFOUP EF A UJFOF VO JOWFSTP
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a MBT TJHVJFOUFT OPUBDJPOFT MB BEJUJWB −a Z MB NVMUJQMJDBUJWB a−1 .
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EBE i = u TPO DPNQBUJCMFT QVFTUP RVF TJ A = B Z A = B FOUPODFT
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0CTFSWBDJÓO $PO FM ÃOJNP EF JS JOUSPEVDJFOEP BM MFDUPS B DVSTPT QPT

UFSJPSFT FO ÃMHFCSB BCTUSBDUB DPODSFUBNFOUF FO UFPSÎB EF HSVQPT VOB
DPTB FT FM DPOKVOUP A Z PUSB MB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB ∗ EFàOJEB FO ÊM 1FSP
KVOUPT FM QBS (A, ∗) EFàOF VOB FTUSVDUVSB BMHFCSBJDB MMBNBEB HSVQPJEF
"IPSB CJFO DVBOEP FO VO HSVQPJEF MB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB FT BTPDJBUJWB
FTUF TF MMBNB TFNJHSVQP Z TJ BEFNÃT UJFOF FMFNFOUP OFVUSP Z FT JO
WFSUJWB MB FTUSVDUVSB TF MMBNB HSVQP 'JOBMNFOUF FM OPNCSF EF HSVQP
BCFMJBOP P DPONVUBUJWP TF MF BTJHOB BM HSVQP DVZB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB FT
DPONVUBUJWB
&KFSDJDJPT
4FBO X VO DPOKVOUP àKP OP WBDÎP Z A FM DPOKVOUP EF UPEBT MBT
GVODJPOFT CJZFDUJWBT EF X FO X. 1BSB f, g ∈ A, DPOTJEFSF MB DPN
QPTJDJÓO EF GVODJPOFT f ◦ g y&T FTUB VOB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB FO
A 4J FT BTÎ yRVÊ QSPQJFEBEFT UJFOF FTUB PQFSBDJÓO 3FTQPOEB MBT
NJTNBT QSFHVOUBT FO FM DBTP EF GVODJPOFT FO HFOFSBM
4FB (A, ∗) VO TFNJHSVQP DPO FMFNFOUP OFVUSP e 1SVFCF RVF TJ

a ∈ A UJFOF JOWFSTP CJMBUFSBM FOUPODFT FTUF FT ÙOJDP
4FBO a, b Z c USFT FMFNFOUPT FO VO TFNJHSVQP (A, ∗) MPT DVBMFT

UJFOFO JOWFSTPT 1SVFCF RVF a ∗ (b ∗ c) UJFOF JOWFSTP Z FTUF FT
(c−1 ∗ b−1 ) ∗ a−1 .

4FB ∗ VOB PQFSBDJÓO DPONVUBUJWB EFàOJEB FO VO DPOKVOUP A.

.VFTUSF RVF VOB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJWBMFODJB R FO A FT DPNQBUJCMF
DPO MB PQFSBDJÓO ∗ TJ Z TPMP TJ
(∀ x, y, z ∈ A) [x R y ⇒ (x ∗ z) R (y ∗ z)].
4FB (G, ·) VO HSVQP Z TFB a ∈ G VO FMFNFOUP àKP %FàOB VOB

OVFWB PQFSBDJÓO ∗ FO FM DPOKVOUP G BTÎ x ∗ y = x · a · y QBSB
UPEP x, y ∈ G. 1SVFCF RVF (G, ∗) FT VO HSVQP JTPNPSGP B (G, ·).
6OB GVODJÓO f : G → H FOUSF EPT HSVQPT (G, ∗) Z (H, ◦) TF MMBNB
JTPNPSàTNP TJ f (a ∗ b) = f (a) ◦ f (b) QBSB UPEP a, b ∈ G Z BEFNÃT
f FT CJZFDUJWB &O FTUF DBTP MPT HSVQPT TF MMBNBO JTPNPSGPT

4FB (G, ∗) VO HSVQP UBM RVF QBSB UPEP QBS EF FMFNFOUPT a Z b

TF DVNQMF RVF (a ∗ b)−1 = a−1 ∗ b−1 . %FNVFTUSF RVF ∗ FT VOB
PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB DPONVUBUJWB
4FBO (G, ◦) Z (H, ∗) HSVQPT 4J FO G × H TF EFàOF
(g1 , h1 ) (g2 , h2 ) = (g1 ◦ g2 , h1 ∗ h2 ),
QSVFCF RVF (G×H, ) FT VO HSVQP &TUF HSVQP TF MMBNB FM QSPEVDUP

EJSFDUP EF (G, ◦) Z (H, ∗)
4FBO (G, ∗) VO HSVQP Z g ∈ G VO FMFNFOUP àKP 4J TF EFàOF f :

G → G QPS f (x) = g −1 ∗ x ∗ g QSVFCF RVF f FT VO JTPNPSàTNP
4FBO (G, ∗) VO HSVQP BCFMJBOP Z f : G → G EBEB QPS f (x) = x−1

1SVFCF RVF f FT VO JTPNPSàTNP
4FB (G, ∗) VO HSVQP Z TVQPOHB RVF f : G → G EFàOJEB QPS

f (x) = x−1 FT VO IPNPNPSàTNP 1SVFCF RVF (G, ∗) FT VO HSVQP
BCFMJBOP 6O IPNPNPSàTNP EF VO HSVQP (G, ∗) FO PUSP HSVQP
(K, ◦) FT VOB GVODJÓO φ : G → K DPO MB QSPQJFEBE
φ(g1 ∗ g2 ) = φ(g1 ) ◦ φ(g2 )
QBSB DBEB g1 , g2 ∈ G

4FB (G, ∗) VO HSVQP UBM QBSB UPEP a ∈ G TF DVNQMF RVF a ∗ a = e

EPOEF e FT FM FMFNFOUP OFVUSP %FNVFTUSF RVF G FT BCFMJBOP

$BQÎUVMP
-PT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT
&YJTUFO WBSJBT NBOFSBT EF QSFTFOUBS MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT QPS FKFNQMP

VTBOEP MB UFPSÎB EF DPOKVOUPT P DPOKVOUPT JOEVDUJWPT -B QSFTFOUBDJÓO
RVF IBDFNPT BDÃ FT WÎB MPT BYJPNBT EF 1FBOP &TUPT QPTUVMBEPT QFSNJ
UFO EFSJWBS UPEB MB BSJUNÊUJDB EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT &O MB GPSNVMB
DJÓO EF MPT BYJPNBT EF 1FBOP TF TVQPOF EF BOUFNBOP MB FYJTUFODJB EFM
DPOKVOUP N
$POTUSVDDJÓO BYJPNÃUJDB EF N

%FàOJDJÓO &M DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT EFOPUBEP QPS N
TF DBSBDUFSJ[B QPS MPT TJHVJFOUFT BYJPNBT MMBNBEPT BYJPNBT EF 1FBOP
"1
&YJTUF VO FMFNFOUP 0 ∈ N MMBNBEP FM DFSP
"1
1BSB DBEB n ∈ N FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP n+ ∈ N MMBNBEP FM TVDFTPS
EF n.
"1
1BSB DBEB n ∈ N, n+ = 0.
"1
4J m, n ∈ N TPO UBMFT RVF m+ = n+ FOUPODFT m = n.
"1
1SJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO TJ S ⊆ N FT UBM RVF J
0 ∈ S Z JJ
n ∈ S ⇒ n+ ∈ S FOUPODFT S = N.
0CTFSWBDJÓO &M QSJNFS BYJPNB EJDF FO QBSUJDVMBS RVF FM DPOKVOUP N

FT OP WBDÎP $PNCJOÃOEPMP DPO "1
EJDF RVF N UJFOF VO FMFNFOUP
FM DFSP RVF OP FT TVDFTPS EF BMHÙO PUSP OBUVSBM BTÎ RVF FM DFSP FT FM
iQSJNFSu FMFNFOUP -PT BYJPNBT "1
Z "1
EJDFO RVF DBEB OBUVSBM
UJFOF VO ÙOJDP TVDFTPS Z RVF EPT OBUVSBMFT EJTUJOUPT UJFOFO TVDFTPSFT

(JVTFQQF 1FBOP
GVF VO NBUFNÃUJDP Z MÓHJDP JUBMJBOP

EJTUJOUPT 0USB NBOFSB EF FOUFOEFS FM BYJPNB "1

FT MB TJHVJFOUF TJ
EFàOJNPT MB GVODJÓO S : N → N QPS S(n) = n+ MB GVODJÓO TVDFTPS EF
n FOUPODFT FTUB GVODJÓO FT JOZFDUJWB 'JOBMNFOUF FM BYJPNB "1
FT
EF NVDIB JNQPSUBODJB QVFT DPOTUJUVZF VOB IFSSBNJFOUB QPEFSPTB QBSB
QSPCBS NVDIBT QSPQJFEBEFT FO FM DPOKVOUP N.
&O UÊSNJOPT TJNQMFT FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT DPOTJTUF
EF VO FMFNFOUP EJTUJOHVJEP FM DFSP
Z MB GVODJÓO TVDFTPSB EF n RVF TBUJT
GBDFO MPT QPTUVMBEPT EF 1FBOP .VDIPT BVUPSFT QSFàFSFO RVF FM FMFNFOUP
EJTUJOHVJEP TFB FM OBUVSBM NBUFNÃUJDBNFOUF FTUP FT JSSFMFWBOUF
'JOBMNFOUF OP QSFTFOUBSFNPT BMVTJÓO QSPGVOEB BOUF FM BTVOUP SFMB
DJPOBEP DPO MB FYJTUFODJB Z MB VOJDJEBE EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT &O MB
SFGFSFODJB <"&> TF SFBMJ[B VOB CSFWF EFTDSJQDJÓO TPCSF FM QBSUJDVMBS Z FO
<#> TF IBDF VOB QSFTFOUBDJÓO NÃT DPNQMFUB
6OB QSJNFSB QSPQJFEBE RVF EFNPTUSBNPT FT RVF FYDFQUVBOEP FM DF
SP DBEB OBUVSBM FT VO TVDFTPS &O MB QSVFCB JMVTUSBNPT FM QPEFS EFM
RVJOUP BYJPNB EF 1FBOP
1SPQPTJDJÓO 5PEP OÙNFSP OBUVSBM EJGFSFOUF EF DFSP FT VO

TVDFTPS
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 6TBNPT FM RVJOUP BYJPNB EFàOJFOEP VO DPOKVOUP EF OB

UVSBMFT RVF SFÙOB MPT FMFNFOUPT RVF UJFOFO MB QSPQJFEBE EFTFBEB Z MVFHP
EFNPTUSBNPT RVF UBM DPOKVOUP FT FO FTUF DBTP N {0}. 4FB S : N → N
MB GVODJÓO TVDFTPSB EBEB QPS S(k) = k + Z EFàOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP
S = {n ∈ N : (∃ m ∈ N) (S(m) = n)} ∪ {0}.
1SPCFNPT RVF S = N, MP DVBM QSVFCB MB QSPQPTJDJÓO /PUFNPT RVF FO

MB EFàOJDJÓO EFM DPOKVOUP S BHSFHBNPT FM DPOKVOUP TJOHVMBS {0} QPS
SB[POFT UÊDOJDBT FT EFDJS QBSB QPEFS BQMJDBS MB DPOEJDJÓO J
EFM BYJP
NB "1
QFSP OP FTUBNPT BàSNBOEP OJ QSPCBOEP RVF 0 TBUJTGBDF MB
QSPQJFEBE FOVODJBEB FO MB QSPQPTJDJÓO 7BNPT B MPT EFUBMMFT EF MB EF
NPTUSBDJÓO
1PS EFàOJDJÓO EF S FM OBUVSBM 0 ∈ S. -VFHP TF DVNQMF J
EFM BYJPNB
"1

4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF n ∈ S Z WFBNPT RVF n+ ∈ S. &O FGFDUP
DPNP n ∈ S FOUPODFT FYJTUF k ∈ N UBM RVF n = k + . -VFHP
S(k + ) = S(n) = n+ ,
MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF n+ ∈ S. 2VFEB BTÎ QSPCBEB MB DPOEJDJÓO JJ

EFM
RVJOUP BYJPNB EF 1FBOP -VFHP UFOFNPT RVF S = N.

4F EFTQSFOEF EFM "YJPNB "1

Z MB QSPQPTJDJÓO QSFWJB RVF MB GVO
DJÓO TVDFTPS EF n, S : N → N {0} FT CJZFDUJWB
" DPOUJOVBDJÓO WBNPT B PDVQBSOPT EF JOUSPEVDJS MBT PQFSBDJPOFT
TVNB Z NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO FO MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT
%FàOJDJÓO &O FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT N EFàOJNPT

MB TVNB i u EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB
∀ m ∈ N, m + 0 = m,
∀ m, n ∈ N, m + n+ = (m + n)+ .
3FJUFSBNPT RVF MBT QSPQJFEBEFT EF MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP EFàOJEBT

FO FM DPOKVOUP N TFSÃO EFNPTUSBEBT VTBOEP FM RVJOUP BYJPNB EF 1FBOP
FTUP FT FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO
5FPSFNB -B TVNB EF EPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT FT PUSP OÙNFSP OBUVSBM

FT EFDJS i u FT VOB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB FO N.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB S = {n ∈ N : (∀ m ∈ N) (m+n ∈ N)} $PNP IFNPT

WFOJEP DPNFOUBOEP MB JEFB FT VTBS FM BYJPNB "1
QBSB EFNPTUSBS RVF
S = N MP RVF QSVFCB FM UFPSFNB 1PS MB EFàOJDJÓO EF TVNB UFOFNPT
RVF 0 ∈ S. 7FBNPT RVF TJ n ∈ S FOUPODFT n+ ∈ S. 4FB m ∈ N. 1PS
MB IJQÓUFTJT EF JOEVDDJÓO m + n ∈ N QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM m Z BTÎ QPS FM
BYJPNB "1
FM TVDFTPS EF m + n FT VO OBUVSBM Z QPS MB EFàOJDJÓO EF
TVNB TF UJFOF RVF (m + n)+ = m + n+ ∈ N, FTUP FT n+ ∈ S.

5FPSFNB -B TVNB EF OBUVSBMFT FT BTPDJBUJWB FTUP FT ∀ m, n, k ∈ N

TF DVNQMF RVF
(n + m) + k = n + (m + k).
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB

S = {k ∈ N : (∀ m, n ∈ N) (n + m) + k = n + (m + k) }.
/VFWBNFOUF MB FTUSBUFHJB FT QSPCBS RVF S = N. 1PS MB EFàOJDJÓO EF TV

NB UFOFNPT RVF QBSB UPEP QBS EF OBUVSBMFT m Z n TF UJFOF RVF
(n + m) + 0 = n + m = n + (m + 0) MP RVF RVJFSF EFDJS RVF 0 ∈ S.
%FNPTUSFNPT RVF k ∈ S ⇒ k + ∈ S. &GFDUJWBNFOUF VTBOEP MB IJQÓUFTJT
EF JOEVDDJÓO Z MB EFàOJDJÓO EF TVNB UFOFNPT RVF QBSB m Z n OBUVSBMFT
(m + n) + k + = [(m + n) + k]+ = [m + (n + k)]+ = m + (n + k)+

= m + (n + k + ).
&TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF k + ∈ S.

"OUFT EF QSPCBS MB QSPQJFEBE DPONVUBUJWB EFNPTUSBNPT MPT TJHVJFO

UFT MFNBT RVF TFSÃO DSVDJBMFT
-FNB 1BSB DBEB m ∈ N, 0 + m = m.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP BOUFT VTBNPT FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO

4FB S = {m ∈ N : 0 + m = m}. 7FBNPT RVF S = N. 1PS EFàOJDJÓO
EF TVNB 0 + 0 = 0 1PS UBOUP 0 ∈ S. "IPSB CJFO TJ m ∈ S FOUPODFT
m+ ∈ S ZB RVF QPS EFàOJDJÓO EF TVNB Z MB IJQÓUFTJT EF JOEVDDJÓO
0 + m+ = (0 + m)+ = m+ . -VFHP S = N.

-FNB 1BSB UPEP QBS EF OBUVSBMFT m, n TF UJFOF RVF
(m + n)+ = m+ + n.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB S = {n ∈ N : (∀ m ∈ N)((m + n)+ = m+ + n)}.

&T DMBSP RVF 0 ∈ S QVFT EBEP m ∈ N, (m + 0)+ = m+ = m+ + 0.
"IPSB EFNPTUSFNPT FM QBTP JOEVDUJWP 4VQPOHBNPT n ∈ S Z TFB m ∈ N.
&OUPODFT
m+ + n+ = (m+ + n)+ %FàOJDJÓO EF TVNB
+ +
= [(m + n) ] )JQÓUFTJT JOEVDUJWB
+ +
= (m + n ) . %FàOJDJÓO EF TVNB
&O DPOTFDVFODJB n+ ∈ S.

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF TJ m Z n TPO OBUVSBMFT FOUPODFT m + n = 0 TJ

Z TPMP TJ m = 0 Z n = 0.
5FPSFNB -B TVNB FO N FT DPONVUBUJWB
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB S = {n ∈ N : (∀ m ∈ N) (m + n = n + m)}.

1SPCFNPT RVF S = N. 1PS MB EFàOJDJÓO EF TVNB Z FM -FNB UFOFNPT
RVF m + 0 = m = 0 + m, ∀ m ∈ N. 1PS UBOUP 0 ∈ S. 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB
RVF n ∈ S FTUP FT ∀ m ∈ N, m + n = n + m. -VFHP
m + n+ = (m + n)+ %FàOJDJÓO EF TVNB
+
= (n + m) )JQÓUFTJT JOEVDUJWB
+
= n + m. 1PS FM -FNB
2VFEB BTÎ QSPCBEP RVF n+ ∈ S.

-B TVNB FO MPT OBUVSBMFT HP[B EF MB QSPQJFEBE DBODFMBUJWB Z MB QSP

QJFEBE VOJGPSNF NÃT QSFDJTBNFOUF

5FPSFNB 4FBO m, n, k ∈ N. &OUPODFT m + k = n + k ⇐⇒ m = n.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO &T JONFEJBUP RVF TJ m = n FOUPODFT m + k = n + k FTUB

FT MB QSPQJFEBE VOJGPSNF
4VQPOHBNPT RVF m + k = n + k Z WFBNPT
RVF m = n FTUB FT MB QSPQJFEBE DBODFMBUJWB
1BSB FMMP VTBNPT PUSB WF[
FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO EF MB TJHVJFOUF GPSNB TFB
S = {k ∈ N : (∀ m, n ∈ N) (m + k = n + k ⇒ m = n)}.
&T JONFEJBUP RVF 0 ∈ S. 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF k ∈ S Z EFNPTUSFNPT

RVF k + ∈ S. /PUFNPT RVF FTUP TJHOJàDB QSPCBS MB BàSNBDJÓO
(∀ m, n ∈ N) (m + k + = n + k + ⇒ m = n).
4FBO QVFT OBUVSBMFT m, n UBMFT RVF m + k + = n + k + . 1PS EFàOJDJÓO EF

TVNB FTUP FT FRVJWBMFOUF B MB JHVBMEBE (m + k)+ = (n + k)+ MP DVBM QPS
FM BYJPNB "1
JNQMJDB RVF m + k = n + k 'JOBMNFOUF QPS MB IJQÓUFTJT
JOEVDUJWB UFOFNPT RVF m = n. )FNPT QSPCBEP BTÎ RVF k + ∈ S Z QPS
UBOUP S = N.

1SPQPTJDJÓO 1BSB UPEP OBUVSBM n TF UJFOF RVF n+ = n + 0+ .
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 6OB QSVFCB TJNQMF FT
n + 0+ = (n + 0)+ = n+ .
4JO FNCBSHP DPNP IFNPT WFOJEP JMVTUSBOEP PUSB FTUSBUFHJB DPOTJTUF FO

VTBS FM RVJOUP BYJPNB EF 1FBOP 1BSB FMMP TFB
S = {n ∈ N : n+ = n + 0+ }.
$PNP 0+ = 0 + 0+ FOUPODFT 0 ∈ S. 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF n ∈ S Z

WFBNPT RVF n+ ∈ S. &O SFBMJEBE FTUP FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF MB IJQÓUFTJT EF
JOEVDDJÓO Z EF RVF n+ + 0+ = (n + 0+ )+ = (n+ )+ .

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n TF UJFOF RVF

n+ = n.
0CTFSWBDJÓO 4J EFàOJNPT 1 := 0+ MB QSPQPTJDJÓO QSFWJB OPT QFSNJUF

EFàOJS
1+ = 1 + 0+ = 1 + 1 =: 2, 2+ = 2 + 0+ = 2 + 1 =: 3, FUD
&M FUDÊUFSB TF KVTUJàDB HSBDJBT BM BYJPNB "1

FT EFDJS FM QSPDFTP TF
QVFEF DPOUJOVBS JOEFàOJEBNFOUF &O WJSUVE EFM BYJPNB "1
FM QSPDFTP

OP MMFWB OVODB BM OÙNFSP 0 Z QPS MPT BYJPNBT "1

Z "1
FM QSPDFTP
OP MMFWB OVODB B VOP EF MPT OÙNFSPT ZB EFàOJEPT 1BSB KVTUJàDBS FTUP
ÙMUJNP WBNPT B EFàOJS MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT QBSB n ∈ N,
J0 = ∅, Jn+ = Jn ∪ {n+ }.
%F GPSNB SFDVSTJWB TF WF RVF Jn = {1, 2, . . . , n} 3B[POFNPT QPS DPO

USBEJDDJÓO Z TVQPOHBNPT ZB EFàOJEPT MPT OBUVSBMFT 0, 1, 2, . . . , m Z RVF
m+ FT VOP EF FTUPT DMBSBNFOUF m+ = 0 Z m+ = m
&OUPODFT m+ ∈ Jp
EPOEF p+ = m %FTDBSUBSFNPT UPEBT MBT QPTJCJMJEBEFT TJ m+ = 1 = 0+
FOUPODFT QPS FM BYJPNB "1
UFOESÎBNPT RVF m = 0 QFSP UBNCJÊO
m = p+ Z QPS UBOUP MMFHBSÎBNPT B MB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO p+ = 0. &TUP EFTDBS
UBSÎB m+ = 1. "IPSB CJFO TJ GVFSB RVF m+ = 2 = 1+ FOUPODFT m = 1 Z
DPNP m = p+ UFOESÎBNPT p+ = 1 = 0+ FTUP FT p = 0 MP DVBM JNQMJDBSÎB
MB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO m+ ∈ J0 = ∅. $PO FTUP EFTDBSUBSÎBNPT RVF m+ = 2. 4J
PDVSSJFSB RVF m+ = 3 = 2+ FOUPODFT m = 2 Z DPNP m = p+ UFOESÎB
NPT p+ = 2 FMMP FT p = 1 -VFHP DPODMVJSÎBNPT RVF m+ = 1, MP DVBM
DPOUSBEJSÎB m+ = 3. 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF m+ ∈ / {1, 2, . . . , k} = Jk Z
WFBNPT RVF m ∈ + + +
/ {1, 2, . . . , k } = Jk+ EPOEF k ∈ Jp . 4J PDVSSJFSB MP
DPOUSBSJP FOUPODFT m+ = k + Z QPS UBOUP m = k 1PS PUSB QBSUF DPNP
k = 0 FYJTUF j ∈ N UBM RVF k = j + Z QPS UBOUP p+ = m = k = j + JNQMJ
DBSÎB p = j. 'JOBMNFOUF DPNP m+ ∈ Jp = Jj ⊂ Jj + = Jk PCUFOESÎBNPT
VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO DPO MB IJQÓUFTJT JOEVDUJWB
" DPOUJOVBDJÓO OPT PDVQBNPT EF MB NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO FO N
%FàOJDJÓO 4F EFàOF MB NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO P FM QSPEVDUP

i · u FO FM
DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB
∀ m ∈ N, m · 0 = 0,
∀ m, n ∈ N, m · n+ = m · n + m.
0CTFSWBDJÓO %F MB EFàOJDJÓO EF QSPEVDUP Z MB PCTFSWBDJÓO BOUFSJPS TF

EFEVDF RVF QBSB UPEP m ∈ N, m · 1 = m QVFTUP RVF
m · 1 = m · 0+ = m · 0 + m = 0 + m = m.
6TBOEP FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO Z FM IFDIP EF RVF MB TVNB FO N FT

VOB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB TF EFNVFTUSB FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB -B NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO EFàOJEB FO N FT VOB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB

FTUP FT TJ m, n ∈ N FOUPODFT m · n ∈ N.
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF FM 5FPSFNB

&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m Z n OBUVSBMFT UBMFT RVF m · n = 0. 1SVFCF RVF

m = 0 ∨ n = 0.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB p ∈ N àKP %FNVFTUSF RVF TJ m · p = 0 QBSB UPEP

m ∈ N, FOUPODFT p = 0.
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP OBUVSBM p UBM RVF m · p = m

QBSB UPEP m ∈ N.
&KFSDJDJP 1BSB UPEP m ∈ N, 0 · m = 0.
0CTFSWBDJÓO %F BIPSB FO BEFMBOUF QBSB EFOPUBS FM QSPEVDUP FOUSF EPT

OBUVSBMFT m Z n PNJUJSFNPT FM QVOUP
"OUFT EF QSPCBS MB DPONVUBUJWJEBE EFM QSPEVDUP QSFTFOUBNPT VO MFNB
RVF KVOUP DPO FM &KFSDJDJP TFSÃO DMBWFT FO TV EFNPTUSBDJÓO
-FNB 1BSB UPEP m, n ∈ N, m+ n = mn + n.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB S = {n ∈ N : (∀ m ∈ N) (m+ n = mn + n)}. 1VFTUP

RVF QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM m, m+ 0 = 0 = m0 + 0 TF DPODMVZF RVF 0 ∈ S.
4VQPOHBNPT RVF n ∈ S Z WFBNPT RVF n+ ∈ S. 4FB m ∈ N. &OUPODFT
m+ n+ = m+ n + m+ %FàOJDJÓO EF QSPEVDUP
+ +
= (mn + n) + m = mn + (n + m ) )JQÓUFTJT JOEVDUJWB
= mn + (n + m)+ %FàOJDJÓO EF TVNB
+ +
= mn + (n + m) = (mn + m) + n 1PS FM -FNB
+ +
= mn + n . %FàOJDJÓO EF QSPEVDUP
%F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB QSPCBEP FM MFNB

5FPSFNB &M QSPEVDUP FO N FT DPONVUBUJWP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB S = {n ∈ N : (∀ m ∈ N) (mn = nm)}. 1BSB WFS RVF

0 ∈ S, àKFNPT VO m ∈ N DVBMRVJFSB Z OPUFNPT RVF QPS MB EFàOJDJÓO EF
QSPEVDUP Z FM &KFSDJDJP TF UJFOF RVF m0 = 0 = 0m. 4VQPOHBNPT
RVF n ∈ S, FT EFDJS RVF mn = nm QBSB UPEP m ∈ N. -VFHP QBSB UPEP
m ∈ N UFOFNPT RVF
mn+ = mn + m %FàOJDJÓO EF QSPEVDUP
= nm + m )JQÓUFTJT JOEVDUJWB
+
= n m, 1PS FM -FNB
MP DVBM EFNVFTUSB RVF n+ ∈ S.

" DPOUJOVBDJÓO EFNPTUSBNPT MB QSPQJFEBE EJTUSJCVUJWB EFM QSPEVDUP

SFTQFDUP B MB TVNB
5FPSFNB 1BSB UPEP m, n, k ∈ N TF DVNQMF RVF
m(n + k) = mn + mk.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB

S = {k ∈ N : (∀ m, n ∈ N) m(n + k) = mn + mk }.
&M OBUVSBM 0 FTUÃ FO S QVFT EBEPT m Z n OBUVSBMFT UFOFNPT RVF
m(n + 0) = mn = mn + 0 = mn + m0.
%FNPTUSFNPT FM QBTP JOEVDUJWP TVQPOHBNPT RVF k ∈ S Z TFBO

m, n ∈ N. &OUPODFT
m(n + k + ) = m(n + k)+ %FàOJDJÓO EF TVNB
= m(n + k) + m %FàOJDJÓO EF QSPEVDUP
= (mn + mk) + m )JQÓUFTJT JOEVDUJWB
= mn + (mk + m) 1PS BTPDJBUJWJEBE EF
+
= mn + mk , %FàOJDJÓO EF QSPEVDUP
MP RVF QSVFCB RVF k + ∈ S.

$PO MB BZVEB EF MB QSPQJFEBE EJTUSJCVUJWB TF EFNVFTUSB MB BTPDJBUJ

WJEBE EFM QSPEVDUP
5FPSFNB -B NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO EFàOJEB FO N FT BTPDJBUJWB QBSB UPEP

m, n, k ∈ N TF UJFOF RVF (mn)k = m(nk).
%FNPTUSBDJÓO &KFSDJDJP

0SEFO FO MPT OBUVSBMFT

3FDPSEFNPT RVF VOB SFMBDJÓO R EFàOJEB FO VO DPOKVOUP OP WBDÎP A TF
EJDF RVF FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF PSEFO TJ FT SFáFYJWB BOUJTJNÊUSJDB Z USBO
TJUJWB &O FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT EFàOJNPT VOB SFMBDJÓO
RVF DVNQMF FTUBT USFT DBSBDUFSÎTUJDBT
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO m Z n OBUVSBMFT %FDJNPT RVF m ≤ n TJ FYJTUF

VO p ∈ N UBM RVF m + p = n.
-B SFMBDJÓO m ≥ n TJHOJàDB n ≤ m.

0CTFSWBDJÓO /PUFNPT RVF QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM m TF UJFOF RVF m ≤ m.

"EFNÃT FM OBUVSBM p EF MB EFàOJDJÓO FOVODJBEB QSFWJBNFOUF FT ÙOJDP
&O FGFDUP TJ p Z q TPO OBUVSBMFT UBMFT RVF m + p = n Z m + q = n
FOUPODFT QPS MB QSPQJFEBE DBODFMBUJWB EF MB TVNB TF UJFOF RVF p = q.
1SPQPTJDJÓO -B SFMBDJÓO i ≤ u FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF PSEFO FO N.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO -B SFáFYJWJEBE FT DMBSB QVFT FYJTUF p = 0 ∈ N UBM RVF

m+0 = m, ∀ m ∈ N. 7FBNPT RVF FT BOUJTJNÊUSJDB TFBO m Z n OBUVSBMFT
UBMFT RVF m ≤ n Z n ≤ m -VFHP FYJTUFO OBUVSBMFT p Z q UBMFT RVF
m + p = n Z n + q = m. 4VTUJUVZFOEP MB QSJNFSB JHVBMEBE FO MB TFHVOEB
MMFHBNPT B RVF m = m + p + q EF EPOEF TF DPODMVZF QPS MB QSPQJFEBE
DBODFMBUJWB EF MB TVNB RVF p + q = 0 Z BTÎ QPS FM &KFSDJDJP TF UJFOF
RVF p = 0 = q MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF m = n. 'JOBMNFOUF QSPCFNPT MB
USBOTJUJWJEBE TJ m ≤ n Z n ≤ k FOUPODFT FYJTUFO OBUVSBMFT p Z q UBMFT
RVF m + p = n Z n + q = k. $PNCJOBOEP FTUBT EPT JHVBMEBEFT UFOFNPT
RVF m + (p + q ) = k Z DPNP p + q ∈ N DPODMVJNPT QPS MB EFàOJDJÓO
RVF m ≤ k. 2VFEB FOUPODFT EFNPTUSBEB MB QSPQPTJDJÓO

0CTFSWBDJÓO &O MB QSPQPTJDJÓO QSFWJB TF EFNPTUSÓ RVF TJ m ≤ n Z

n ≤ m FOUPODFT m = n. &O SFBMJEBE FM SFDÎQSPDP UBNCJÊO UJFOF WBMJEF[
FO FGFDUP TJ m = n DPNP m + 0 = m Z n + 0 = n FOUPODFT m + 0 = n
Z n + 0 = m Z TFHÙO MB EFàOJDJÓO FTUP RVJFSF EFDJS RVF m ≤ n Z n ≤ m
SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF &O DPODMVTJÓO m = n ⇐⇒ (m ≤ n ∧ n ≤ m).
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO m Z n OBUVSBMFT %FDJNPT RVF m < n TJ m ≤ n

Z m = n.
-B SFMBDJÓO m > n TJHOJàDB n < m.
-B TJHVJFOUF BàSNBDJÓO OPT QSPQPSDJPOB VOB DBSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO RVJ[Ã

NÃT NBOFKBCMF EF MB DPNQBSBDJÓO FTUSJDUB RVF TF EFàOJÓ QSFWJBNFOUF
1SPQPTJDJÓO %BEPT OBUVSBMFT m Z n TF UJFOF RVF m < n TJ Z TPMP

TJ FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP p ∈ N UBM RVF m + p+ = n.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 1SPCFNPT QSJNFSP MB FYJTUFODJB 4VQPOHBNPT RVF

m < n Z WFBNPT RVF m + p+ = n QBSB BMHÙO p ∈ N. 1PS EFàOJDJÓO UF
OFNPT RVF m ≤ n Z m = n FT EFDJS FYJTUF q ∈ N UBM RVF m + q = n DPO
m = n. &TUP JNQMJDB RVF q = 0 Z QPS MB 1SPQPTJDJÓO TF UJFOF RVF
q = p+ QBSB BMHÙO OBUVSBM p. &TUP EFNVFTUSB MB DPOEJDJÓO OFDFTBSJB
"IPSB WFBNPT RVF UBNCJÊO FT DPOEJDJÓO TVàDJFOUF 4VQPOHBNPT QVFT
RVF m + p+ = n QBSB BMHÙO p ∈ N. &TUP TJHOJàDB RVF m ≤ n 4J GVFSB
m = n FOUPODFT UFOESÎBNPT RVF p+ = 0 MP RVF DPOUSBEJSÎB FM BYJPNB

"1
Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB FTUB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO HBSBOUJ[B RVF m = n Z BTÎ
m < n. 'JOBMNFOUF EFNPTUSFNPT MB VOJDJEBE FM SB[POBNJFOUP FTUÃOEBS
QBSB EFNPTUSBS VOJDJEBE DPOTJTUF QPS MP HFOFSBM FO TVQPOFS RVF IBZ EPT
FMFNFOUPT RVF WFSJàDBO MB QSPQJFEBE Z QSPCBS RVF TPO JHVBMFT 'JFMFT B
FTUB FTUSBUFHJB TVQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUFO p, q ∈ N UBMFT RVF m + p+ = n
Z m + q + = n -VFHP QPS EFàOJDJÓO EF TVNB UFOFNPT RVF
(m + p)+ = m + p+ = n = m + q + = (m + q)+
Z QPS FM BYJPNB "1

MMFHBNPT B RVF m + p = m + q 1PS MB QSPQJFEBE
DBODFMBUJWB EF MB TVNB UFOFNPT RVF p = q. )FNPT EFNPTUSBEP BTÎ MB
QSPQPTJDJÓO

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF MB 1SPQPTJDJÓO JNQMJDB MB %FàOJDJÓO

&TUP TJHOJàDB RVF DVBMRVJFSB EF MBT EPT BàSNBDJPOFT MB EF MB
QSPQPTJDJÓO Z MB EF MB EFàOJDJÓO
TF QVFEF EFKBS DPNP EFàOJDJÓO Z EF
FMMB TF EFEVDF MB PUSB
0CTFSWBDJÓO /PUFNPT MP TJHVJFOUF
1BSB UPEP OBUVSBM n DPO n = 0, n ≥ 1. &TUP FT EFCJEP B MB FYJT

UFODJB EF VO OBUVSBM p UBM RVF n = p+ Z BTÎ n = p+ = p + 1, MP
DVBM TJHOJàDB MP BàSNBEP
5BNCJÊO TF UJFOF RVF n < m ⇒ n ≤ m.
"EFNÃT TF DVNQMF m ≤ n ⇐⇒ (m < n ∨ m = n). 6OB KVTUJà

DBDJÓO FT DPNP TJHVF m ≤ n JNQMJDB RVF m + p = n QBSB BMHÙO
OBUVSBM p 4J p = 0 FOUPODFT FT EF MB GPSNB p = q + Z QPS UBOUP
m < n; Z TJ p = 0 FOUPODFT m = n. 3FDÎQSPDBNFOUF TJ m < n
FOUPODFT QPS FM DPNFOUBSJP QSFWJP TF UJFOF RVF m ≤ n. 4J m = n
FOUPODFT QPS VOB PCTFSWBDJÓO BOUFSJPS TF UJFOF RVF m ≤ n.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m, n Z p OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT %FNVFTUSF MBT TJHVJFO

UFT BàSNBDJPOFT
B
1BSB UPEP n TF UJFOF RVF n < n + 1.
C
-B SFMBDJÓO i < u FT USBOTJUJWB
D
4F DVNQMF RVF m + p < n + p ⇐⇒ m < n.
E
-B SFMBDJÓO i u FT DPNQBUJCMF DPO MB PQFSBDJÓO i u FT EFDJS TJ
m < n Z p < q FOUPODFT m + p < n + q.

F
4J m < n FOUPODFT m + 1 ≤ n.
G
4J m < n + 1 FOUPODFT m ≤ n.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m, n OBUVSBMFT &MBCPSF VO BSHVNFOUP RVF KVTUJà
RVF MB GBMTFEBE EF MBT BàSNBDJPOFT TJHVJFOUFT
B
m < n Z m = n.
C
n < m Z m = n.
D
m < n Z n < m.
&M QSÓYJNP SFTVMUBEP FYQSFTB RVF EBEPT EPT OBUVSBMFT BSCJUSBSJPT TPMB
NFOUF QVFEF PDVSSJS VOB EF USFT QPTJCJMJEBEFT MP DVBM QSFDJTBNFOUF EB
FM OPNCSF BM UFPSFNB
5FPSFNB -FZ EF USJDPUPNÎB
%BEPT EPT OBUVSBMFT m Z n TPMP VOB
EF MBT USFT QPTJCJMJEBEFT FT WFSEBEFSB m < n, m = n, n < m.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 1PS FM &KFSDJDJP OP QVFEFO PDVSSJS EPT EF MBT BàSNB
DJPOFT FYQSFTBEBT FO FM UFPSFNB EF NBOFSB TJNVMUÃOFB 1PS UBOUP CBTUB
QSPCBS RVF BM NFOPT VOB EF FMMBT TÎ TF QSFTFOUB 1BSB FMMP BQMJDBNPT FM
QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO BM DPOKVOUP
S = {n ∈ N : (∀ m ∈ N) (TPMP VOB PDVSSF m < n, m = n, n < m)}.
4FB m ∈ N 4F UJFOFO EPT DBTPT m = 0 P m = 0. 4J FM QSJNFS DBTP

PDVSSF FOUPODFT 0 ∈ S. 4J TF EB FM TFHVOEP DBTP FOUPODFT m > 0, FT
EFDJS 0 < m &TUP JNQMJDB RVF 0 ∈ S. "IPSB QSPCFNPT MB JNQMJDBDJÓO
n ∈ S ⇒ n+ ∈ S : TFB m ∈ N. 1PS MB IJQÓUFTJT JOEVDUJWB TF UJFOF
4J m < n DPNP n < n+ FOUPODFT m < n+ .
4J m = n DPNP n < n+ FOUPODFT m < n+ .
4J n < m QPS FM &KFSDJDJP E
n+ ≤ m -B PCTFSWBDJÓO EF MB QÃHJOB
JNQMJDB RVF n+ < m ∨ n+ = m.
&O DVBMRVJFS DBTP TF DPODMVZF RVF n+ ∈ S Z QPS UBOUP S = N.

0CTFSWBDJÓO $PNCJOBOEP MB UFSDFSB QBSUF EF MB PCTFSWBDJÓO QSFTFOUB

EB FO MB QÃHJOB DPO MB -FZ EF 5SJDPUPNÎB TF EFEVDF MB FRVJWBMFODJB
m n ⇐⇒ m > n. %F FTUP TF EFTQSFOEF RVF MB SFMBDJÓO i ≤ u EFàOJEB
FO FM DPOKVOUP N FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF PSEFO UPUBM FT EFDJS EBEPT OBUV
SBMFT m Z n TF UJFOF RVF m ≤ n ∨ n ≤ m. /ÓUFTF RVF MB EJTZVODJÓO
QSFWJB FT WFSEBEFSB ZB RVF TV OFHBDJÓO FT VOB QSPQPTJDJÓO GBMTB
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m, n Z p OBUVSBMFT DPO p = 0. %FNVFTUSF
m < n ⇐⇒ mp < np.

&M QSÓYJNP FKFSDJDJP FYQSFTB RVF FM QSPEVDUP QFSNJUF DBODFMBS GBD

UPSFT OP OVMPT
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m, n Z p OBUVSBMFT DPO p = 0. %FNVFTUSF
mp = np ⇐⇒ m = n.
1SJODJQJP EFM CVFO PSEFO

$PNP WFSFNPT B DPOUJOVBDJÓO FTUF QSJODJQJP QVFEF EFEVDJSTF EFM QSJO
DJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO JODMVTP TPO MÓHJDBNFOUF FRVJWBMFOUFT FT EFDJS TF
JNQMJDBO NVUVBNFOUF
5FPSFNB 1SJODJQJP EFM CVFO PSEFO 1#0
4FB A ⊆ N OP WBDÎP
&OUPODFT FM DPOKVOUP A UJFOF VO NFOPS FMFNFOUP FT EFDJS FYJTUF m ∈ A
UBM RVF m ≤ a, ∀ a ∈ A (m FT FM NÎOJNP EF A).
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP FT MP FTUÃOEBS BM BQMJDBS FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO
EFàOJNPT VO DPOKVOUP RVF UFOHB MPT FMFNFOUPT DPO MB QSPQJFEBE EFTFB
EB %FàOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP
S = {n ∈ N : (∀ a ∈ A) (n ≤ a)}.
$PNP A = ∅ FYJTUF a ∈ A /PUFNPT RVF N S QVFTUP RVF FYJTUF VO

OBUVSBM RVF OP FTUÃ FO S, B TBCFS a +1 ∈
/ S ZB RVF a +1 > a
1PS UBOUP
S = N QFSP 0 ∈ S. -VFHP MB DPOEJDJÓO JJ
EFM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO OP
TF DVNQMF FYJTUF m ∈ S UBM RVF m + 1 ∈ / S 7FBNPT RVF FTUF FMFNFOUP
m SFTVMUB TFS FM NÎOJNP EF A DPNP m ∈ S FOUPODFT m ≤ a ∀ a ∈ A
TPMP SFTUB WFS RVF m ∈ A &O FGFDUP EBEP RVF m + 1 ∈ / S FOUPODFT
FYJTUF VO a ∈ A UBM RVF m + 1 > a &M &KFSDJDJP E
JNQMJDB RVF
a ≤ m Z QPS PUSB QBSUF m ≤ a MP DVBM RVJFSF EFDJS RVF m = a ∈ A.
&TUP EFNVFTUSB FM UFPSFNB
&KFSDJDJP 4FB m ∈ N àKP %FNVFTUSF RVF OP FYJTUFO OÙNFSPT

OBUVSBMFT k UBMFT RVF m < k < m + 1.
&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB FT VOB NPEJàDBDJÓO EFM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO
Z TVFMF MMBNBSTF QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO DPNQMFUB &T DPOTFDVFODJB EFM
1#0 QSJODJQJP EFM CVFO PSEFO
5FPSFNB 1SJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO DPNQMFUB
4FBO a ∈ N àKP Z
S ⊆ {k ∈ N : k ≥ a} UBMFT RVF
J
a ∈ S,
JJ
4J QBSB UPEP j ∈ N DPO a ≤ j ≤ n, j ∈ S FOUPODFT n + 1 ∈ S.

&OUPODFT S = {k ∈ N : k ≥ a}
0CTFSWBDJÓO &TUF QSJODJQJP EJàFSF FO TVT EPT DPOEJDJPOFT EFM EBEP

QPS FM RVJOUP BYJPNB EF 1FBOP -B QSJNFSB EJGFSFODJB FT RVF FM OBUVSBM a
QVFEF TFS EJGFSFOUF EF DFSP MB TFHVOEB FT RVF QBSB RVF n + 1 QFSUFOF[DB
B S FYJHF RVF a, a + 1, · · · , n FTUÊO FO S MB UFSDFSB EJGFSFODJB FT RVF MB
DPODMVTJÓO OP FT RVF S = N TJOP RVF MB DPODMVTJÓO FT RVF
S = {k ∈ N : k ≥ a}.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 6TBSFNPT QSVFCB JOEJSFDUB FTUP FT TVQPOHBNPT RVF

S = {k ∈ N : k ≥ a} Z EFàOBNPT A = {k ∈ N : k ≥ a} S 1PS FM TV
QVFTUP RVF FTUBNPT IBDJFOEP SFTVMUB RVF A = ∅. 1PS FM 1#0 BQMJDBEP BM
DPOKVOUP A FYJTUF VO NFOPS FMFNFOUP m ∈ A UBM RVF m ≤ k, ∀ k ∈ A
$PNP m ∈ A FOUPODFT m ≥ a Z m ∈ / S 1PS MB IJQÓUFTJT J
OFDFTBSJB
NFOUF m > a. &TUP HBSBOUJ[B RVF m = 0 Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM
p UBM RVF m = p+ "àSNBNPT RVF BMHVOP EF MPT OÙNFSPT a, a + 1, · · ·, p
OP FTUÃ FO S ZB RVF TJ UPEPT QFSUFOFDJFSBO BM DPOKVOUP S FOUPODFT QPS
MB IJQÓUFTJT JJ
TF UFOESÎB RVF p+ = m UBNCJÊO FTUBSÎB FO S MP DVBM OP
FT DJFSUP 4FB FOUPODFT l UBM OÙNFSP OBUVSBM RVF OP FTUÃ FO S Z OPUFNPT
RVF a < l ≤ p < p+ = m. %F FTUB NBOFSB IFNPT IBMMBEP VO OBUVSBM
l ∈ A DPO l < m DPOUSBEJDJFOEP BTÎ MB NJOJNBMJEBE EFM OÙNFSP m. &TUB
DPOUSBEJDDJÓO EFNVFTUSB FM UFPSFNB

" DPOUJOVBDJÓO QSFTFOUBNPT VOB WFSTJÓO EFM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO

RVF FT DPNP VOB iDPNCJOBDJÓOu EF MBT EPT BOUFSJPSFT -B DPNCJOBDJÓO TF
FYQMJDB FO RVF MB QSJNFSB DPOEJDJÓO FT DPNP FO FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO
DPNQMFUB Z MB TFHVOEB DPOEJDJÓO DPNP FO FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO
EBEP QPS "1
FT EFDJS QBSB RVF FM TVDFTPS EF n ≥ a QFSUFOF[DB BM
DPOKVOUP S TF SFRVJFSF RVF n MP FTUÊ /P TF FYJHF RVF a, a + 1, · · · , n
FTUÊO FO S
5FPSFNB 1SJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO

4FBO a ∈ N àKP Z
S ⊆ {k ∈ N : k ≥ a}
UBMFT RVF
J
a ∈ S,
JJ
(∀ n ≥ a) (n ∈ S ⇒ n + 1 ∈ S).
&OUPODFT S = {k ∈ N : k ≥ a}

%FNPTUSBDJÓO #BTUB QSPCBS RVF TF DVNQMF MB DPOEJDJÓO JJ

EFM QSJODJQJP
EF JOEVDDJÓO DPNQMFUB 4VQPOHBNPT FOUPODFT RVF j ∈ N DPO a ≤ j ≤ n
Z UBM RVF j ∈ S 1SPCFNPT RVF n + 1 ∈ S. &TUP FT JONFEJBUP ZB RVF
j = n ∈ S DPO n ≥ a Z QPS MB IJQÓUFTJT JJ
EF FTUF UFPSFNB TF DPODMVZF
RVF n + 1 ∈ S. 2VFEB BTÎ EFNPTUSBEP FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO
0CTFSWBDJÓO "M SFBMJ[BS VOB MFDUVSB DVJEBEPTB EF MBT QSVFCBT RVF IF
NPT QSFTFOUBEP FO FTUB TFDDJÓO FT JNQPSUBOUF OPUBS RVF IFNPT QSPCBEP
MP TJHVJFOUF
"1
⇒ 1#0 ⇒ 1SJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO DPNQMFUB ⇒ 5FPSFNB
7FSFNPT RVF FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO UBNCJÊO JNQMJDB FM BYJPNB
"1
DPNQMFUÃOEPTF BTÎ FM DJDMP RVF EFNVFTUSB MB FRVJWBMFODJB EF UPEPT
FTUPT QSJODJQJPT 1PS FTUB SB[ÓO TF TVFMF BTJHOBS FM OPNCSF EF QSJODJQJP
EF JOEVDDJÓO NBUFNÃUJDB B DVBMRVJFSB EF FTUPT QSJODJQJPT
5FPSFNB &M QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO JNQMJDB FM BYJPNB EF 1FBOP
"1

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 5PNBEB EF <+(3>
4FB a ∈ N àKP WFSJàDBOEP FM QSJO
DJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO 7FBNPT RVF TF DVNQMF FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO
EBEP QPS "1
4FB S ⊆ N UBM RVF
(i1 ) 0 ∈ S,
(i2 ) (∀ n ∈ N) (n ∈ S ⇒ n + 1 ∈ S)
%FCFNPT EFNPTUSBS QBSB DVMNJOBS MB QSVFCB RVF S = N. 1BSB FMMP TF
JOUSPEVDFO MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT
U = {k ∈ N : (∃ s ∈ S) (k = a + s)}, T = {k ∈ N : k ≥ a}.
&T JONFEJBUP RVF U ⊆ T. &O SFBMJEBE U = T 1BSB EFNPTUSBSMP WBNPT
B VUJMJ[BS FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO QSJNFSP OPUFNPT RVF a ∈ U QVFT
a = a + 0 Z 0 ∈ S QPS (i1 ) "IPSB WFBNPT RVF TF DVNQMF MB DPOEJDJÓO
JJ
DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF BM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO 4FB n ≥ a, n ∈ U
-VFHP FYJTUF s ∈ S UBM RVF n = a + s Z BTÎ n + 1 = a + (s + 1). 1PS
MB IJQÓUFTJT (i2 ) UFOFNPT RVF s + 1 ∈ S Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB n + 1 ∈ U.
)FNPT QSPCBEP RVF TJ n ∈ U DPO n ≥ a FOUPODFT n+1 ∈ U. &M QSJODJQJP
EF JOEVDDJÓO JNQMJDB RVF U = T. 1BSB UFSNJOBS MB QSVFCB CBTUB WFS
RVF N ⊆ S ZB RVF QPS IJQÓUFTJT TF UJFOF MB JODMVTJÓO JOWFSTB 4FB m ∈ N
Z OÓUFTF RVF m + a ≥ a MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF m + a ∈ T = U. 1PS UBOUP
FYJTUF s ∈ S UBM RVF m + a = a + s , FTUP FT m = s . $PNP s ∈ S
FOUPODFT m ∈ S Z BTÎ RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP RVF S = N Z RVFEB UBNCJÊO
EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB

0CTFSWBDJÓO J
6OB QSVFCB EJSFDUB EFM UFPSFNB QSFWJP DPOTJTUF FO UP
NBS a = 0 FO FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO
JJ
&O MB QSÃDUJDB FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO TVFMF BQMJDBSTF NÃT FO
UÊSNJOPT EF QSPQJFEBEFT RVF FO UÊSNJOPT EF DPOKVOUPT Z TF VTB EF MB
TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB TFBO a ∈ N àKP Z Pn VOB QSPQJFEBE RVF TF DVNQMF
QBSB FM OÙNFSP OBUVSBM n &OUPODFT Pn FT DJFSUB QBSB UPEPT MPT OÙNFSPT
OBUVSBMFT EFM DPOKVOUP {k ∈ N : k ≥ a} TJFNQSF RVF
B
Pa TFB WFSEBEFSB QBTP CBTF

C
4J Pk TF DVNQMF DPO k ≥ a FOUPODFT Pk+1 UBNCJÊO QBTP JOEVDUJWP

&KFSDJDJP 6UJMJDF FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO NBUFNÃUJDB DVBOEP TFB
FM DBTP QBSB EFNPTUSBS MBT TJHVJFOUFT QSPQPTJDJPOFT
4FBO f : N → N Z g : N → N EPT GVODJPOFT 4FBO p Z q OBUVSBMFT
UBMFT RVF q ≥ p Z p FTUÃ àKP 4F EFàOF MB OPUBDJÓO

p
q+1
q
f (i) = f (p), f (i) = f (i) + f (q + 1) TJ q > p.
i=p i=p i=p
%FNVFTUSF RVF TJ m Z n TPO OBUVSBMFT àKPT FOUPODFT QBSB UPEP

OBUVSBM k ≥ p TF DVNQMF RVF

k
k
k
[m · f (i) + n · g(i)] = m f (i) + n g(i).
i=p i=p i=p
0CTFSWFNPT RVF EF MB EFàOJDJÓO TF EFEVDF RVF

k
f (i) = f (p) + f (p + 1) + · · · + f (k). (7FS QJF EF QÃHJOB ).
i=p

n
1BSB UPEP n ≥ 1 TF UJFOF RVF 2(1+2+· · ·+n) = 2 i = n(n+1).
i=1
1BSB UPEP n ≥ 1 TF UJFOF RVF

n
6(12 + 22 + · · · + n2 ) = 6 i2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1).
i=1

k

&T QPS FTUP RVF MB OPUBDJÓO f (i) TF MFF DPNP MB TVNB EF MPT f (i) WBSJBOEP i
i=p
EFTEF p IBTUB k.


n
1BSB UPEP n ≥ 1 : 4(13 + 23 + · · · + n3 ) = 4 i3 = n2 (n + 1)2 .
i=1
7FS QJF EF QÃHJOB

1BSB UPEP n ≥ 1 TF UJFOF RVF 3[1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + · · · + n(n + 1)] =

n
3 i(i + 1) = n(n + 1)(n + 2).
i=1
$PNCJOBOEP MPT SFTVMUBEPT EF MPT &KFSDJDJPT Z TF EFNVFTUSB

FM &KFSDJDJP TJO VUJMJ[BS JOEVDDJÓO +VTUJàRVF FTUB BàSNBDJÓO

n
1BSB UPEP n ∈ N TF DVNQMF RVF [2i+1] = (n+1)2 . 1SPQPSDJPOF
i=0
VOB JOUFSQSFUBDJÓO EF FTUF SFTVMUBEP

n
%FNVFTUSF RVF ∀ n ∈ N, (2i + 1)3 = (n + 1)2 (2n2 + 4n + 1).
i=0

n
%FEV[DB VOB GÓSNVMB QBSB 6k(k + 1).
k=1
4FBO f : N → N VOB GVODJÓO Z m < n OBUVSBMFT àKPT %FNVFTUSF

MB QSPQJFEBE MMBNBEB TVNB UFMFTDÓQJDB

n
[f (i + 1) − f (i)] = f (n + 1) − f (m).
i=m
4FBO p, q, n ∈ N DPO p ≥ 1 Z q ≥ 1 àKPT 4F EFàOF q 0 = 1 Z QBSB

n > 0 q n+1 := q n q.
B
1SVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP QBS EF OBUVSBMFT m Z n TF DVNQMF
RVF q n q m = q n+m .
C
4J p < q FOUPODFT pn < q n .
1BSB UPEP n ∈ N UFOFNPT RVF 3n ≥ 2n + 1.
1BSB UPEP n ≥ 6, 2n > 7n.
1BSB UPEP n ≥ 4, 3n > n3 .
1BSB UPEP n ≥ 4, 3n > 3n + 25.

/PUF RVF EF MPT FKFSDJDJPT Z TF EFEVDF RVF ∀ n ≥ 1, 13 + 23 + · · · + n3 =
(1 + 2 + · · · + n)2 .

4FBO k VO OBUVSBM àKP Z n ∈ N 1SVFCF MB TJHVJFOUF EFTJHVBMEBE

MMBNBEB EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ (1 + k)n ≥ 1 + nk.
4F EFàOF FM GBDUPSJBM EF VO OBUVSBM n BTÎ
0! := 1; n! := 1 · 2 · 3 · · · n,
TJ n ≥ 1. 1SVFCF RVF TJ n ≥ 4 FOUPODFT 2n < n! < nn .
/PUB "MHVOPT FKFSDJDJPT QSFTFOUBEPT FO FTUF DBQÎUVMP GVFSPO FYUSBÎ

EPT EFM UFYUP i5FPSÎB EF OÙNFSPT QBSB QSJODJQJBOUFTu
'BDVMUBE
EF $JFODJBT 6OJWFSTJEBE /BDJPOBM EF $PMPNCJB EF MPT BVUPSFT - 3 +JNÊ
OF[ #FDFSSB + & (PSEJMMP "SEJMB Z ( / 3VCJBOP 0SUFHÓO 4JNJMBSNFOUF
BMHVOBT JEFBT Z EFNPTUSBDJPOFT QSFTFOUBEBT TF FYUSBDUBSPO EF BMMÎ PC
WJBNFOUF DPO MB BVUPSJ[BDJÓO EF MPT BVUPSFT

$BQÎUVMP
-PT OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT
3FDPSEFNPT RVF UPEB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJWBMFODJB FO VO DPOKVOUP PSJHJOB

VOB QBSUJDJÓO EF EJDIP DPOKVOUP FO DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB .ÃT FYBD
UBNFOUF TJ R FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJWBMFODJB FO VO DPOKVOUP U OP
WBDÎP FOUPODFT FTUF RVFEB QBSUJDJPOBEP FO DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB Z FO
DPOTFDVFODJB QBSB a ∈ U TF EFàOF MB DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB EF a DPNP
[a] := {x ∈ U : x R a}.
%F JONFEJBUP TF QVFEF WFS RVF [b] = [a] ⇐⇒ b R a ⇐⇒ b ∈ [a].
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a, b ∈ U Z R VOB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJWBMFODJB EFàOJEB

FO U . 1SVFCF RVF
[b] = [a] ⇐⇒ b R a ⇐⇒ b ∈ [a].
$POTUSVDDJÓO EF MPT OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT

%JTQPOJFOEP IBTUB BIPSB TPMP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT FYJTUFO QSPCMF
NBT RVF OP UJFOFO TPMVDJÓO 1PS FKFNQMP FODPOUSBS VO OBUVSBM x UBM RVF
x + 8 = 2 P x + 16 = 10 &O SFBMJEBE IBZ NVDIBT FDVBDJPOFT TJNJMBSFT
RVF OP UJFOFO TPMVDJÓO FO FM DPOKVOUP N. &TUP PCMJHB B DSFBS PUSP TJTUFNB
OVNÊSJDP EPOEF FTUB TJUVBDJÓO TF QVFEB SFTPMWFS 4J SFQSFTFOUBNPT MPT
OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT JOWPMVDSBEPT FO DBEB VOB EF MBT FDVBDJPOFT BOUFSJP
SFT FO QBSFKBT FT EFDJS (2, 8) Z (10, 16) OPUBNPT RVF 2 + 16 = 8 + 10
$PO FTUP ÙMUJNP QSFUFOEFNPT EBS VOB MJHFSB NPUJWBDJÓO EF MB NBOFSB
DPNP WBNPT B DPOTUSVJS FTUF DPOKVOUP OVNÊSJDP
%FàOJDJÓO &O FM DPOKVOUP N × N := N2 EFàOJNPT MB SFMBDJÓO ≈ EF

MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB
(m, n) ≈ (p, q) ⇔ m + q = n + p.

1SPQPTJDJÓO -B SFMBDJÓO ≈ EFàOJEB FO N2 FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJ

WBMFODJB
%FNPTUSBDJÓO &O SFBMJEBE FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF MB EFàOJDJÓO Z EF RVF

MB JHVBMEBE FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJWBMFODJB -B SFáFYJWJEBE Z MB TJNF
USÎB TPO JONFEJBUBT 7FBNPT MB USBOTJUJWJEBE TFBO (m, n), (p, q) Z (r, s)
FMFNFOUPT EF ∈ N2 UBMFT RVF (m, n) ≈ (p, q) Z (p, q) ≈ (r, s) -VFHP
m + q = n + p Z p + s = q + r Z BM BQMJDBS FM 5FPSFNB PCUFOFNPT
RVF m + q + s = n + p + s Z p + s + n = q + r + n %F FTUP DPODMVJNPT
RVF m + s = r + n MP DVBM TJHOJàDB RVF (m, n) ≈ (r, s)
-BT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB PSJHJOBEBT QPS MB SFMBDJÓO ≈ MBT EFOPUB

NPT [(m, n)] Z FM DPOKVOUP EF UPEBT FTUBT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB DPOT
UJUVZF OVFTUSP QSÓYJNP DPOKVOUP OVNÊSJDP

%FàOJDJÓO &M DPOKVOUP EF MBT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB N2 ≈ MP
MMBNBNPT FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT Z MP EFOPUBNPT QPS Z FT
EFDJS
Z := N2 ≈ .
&M QBTP B TFHVJS BIPSB FT EFàOJS FO FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT FOUF

SPT MBT PQFSBDJPOFT EF TVNB Z EF QSPEVDUP "OUFT EF FTP EFCFNPT SFBMJ[BS
VO QBTP JOUFSNFEJP FM DVBM DPOTJTUF FO EFàOJS DJFSUBT PQFSBDJPOFT FO N2
RVF OPT QFSNJUJSÃO QSFTFOUBS MBT EFàOJDJPOFT EF MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP
FO Z.
%FàOJDJÓO %FàOJNPT FO FM DPOKVOUP N × N MBT TJHVJFOUFT MFZFT EF

DPNQPTJDJÓO JOUFSOBT

(m, n) ⊕ (p, q) := (m + p, n + q)
(m, n) (p, q) := (mp + nq, mq + np).
&KFSDJDJP .VFTUSF RVF MBT PQFSBDJPOFT ⊕ Z EFàOJEBT FO N × N

TPO DPONVUBUJWBT Z BTPDJBUJWBT
1SPQPTJDJÓO -B SFMBDJÓO ≈ FT DPNQBUJCMF DPO MBT PQFSBDJPOFT ⊕ Z

EFàOJEBT FO N × N
%FNPTUSBDJÓO %FCFNPT NPTUSBS RVF TJ (m, n) ≈ (p, q) Z (m , n ) ≈

(p , q ) FOUPODFT

(m, n) ⊕ (m , n ) ≈ (p, q) ⊕ (p , q )

(m, n) (m , n ) ≈ (p, q) (p , q ).

7FBNPT MB TFHVOEB EF FMMBT Z EBEP RVF MB QSJNFSB FT TFODJMMB MB EFKBNPT

DPNP FKFSDJDJP QBSB FM MFDUPS 1VFTUP RVF

(m, n) (m , n ) = (mm + nn , mn + nm )

(p, q) (p , q ) = (pp + qq , pq + qp ),
EFCFNPT DPODMVJS RVF
mm + nn + pq + qp = mn + nm + pp + qq .
&GFDUJWBNFOUF EF MBT IJQÓUFTJT PCUFOFNPT RVF
m + q = p + n ⇒ mm + qm = pm + nm

p+n=m+q⇒ pn + nn = mn + qn
m + q = p + n ⇒ pm + pq = pp + pn
p + n = m + q ⇒

qp + qn = qm + qq .
4VNBOEP FTUBT DVBUSP JHVBMEBEFT EF MB EFSFDIB Z VUJMJ[BOEP MB QSPQJFEBE

DBODFMBUJWB EF MB TVNB FO OBUVSBMFT MMFHBNPT B
&TUP UFSNJOB MB
EFNPTUSBDJÓO EF MB QSPQPTJDJÓO

-B JNQPSUBODJB EF MB DPNQBUJCJMJEBE SBEJDB FO RVF QFSNJUF EFàOJS

PQFSBDJPOFT FOUSF DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB Z BEFNÃT RVF EJDIBT PQFSBDJP
OFT TPO JOEFQFOEJFOUFT EF MPT SFQSFTFOUBOUFT EF DMBTF RVF TF FTDPKBO
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO [(m, n)], [(p, q)] ∈ Z %FàOJNPT MB TVNB FOUSF
FMMPT EFOPUBEB QPS i + u EF MB TJHVJFOUF GPSNB
[(m, n)] + [(p, q)] := [(m, n) ⊕ (p, q)].
7FBNPT RVF FTUB TVNB FO Z FTUÃ CJFO EFàOJEB FTUP FT RVF MB TVNB FT
JOEFQFOEJFOUF EF MPT SFQSFTFOUBOUFT EF DMBTF FTDPHJEPT 4FBO (m , n ) ≈
(m, n) Z (p , q ) ≈ (p, q) $PNP ⊕ Z ≈ TPO DPNQBUJCMFT FOUPODFT
(m , n ) ⊕ (p , q ) ≈ (m, n) ⊕ (p, q)
Z QPS UBOUP [(m , n ) ⊕ (p , q )] = [(m, n) ⊕ (p, q)], MP DVBM TJHOJàDB RVF
[(m , n )] + [(p , q )] = [(m, n)] + [(p, q)]
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO [(m, n)], [(p, q)] ∈ Z %FàOJNPT FM QSPEVDUP FOUSF
FMMPT EFOPUBEP QPS i · u EF MB TJHVJFOUF GPSNB
[(m, n)] · [(p, q)] := [(m, n) (p, q)].
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF MB NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO EFàOJEB FO Z FT JOEFQFO

EJFOUF EF MPT SFQSFTFOUBOUFT EF DMBTF FTDPHJEPT

&O FM QSÓYJNP UFPSFNB SFTVNJNPT MBT QSJODJQBMFT QSPQJFEBEFT EF

MBT PQFSBDJPOFT EF TVNB Z EF QSPEVDUP EFàOJEBT FO FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT
OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT
5FPSFNB -BT PQFSBDJPOFT i + u Z i · u EFàOJEBT FO Z TBUJTGBDFO MBT
TJHVJFOUFT QSPQJFEBEFT
B
4PO BTPDJBUJWBT Z DPONVUBUJWBT
C
5JFOFO VO ÙOJDP FMFNFOUP OFVUSP [(0, 0)] FT FM NÓEVMP EF MB TVNB
Z [(1, 0)] FT FM OFVUSP EFM QSPEVDUP
D
-B TVNB FT JOWFSUJWB EBEP VO FOUFSP [(m, n)] TV JOWFSTP BEJUJWP
FT [(n, m)] FT ÙOJDP

E
&M QSPEVDUP FT EJTUSJCVUJWP DPO SFTQFDUP B MB TVNB
%FNPTUSBDJÓO B
&TUP FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF MB EFàOJDJÓO EF MBT PQFSBDJP
OFT i + u i · u Z EF MB BTPDJBUJWJEBE Z DPONVUBUJWJEBE EF ⊕ Z EF .
C
4FB [(m, n)] ∈ Z &OUPODFT
[(m, n)] + [(0, 0)] = [(m, n) ⊕ (0, 0)] = [(m, n)].
1PS PUSB QBSUF UFOFNPT RVF
[(m, n)]·[(1, 0)] = [(m, n)(1, 0)] = [(m·1+n·0, m·0+n·1)] = [(m, n)].
-B VOJDJEBE EFM OFVUSP QBSB MB TVNB TF TJHVF GÃDJMNFOUF EFM IFDIP

[(p, p)] = [(0, 0)] QBSB UPEP p ∈ N. 7FBNPT MB VOJDJEBE EFM OFVUSP QB
SB FM QSPEVDUP TVQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUF [(p, q)] ∈ Z UBM RVF QBSB UPEP
[(m, n)] ∈ Z TF DVNQMF RVF [(m, n)] · [(p, q)] = [(m, n)] FTUP FT
mp + nq + n = mq + np + m.
$MBSBNFOUF [(p, q)] = [(0, 0)], FT EFDJS p = q. 1PS MB USJDPUPNÎB FO MPT

OBUVSBMFT TF UJFOF VOP EF MPT EPT DBTPT p < q Ó p > q. 7FBNPT RVF FM
QSJNFSP OP QVFEF PDVSSJS TJ BTÎ GVFTF FYJTUJSÎB VO OBUVSBM j UBM RVF
p + j + = q.
4VTUJUVZFOEP FO
MMFHBSÎBNPT B RVF n(j + + 1) = m(j + + 1) MP DVBM
QPS FM &KFSDJDJP JNQMJDBSÎB RVF m = n &T EFDJS [(m, n)] = [(0, 0)]
QBSB UPEP FOUFSP [(m, n)], RVF FT JNQPTJCMF &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO QSVFCB
RVF MB ÙOJDB QPTJCJMJEBE FT p > q. 7FBNPT RVF OFDFTBSJBNFOUF p = q +1.
&O FGFDUP FYJTUF k ∈ N UBM RVF q + k + = p Z BM SFFNQMB[BS FO
PCUFOFNPT RVF mk + + n = nk + + m EF EPOEF TF TJHVF RVF mk = nk

-VFHP k = 0 QVFT EF MP DPOUSBSJP UFOESÎBNPT RVF m = n FT EFDJS

[(m, n)] = [(0, 0)] QBSB UPEP FOUFSP [(m, n)]. )FNPT QSPCBEP BTÎ RVF
p = q + 1 MP DVBM TJHOJàDB RVF [(p, q)] = [(q + 1, q)] = [(1, 0)] %F FTUB
NBOFSB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEB MB VOJDJEBE EFM OFVUSP QBSB FM QSPEVDUP FO FM
DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT
D
/PUFNPT RVF EBEP [(m, n)] ∈ Z TF UJFOF RVF
[(m, n)] + [(n, m)] = [(m + n, n + m)] = [(0, 0)].
-B VOJDJEBE FT TJNQMF EF QSPCBS

E
&T VOB DVFOUB EJSFDUB Z TJNQMF RVF JOWJUBNPT BM MFDUPS B SFBMJ[BSMB

&KFSDJDJP .VFTUSF RVF MB TVNB FO MPT FOUFSPT TBUJTGBDF MB QSPQJFEBE

DBODFMBUJWB
[(m, n)] + [(p, q)] = [(m, n)] + [(r, s)] ⇒ [(p, q)] = [(r, s)].
0CTFSWBDJÓO %F BDVFSEP DPO MB OPUBDJÓO FTUBCMFDJEB FO FM DBQÎUVMP

QBSB MPT JOWFSTPT BEJUJWPT WBNPT B EFOPUBS FM PQVFTUP EF VO FOUFSP
[(m, n)] QPS −[(m, n)]. 1PS UBOUP BM DPNCJOBS FTUP DPO MB QBSUF D
EFM
UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS UFOFNPT RVF
[(n, m)] = −[(m, n)].
-B JEFB B DPOUJOVBDJÓO FT MMFWBS MB FTDSJUVSB EF MPT OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT B

VOB GPSNB ÃHJM TJO VTBS MB OPUBDJÓO EF DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB &O FTB
EJSFDDJÓO MB TJHVJFOUF QSPQPTJDJÓO TFSÃ EF HSBO VUJMJEBE
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FB [(p, q)] ∈ Z &YJTUF VO ÙOJDP OBUVSBM n UBM RVF
VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT JHVBMEBEFT TF DVNQMF
[(p, q)] = [(n, 0)] P [(p, q)] = [(0, n)].
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP p Z q TPO OBUVSBMFT MB MFZ EF USJDPUPNÎB HBSBOUJ[B

RVF TPMBNFOUF VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT QPTJCJMJEBEFT UJFOF MVHBS
p = q, p < q, p > q.
4J PDVSSF MB QSJNFSB FOUPODFT DPO n = 0 TF DVNQMF MB QSPQPTJDJÓO

&O FM TFHVOEP DBTP FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP OBUVSBM m UBM RVF p + m+ = q Z
BTÎ [(p, q)] = [(p, p + m+ )] = [(0, m+ )], EF EPOEF TF UJFOF FM SFTVMUBEP
UPNBOEP n = m+ . 'JOBMNFOUF TJ p > q FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP OBUVSBM k UBM
RVF q + k + = p Z DPNP BOUFT [(p, q)] = [(q + k + , q)] = [(k + , 0)], Z FM
SFTVMUBEP TF PCUJFOF UPNBOEP n = k + .

&OTFHVJEB WBNPT B QSPCBS RVF FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSB

MFT FT VO TVCDPOKVOUP QSPQJP EFM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT 1BSB
FTUF QSPQÓTJUP WBNPT B OFDFTJUBS MB BZVEB EF VO DPODFQUP BMHFCSBJDP
JTPNPSàTNP -P RVF FTUÃ EFUSÃT EF VO JTPNPSàTNP FT QSFDJTBS DVÃOEP
DJFSUB DMBTF EF DPOKVOUPT TPO FTUSVDUVSBMNFOUF JHVBMFT JOEFQFOEJFOUF
NFOUF EF RVF TVT FMFNFOUPT TFBO EJGFSFOUFT
6OB BQMJDBDJÓO f : X → Y
FOUSF EPT DPOKVOUPT EPUBEPT EFM NJTNP UJQP EF FTUSVDUVSB FT VO JTPNPS
àTNP DVBOEP DBEB FMFNFOUP EF Y QSPWJFOF EF VO ÙOJDP FMFNFOUP EF
X Z f USBOTGPSNB MBT PQFSBDJPOFT SFMBDJPOFT FUD RVF UFOFNPT FO X
FO MBT RVF UFOFNPT FO Y NÃT QSFDJTBNFOUF MBT QSFTFSWB $VBOEP FOUSF
EPT FTUSVDUVSBT IBZ VO JTPNPSàTNP BNCBT TPO JOEJTUJOHVJCMFT UJFOFO
MBT NJTNBT QSPQJFEBEFT
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO X Z Y EPT DPOKVOUPT FO MPT DVBMFT IBZ EFàOJEBT
PQFSBDJPOFT ∗ Z SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF %FDJNPT RVF FTUPT DPOKVOUPT TPO
JTPNPSGPT TJ FYJTUF VOB CJZFDDJÓO f : X → Y UBM RVF QBSB UPEP x, y ∈ X
TF UJFOF RVF f (x∗y) = f (x)f (y). -B GVODJÓO f TF MMBNB VO JTPNPSàTNP
$PO FM ÃOJNP EF QSPCBS RVF N ⊂ Z JOUSPEVDJNPT VO TVCDPOKVOUP EF
Z EFàOJEP QPS
:= {[(n, 0)] : n ∈ N}
N
Z UBNCJÊO EFàOJNPT J : N → N QPS J (n) = [(n, 0)]. 7FBNPT RVF J
FT CJZFDUJWB MB TPCSFZFDUJWJEBE FT JONFEJBUB 4VQPOHBNPT RVF
J (n) = J (m) -VFHP (n, 0) ≈ (m, 0) Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB n = m.
&TUP QSVFCB RVF J FT JOZFDUJWP Z QPS UBOUP FT CJZFDUJWP 'JOBMNFOUF
WFBNPT RVF J QSFTFSWB MBT PQFSBDJPOFT TVNB Z QSPEVDUP EFàOJEBT FO
NZN SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF
J (n + m) = [(n + m, 0)] = [(n, 0) ⊕ (m, 0)] = [(n, 0)] + [(m, 0)]

= J (n) + J (m).
J (n · m) = [(n · m, 0)] = [(n, 0) (m, 0)] = [(n, 0)] · [(m, 0)]
= J (n) · J (m).
2VFEB EFNPTUSBEP RVF J FT VO JTPNPSàTNP FOUSF N Z N QPS FMMP QP

EFNPT BàSNBS RVF FTUPT DPOKVOUPT TPO JEFOUJàDBCMFT JOEJTUJOHVJCMFT P
RVF VOP FT VOB DPQJB EFM PUSP $PNP N FT VO TVCDPOKVOUP QSPQJP EF
Z FOUPODFT QPEFNPT DPODMVJS RVF N ⊂ Z. "EFNÃT QPS FM JTPNPSàTNP
QPEFNPT JEFOUJàDBS FM OBUVSBM n DPO TV JNBHFO J (n) FO Z, FT EFDJS
[(n, 0)] = n.
"QSPWFDIBOEP FTUP Z UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB RVF FM PQVFTUP EF [(p, 0)] EF
OPUBEP QPS −[(p, 0)]
FT [(0, p)] QPEFNPT BàSNBS QPS MB VOJDJEBE EFM

JOWFSTP BEJUJWP RVF [(0, p)] = −p. "IPSB CJFO EBEP DVBMRVJFS FOUFSP
[(p, q)], JOWPDBOEP MB 1SPQPTJDJÓO FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP OBUVSBM n UBM
RVF [(p, q)] = [(n, 0)] P CJFO FT JHVBM B [(0, n)] QFSP DBEB VOP EF FTUPT FT
JEFOUJàDBEP DPO n P −n SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF "TÎ MBT DPTBT FM DPOKVOUP EF
MPT OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT RVFEB EFTDSJUP EF NBOFSB TJNQMJàDBEB FO MB GPSNB
DMÃTJDB DPNP TF MFT DPOPDF TJO DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB
Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . .}.
)BTUB BIPSB FO FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT FOUFSPT IFNPT EFàOJEP EPT PQFSB

DJPOFT MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP $PO MB OPUBDJÓO EFM JOWFSTP QPEFNPT
JOUSPEVDJS VOB UFSDFSB
%FàOJDJÓO %BEPT EPT FOUFSPT m Z n EFàOJNPT TV EJGFSFODJB EF

OPUBEB QPS m − n DPNP m + (−n).
*OUSPEVDJNPT MB TJHVJFOUF OPUBDJÓO N∗ := N {0}
5FPSFNB 4FBO m, n Z k OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT &OUPODFT
B
&M PQVFTUP EFM PQVFTUP EF m FT m, FT EFDJS −(−m) = m.
C
4F DVNQMF MB MFZ EF USJDPUPNÎB FO Z FTUP FT TPMBNFOUF VOB EF MBT
TJHVJFOUFT BàSNBDJPOFT TF DVNQMF m = 0, m ∈ N∗ , −m ∈ N∗ .
D
m · 0 = 0.
E
4F UJFOF MB MMBNBEB MFZ EF TJHOPT BMHFCSBJDPT
m(−n) = −(mn) = (−m)n, (−m)(−n) = mn.
F
4F DVNQMF MB QSPQJFEBE DBODFMBUJWB EFM QSPEVDUP TJ mn = mk Z
m = 0 FOUPODFT n = k.
G
/P IBZ EJWJTPSFT EF DFSP FTUP FT TJ mn = 0 FOUPODFT m = 0 P
n = 0.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 1PS DPNPEJEBE Z GPSUBMF[B FO MPT BSHVNFOUPT VTBSFNPT

MB OPUBDJÓO EF DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB QBSB VO FOUFSP
B
1VFTUP RVF m + (−m) = 0 Z FM PQVFTUP FT ÙOJDP FTUB JHVBMEBE
EJDF RVF m FT FM PQVFTUP EF −m FM DVBM FT EFOPUBEP QPS −(−m). &TUP
EFNVFTUSB MB BàSNBDJÓO
C
7FBNPT QSJNFSP RVF EPT QPTJCJMJEBEFT OP QVFEFO EBSTF TJNVM
UÃOFBNFOUF MBT EPT QSJNFSBT PSJHJOBO VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO MB QSJNFSB Z

MB UFSDFSB UBNCJÊO PSJHJOBO VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO ZB RVF FO FTF DBTP UFO

ESÎBNPT m = 0 Z −m = 0 Z DPNP N ⊂ Z QPS UBOUP −m, m ∈ Z "MMÎ
m = 0 UJFOF DPNP ÙOJDP JOWFSTP B −m = 0 'JOBMNFOUF TJ PDVSSJFSBO
TJNVMUÃOFBNFOUF MBT EPT ÙMUJNBT FOUPODFT UFOESÎBNPT RVF −m, m ∈ N
Z UBOUP m DPNP −m TPO EJGFSFOUFT EF DFSP MP RVF JNQMJDBSÎB RVF FYJT
UJSÎBO OBUVSBMFT p Z q UBMFT RVF m = p+ Z −m = q + . .JSBOEP FTUPT
OBUVSBMFT DPNP FOUFSPT TF UFOESÎB RVF
0 = [(0, 0)] = m + (−m) = [(p+ , 0)] + [(q + , 0)] = [(p+ + q + , 0)]

= p+ + q + = (p+ + q)+ .
&TUP DPOUSBEJSÎB FM BYJPNB "1

EF 1FBOP
"IPSB WFBNPT RVF BM NFOPT VOB EF MBT QPTJCJMJEBEFT TÎ PDVSSF TV
QPOHBNPT RVF m = 0 Z QSPCFNPT RVF m ∈ N∗ ∨ −m ∈ N∗ . 1PS MB
1SPQPTJDJÓO m FT EF MB GPSNB [(n, 0)] P CJFO m = [(0, n)] QBSB
BMHÙO OBUVSBM n = 0. &O FM QSJNFS DBTP TF UJFOF JONFEJBUBNFOUF RVF
m = n ∈ N∗ EFM TFHVOEP DBTP TF MMFHB B RVF
m + [(n, 0)] = [(0, n)] + [(n, 0)] = [(0, 0)] = 0.
-VFHP [(n, 0)] FT FM PQVFTUP EF m Z QPS VOJDJEBE EF FTUF PCUFOFNPT RVF

−m = [(n, 0)] = n ∈ N∗ .
D
4FB m = [(p, q)] ∈ Z. &OUPODFT [(p, q)] · [(0, 0)] = [(0, 0)].
E
1PS FM MJUFSBM BOUFSJPS Z MB QSPQJFEBE EJTUSJCVUJWB UFOFNPT RVF
0 = m · 0 = m(−n + n) = m(−n) + mn,
EF MP DVBM TF TJHVF RVF m(−n) FT FM PQVFTUP EF mn Z QPS MB VOJ

DJEBE EF FTUF FOUPODFT OFDFTBSJBNFOUF m(−n) = −(mn). %F NBOF
SB TJNJMBS 0 = n · 0 = n(−m + m) = (−m)n + mn JNQMJDB RVF
(−m)n = −(mn) $PNP FTUP FT WÃMJEP QBSB UPEP QBS EF FOUFSPT m
Z n FOUPODFT DBNCJBOEP n QPS −n Z VTBEP OVFWBNFOUF B
UFOFNPT
RVF (−m)(−n) = −[m(−n)] = −[−(mn)] = mn.
F
%FOPUFNPT m = [(p, q)], n = [(r, s)] Z k = [(u, v)]. -B IJQÓUFTJT
OPT QSPQPSDJPOB MB JHVBMEBE [(pr + qs, ps + qr)] = [(pu + qv, pv + qu)],
FTUP FT
pr + qs + pv + qu = ps + qr + pu + qv.
1VFTUP RVF m = 0 FOUPODFT p = q Z QPS UBOUP QPS 5SJDPUPNÎB FO MPT

OBUVSBMFT TF UJFOF RVF p < q P q < p. &O MB QSJNFSB TJUVBDJÓO p+j + = q
QBSB BMHÙO OBUVSBM j. 3FFNQMB[BOEP FO
TF PCUJFOF RVF
j + (s + u) = j + (r + v),

MP DVBM TJHOJàDB RVF [(r, s)] = [(u, v)] FT EFDJS n = k. &O FM TFHVOEP
DBTP TF SB[POB EF NBOFSB TJNJMBS
G
4VQPOHBNPT RVF m = 0. %BEP RVF MB IJQÓUFTJT TF QVFEF FTDSJCJS
mn = m · 0, FM MJUFSBM BOUFSJPS JNQMJDB RVF n = 0.

%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO m Z n FOUFSPT %FDJNPT RVF m < n TJ n−m ∈ N∗

Z EFDJNPT RVF m ≤ n TJ n − m ∈ N. -BT BàSNBDJPOFT m ≥ n Z m > n
TJHOJàDBO n ≤ m Z n < m SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF
0CTFSWBDJPOFT J
/PUFNPT RVF EF FTUB EFàOJDJÓO TF EFTQSFOEF RVF MB
QSPQJFEBE EF USJDPUPNÎB FO Z QVFEF FOVODJBSTF EF NBOFSB FRVJWBMFOUF
BTÎ EBEP VO FOUFSP m TPMBNFOUF VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT BTFWFSBDJPOFT TF
DVNQMF
m = 0, m > 0, m < 0.
$VBOEP VO FOUFSP m FT UBM RVF m > 0 EFDJNPT RVF EJDIP FOUFSP FT
QPTJUJWP Z TJ TBUJTGBDF m < 0 EFDJNPT RVF FT OFHBUJWP
JJ
&O FM DBTP FO FM RVF m Z n TFBO OBUVSBMFT DPNP N ⊂ Z FOUPODFT
MB SFMBDJÓO EF DPNQBSBDJÓO i < u SFDJÊO EFàOJEB FO Z DPJODJEF DPO MB
EFàOJEB FO FM DPOKVOUP N FT EFDJS TJ EFOPUÃSBNPT FTUBT SFMBDJPOFT DPNP
<N Z <Z FOUPODFT m <N n ⇐⇒ m <Z n 3FDPSEFNPT RVF m Z n MPT
QPEFNPT JEFOUJàDBS DPO [(m, 0)] Z [(n, 0)] SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF Z BTÎ
m <Z n ⇐⇒ [(m, 0)] <Z [(n, 0)] ⇐⇒ [(n, 0)] − [(m, 0)] ∈ N∗
⇐⇒ [(n, 0)] + [(0, m)] ∈ N∗
⇐⇒ [(n, m)] ∈ N∗ ⇐⇒ [(n, m)] = p+ = [(p+ , 0)]
⇐⇒ n = p+ + m, QBSB BMHÙO OBUVSBM p
⇐⇒ m <N n.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m Z n FOUFSPT 1SVFCF
m ≤ n ⇐⇒ (m < n ∨ m = n).
&KFSDJDJP .VFTUSF RVF TJ k ∈ N Z −k ∈ N FOUPODFT k = 0.

5FPSFNB -B SFMBDJÓO i ≤ u EFàOJEB FO Z TBUJTGBDF MP TJHVJFOUF
B
&T VO PSEFO UPUBM MP RVF TJHOJàDB RVF FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF PSEFO
SFáFYJWB BOUJTJNÊUSJDB Z USBOTJUJWB
Z RVF EPT FMFNFOUPT m, n ∈ Z
TPO DPNQBSBCMFT m ≤ n ∨ n ≤ m

C
&T DPNQBUJCMF DPO MB TVNB n ≤ m ∧ n ≤ m ⇒ n+n ≤ m+m .
D
n ≤ m ⇐⇒ n + k ≤ m + k.

E
m ≤ n ∧ k ≥ 0 ⇒ m · k ≤ n · k.
F
m ≤ n ∧ k ≤ 0 ⇒ m · k ≥ n · k
%FNPTUSBDJÓO B
-B SFáFYJWJEBE Z MB USBOTJUJWJEBE TPO JONFEJBUBT Z MB
BOUJTJNFUSÎB FT DPOTFDVFODJB EFM &KFSDJDJP &TUP HBSBOUJ[B RVF EJDIB
SFMBDJÓO FT VO PSEFO "IPSB CJFO QBSB QSPCBS RVF FT UPUBM QPEFNPT
SB[POBS BTÎ EBEPT EPT FOUFSPT m Z n QPS MB MFZ EF USJDPUPNÎB FO Z TF
UJFOF RVF TPMBNFOUF VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT QPTJCJMJEBEFT PDVSSF
m − n = 0, m − n ∈ N∗ , n − m ∈ N∗ .
4J TF UJFOF MB QSJNFSB QPTJCJMJEBE FOUPODFT m = n TJ FT MB TFHVOEB

FOUPODFT n < m Z TJ FT MB UFSDFSB FOUPODFT m < n. &O DVBMRVJFSB EF MBT
DBTPT VTBOEP FM &KFSDJDJP TF PCUJFOF RVF m ≤ n P CJFO n ≤ m.
C
%FCFNPT WFS RVF m + m − (n + n ) ∈ N. /PUFNPT RVF TFHÙO MB
QSPQJFEBE EJTUSJCVUJWB Z MB MFZ EF TJHOPT
m + m − (n + n ) = (m − n) + (m − n )
Z DBEB VOP EF FTUPT UÊSNJOPT QPS MB IJQÓUFTJT FT VO OBUVSBM Z QPS UBOUP

TV TVNB UBNCJÊO MP FT
D
&T VOB QSVFCB TJNQMF Z TF EFKB BM MFDUPS
E
1VFTUP RVF n − m ∈ N Z k ∈ N k ≥ 0 ⇔ k ∈ N
FOUPODFT
(n − m)k ∈ N FT EFDJS nk − mk ∈ N MP DVBM TJHOJàDB mk ≤ nk.
F
&T TJNJMBS BM BOUFSJPS

0CTFSWBDJÓO -B SFMBDJÓO EF DPNQBSBDJÓO FTUSJDUB i u TBUJTGBDF MBT

NJTNBT QSPQJFEBEFT C
F
FOVODJBEBT FO FM UFPSFNB QSFWJP FT EFDJS
DBNCJBOEP i ≤ u QPS i u %FKBNPT BM MFDUPS MPT EFUBMMFT
DPSSFTQPOEJFOUFT
7BNPT B QSFTFOUBS FO MB TJHVJFOUF TFDDJÓO BMHVOBT OPDJPOFT FMFNFO
UBMFT EF UFPSÎB EF OÙNFSPT "OUFT EF JOJDJBS FTUVEJBSFNPT FM DPODFQUP
EF WBMPS BCTPMVUP
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB m ∈ Z. &M WBMPS BCTPMVUP EF m EFOPUBEP QPS |m|
TF EFàOF QPS
m TJ m ≥ 0
|m| =
−m TJ m < 0.
0CTFSWBNPT RVF QBSB UPEP m ∈ Z TF UJFOF RVF |m| ≥ 0.

"MHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT EFM WBMPS BCTPMVUP TPO MBT TJHVJFOUFT
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FBO m, n ∈ Z. &OUPODFT

B
1BSJEBE |m| = | − m|.
C
%JTUSJCVZF SFTQFDUP BM QSPEVDUP |mn| = |m| |n|.
D
|m|2 = m2 .
E
4VQPOHBNPT RVF n ∈ N∗ . &OUPODFT |m| < n ⇐⇒ −n < m < n.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO B
#BTUB VTBS MB QSPQJFEBE EF USJDPUPNÎB 4J m = 0 MB
JHVBMEBE FT JONFEJBUB 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF m > 0. -VFHP | m| = m Z
DPNP −m < 0 FOUPODFT QPS MB EFàOJDJÓO |− m| = −(−m) = m = |m|.
&M DBTP m < 0 TF SB[POB EF GPSNB TJNJMBS
C
#BTUB VTBS MB MFZ EF TJHOPT Z DPOTJEFSBS MBT DVBUSP
QPTJCJMJEBEFT
m > 0 ∧ n > 0, m < 0 ∧ n < 0, m > 0 ∧ n < 0 Z m < 0 ∧ n > 0.
4J m = 0 P n = 0 MB DPODMVTJÓO TF UJFOF USJWJBMNFOUF

D
/PUFNPT RVF MB BàSNBDJÓO FT FRVJWBMFOUF B
|m| |m| = m · m = (−m)(−m).
%F FTUP TF EFEVDF MB QSVFCB

E
6TBNPT MB QSPQJFEBE EF USJDPUPNÎB BQMJDBEB BM FOUFSP m Z EF DBEB
QPTJCJMJEBE TF EFEVDF MB BàSNBDJÓO

5FPSÎB CÃTJDB EF OÙNFSPT

%VSBOUF UPEB MB IJTUPSJB EFM IPNCSF MPT OÙNFSPT IBO TJEP VOB OFDFTJ
EBE Z VOB NBOFSB FTUÃOEBS EF DVBOUJàDBS NFEJS FUD "QSPYJNBEBNFO
UF DVBUSP TJHMPT BUSÃT MB UFPSÎB NPEFSOB EF MPT OÙNFSPT UVWP TV NBZPS
EFTBSSPMMP DPO MB DPNVOJEBE EF NBUFNÃUJDPT EF MB ÊQPDB UBOUP RVF B MB
GFDIB FYJTUFO WBSJBT QSFHVOUBT TJO SFTPMWFS -PT QSJODJQBMFT FYQPOFOUFT
GVFSPO 'FSNBU &VMFS -BHSBOHF Z (BVTT " MB GFDIB IBZ QSFNJPT FO NJ
MFT EF EÓMBSFT QBSB RVJFO SFTVFMWB BMHVOPT EF MPT QSPCMFNBT TJO SFTPMWFS
RVF EF BMHVOB NBOFSB QBSFDFO FTUBS SFMBDJPOBEPT DPO MB EJTUSJCVDJÓO EF
MPT OÙNFSPT QSJNPT
6OP EF MPT NÃT GBNPTPT QSPCMFNBT RVF GVF SFTVFMUP FO QPS "O
ESFX 8JMFT BZVEBEP QPS 3JDIBSE 5BZMPS FT FM MMBNBEP i ÙMUJNP UFPSFNB
EF 'FSNBU u *OJDJBNPT FTUB TFDDJÓO DPO VO JNQPSUBOUF SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB "MHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO

4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT DPO b > 0
&YJTUFO ÙOJDPT FOUFSPT q Z r UBMFT RVF a = bq + r DPO 0 ≤ r < b.

%FNPTUSBDJÓO -B JEFB DFOUSBM EF MB QSVFCB DPOTJTUF FO VTBS FM 1#0 1BSB

FMMP TF JOUSPEVDF FM TJHVJFOUF DPOKVOUP
S = {k ∈ N : (∃ x ∈ Z) (k = a − bx)}.
7FBNPT RVF FTUF DPOKVOUP FT OP WBDÎP QPS USJDPUPNÎB a ≥ 0 ∨ a < 0.

%FM QSJNFS DBTP TF UJFOF RVF DPO x = 0, a ∈ S QVFT a = a − b0 ≥ 0 EFM
TFHVOEP DBTP DPO x = a ∈ Z TF UJFOF RVF a − ab ∈ S QVFT
a − ab = a(1 − b) ≥ 0.
1PS UBOUP S = ∅. %BEP RVF S ⊂ N QPS 1#0 FYJTUF r ∈ S UBM RVF

r = NÎO S FT EFDJS ∀ s ∈ S, r ≤ s Z r FT EF MB GPSNB r = a − bq QBSB
BMHÙO q ∈ Z. %F FTUP TF UJFOF RVF a = bq + r DPO r ≥ 0 Z TPMP SFTUB
QSPCBS RVF r < b Z MB VOJDJEBE EF MPT FOUFSPT q Z r 4VQPOHBNPT RVF
r ≥ b &OUPODFT 0 ≤ r − b = a − bq − b = a − (q + 1)b DPO q + 1 ∈ Z
Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB r − b ∈ S. 1PS MB NJOJNBMJEBE r ≤ r − b Z FOUPODFT
DPODMVJNPT RVF b ≤ 0 RVF FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO DPO MB IJQÓUFTJT &TUP
QSVFCB RVF r < b. 'JOBMNFOUF WFBNPT MB VOJDJEBE TFBO q, q , r, r ∈ Z
UBMFT RVF
a = bq + r, 0≤r<b

a = bq + r , 0 ≤ r < b.
-VFHP DPNCJOBOEP MBT JHVBMEBEFT QSFWJBT PCUFOFNPT RVF
r − r = b(q − q )
Z DPNCJOBOEP MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT TF PCUJFOF RVF |r − r| < b VTBS MB

1SPQPTJDJÓO E
&TUP JNQMJDB RVF b|q−q | < b MP RVF FT FRVJWBMFOUF

B EFDJS RVF 0 ≤ |q − q | < 1 FT EFDJS |q − q | = 0 EF EPOEF TF EFEVDF RVF
q = q Z BTÎ r = r %F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB
&KFNQMP 4FB a ∈ Z BSCJUSBSJP "M BQMJDBS FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO

DPO b = 2 PCUFOFNPT a = 2q + r QBSB BMHVOPT FOUFSPT q Z r DPO r = 0
P r = 1 4J r = 0 FM FOUFSP a UPNB MB GPSNB a = 2q 6O FOUFSP EF FTUB
GPSNB TF MMBNB FOUFSP QBS TJ r = 1 FOUPODFT a = 2q + 1 TF MMBNB VO
FOUFSP JNQBS $PNP TPMP IBZ EPT PQDJPOFT QBSB FM SFTJEVP r RVFEBO EPT
QPTJCJMJEBEFT QBSB DBEB FOUFSP FT QBS P CJFO FT JNQBS
&KFSDJDJP 4FB a ∈ Z 1SVFCF RVF a FT QBS TJ Z TPMBNFOUF TJ a2 FT QBS

5BNCJÊO TF UJFOF RVF a FT JNQBS TJ Z TPMBNFOUF TJ a2 FT JNQBS "TJNJTNP
EFNVFTUSF RVF MB TVNB EF QBSFT FT QBS RVF MB TVNB EF JNQBSFT FT QBS
Z RVF MB TVNB EF VO FOUFSP QBS DPO VOP JNQBS FT JNQBS

" DPOUJOVBDJÓO JOUSPEVDJNPT FM DPODFQUP EF EJWJTJCJMJEBE DMBWF FO

UPEP MP RVF SFTUB EF FTUF DBQÎUVMP
%FàOJDJÓO %FDJNPT RVF FM FOUFSP a = 0 EJWJEF BM FOUFSP b P RVF

b FT NÙMUJQMP EF a
TJ FYJTUF VO FOUFSP q UBM RVF b = aq.
6TBSFNPT MB OPUBDJÓO a | b QBSB TJHOJàDBS DVBMRVJFSB EF MBT TJHVJFO
UFT GSBTFT a EJWJEF BM FOUFSP b a FT EJWJTPS EFM FOUFSP b b FT NÙMUJQMP
EF a
3FTVNJNPT BMHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT EF MB OPDJÓO EF EJWJTJCJMJEBE Z EF

KBNPT MPT TJNQMFT EFUBMMFT EF MB QSVFCB BM MFDUPS
5FPSFNB 4FBO a, b Z c OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT &OUPODFT
B
4J a = 0 FOUPODFT a | 0, a | (±a).
C
1 | a Z −1 | a.
D
4J a | b FOUPODFT a | bc.
E
4J a | b Z b | c FOUPODFT a | c.
F
4J a | b Z a | c FOUPODFT a | (bx + cy) QBSB UPEP x, y ∈ Z.
G
4J a | b Z b = 0 FOUPODFT |a| ≤ |b|.
H
4J a | b Z b | a FOUPODFT a = b Ó a = −b.
I
4J a | b Z k = 0 FOUPODFT ka | kb.
&KFNQMP %FNPTUSFNPT RVF 24 | (52n − 1) QBSB UPEP n ∈ N.

-B QSVFCB MB IBSFNPT QPS JOEVDDJÓO NBUFNÃUJDB -MBNFNPT Pn B MB
BàSNBDJÓO 24 | (52n − 1) &T JONFEJBUB MB WFSBDJEBE EF P0 . 4VQPOHBNPT
RVF Pn FT DJFSUB QBSB n ≥ 0 Z QSPCFNPT RVF TF DVNQMF Pn+1 . 1PS MB
IJQÓUFTJT JOEVDUJWB FYJTUF VO FOUFSP q UBM RVF 52n − 1 = 24q. "IPSB CJFO
52(n+1) − 1 = 52n+2 − 1 = 52 · 52n − 1 = (24 + 1)52n − 1

= 24 · 52n + 52n − 1 = 24 · 52n + 24q
= 24(52n + q).
&TUP TJHOJàDB RVF 24 | (52(n+1) − 1) Z BTÎ Pn+1 UBNCJÊO TF DVNQMF 1PS

UBOUP MB BàSNBDJÓO Pn FT WFSEBEFSB QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n.
&KFNQMP 4FB k ∈ Z. 1SPCFNPT RVF k, k + 2 P k + 4 FT EJWJTJCMF

QPS

"QMJDBSFNPT FO FTUF FKFNQMP FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO 5FPSFNB

&YJTUFO ÙOJDPT FOUFSPT q Z r UBMFT RVF k = 3q + r DPO 0 ≤ r < 3.
4J r = 0 FOUPODFT k = 3q TJ r = 1 FOUPODFT k + 2 = 3q + 3 = 3(q + 1)
Z TJ r = 2 FOUPODFT k + 4 = 3q + 6 = 3(q + 2) RVFEBOEP BTÎ QSPCBEB MB
BàSNBDJÓO
&KFSDJDJP
1SVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP FOUFSP n TF UJFOF RVF n(n + 1) TJFNQSF FT
QBS
1SVFCF RVF FM QSPEVDUP EF USFT OBUVSBMFT DPOTFDVUJWPT TJFNQSF FT

EJWJTJCMF QPS
1SVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP n ∈ N, n3 + 2n FT NÙMUJQMP EF 3.
1SVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP n ∈ N, 52n + 7 FT NÙMUJQMP EF 8.
1SVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP n ∈ N, 7 · 16n + 3 FT NÙMUJQMP EF 5.
.VFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n n3 − n FT NÙMUJQMP EF 6.
.VFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP n ∈ N 11n − 4n FT EJWJTJCMF QPS 7.

n
4F EFàOFO MPT OÙNFSPT EF 'FSNBU Fn = 22 + 1, ∀ n ∈ N. 1SVFCF
RVF QBSB UPEP n ≥ 1,
F0 F1 · · · Fn−1 + 2 = Fn .
%FNVFTUSF RVF NÃT FM QSPEVDUP EF DVBUSP FOUFSPT DPOTFDVUJWPT

FT VO DVBESBEP QFSGFDUP FT EFDJS FT VO FOUFSP EF MB GPSNB k 2 DPO
k ∈ Z

%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP BNCPT JHVBMFT B DFSP &M NÃYJNP
DPNÙO EJWJTPS EF a Z b EFOPUBEP QPS (a, b) FT FM NBZPS EF UPEPT MPT
EJWJTPSFT DPNVOFT EF a Z b
0CTFSWBDJPOFT J
&M DPOKVOUP EF MPT EJWJTPSFT DPNVOFT EF EPT FOUFSPT
a Z b OP BNCPT DFSP FT VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP QVFT TJ d | a Z a = 0 FOUPODFT
QPS FM 5FPSFNB G
TF UJFOF RVF |d| ≤ |a|.

1JFSSF EF 'FSNBU
GVF VO KVSJTUB Z NBUFNÃUJDP GSBODÊT " 'FSNBU TF EFCF
VOP EF MPT QSPCMFNBT NÃT GBNPTPT EF MB NBUFNÃUJDBT RVF FTUVWP TJO SFTPMWFS IBTUB

JJ
&T DMBSP RVF (a, b) = (b, a) .ÃT BÙO TF UJFOFO MBT TJHVJFOUFT
JHVBMEBEFT
(a, b) = (a, −b) = (−a, b) = (−a, −b).
&O FGFDUP DPNP (a, b) = NÃY{d ∈ Z : d | a ∧ d | b}
(a, −b) = NÃY{D ∈ Z : D | a ∧ D | (−b)},
d | a Z d | ±b FOUPODFT (a, b) ≤ (a, −b) 3FDÎQSPDBNFOUF TF UJFOF RVF

(a, −b) ≤ (a, b) MP RVF JNQMJDB (a, b) = (a, −b) $PO FTUP Z MP BàSNBEP
BM JOJDJP FT TVàDJFOUF QBSB PCUFOFS MB DPODMVTJÓO
JJJ
'ÃDJMNFOUF TF EFEVDF RVF (a, b) ≥ 1.
&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB FYQSFTB RVF FM NÃYJNP DPNÙO EJWJTPS EF a Z b
FT FM NFOPS FOUFSP QPTJUJWP RVF QVFEF TFS FTDSJUP DPNP VOB DPNCJOBDJÓO
MJOFBM EF a Z b
5FPSFNB 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP BNCPT JHVBMFT B DFSP &OUPODFT
(a, b) = NÎO{z ∈ N∗ : (∃ x, y ∈ Z) (z = ax + by)}.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FBO S = {z ∈ N∗ : (∃ x, y ∈ Z) (z = ax + by)} Z

d = (a, b). 1SPCFNPT RVF d = NÎO S. 1BSB FMMP WBNPT B VTBS FM 1#0
*OJDJBMNFOUF DPO x = a, y = b WFNPT RVF S = ∅ QVFT z = a2 + b2 > 0
Z z ∈ S. 1PS FM 1#0 FYJTUF g ∈ S UBM RVF g = NÎO S Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUFO
FOUFSPT x0 , y0 UBMFT RVF g = ax0 + by0 . #BTUB FOUPODFT QSPCBS RVF d = g.
$PNP d | a Z d | b FOUPODFT QPS FM 5FPSFNB F
d EJWJEF B DVBMRVJFS
DPNCJOBDJÓO MJOFBM EF FMMPT FO QBSUJDVMBS d | g Z QPS FM MJUFSBM G
EFM
NJTNP UFPSFNB UFOFNPT RVF d ≤ g 4PMP SFTUB EFNPTUSBS RVF g ≤ d Z
QBSB MPHSBSMP VTBNPT FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO QBSB ÙOJDPT FOUFSPT q
Z r DPO 0 ≤ r < g, UFOFNPT RVF
a = gq + r = q(ax0 + by0 ) + r ⇒ r = a(1 − qx0 ) + b(−qy0 ).
4J r > 0 FOUPODFT TF JOàFSF RVF r ∈ S Z DPNP g FT FM NÎOJNP EF S

FOUPODFT g ≤ r MP DVBM DPOUSBEJDF RVF r < g. &O DPOTFDVFODJB r = 0
Z BTÎ a = gq FT EFDJS g | a %F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF DPODMVZF RVF g | b Z
DPNP d FT FM NÃYJNP DPNÙO EJWJTPS EF a Z b FOUPODFT g ≤ d. %F FTUB
GPSNB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB

0CTFSWBDJÓO J
-PT FOUFSPT x, y RVF QFSNJUFO FYQSFTBS FM NÃYJNP DP
NÙO EJWJTPS DPNP DPNCJOBDJÓO MJOFBM OP TPO ÙOJDPT QVFT TJ
(a, b) = ax + by

FOUPODFT (a, b) = a(x + bt) + b(y − at) QBSB DVBMRVJFS FOUFSP t.

JJ
4J b = 0 Z b | a FOUPODFT (a, b) = |b|. &O FGFDUP MMBNFNPT
d = (a, b). -VFHP |b| ≤ d Z DPNP d | b DPO b = 0 FOUPODFT d ≤ |b| 1PS
UBOUP d = |b|.
JJJ
4J d0 = ax + by QBSB BMHVOPT FOUFSPT x, y FTUP OP JNQMJDB RVF
d0 = (a, b) 1PS FKFNQMP 4 = 8(−1) + 6(2) QFSP (8, 6) = 4. -P ÙOJDP
RVF TF QVFEF BàSNBS FO HFOFSBM FT RVF (a, b) | d0 . 4JO FNCBSHP DPNP
TF QSVFCB B DPOUJOVBDJÓO MB BàSNBDJÓO TÎ FT DJFSUB DVBOEP d0 = 1.
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP BNCPT JHVBMFT B DFSP 4J FYJTUFO
FOUFSPT x, y UBMFT RVF ax + by = 1 FOUPODFT (a, b) = 1.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB d = (a, b). &OUPODFT d | a Z d | b Z QPS UBOUP
d | (ax + by) FT EFDJS d | 1. -VFHP d ≤ 1 Z BTÎ d = 1.
0CTFSWBDJÓO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF d = (a, b). &OUPODFT d | a Z d | b -VFHP

FYJTUFO FOUFSPT ta Z tb UBMFT RVF a = dta Z b = dtb . 5BNCJÊO FYJTUFO
FOUFSPT x, y UBMFT RVF d = ax + by Z EF FTUB NBOFSB PCUFOFNPT RVF
d = xdta + ydtb MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF 1 = xta + ytb 1PS MB QSPQPTJDJÓO
QSFWJB DPODMVJNPT RVF (ta , tb ) = 1.
&M ÙMUJNP UFPSFNB UBNCJÊO TF UJFOF QBSB VOB DPMFDDJÓO àOJUB EF FO
UFSPT NÃT QSFDJTBNFOUF
5FPSFNB 4FBO a1 , a2 , . . . , an FOUFSPT OP UPEPT JHVBMFT B DFSP 4J
d := (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) FOUPODFT
d = NÎO {a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn : (∃ x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ∈ Z)
(a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn > 0)}.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO -B JEFB EF MB QSVFCB FT MB NJTNB RVF QBSB FM DBTP EF EPT

FOUFSPT Z QBSB CFOFàDJP EFM MFDUPS MB QSFTFOUBNPT
4FBO
S = {z ∈ N : (∃ x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ∈ Z) (z = a1 x1 +a2 x2 +· · ·+an xn > 0)}
Z d = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ). 1SPCFNPT RVF d = NÎO S. $PNP BOUFT FM 1#0

FT MB DMBWF 7FNPT RVF S = ∅ QVFTUP RVF z = a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n > 0
Z QPS UBOUP z ∈ S. 1PS FM 1#0 FYJTUF g ∈ S UBM RVF g = NÎO S Z BTÎ
FYJTUFO FOUFSPT q1 , q2 , . . . , qn UBMFT RVF
g = a1 q1 + a2 q2 + · · · + an qn .
1SPCFNPT RVF g = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) 1VFTUP RVF d | ai QBSB i = 1, 2, . . . , n

QPS
PCUFOFNPT RVF d | g (⇒ d ≤ g) 4FB aj EJGFSFOUF EF DFSP Z

BQMJRVFNPT FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO -VFHP FYJTUFO FOUFSPT q̂j Z rj UB

MFT RVF aj = g q̂j + rj DPO 0 ≤ rj < g. $PNP FO MB QSVFCB EFM DBTP n = 2
TF DPODMVZF WÎB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO RVF rj = 0 &O DPOTFDVFODJB aj = g q̂j
FT EFDJS g | aj QBSB UPEP j = 1, 2, . . . , n JODMVTP MPT aj RVF TFBO DFSP

%BEP RVF d FT FM NÃYJNP DPNÙO EJWJTPS EF MPT ai FOUPODFT g ≤ d Z BTÎ
g = d %F FTUB GPSNB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB

0USB GPSNB EF DBSBDUFSJ[BS FM NÃYJNP DPNÙO EJWJTPS TF QSFTFOUB B

DPOUJOVBDJÓO
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP BNCPT JHVBMFT B DFSP &OUPODFT

d = (a, b) TJ Z TPMP TJ d TBUJTGBDF
(1) d > 0 (2) d | a ∧ d | b (3) d | a ∧ d | b ⇒ d | d.
$PO FM QSÓYJNP SFTVMUBEP JMVTUSBSFNPT VO BMHPSJUNP RVF QFSNJUF DBM

DVMBS FM NÃYJNP DPNÙO EJWJTPS
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4J a = qb + r FOUPODFT (a, b) = (b, r).
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FBO d = (a, b) Z g = (b, r) "TÎ MBT DPTBT d | a Z d | b

QPS UBOUP DPNP a = qb + r FOUPODFT d | r Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB DPNP g FT
FM NÃYJNP DPNÙO EJWJTPS EF b Z r FOUPODFT d ≤ g "TJNJTNP TF UJFOF
RVF g | b Z g | r Z QPS FOEF g | (bq + r) FT EFDJS g | a EF MP DVBM TF
TJHVF g ≤ d. &TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF d = g.

$PNP VOB BQMJDBDJÓO EF MB QSPQPTJDJÓO BOUFSJPS QSFTFOUBNPT FM BM

HPSJUNP EF &VDMJEFT FM DVBM QFSNJUF IBMMBS FM NÃYJNP DPNÙO EJWJTPS EF
EPT FOUFSPT
4FBO a Z b EPT FOUFSPT MPT DVBMFT QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF TBUJTGBDFO
0 < b < a ZB RVF
(a, b) = (a, −b) = (−a, b) = (−a, −b).
1PS FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO UFOFNPT RVF a = bq1 +r1 DPO 0 ≤ r1 < b

4J r1 = 0 FOUPODFT b | a Z BTÎ QPS JJ
FO MB PCTFSWBDJÓO EF MB QÃHJOB
(a, b) = b. &O FM DBTP r1 = 0 BQMJDBNPT OVFWBNFOUF FM BMHPSJUNP EF
MB EJWJTJÓO QBSB PCUFOFS
b = q 2 r1 + r 2 DPO 0 ≤ r2 < r1 .
/VFWBNFOUF DPOTJEFSBNPT MBT QPTJCJMJEBEFT r2 = 0 P r2 = 0. %FM QSJNFS

DBTP TF JOàFSF RVF r1 | b Z BTÎ QPS MB QSPQPTJDJÓO QSFWJB
(a, b) = (b, r1 ) = r1 .

4J r2 = 0 OVFWBNFOUF UFOFNPT RVF r1 = q3 r2 + r3 DPO 0 ≤ r3 < r2 .

4J r3 = 0 FOUPODFT r2 | r1 Z QPS UBOUP (r2 , r1 ) = r2 1FSP (r1 , r2 ) =
(b, r1 ) = (a, b) JNQMJDB RVF (a, b) = r2 4J r3 = 0 SFQFUJNPT FM QSPDFTP
VO OÙNFSP àOJUP EF QBTPT
IBTUB PCUFOFS VO SFTUP JHVBM B DFSP FTUP FT
QPTJCMF ZB RVF MPT SFTJEVPT WBO EJTNJOVZFOEP Z TPO QPTJUJWPT
&O FTF
QVOUP TF UJFOF ZB JOGPSNBDJÓO QBSB DPODMVJS FM WBMPS EF (a, b) FM DVBM FT
FM SFTUP OP OVMP PCUFOJEP FO FM QBTP QSFWJP 3FTVNJNPT MP FYQVFTUP EF
MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB
a = bq1 + r1 , 0 <r1 < b
b = r1 q2 + r2 , 0 <r2 < r1
r1 = r2 q3 + r3 , 0 <r3 < r2

rk−3 = rk−2 qk−1 + rk−1 , 0 <rk−1 < rk−2
rk−2 = rk−1 qk + rk , 0 <rk < rk−1
rk−1 = rk qk+1 .
&TUP Z VOB BQMJDBDJÓO SFQFUJEB VO OÙNFSP àOJUP EF WFDFT EF MB ÙMUJNB
QSPQPTJDJÓO OPT QFSNJUF PCUFOFS MBT JHVBMEBEFT
(a, b) = (b, r1 ) = (r1 , r2 ) = (r2 , r3 ) = · · · = (rk−3 , rk−2 =
(rk−2 , rk−1 ) = (rk−1 , rk ) = rk ,
ZB RVF rk | rk−1 .
*MVTUSBNPT FM BMHPSJUNP EF &VDMJEFT DPO VO FKFNQMP DPODSFUP
&KFNQMP $BMDVMFNPT (726, −275).
&M BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO JNQMJDB RVF
726 = 275(2) + 176
275 = 176(1) + 99
176 = 99(1) + 77
99 = 77(1) + 22
77 = 22(3) +

22 = 11(2) + 0.
1PS UBOUP (726, −275) = 11.
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB p > 1 VO OÙNFSP FOUFSP %FDJNPT RVF p FT VO
OÙNFSP QSJNP TJ TVT ÙOJDPT EJWJTPSFT QPTJUJWPT TPO 1 Z p. 4J p > 1 QPTFF
NÃT EF EPT EJWJTPSFT QPTJUJWPT MP MMBNBNPT OÙNFSP DPNQVFTUP

&M FOUFSP 1 OP FT OJ QSJNP OJ DPNQVFTUP

%FDJNPT RVF EPT FOUFSPT a Z b TPO QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT P DPQSJNPT TJ

(a, b) = 1.
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF EPT FOUFSPT DPOTFDVUJWPT TJFNQSF TPO QSJNPT
SFMBUJWPT
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF EPT FOUFSPT JNQBSFT DPOTFDVUJWPT TJFNQSF TPO
QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT
" DPOUJOVBDJÓO QSFTFOUBNPT VOPT DVBOUPT SFTVMUBEPT CÃTJDPT TPCSF
OÙNFSPT QSJNPT
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FBO a, b, c ∈ Z UBMFT RVF a Z b TPO QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT
Z a | bc &OUPODFT a | c.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO &YJTUFO FOUFSPT x, y, q UBMFT RVF bc = aq Z 1 = ax + by
%F FTUP TF TJHVF RVF c = cax + cby = cax + aqy = a(cx + qy) MP DVBM
TJHOJàDB RVF a | c.

$PSPMBSJP 4J p FT QSJNP Z p | ab FOUPODFT p | a P p | b.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF p a p OP EJWJEF B a
/FDFTBSJBNFOUF
TF UJFOF RVF FM NBZPS EJWJTPS DPNÙO FT VOP FT EFDJS (a, p) = 1 Z QPS FM
SFTVMUBEP QSFWJP TF UJFOF RVF p | b.
0CTFSWBDJÓO &M DPSPMBSJP OP FT DJFSUP TJ p OP FT QSJNP DPNP MP JMVTUSB

FM TJHVJFOUF DBTP 4 | 2 · 6 QFSP 4 2 Z 4 6.
6TBOEP JOEVDDJÓO TPCSF FM OÙNFSP EF FOUFSPT TF QVFEF EFNPTUSBS
TF EFKB DPNP FKFSDJDJP
MPT TJHVJFOUFT
$PSPMBSJP 4J p FT QSJNP Z p | (a1 a2 · · · an ) FOUPODFT p | ai QBSB
BMHÙO i
$PSPMBSJP 4FBO p, p1 , p2 , . . . , pn OÙNFSPT QSJNPT UBMFT RVF
p | (p1 p2 · · · pn ) &OUPODFT p = pi QBSB BMHÙO i
5FPSFNB 4FBO a, b, c FOUFSPT UBMFT RVF (a, b) = 1 Z (a, c) = 1.
&OUPODFT (a, bc) = 1. &O QBSUJDVMBS TF UJFOF RVF (a, bn ) = 1 QBSB UPEP
FOUFSP n ≥ 1 Z EF FTUP TF EFTQSFOEF RVF (am , bn ) = 1 QBSB UPEP QBS EF
FOUFSPT m, n ≥ 1.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB d = (a, bc) -VFHP d | a Z d | bc $PNP (a, c) = 1
FOUPODFT QBSB BMHVOPT FOUFSPT x, y PCUFOFNPT RVF 1 = ax+cy EF MP DVBM
TF EFEVDF RVF bax + bcy = b Z QPS UBOUP d | b 1PS PUSB QBSUF FYJTUFO
FOUFSPT r, s UBMFT RVF ar + bs = 1 Z DPNP d | ar Z d | bs FOUPODFT
d | 1. &TUP JNQMJDB RVF d = 1 MP RVF RVFSÎBNPT EFNPTUSBS UBNCJÊO
QVFEF VTBSTF FM &KFSDJDJP
-B TFHVOEB QBSUF TF QSVFCB GÃDJMNFOUF
QPS JOEVDDJÓO

2VFEB DPNP FKFSDJDJP EFNPTUSBS QPS JOEVDDJÓO FM SFTVMUBEP QBSB VOB

DPMFDDJÓO NBZPS EF FOUFSPT
&KFNQMP 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT UBMFT RVF (a, b) = 1 1SPCFNPT RVF

(a + b, a2 + b2 ) FT P %FOPUFNPT d = (a + b, a2 + b2 ) &OUPODFT
d | a + b Z d | a2 + b2 5FOJFOEP FO DVFOUB RVF d | (a + b)(a − b) FT EFDJS
RVF d | a2 − b2 DPODMVJNPT RVF d | 2a2 Z d | 2b2 1PS FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS
PCUFOFNPT RVF (a2 , b2 ) = 1 Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUFO FOUFSPT x, y UBMFT RVF
a2 x + b2 y = 1 NÃT BÙO 2a2 x + 2b2 y = 2 1VFTUP RVF d | 2a2 x Z
d | 2b2 y FOUPODFT d EJWJEF B TV TVNB FTUP FT d | 2, EF EPOEF TF DPODMVZF
FM SFTVMUBEP
$PSPMBSJP 4J (a, bi ) = 1 QBSB i = 1, 2, . . . , n FOUPODFT
(a, b1 b2 · · · bn ) = 1.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT UBMFT RVF (a, b) = 1 1SVFCF RVF

(2a + b, a + 2b) FT Ó
&KFSDJDJP 4FB n ∈ Z BSCJUSBSJP %FNVFTUSF RVF (4, n2 +1) ∈ {1, 2}.
5FPSFNB 4FB k VO FOUFSP EJGFSFOUF EF DFSP &OUPODFT
(ka, kb) = |k|(a, b).
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP (−ka, −kb) = (ka, kb) QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF

k > 0 4FBO d = (a, b) Z g = (ka, kb) 7FBNPT RVF kd = g. 5FOFNPT MPT
TJHVJFOUFT IFDIPT

&T FWJEFOUF RVF d | a Z d | b. -VFHP dk | ak Z dk | bk MP RVF
JNQMJDB kd ≤ g.

&T FWJEFOUF RVF g | ka Z g | kb. "EFNÃT FYJTUFO FOUFSPT x, y UBMFT
RVF d = ax + by Z BTÎ kd = kax + kby &O DPOTFDVFODJB g | kd
FOUPODFT g ≤ kd.
%F MBT DPODMVTJPOFT FO
Z
TF PCUJFOF MB JHVBMEBE kd = g.

*OUSPEVDJNPT BIPSB PUSP UFNB JNQPSUBOUF
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &M NÎOJNP DPNÙO NÙMUJQMP

.$.
EF a Z b EFOPUBEP QPS [a, b] TF EFàOF DPNP FM NFOPS FOUFSP
QPTJUJWP RVF FT NÙMUJQMP DPNÙO EF a Z b &T EFDJS
[a, b] = NÎO{m ∈ N∗ : a | m ∧ b | m}.

0CTFSWBDJÓO &M DPOKVOUP EF NÙMUJQMPT QPTJUJWPT DPNVOFT FT OP WBDÎP

QVFT ab Z −ab TPO NÙMUJQMPT DPNVOFT EF a Z b QPS UBOUP |ab| FT NÙMUJQMP
DPNÙO EF a Z b -VFHP QPS FM 1#0 FYJTUF FM .$. EF a Z b
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF [a, b] = [−a, b] = [a, −b] = [−a, −b].
&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB DBSBDUFSJ[B FM .$.
5FPSFNB 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT m = [a, b] TJ Z

TPMP TJ
(i) m > 0 (ii) a | m ∧ b | m (iii) a | n ∧ b | n ⇒ m | n.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 1SPCFNPT MB DPOEJDJÓO OFDFTBSJB J

Z JJ
TF TJHVFO JO
NFEJBUBNFOUF 7FBNPT RVF TF UJFOF JJJ
4VQPOHBNPT RVF n ∈ Z FT UBM
RVF a | n ∧ b | n -VFHP n FT NÙMUJQMP DPNÙO EF a Z b Z QPS UBOUP
m ≤ |n| 1PS FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO |n| = mq + r QBSB BMHVOPT
FOUFSPT q, r DPO 0 ≤ r < m. -B JEFB FT QSPCBS RVF r = 0. 4VQPOHBNPT
FOUPODFT RVF r > 0 5FOJFOEP FO DVFOUB MB QSJNFSB BàSNBDJÓO FO JJ
Z
RVF a | n PCUFOFNPT RVF a | r %F MB NJTNB NBOFSB TF DPODMVZF RVF b | r
Z QPS UBOUP r FT VO NÙMUJQMP DPNÙO EF a Z b Z DPNP m FT FM .$. TF
UJFOF RVF m ≤ r MP RVF DPOUSBEJDF RVF r < m "TÎ RVFEB QSPCBEP RVF
r = 0 Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB m | n. 7FBNPT BIPSB MB DPOEJDJÓO TVàDJFOUF
TFB M = [a, b] Z EFNPTUSFNPT RVF M = m. 1PS EFàOJDJÓO a | M Z
b | M 1PS JJJ
m | M Z BTÎ MMFHBNPT B RVF m ≤ M 1PS PUSP MBEP
PCUFOFNPT EF JJ
RVF M ≤ m MP DVBM OPT EB MB JHVBMEBE M = m. $PO
FTUP RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB

5FPSFNB 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT
[a, b] · (a, b) = |ab|.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP (a, b) = (a, −b) = (−a, b) = (−a, −b) Z
[a, b] = [a, −b] = [−a, b] = [−a, −b]
QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF a > 0 Z b > 0. 4FBO m = [a, b] Z d = (a, b).

%F FTUP ÙMUJNP TBMF RVF d | a Z d | b Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUFO FOUFSPT ta Z
tb UBMFT RVF a = dta Z b = dtb 1PS MB PCTFSWBDJÓO IFDIB FO MB QÃHJOB
UFOFNPT RVF (ta , tb ) = 1 $PNP ab = d2 ta tb QBSB QSPCBS FM UFPSFNB
CBTUB WFS RVF m = dta tb . 1BSB FMMP WBNPT B BQMJDBS FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS
EFOPUFNPT m̂ = dta tb . &T DMBSP RVF J
m̂ > 0 7FBNPT JJ
FT EFDJS RVF
m̂ FT NÙMUJQMP DPNÙO EF a Z b Z JJJ
RVF m̂ FT FM NFOPS EF MPT NÙMUJ
QMPT DPNVOFT -B QSJNFSB QBSUF FT JONFEJBUB QVFT m̂ = dta tb = atb Z

m̂ = bta . 'JOBMNFOUF TVQPOHBNPT RVF a | n Z b | n WFBNPT RVF m̂ | n

&O FGFDUP FYJTUFO FOUFSPT r Z s UBMFT RVF n = ar = bs P FRVJWBMFOUF
NFOUF rdta = sdtb EF MP DVBM TF JOàFSF RVF tb | rta Z DPNP (ta , tb ) = 1
FOUPODFT tb | r BTÎ QPEFNPT FTDSJCJS r = utb QBSB BMHÙO FOUFSP u -VFHP
n = ar = autb = udta tb = um̂ MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF m̂ | n %F FTUB
NBOFSB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB

$PSPMBSJP 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT a Z b TPO QSJNPT

SFMBUJWPT TJ Z TPMP TJ [a, b] = |ab|.
$PSPMBSJP 4FBO a, b Z k FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT
[ka, kb] = |k|[a, b].
%FNPTUSBDJÓO %F MBT JHVBMEBEFT TJHVJFOUFT TF EFEVDF FM DPSPMBSJP
|k|[ka, kb](a, b) = [ka, kb](ka, kb) = k 2 |ab| = k 2 [a, b](a, b).

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF FM TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB TFBO a1 , a2 , . . . , an FO

UFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT d = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) TJ Z TPMP TJ
J
d > 0
JJ
d | a1 , d | a2 , . . . , d | an
JJJ
g | a1 , g | a2 , . . . , g | an ⇒ g | d.
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF FM TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB 4FBO a1 , a2 , . . . , an FO
UFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT m = [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] TJ Z TPMP TJ
J
m > 0
JJ
a1 | m, a2 | m, . . . , an | m
JJJ
a1 | k, a2 | k, . . . , an | k ⇒ m | k.
5FPSFNB 4FBO n ≥ 3 Z a1 , a2 , . . . , an FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = ((a1 , a2 , . . . , an−1 ), an ).
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FBO d = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ), d = ((a1 , a2 , . . . , an−1 ), an )

Z d = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an−1 ) -VFHP d | ai QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1
Z BTÎ d | d Z DPNP d | an FOUPODFT d | d 1PS PUSB QBSUF d | d Z
d | ai QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1 Z QVFTUP RVF d | an PCUFOFNPT RVF
d | ai QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , n. &O DPOTFDVFODJB d | d Z QPS UBOUP
d = d .

&KFSDJDJP 4FBO n ≥ 3 Z a1 , a2 , . . . , an FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT
[a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = [[a1 , a2 , . . . , an−1 ], an ].

&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT QPTJUJWPT UBMFT RVF [a, b] = (a, b).
1SVFCF RVF a = b.
&KFNQMP 4FBO a, b Z c FOUFSPT 1SPCFNPT RVF MB FDVBDJÓO
ax + by = c
UJFOF TPMVDJPOFT FOUFSBT x, y TJ Z TPMP TJ (a, b) | c.

-B OFDFTJEBE FT JONFEJBUB QVFTUP RVF (a, b) | a Z (a, b) | b FOUPODFT
QPS MB IJQÓUFTJT (a, b) | c. 7FBNPT BIPSB MB DPOEJDJÓO TVàDJFOUF TFB
g = (a, b). &OUPODFT FYJTUFO FOUFSPT x0 , y0 UBMFT RVF g = ax0 + by0
"EFNÃT DPNP g | c FOUPODFT c = gt QBSB BMHÙO FOUFSP t Z QPS UBOUP
c = gt = a(x0 t) + b(y0 t) MP DVBM UFSNJOB MB EFNPTUSBDJÓO
&KFSDJDJP 4FB p > 5 VO FOUFSP QSJNP 1SVFCF RVF OP FYJTUFO FOUFSPT
x, y UBMFT RVF x + y = 200 DPO (x, y) = p.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a, b Z d FOUFSPT UBMFT RVF (a, b) = 1 Z d | a 1SVFCF
RVF (d, b) = 1.
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF MB TVNB EF MPT DVBESBEPT EF EPT FOUFSPT
JNQBSFT OP QVFEF TFS VO DVBESBEP QFSGFDUP
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF OP FYJTUF VO FOUFSP N UBM RVF N 2 + 2 FT
NÙMUJQMP EF
&KFSDJDJP 3FTVFMWB MPT TJHVJFOUFT QSPCMFNBT
B
%FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP FOUFSP m TF DVNQMF RVF m5 − m FT
NÙMUJQMP EF
C
1SVFCF RVF UPEP FOUFSP RVF FT DVBESBEP QFSGFDUP FT EFDJS DBEB VOP
EF MPT FOUFSPT 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, · · · , n2 , · · ·
FT EF MB GPSNB 4m P CJFO
4m + 1 QBSB BMHÙO m ∈ Z.
D
%FNVFTUSF RVF BM NFOPT VOP EF m FOUFSPT DPOTFDVUJWPT FT EJWJTJCMF
QPS m (m ≥ 1).
E
4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT àKPT 1SVFCF RVF 3 | (a2 + b2 ) ⇐⇒ 3 | a ∧ 3 | b.
F
4FB m ∈ Z 1SVFCF RVF (3m + 2, 5m + 3) = 1.
G
4FBO p Z q OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT UBMFT p q = 40000 Z OJOHVOP EF FMMPT
FT NÙMUJQMP EF )BMMF MB TVNB p + q.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT Z m ∈ Z, m > 0 %FDJNPT RVF a
FT DPOHSVFOUF DPO b NÓEVMP m MP DVBM TF EFOPUB a ≡ b (NÓE m) TJ
m | a − b. %FNVFTUSF

B
-B SFMBDJÓO EF DPOHSVFODJB EFàOJEB FO Z FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJ
WBMFODJB -BT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB HFOFSBEBT TF MMBNBO DMBTFT
SFTJEVBMFT
C
4J a Z b TPO DPOHSVFOUFT NÓEVMP m FOUPODFT a Z b EFKBO FM NJTNP
SFTUP BM EJWJEJSMPT QPS m.
D
4J a ≡ b (NÓE m) FOUPODFT m | a TJ Z TPMP TJ m | b.
/PUB BMHVOPT FKFSDJDJPT QSFTFOUBEPT FO FTUF DBQÎUVMP GVFSPO FYUSBÎ

EPT EFM UFYUP i 5FPSÎB EF OÙNFSPT QBSB QSJODJQJBOUFT u
'BDVMUBE
EF $JFODJBT 6OJWFSTJEBE /BDJPOBM EF $PMPNCJB EF MPT BVUPSFT - 3 +JNÊ
OF[ #FDFSSB + & (PSEJMMP "SEJMB Z ( / 3VCJBOP 0SUFHÓO %F MB NJTNB
NBOFSB BMHVOBT JEFBT Z EFNPTUSBDJPOFT QSFTFOUBEBT TF FYUSBDUBSPO EF
BMMÎ PCWJBNFOUF DPO MB BVUPSJ[BDJÓO EF MPT BVUPSFT
JBMBT`Qv2+iQ $POTVMUF TPCSF FM UFPSFNB GVOEBNFOUBM EF MB BSJU
NÊUJDB FOVODJBEP QSVFCB BQMJDBDJPOFT FUD

$BQÎUVMP
-PT OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT
5SBUBNPT FO FTUF DBQÎUVMP FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT EFTEF

TV DPOTUSVDDJÓO IBTUB WFS RVF DPOTUJUVZFO VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z BS
RVJNFEJBOP 6TBNPT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB Z MB FTUSVDUVSB EF Z QBSB
MB DPOTUSVDDJÓO EF EJDIPT OÙNFSPT &TUVEJBNPT UBNCJÊO MBT TVDFTJPOFT
EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT MP DVBM TFSÃ JNQPSUBOUF FO FM TJHVJFOUF DBQÎUVMP
QBSB MB DPOTUSVDDJÓO EF MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT &O QSJODJQJP IBSFNPT VOB
QSFTFOUBDJÓO EFM DPODFQUP EF DBNQP P DVFSQP
&M DPODFQUP EF DBNQP

&YJTUFO PUSBT FTUSVDUVSBT BMHFCSBJDBT DPNP BOJMMPT NÓEVMPT FUD RVF OP
TPO PCKFUP EF FTUVEJP FO FTUF UFYUP Z RVF IBDFO QBSUF EF MBT BTJHOBUVSBT
QPTUFSJPSFT EF ÃMHFCSB BCTUSBDUB 4JO FNCBSHP DPNP MPT OÙNFSPT SBDJP
OBMFT Z MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT VOP EF MPT PCKFUJWPT QSJODJQBMFT EF FTUVEJP
FO FTUF MJCSP
DPOTUJUVZFO VO FKFNQMP QBSUJDVMBS EF FTUSVDUVSB BMHFCSBJDB
MMBNBEB DBNQP JOUSPEVDJNPT FTUB OPDJÓO FO FTUF QVOUP "MHVOPT EFUB
MMFT BEJDJPOBMFT TPCSF DBNQPT TF QSFTFOUBO FO FM BQÊOEJDF
%FàOJDJÓO 6O DBNQP P VO DVFSQP FT VO DPOKVOUP F OP WBDÎP EPUBEP

EF EPT PQFSBDJPOFT CJOBSJBT TVNB (+) Z QSPEVDUP (·) UBMFT RVF TF DVNQMFO
MPT TJHVJFOUFT BYJPNBT MMBNBEPT BYJPNBT EF DBNQP P BMHFCSBJDPT
4"
"TPDJBUJWJEBE EF + QBSB UPEP a, b, c ∈ F TF UJFOF RVF
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
4/
&YJTUFODJB EF OFVUSP QBSB + (∃ 0 ∈ F) (∀ a ∈ F) (a + 0 = a)
4 *
&YJTUFODJB EF JOWFSTPT QBSB +
(∀ a ∈ F) (∃ (−a) ∈ F) (a + (−a) = 0).

4$
$PONVUBUJWJEBE EF + QBSB UPEP QBS a, b ∈ F TF DVNQMF RVF
a + b = b + a
1"
"TPDJBUJWJEBE EF i · u QBSB UPEP a, b, c ∈ F TF UJFOF RVF
(a · b) · c = a · (b · c).
1/
&YJTUFODJB EF OFVUSP QBSB i · u
(∃ 1 ∈ F {0}) (∀ a ∈ F) (a · 1 = a).
1 *
&YJTUFODJB EF JOWFSTPT QBSB i · u
(∀ a ∈ F {0}) (∃ (a−1 ) ∈ F) (a · a−1 = 1).
1$
$PONVUBUJWJEBE EF i · u QBSB UPEP QBS a, b ∈ F TF DVNQMF RVF
a · b = b · a
%
%JTUSJCVUJWB QBSB UPEP a, b, c ∈ F TF DVNQMF RVF
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c.
0CTFSWBDJPOFT J
-PT FMFNFOUPT 0 Z 1 TPO ÙOJDPT TVQPOHBNPT RVF
FYJTUF 1 ∈ F UBM RVF QBSB UPEP x ∈ F, x · 1 = x &O QBSUJDVMBS QBSB
x = 1 TF UJFOF RVF 1 · 1 = 1. 1PS PUSB QBSUF 1 · 1 = 1 Z QPS TFS i · u VOB
PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB TF UJFOF RVF 1 = 1 -B VOJDJEBE EF 0 TF EFNVFTUSB EF
NBOFSB TJNJMBS FKFSDJDJP
1PS UBOUP FTUPT FMFNFOUPT TF MMBNBO DFSP Z
VOJEBE EF F SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF
JJ
-PT JOWFSTPT UBNCJÊO TPO ÙOJDPT WFS &KFSDJDJP
&M FMFNFOUP
−a ∈ F TF MMBNB JOWFSTP BEJUJWP EF a Z FM FMFNFOUP a−1 ∈ F DPO a = 0
RVF TF EFOPUB UBNCJÊO QPS 1/a TF MMBNB SFDÎQSPDP P JOWFSTP NVMUJQMJDB
UJWP EF a.
JJJ
/ÓUFTF RVF 1$
Z %
JNQMJDBO MB EJTUSJCVUJWB B EFSFDIB FT EFDJS
(b + c) · a = a · b + a · c.
JW
%F BIPSB FO BEFMBOUF TF PNJUJSÃ FM QVOUP FTUP FT TFHVJSFNPT FTDSJ
CJFOEP ab FO MVHBS EF a · b 4F BDPTUVNCSB VTBS MB OPUBDJÓO F, +, ·
QBSB FTQFDJàDBS RVF F FT VO DBNQP DPO MB TVNB i u Z FM QSPEVDUP i · u
&O DBTP EF OP IBCFS BNCJHÛFEBE FTDSJCJSFNPT TJNQMFNFOUF F
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF MB VOJDJEBE EFM OFVUSP QBSB MB TVNB Z MB VOJ
DJEBE EF MPT FMFNFOUPT JOWFSTPT FO VO DBNQP F

" DPOUJOVBDJÓO TF KVTUJàDBO NVDIBT EF MBT NBOJQVMBDJPOFT BMHFCSBJ

DBT RVF BDPTUVNCSBNPT SFBMJ[BS FO VO DBNQP 4F EFNVFTUSBO BMHVOBT
FM SFTUP DPOTUJUVZF VO FKFSDJDJP QBSB FM MFDUPS
5FPSFNB $POTFDVFODJBT EF MPT BYJPNBT EF DBNQP

4FBO F, +, ·
VO DBNQP Z a, b, c ∈ F &OUPODFT
$
$BODFMBUJWB QBSB + TJ a + b = a + c FOUPODFT b = c
$
a + b = 0 ⇒ a = −b
$
a0 = 0
$
/P IBZ EJWJTPSFT EF DFSP FT EFDJS TJ ab = 0 FOUPODFT a = 0 Ó
b = 0
$
a = −(−a)
$
$BODFMBUJWB EFM QSPEVDUP TJ ab = ac Z a = 0 FOUPODFT b = c
$
4J ab = a Z a = 0 FOUPODFT b = 1
$
4J ab = 1 Z a = 0 FOUPODFT b = a−1
$
1BSB a = 0 (a−1 )−1 = a
$
-FZ EF TJHOPT −(ab) = (−a)b = a(−b).
$
-FZ EF TJHOPT (−a)(−b) = ab.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $
"M BQMJDBS MPT BYJPNBT 4/
4*
4"
4$
Z MB
IJQÓUFTJT TF PCUJFOF
b = b + 0 = b + [a + (−a)] = (b + a) + (−a) = (a + b) + (−a)

= (a + c) + (−a) = (−a) + (a + c)
= [−a + a] + c = 0 + c = c.
$
a + b = 0 = −b + b $
Z 4$
JNQMJDBO a = −b
$
6TBOEP 4/
Z %
TF UJFOF RVF a0 + 0 = a0 = a · (0 + 0) = a0 + a0
1PS $
TF DPODMVZF RVF a0 = 0
$
4VQPOHBNPT a = 0 Z WFBNPT RVF b = 0. 1PS 1*
FYJTUF a−1 ∈ F
DPO a−1 = 0 Z UBM RVF aa−1 = 1. -VFHP VTBOEP MB IJQÓUFTJT 1$
Z 1"
UFOFNPT
0 = 0 · a−1 = (ab)a−1 = (ba)a−1 = b[aa−1 ] = b · 1 = b.
$
1PS $
DPNP a + (−a) = 0 TF UJFOF RVF a = −(−a)
$
&M DÓNQVUP 0 = a0 = a[b + (−b)] = ab + a(−b) Z $
JNQMJDBO

a(−b) = −(ab) "TJNJTNP TF QSVFCB MB PUSB JHVBMEBE

$
$BNCJBOEP a QPS −a FO MB TFHVOEB JHVBMEBE EF $
Z VTBOEP
$
TF UJFOF MP EFTFBEP

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF MBT DPOTFDVFODJBT $

$
$
Z $
EFM
5FPSFNB
0CTFSWBDJÓO &T GÃDJM WFS RVF FO VO DBNQP F MB FDVBDJÓO a+x = b UJFOF

QPS TPMVDJÓO ÙOJDB BM FMFNFOUP b + (−a) &TUP OPT QFSNJUF JOUSPEVDJS MB
EFàOJDJÓO EF EJGFSFODJB FOUSF a Z b B TBCFS a − b := a + (−b) QBSB UPEP
QBS a, b FO F
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB F VO DBNQP %FDJNPT RVF F FT PSEFOBEP TJ FYJTUF

VO TVCDPOKVOUP QSPQJP P EF F MMBNBEP EF MPT FMFNFOUPT QPTJUJWPT RVF
TBUJTGBDF MPT TJHVJFOUFT BYJPNBT EF PSEFO
•5SJDPUPNÎB QBSB DBEB a ∈ F FYBDUBNFOUF VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT BàS
NBDJPOFT TF DVNQMF
a = 0, a ∈ P, −a ∈ P.
•$FSSBEVSB TJ a, b ∈ P FOUPODFT a + b ∈ P Z ab ∈ P
0CTFSWBDJÓO 4J F FT PSEFOBEP FM DPOKVOUP P EF FMFNFOUPT QPTJUJWPT

RVFEB àKP /PUFNPT BEFNÃT RVF FM BYJPNB EF USJDPUPNÎB JNQMJDB RVF
0∈/ P 4J −a ∈ P EFDJNPT RVF a FT OFHBUJWP Z VTBNPT MB OPUBDJÓO −P
QBSB EFTDSJCJS FM DPOKVOUP EF FMFNFOUPT OFHBUJWPT 'JOBMNFOUF OPUFNPT
RVF F FT VOJÓO EJTKVOUB EF P, −P Z {0}
*OUSPEVDJNPT BIPSB MB TJHVJFOUF OPUBDJÓO QBSB a ∈ F EFOPUBNPT
a · a = a2 Z a0 := 1, TJ a = 0.
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FBO F VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z a ∈ F, a = 0 &OUPODFT

a2 ∈ P &O QBSUJDVMBS 1 ∈ P
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP a = 0 Z F FT PSEFOBEP FOUPODFT a ∈ P P CJFO

−a ∈ P &O FM QSJNFS DBTP FM BYJPNB EF DFSSBEVSB JNQMJDB RVF a2 ∈ P
Z FO FM TFHVOEP FM NJTNP BYJPNB Z MB DPOTFDVFODJB $
HBSBOUJ[BO
RVF a2 ∈ P 'JOBMNFOUF DPNP 1 = 1 · 1 TF UJFOF RVF 1 ∈ P.
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF TJ MB FDVBDJÓO x2 + 1 = 0 UJFOF TPMVDJÓO FO FM

DBNQP F FOUPODFT F OP QVFEF TFS PSEFOBEP

%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO F VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z P FM TVCDPOKVOUP EF

FMFNFOUPT QPTJUJWPT 4F EFàOFO MBT TJHVJFOUFT SFMBDJPOFT QBSB a, b ∈ F
B
a b :⇐⇒ b < a ⇐⇒ a − b ∈ P -ÊBTF a NBZPS RVF b
D
a ≤ b :⇐⇒ ( a < b ∨ a = b ) ⇐⇒ ( b − a ∈ P ∨ a = b )
-ÊBTF a NFOPS P JHVBM RVF b
E
a ≥ b :⇐⇒ b ≤ a ⇐⇒ ( b < a ∨ a = b ) ⇐⇒ ( a − b ∈
P ∨ a = b ) -ÊBTF a NBZPS P JHVBM RVF b
0CTFSWBDJPOFT /PUFNPT RVF FO VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP

J
a > 0 ⇐⇒ a − 0 ∈ P ⇐⇒ a ∈ P &TUP FT a > 0 TJ Z TPMP TJ a FT
QPTJUJWP
JJ
a < 0 ⇐⇒ 0 − a ∈ P ⇐⇒ −a ∈ P &TUP FT a < 0 TJ Z TPMP TJ a FT
OFHBUJWP
JJJ
a > b TJ Z TPMP TJ a − b > 0 &TUP FT DJFSUP QPSRVF a > b TJ Z TPMP
TJ a − b ∈ P TJ Z TPMP TJ a − b > 0 %F MB NJTNB NBOFSB TF EFEVDF
a TF TVTUJ
UVZFO QPS ≤ Z ≥ SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF
JW
a < 0 ⇐⇒ 0 − a = −a ∈ P ⇐⇒ −a > 0
W
&M BYJPNB EF USJDPUPNÎB TF QVFEF FOVODJBS BTÎ QBSB UPEP a ∈ F P
CJFO a = 0 P CJFO a > 0 P CJFO a < 0
WJ
&M BYJPNB EF USJDPUPNÎB JNQMJDB RVF
a ≮ 0 ⇐⇒ a ≥ 0 Z a 0 ⇐⇒ a < 0.
1SPQPTJDJÓO &O VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP F TF DVNQMF MP TJHVJFOUF

B
4J QBSB UPEP e > 0 TF UJFOF RVF x < e FOUPODFT x ≤ 0
C
1BSB UPEP a ∈ F a < a + 1.
D
4J a 0 FOUPODFT ac < bc
E
4J a bc &O QBSUJDVMBS
a −b.
F
4J a > 0 FOUPODFT a−1 > 0

G
4J a < 0 FOUPODFT a−1 < 0
H
a = 0 TJ Z TPMP TJ a ≤ 0 Z a ≥ 0

I
ab < 0 ⇐⇒ ( a > 0 ∧ b < 0 ) ∨ ( a < 0 ∧ b>0)
J
a < b ⇐⇒ a + c < b + c
K
-B SFMBDJÓO i < u FT DPNQBUJCMF DPO MB TVNB i + u EFàOJEB FO F FTUP
FT a < b Z c < d JNQMJDB a + c < b + d
L
-B SFMBDJÓO i < u FT USBOTJUJWB a < b Z b < c JNQMJDB a < c
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4F EFNVFTUSBO BMHVOBT EF MBT BàSNBDJPOFT MBT EFNÃT

DPOTUJUVZFO VO GÃDJM FKFSDJDJP
B
4VQPOHBNPT RVF OP TF DVNQMF MB DPODMVTJÓO &OUPODFT QPS MB PCTFS
WBDJÓO WJ
QSFWJB x > 0 "QMJDBOEP MB IJQÓUFTJT DPO e = x TF PCUJFOF MB
DPOUSBEJDDJÓO x < x -VFHP x ≤ 0
D
/PUFNPT RVF QPS EFàOJDJÓO ac < bc TJ Z TPMP TJ
bc − ac = (b − a)c ∈ P.
"IPSB CJFO MB IJQÓUFTJT JNQMJDB b − a ∈ P Z c ∈ P 'JOBMNFOUF FM

BYJPNB EF DFSSBEVSB HBSBOUJ[B RVF (b − a)c ∈ P
F
&T FWJEFOUF RVF a−1 FYJTUF Z FT EJGFSFOUF EF DFSP 4J a−1 < 0 FOUPODFT
QPS D
TF UFOESÎB a−1 a < a · 0 Z MVFHP 1 < 0 $PNP DPOTFDVFODJB EF
FTUB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO EFCF TFS a−1 > 0
H
4J a = 0 QPS USJDPUPNÎB MBT PUSBT EPT QPTJCJMJEBEFT OP TF DVNQMFO FT
EFDJS a ≮ 0 Z a ≯ 0. 6TBOEP OVFWBNFOUF MB PCTFSWBDJÓO WJ
TF DPODMVZF
a ≥ 0 Z a ≤ 0 3FDÎQSPDBNFOUF TJ PDVSSF a ≥ 0 Z a ≤ 0 WJ
JNQMJDB
RVF a = 0
I
4J ab < 0 FOUPODFT a = 0 )BZ EPT DBTPT a > 0 P CJFO a < 0 4J
TF UJFOF FM QSJNFSP VTBOEP F
Z D
TF DPODMVZF RVF b < 0 4J PDVSSF FM
TFHVOEP VTBOEP G
Z E
TF UJFOF RVF b > 0 &TUP QSVFCB MB DPOEJDJÓO
OFDFTBSJB 3FDÎQSPDBNFOUF DVBMRVJFSB EF MBT EPT TJUVBDJPOFT JNQMJDB RVF
−ab ∈ P FTUP FT ab < 0.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB F VO DVFSQP PSEFOBEP Z a, b ∈ F %FNVFTUSF

B
0 < a < 1 ⇒ a2 < a
C
a > 1 ⇒ a2 > a
D
4J a > 0 Z b > 0 FOUPODFT a 0 ∧ b > 0) ⇒ (a + b)−1 < a−1 .

F
1BSB UPEP a, b TF DVNQMF RVF a2 ± ab + b2 ≥ 0.
G
a2 + b2 = 0 ⇐⇒ a = b = 0
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO F VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z A ⊂ F

J
%FDJNPT RVF A FT BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF BDPUBEP
JOGFSJPSNFOUF
TJ FYJTUF b ∈ F UBM RVF QBSB UPEP x ∈ A TF UJFOF x ≤ b
SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF x ≥ b
VO FMFNFOUP b ∈ F DPO FTUB QSPQJFEBE TF MMB
NB DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A DPUB JOGFSJPS EF A
A FT BDPUBEP TJ FT BDPUBEP
TVQFSJPSNFOUF F JOGFSJPSNFOUF
/ÓUFTF RVF TJ A = ∅ UPEP FMFNFOUP EF F FT DPUB TVQFSJPS SFTQFDUJWB
NFOUF DPUB JOGFSJPS
EF A &TUF DBTP OP PGSFDF JOUFSÊT FO FTUF MJCSP
JJ
&YUSFNP TVQFSJPS P TVQSFNP EF A FT VO FMFNFOUP s ∈ F RVF FT DPUB
TVQFSJPS EF A Z UBM RVF TJ s ∈ F FT DVBMRVJFS DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A FOUPO
DFT s ≤ s FT EFDJS s FT MB NFOPS EF MBT DPUBT TVQFSJPSFT -P EFOPUBNPT
QPS TVQ A "IPSB CJFO TJ TVQ A ∈ A TF MMBNB NÃYJNP EF A Z MP EFOP
UBNPT QPS NÃY A
JJJ
&YUSFNP JOGFSJPS P ÎOàNP EF A FT VO FMFNFOUP y ∈ F RVF FT DPUB
JOGFSJPS EF A UBM RVF TJ y ∈ F FT DVBMRVJFS DPUB JOGFSJPS EF A FOUPODFT
y ≤ y FTUP FT y FT MB NBZPS EF MBT DPUBT JOGFSJPSFT &TDSJCJNPT ÎOG A
Z FO FM DBTP EF RVF ÎOG A ∈ A MP MMBNBNPT NÎOJNP EF A Z TF SFQSFTFOUB
QPS NÎO A
0CTÊSWFTF RVF VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP F OP UJFOF TVQSFNP FO F

QVFTUP
RVF TJ s ∈ F MP GVFSB FOUPODFT s + 1 ≤ s MP DVBM DPOUSBEJDF C
EF MB
1SPQPTJDJÓO 6O SB[POBNJFOUP TJNJMBS KVTUJàDB RVF F OP UJFOF ÎOàNP
0CTFSWBNPT UBNCJÊO RVF ∅ OP UJFOF TVQSFNP OJ ÎOàNP FO F
&KFNQMP 4J F FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP FOUPODFT FM DPOKVOUP P EF

FMFNFOUPT QPTJUJWPT FTUÃ BDPUBEP JOGFSJPSNFOUF QPS DFSP 5BNCJÊO FM DPO
KVOUP −P EF FMFNFOUPT OFHBUJWPT FTUÃ BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF QPS DFSP
)BTUB BIPSB QBSB RVF VO DPOKVOUP F = ∅ EPUBEP EF EPT PQFSBDJPOFT

CJOBSJBT TFB VO DBNQP EFCFO DVNQMJSTF MPT BYJPNBT BMHFCSBJDPT Z TJ
BEFNÃT TF DVNQMFO MPT BYJPNBT EF PSEFO FM DBNQP FT PSEFOBEP )BZ
VO UFSDFS UJQP EF BYJPNB MMBNBEP BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ RVF DBSBDUFSJ[B
MPT DBNQPT MMBNBEPT DPNQMFUPT
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB F VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP %FDJNPT RVF F FT DPNQMFUP

TJ UPEP TVCDPOKVOUP OP WBDÎP EF F BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF UJFOF TVQSFNP
FO F

" DPOUJOVBDJÓO TF EFNVFTUSB VO UFPSFNB RVF FYQSFTB PUSB GPSNB

FRVJWBMFOUF QBSB FM BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ &O MPT FKFSDJDJPT QSPQVFTUPT
TF FODPOUSBSÃ PUSB FRVJWBMFODJB
5FPSFNB 4FB F VO DVFSQP PSEFOBEP &OUPODFT F FT DPNQMFUP TJ
Z TPMP TJ UPEP TVCDPOKVOUP OP WBDÎP EF F BDPUBEP JOGFSJPSNFOUF UJFOF
ÎOàNP FO F
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF F FT DPNQMFUP Z TFB A ⊂ F OP WBDÎP
Z BDPUBEP JOGFSJPSNFOUF 7FBNPT RVF A UJFOF ÎOàNP FO F 1BSB FMMP TF
DPOTUSVZF FM DPOKVOUP EF PQVFTUPT EF A FT EFDJS
B = −A := {−x : x ∈ A}.
$PNP A = ∅ FOUPODFT B = ∅ 1PS PUSB QBSUF FYJTUF y ∈ F DPUB JOGFSJPS
EF A -VFHP TJ b ∈ B FOUPODFT −b ∈ A Z QPS UBOUP y ≤ −b Z BTÎ
b ≤ −y &TUP QSVFCB RVF B FT BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF QPS −y -B DPN
QMFUF[ EF F HBSBOUJ[B RVF FYJTUF s ∈ F UBM RVF s = TVQ B 1SPCFNPT RVF
−s FT FM ÎOàNP EF A &O FGFDUP TJ x ∈ A FOUPODFT −x ∈ B Z QPS FOEF
−s ≤ x FTUP FT −s FT DPUB JOGFSJPS EF A "IPSB CJFO TJ y FT DVBMRVJFS
DPUB JOGFSJPS EF A FOUPODFT y ≤ −b QBSB UPEP b ∈ B MP RVF RVJFSF EFDJS
RVF −y FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF B $PNP s FT FM TVQSFNP EF B FOUPODFT
s ≤ −y . 1PS UBOUP y ≤ −s MP DVBM HBSBOUJ[B RVF −s FT MB NBZPS EF
MBT DPUBT JOGFSJPSFT EF A 2VFEB QSPCBEP RVF −s = ÎOG A 1BSB QSPCBS
FM SFDÎQSPDP TF QSPDFEF EF NBOFSB BOÃMPHB
0CTFSWBDJÓO %F MB EFNPTUSBDJÓO BOUFSJPS TF SFTBMUB FM TJHVJFOUF IFDIP

TJ A = ∅ FT VO TVCDPOKVOUP UBM RVF ÎOG A FYJTUF FO VO DVFSQP PSEFOBEP
F FOUPODFT TVQ(−A) FYJTUF Z BEFNÃT
ÎOG A = − TVQ(−A).
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4J FM TVQSFNP Z FM ÎOàNP EF VO DPOKVOUP A FYJTUFO
FOUPODFT TPO ÙOJDPT
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF TVQ A FYJTUF FO VO DBNQP F 4J s ∈ F
FT UBNCJÊO TVQSFNP EF A FOUPODFT FO QBSUJDVMBS FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A Z
QPS UBOUP s ≤ TVQ A %F MB NJTNB NBOFSB TVQ A ≤ s -VFHP s = TVQ A
1BSB MB VOJDJEBE EFM ÎOàNP CBTUB VTBS MB PCTFSWBDJÓO BOUFSJPS

5FPSFNB $BSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO EFM TVQSFNP F ÎOàNP
4FBO F VO DBNQP
PSEFOBEP ∅ = A ⊂ F BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO F Z ∅ = B ⊂ F BDPUBEP
JOGFSJPSNFOUF FO F &OUPODFT

(i) s ∈ F FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A
s = TVQ A ⇐⇒
(ii) (∀ e > 0) (∃ a ∈ A) (s − e < a)


(i) y ∈ F FT DPUB JOGFSJPS EF B
y = ÎOG B ⇐⇒
(ii) (∀ e > 0) (∃ b ∈ B) (y + e > b).
%FNPTUSBDJÓO &T TVàDJFOUF QSPCBS

ZB RVF VOB WF[ IFDIP FTUP MB
BàSNBDJÓO
TF PCUJFOF GÃDJMNFOUF DPNP TF EFUBMMB B DPOUJOVBDJÓO
y = ÎOG B ⇐⇒ y = − TVQ(−B) ⇐⇒ −y = TVQ(−B)

(i) −y ∈ F FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF −B
⇐⇒
(ii) (∀ e > 0) (∃ − b ∈ (−B)) (−y − e < −b)

⇐⇒
(ii) (∀ e > 0) (∃ b ∈ B) (y + e > b).
( ⇒ ) J
TF EFTQSFOEF JONFEJBUBNFOUF EF MB EFàOJDJÓO EF TVQSFNP
1SPCFNPT JJ
QPS FM BCTVSEP 4J FYJTUJFSB e > 0 UBM RVF QBSB UPEP a ∈ A
TF DVNQMJFSB s − e ≥ a FOUPODFT s − e TFSÎB DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A Z QPS
UBOUP s ≤ s − e $POUSBEJDDJÓO
( ⇐ ) 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF DPOUBNPT DPO FM MBEP EFSFDIP EF

7FBNPT RVF s FT MB NFOPS EF MBT DPUBT TVQFSJPSFT EF A 4VQPOHBNPT RVF
FYJTUF s DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A DPO s < s &OUPODFT BQMJDBOEP MB IJQÓUFTJT
DPO e = s − s > 0 FYJTUJSÎB a ∈ A DPO s < a MP DVBM FT BCTVSEP -VFHP
s ≤ s QBSB UPEB s DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A Z QPS UBOUP s = TVQ A.
&KFSDJDJP %FNPTUSBS RVF FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS TF QVFEF SFEBDUBS EF

NBOFSB FRVJWBMFOUF BTÎ
4FBO F VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP ∅ = A ⊂ F BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO F Z
∅ = B ⊂ F BDPUBEP JOGFSJPSNFOUF FO F &OUPODFT

(i) s ∈ F FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A
s = TVQ A ⇐⇒
(ii) (∀ x < s) (∃ a ∈ A) (x < a)

y = ÎOG B ⇐⇒
(ii) (∀ x > y) (∃ b ∈ B) (x > b).
'JOBMJ[BNPT FTUB TFDDJÓO SFTBMUBOEP PUSBT QSPQJFEBEFT EFM FYUSFNP

TVQFSJPS Z EFM FYUSFNP JOGFSJPS

1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FBO A Z B TVCDPOKVOUPT EF VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP F

&OUPODFT
J
4J A Z B UJFOFO FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F Z A ⊆ B FOUPODFT
TVQ A ≤ TVQ B
JJ
4J A Z B UJFOFO FYUSFNP JOGFSJPS FO F Z A ⊆ B FOUPODFT
ÎOG A ≥ ÎOG B
JJJ
4J A Z B UJFOFO FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS F JOGFSJPS FO F Z A ⊆ B FOUPODFT
ÎOG B ≤ ÎOG A ≤ TVQ A ≤ TVQ B.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO J
4FB x ∈ A 1PS MB IJQÓUFTJT SFTVMUB RVF x ∈ B $PNP
TVQ B FYJTUF x ≤ TVQ B -VFHP TVQ B FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A Z QPS UBOUP
TVQ A ≤ TVQ B
JJ
&T TJNJMBS B MB QSVFCB EF J

JJJ
1BSB x ∈ A TF UJFOF ÎOG A ≤ x ≤ TVQ A %F JJ
Z J
TF DPODMVZF
*OUSPEVDJNPT BIPSB MB TJHVJFOUF OPUBDJÓO QBSB a ∈ F Z n ∈ N∗
a1 := a Z QBSB n > 1, an := an−1 · a.
5BNCJÊO a−n := (a−1 )n Z a0 := 1 TJ a = 0.

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF TJ F FT VO DBNQP Z a, b ∈ F FOUPODFT
QBSB UPEP QBS EF OBUVSBMFT m ≥ 1 Z n ≥ 1 TF DVNQMF
B
an am = an+m
C
(an )m = anm
D
(ab)n = an bn
E
am a−n = am−n Z (a−n )m = a−nm TJFNQSF RVF a = 0
"OBMJDF MB WBMJEF[ EF MBT QSPQJFEBEFT BOUFSJPSFT TJ m, n ∈ Z.
&KFSDJDJPT TPCSF DBNQPT

1SVFCF RVF MB FDVBDJÓO cx = d DPO c = 0 UJFOF TPMVDJÓO ÙOJDB FO
VO DBNQP F &TUP QFSNJUF JOUSPEVDJS MB OPUBDJÓO QBSB c = 0
d
:= d · c−1 .
c
4FB F VO DBNQP Z TVQÓOHBTF RVF FYJTUF a ∈ F, a = 0 UBM RVF
a + a = 0 1SVFCF RVF 1 + 1 = 0

4FBO F, +, · VO DBNQP Z ∅ = S ⊆ F %FNVFTUSF RVF S, +, · FT

VO DBNQP TVCDBNQP EF F
TJ Z TPMP TJ
(i) 1 ∈ S
(ii) a, b ∈ S ⇒ a − b ∈ S
(iii) a, b ∈ S ∧ b = 0 ⇒ a · b−1 ∈ S
4FBO F VO DVFSQP PSEFOBEP Z a ∈ F OP OVMP %FNVFTUSF
a + a−1 ≥ 1 + 1, P CJFO a + a−1 ≤ −1 + (−1).
4FBO F VO DBNQP Z a, b, c, d, α, β ∈ F DPO ad − bc = 0 3FTVFMWB

FM TJTUFNB
ax + by = α
cx + dy = β,
QBSB x Z QBSB y FO F.
4FB a ∈ F 6OB SBÎ[ DVBESBEB EF a FT VO FMFNFOUP b ∈ F UBM RVF

b2 = a
B
y$VÃOUBT SBÎDFT DVBESBEBT UJFOF DFSP
C
4VQÓOHBTF RVF a = 0. 1SVFCF RVF TJ 1 + 1 = 0 FOUPODFT a
QPTFF B MP TVNP VOB SBÎ[ DVBESBEB Z RVF TJ 1 + 1 = 0 FOUPODFT
FO DBTP EF RVF a UFOHB SBÎ[ DVBESBEB UJFOF FYBDUBNFOUF EPT
4FBO F, +, · VO DVFSQP Z a ∈ F VO FMFNFOUP RVF DBSFDF EF SBÎ[

DVBESBEB FO F &TUF QSPCMFNB JOEJDB DPNP TF DPOTUSVZF VO DBNQP
NÃT BNQMJP F RVF DPOUJFOF B F FO FM DVBM a UJFOF SBÎ[ DVBESBEB
4FB F = F × F EPUBEP EF MBT PQFSBDJPOFT Z EFàOJEBT QPS
(x, y)(z, w) = (x+z, y+w), (x, y)(z, w) = (xz+ayw, xw+yz).
J
%FNVFTUSF RVF F , , FT VO DBNQP
JJ
%FNPTUSBS RVF (x, 0) (y, 0) = (x + y, 0) Z RVF
(x, 0) (y, 0) = (xy, 0).
&TUP OPT QFSNJUF JEFOUJàDBS x DPO (x, 0) FT EFDJS TJ
Ω := {(x, 0) : x ∈ F}
Z TF EFàOF Φ : F → Ω QPS Φ(x) = (x, 0) FOUPODFT Φ FT VO

JTPNPSàTNP &TUB BQMJDBDJÓO OPT QFSNJUF UBNCJÊO BàSNBS RVF F

DPOUJFOF B F FO FM TFOUJEP EF RVF F DPOUJFOF VO TVCDPOKVOUP Ω

FM DVBM FT JTPNPSGP B F
JJJ
)BMMF VOB SBÎ[ DVBESBEB EF (a, 0) FO F
"YJPNB EF DPOUJOVJEBE TFBO F VO DBNQP DPNQMFUP Z A, B ⊆ F
OP WBDÎPT UBMFT RVF ∀ a ∈ A Z ∀ b ∈ B TF UJFOF RVF a ≤ b
&OUPODFT FYJTUF c ∈ F UBM RVF ∀ a ∈ A Z ∀ b ∈ B, a ≤ c ≤ b
%FNVFTUSF RVF FM BYJPNB EF DPOUJOVJEBE FT FRVJWBMFOUF BM BYJPNB
EF DPNQMFUF[
4FB A VO TVCDPOKVOUP OP WBDÎP EF P DPO P FM DPOKVOUP EF FMF
NFOUPT QPTJUJWPT EF VO DBNQP DPNQMFUP F 4J A FT BDPUBEP TVQF
SJPSNFOUF QSVFCF RVF TVQ A > 0 &O DBTP EF RVF A TFB BDPUBEP
JOGFSJPSNFOUF EFNVFTUSF RVF ÎOG A ≥ 0
4FBO F VO DBNQP DPNQMFUP Z A ⊂ F OP WBDÎP Z BDPUBEP 4J ÎOG
A = TVQ A EFNVFTUSF RVF A FT VO DPOKVOUP TJOHVMBS FT EFDJS
VOJUBSJP
&TUF FKFSDJDJP KVTUJàDB MB JEFOUJàDBDJÓO RVF TF BDPTUVNCSB SFBMJ[BS
DVBOEP EPT FTUSVDUVSBT TPO JTPNPSGBT 4FBO F1 Z F2 EPT DBNQPT
Z Φ : F1 → F2 VO JTPNPSàTNP FOUSF FTUPT DBNQPT FT EFDJS Φ FT
CJZFDUJWP Z BEFNÃT Φ(a + b) = Φ(a) + Φ(b), Φ(ab) = Φ(a)Φ(b)
%FNPTUSBS
B
Φ(0) = 0
C
Φ(1) = 1
D
Φ(−a) = −Φ(a)
−1
E
4J a = 0 FOUPODFT Φ(a−1 ) = Φ(a)
F
4J MB FDVBDJÓO x2 +1 = 0 UJFOF TPMVDJÓO FO FM DBNQP F1 UBNCJÊO
UJFOF TPMVDJÓO FO FM DBNQP F2
G
4J F1 FT PSEFOBEP UBNCJÊO MP FT F2 "EFNÃT a < b FO F1
JNQMJDB Φ(a) < Φ(b) FO F2
H
4J F1 FT DPNQMFUP UBNCJÊO MP FT F2
4FBO F VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP A Z B TVCDPOKVOUPT OP WBDÎPT EF F
Z c ∈ F àKP 4F EFàOFO MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT
A + B := {a + b : a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B};
AB := {ab : a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B};
cA := {ca : a ∈ A};
c + A := {c + a : a ∈ A}.

%FNVFTUSF
B
4J A Z B UJFOFO FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F FOUPODFT A + B UJFOF
FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F Z BEFNÃT TVQ(A + B) = TVQ A + TVQ B
C
4J c > 0 Z A UJFOF FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F FOUPODFT cA UJFOF
FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F Z BEFNÃT TVQ(cA) = c · TVQ A
D
4J A UJFOF FYUSFNP JOGFSJPS FO F Z c < 0 FOUPODFT cA UJFOF
FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F Z BEFNÃT TVQ(cA) = c· ÎOG A
E
4J A Z B DPOUJFOFO TPMBNFOUF FMFNFOUPT QPTJUJWPT Z UJFOFO
FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F FOUPODFT AB UJFOF FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F
Z BEFNÃT TVQ(AB) = (TVQ A)(TVQ B)
F
4J A Z B UJFOFO FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F FOUPODFT A ∪ B UJFOF
FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F Z BEFNÃT TVQ(A∪B) = NÃY{TVQ A, TVQ B}
G
4J A UJFOF FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F FOUPODFT c + A UJFOF FYUSFNP
TVQFSJPS FO F Z BEFNÃT TVQ(c + A) = c + TVQ A.
H
4J A UJFOF FYUSFNP JOGFSJPS FO F FOUPODFT c + A UJFOF FYUSFNP
JOGFSJPS FO F Z BEFNÃT ÎOG(c + A) = c+ ÎOG A.
$POTUSVDDJÓO EF MPT OÙNFSPT

SBDJPOBMFT
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB B := Z × Z∗ := {(m, n) : m, n ∈ Z, n = 0}.
%FàOJNPT FO B MB SFMBDJÓO , QPS (m, n) (p, q) ⇐⇒ mq = np
&T GÃDJM WFS RVF FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJWBMFODJB FO B %FOPUBSFNPT

QPS [(m, n)] MB DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB DVZP SFQSFTFOUBOUF FT (m, n)
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJWBMFODJB FO B
%FàOJDJÓO &O B TF EFàOFO MBT PQFSBDJPOFT Z EF MB TJHVJFOUF

NBOFSB
(m, n) (p, q) := (mq + np, nq), (m, n) (p, q) := (mp, nq).
1SPQPTJDJÓO -B SFMBDJÓO EFàOJEB FO B FT DPNQBUJCMF DPO MBT

PQFSBDJPOFT Z
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 7FBNPT RVF Z TPO DPNQBUJCMFT

4FBO (m, n), (m , n ), (p, q), (p , q ) ∈ B UBMFT RVF (m, n) (p, q) Z
(m , n ) (p , q ) -VFHP
(m, n) (m , n ) (p, q) (p , q )

⇐⇒ (mn + nm , nn ) (pq + qp , qq )
⇐⇒ qq (mn + nm ) = nn (pq + qp )
⇐⇒ qq mn + qq nm = nn pq + nn qp .
"IPSB CJFO MB IJQÓUFTJT JNQMJDB RVF mq = np Z m q = n p .VM

UJQMJDBOEP MB QSJNFSB EF FTUBT JHVBMEBEFT QPS q n MB TFHVOEB QPS qn
Z TVNBOEP FTUPT SFTVMUBEPT TF PCUJFOF MB JHVBMEBE RVF BQBSFDF FO MB
ÙMUJNB FRVJWBMFODJB &TUP EFNVFTUSB MB DPNQBUJCJMJEBE EF Z 6O
SB[POBNJFOUP TJNJMBS QSVFCB MB DPNQBUJCJMJEBE EF Z .

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF Z TPO DPNQBUJCMFT

%FàOJDJÓO &M DPOKVOUP EF MBT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB B MP
MMBNBNPT FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT Z MP EFOPUBNPT QPS Q
FT EFDJS
Q := B .
%FDJS RVF q ∈ Q TJHOJàDB RVF q FT VOB DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB FT EFDJS

RVF FYJTUF (m, n) ∈ B UBM RVF q = [(m, n)]
" DPOUJOVBDJÓO EPUBSFNPT B Q EF EPT PQFSBDJPOFT RVF TFHVJSFNPT TJN
CPMJ[BOEP QPS i + u Z i · u QBSB OP IBDFS QFTBEB MB FTDSJUVSB Z QPS UBOUP
FM DPOUFYUP JOEJDBSÃ TJ FM TÎNCPMP + SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF ·
FT MB TVNB MB
NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO
FO FM DPOKVOUP Z P FO FM DPOKVOUP Q -VFHP OPT PDVQB
SFNPT EF QSPCBS RVF Q, +, · FT VO DBNQP
%FàOJDJÓO %BEPT MPT SBDJPOBMFT [(m, n)] Z [(p, q)] EFàOJNPT MB
TVNB Z MB NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO FOUSF FMMPT BTÎ
[(m, n)]+[(p, q)] := [(m, n)(p, q)], [(m, n)]·[(p, q)] := [(m, n)(p, q)].
-B DPNQBUJCJMJEBE EF DPO MBT PQFSBDJPOFT Z OPT QFSNJUFO EF

NPTUSBS RVF MB TVNB Z MB NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO EFàOJEBT FO Q TPO PQFSBDJPOFT
CJOBSJBT Z NÃT BÙO OP EFQFOEFO EFM SFQSFTFOUBOUF EF DMBTF FTDPHJEP
&O FGFDUP TJ [(m, n)] = [(m , n )] Z [(p, q)] = [(p , q )] FTUP FT
(m, n) (m , n ) Z (p, q) (p , q ),
QPS MB DPNQBUJCJMJEBE EF Z PCUFOFNPT RVF
(m, n) (p, q) (m , n ) (p , q )

Z FTUP RVJFSF EFDJS RVF [(m, n) (p, q)] = [(m , n ) (p , q )] 1PS UBOUP
[(m, n)] + [(p, q)] = [(m , n )] + [(p , q )].
-VFHP MB TVNB i + u FT VOB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB FO Q %F NBOFSB TJNJMBS

TF WF RVF i · u FT VOB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB FO Q
5FPSFNB Q, +, · FT VO DBNQP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO -B QSVFCB EF RVF TF DVNQMFO MPT BYJPNBT 4"

4$

1"
1$
Z %
FT NVZ TJNQMF QVFT CBTUB VTBS MB EFàOJDJÓO EF i + u Z
EF i · u EFàOJEBT FO Q Z MBT SFTQFDUJWBT QSPQJFEBEFT FO Z 7FBNPT MPT
PUSPT BYJPNBT EF DBNQP 4/
4*
1/
Z 1*
TFB [(m, n)] ∈ Q /ÓUFTF
RVF
[(m, n)] + [(0, 1)] = [(m, n)].
&TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF [(0, 1)] FT OFVUSP EF MB TVNB 5BNCJÊO TF UJFOF RVF
[(m, n)] + [(−m, n)] = [(0, n2 )] = [(0, 1)],
EPOEF MB ÙMUJNB JHVBMEBE TF KVTUJàDB QPSRVF (0, n2 ) (0, 1) -VFHP

DBEB OÙNFSP SBDJPOBM [(m, n)] QPTFF VO PQVFTUP BEJUJWP FO Q B TBCFS
[(−m, n)] &M FMFNFOUP [(1, 1)] ∈ Q FT OFVUSP QBSB FM QSPEVDUP QVFT
[(m, n)] · [(1, 1)] = [(m, n)] 'JOBMNFOUF EBEP [(m, n)] ∈ Q {[(0, 1)]}
FM SBDJPOBM [(n, m)] FT UBM RVF [(m, n)] · [(n, m)] = [(1, 1)] 1PS UBOUP TF
DVNQMF FM BYJPNB 1*
%F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB
0CTFSWBDJÓO -BT DPOTFDVFODJBT $

$
FOVODJBEBT FO FM 5FPSF
NB TPO WÃMJEBT FO DVBMRVJFS DBNQP F Z FO QBSUJDVMBS FO FM DBNQP
Q, +, · *HVBM WBMJEF[ UJFOFO MBT PCTFSWBDJPOFT IFDIBT EFTQVÊT EF MB
EFàOJDJÓO EF DBNQP 1PS FMMP MPT FMFNFOUPT [(0, 1)] Z [(1, 1)] FOVODJBEPT
FO MB EFNPTUSBDJÓO BOUFSJPS MPT MMBNBNPT FM DFSP Z FM VOP SFTQFDUJWB
NFOUF EF Q, +, · &T CVFOP FOGBUJ[BS UBNCJÊO RVF QBSB [(m, n)] ∈ Q
FODPOUSBNPT RVF TV PQVFTUP BEJUJWP FT [(−m, n)] QFSP MB OPUBDJÓO DMÃ
TJDB RVF TF IB WFOJEP VTBOEP FO VO DBNQP F QBSB EFOPUBS FM PQVFTUP
BEJUJWP EF VO FMFNFOUP a ∈ F IB TJEP −a -VFHP QPEFNPT FTDSJCJS
−[(m, n)] := [(−m, n)].
'JOBMNFOUF TJ [(m, n)] ∈ Q {[(0, 1)]}, TV SFDÎQSPDP RVF EFOPUBNPT QPS

[(m, n)]−1 FT [(n, m)] Z FTUP TJHOJàDB RVF
[(m, n)]−1 = [(n, m)].

" DPOUJOVBDJÓO WFSFNPT PUSPT IFDIPT JNQPSUBOUFT TPCSF Q &M QSJNFSP

EF FMMPT FT RVF Q ⊃ Z NÃT FYBDUBNFOUF Q DPOUJFOF VO TVCDPOKVOUP
QSPQJP RVF FT JTPNPSGP B Z 1BSB WFS FTUP EFàOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP

Z := [(m, 1)] : m ∈ Z
QPS j(m) := [(m, 1)] &TUB BQMJDBDJÓO SFTVMUB

Z MB BQMJDBDJÓO j : Z → Z
TFS VO JTPNPSàTNP FO FGFDUP TJ j(m) = j(n) FOUPODFT
[(m, 1)] = [(n, 1)] ⇐⇒ (m, 1) (n, 1) ⇐⇒ m = n,
FT EFDJS j FT VOP B VOP -B TPCSFZFDUJWJEBE FT DMBSB 1PS PUSB QBSUF
j(m + n) = [(m + n, 1)] = [(m, 1) (n, 1)]
= [(m, 1)] + [(n, 1)] = j(m) + j(n).
%F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF WF RVF j(mn) = j(m)j(n)
&TUF JTPNPSàTNP OPT QFSNJUF JEFOUJàDBS Z DPO Z ⊂ Q FTUP FT FM FOUFSP
m MP JEFOUJàDBNPT DPO FM SBDJPOBM [(m, 1)] ∈ Z TPMP TF EJGFSFODJBO
FO MB FTDSJUVSB Z FTUP OPT GBDVMUB QBSB BCVTBS EF MB OPUBDJÓO Z FTDSJCJS
[(m, 1)] = m "IPSB CJFO DPO FTUB JEFOUJàDBDJÓO FO NFOUF EBEP m ∈ Z
1
OP OVMP UJFOF TFOUJEP IBCMBS FO Q EF TV SFDÎQSPDP m−1 = m FM DVBM
−1
FT VO FMFNFOUP EF Q RVF JEFOUJàDBSFNPT DPO [(m, 1)] Z BCVTBOEP
OVFWBNFOUF EF MB OPUBDJÓO FTDSJCJNPT
[(m, 1)]−1 = m−1 .
$PO UPEP FTUP MMFHBNPT B MP TJHVJFOUF QBSB DVBMRVJFS SBDJPOBM [(m, n)]
TF UJFOF
[(m, n)] = [(m, 1) (1, n)] = [(m, 1)] · [(1, n)]
= [(m, 1)] · [(n, 1)]−1 = m · n−1 ,
EPOEF MB ÙMUJNB JHVBMEBE FT SFTVMUBEP EF MB JEFOUJàDBDJÓO EF [(m, 1)]
Z [(n, 1)]−1 DPO m Z n−1 SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF &O DPODMVTJÓO VO OÙNFSP
SBDJPOBM [(m, n)] MP JEFOUJàDBNPT DPO MB GSBDDJÓO m n Z EF BIPSB FO
BEFMBOUF MP QPEFNPT TFHVJS FTDSJCJFOEP EF FTUB GPSNB P UBNCJÊO DPNP
m · n−1 DPO n = 0 &O QBSUJDVMBS TJ m ∈ Z, m = [(m, 1)] = m 1 . &O
PUSPT UÊSNJOPT FM DPOKVOUP EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT RVFEB EFTDSJUP EF MB
TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB

Q= m n : m, n ∈ Z, n =
0 .
-B TJHVJFOUF QSPQPTJDJÓO FYQSFTB RVF VO OÙNFSP SBDJPOBM TF QVFEF TV

QPOFS TJFNQSF DPO EFOPNJOBEPS QPTJUJWP

1SPQPTJDJÓO %BEP [(m, n)] ∈ Q FYJTUF [(p, q)] ∈ Q DPO q > 0 UBM
RVF
[(m, n)] = [(p, q)].
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP n FT VO FOUFSP EJTUJOUP EF DFSP MB QSPQJFEBE EF

USJDPUPNÎB FO Z JNQMJDB RVF n > 0 P CJFO n < 0 &O FM QSJNFS DBTP
UPNBNPT p = m Z q = n 4J n < 0 TF FTDPHF p = −m Z q = −n Z FT
DMBSP RVF [(m, n)] = [(−m, −n)].

/PT PDVQBSFNPT BIPSB EF WFS RVF Q FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP

p
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO m n Z q OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT DPO n Z q FOUFSPT
QPTJUJWPT %FàOJNPT MBT TJHVJFOUFT SFMBDJPOFT EF DPNQBSBDJÓO
m p
J
< :⇐⇒ mq < np EPOEF MB SFMBDJÓO mq < np FT MB EF Z
n q
m p p m
JJ
> :⇐⇒ < ⇐⇒ np < mq
n q q n
m p m p m p
JJJ
≤ :⇐⇒ < ∨ = ;
n q n q n q
m p p m
JW
≥ :⇐⇒ ≤ .
n q q n
7BMF BOPUBS RVF DVBOEP MPT OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT B DPNQBSBS TPO FO
UFSPT MB SFMBDJÓO < EFàOJEB FO Q DPJODJEF DPO MB EF Z &O FGFDUP TJ
m, n ∈ Z Z TJ EFOPUBNPT NPNFOUÃOFBNFOUF QPS <Q Z QPS <Z MBT SF
MBDJPOFT EF DPNQBSBDJÓO FO Q Z FO Z SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF FOUPODFT
m n
m <Q n ⇐⇒ <Q ⇐⇒ m · 1 <Z n · 1 ⇐⇒ m <Z n.
1 1
/PUFNPT UBNCJÊO RVF TJ q ∈ N∗ FOUPODFT QBSB UPEP FOUFSP m Z QBSB
UPEP OBUVSBM n ≥ 1 TF DVNQMF RVF
m < n ⇐⇒ mq < nq.

m q m 1
&GFDUJWBNFOUF mq < nq ⇐⇒ < ⇐⇒ < ⇐⇒ m < n.
n q n 1
%FàOJDJÓO 4F EFàOF FM DPOKVOUP
Q+ := {m/n ∈ Q : mn > 0}.
&T DMBSP RVF Q+ ⊂ Q Z FT OP WBDÎP QVFT 1 = 1/1 ∈ Q+ "EFNÃT

Q+ FT DFSSBEP QBSB MB TVNB Z MB NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO FTUP FT TJ r, s ∈ Q+
FOUPODFT r + s, rs ∈ Q+ 1BSB EFNPTUSBS MB QSJNFSB BàSNBDJÓO TFBO

m, n, k Z l OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT DPO n Z l OP OVMPT UBMFT RVF r = m/n Z

s = k/l -VFHP
m k ml + nk
r+s= + =
n l nl
Z DPNP mn > 0 Z kl > 0 FOUPODFT nl(ml + nk) = mnl2 + kln2 > 0
MP DVBM TJHOJàDB RVF r + s ∈ Q+ %F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF KVTUJàDB RVF
rs ∈ Q+
1SPQPTJDJÓO Q FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 1PS MP IFDIP QSFWJBNFOUF QPEFNPT UPNBS P := Q+ Z
TPMP SFTUB QSPCBS RVF FO Q TF DVNQMF MB QSPQJFEBE EF USJDPUPNÎB FT
EFDJS EBEP DVBMRVJFS r = m/n ∈ Q DPO n ∈ N, n > 0, TF WFSJàDB
FYBDUBNFOUF VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT BàSNBDJPOFT
r = 0, r ∈ Q+ , −r ∈ Q+ .
$PNP FO Z TF DVNQMF MB USJDPUPNÎB FOUPODFT FYBDUBNFOUF VOB EF MBT

TJHVJFOUFT BTFWFSBDJPOFT TF DVNQMF mn = 0, mn > 0, mn < 0 1SFDJTB

NFOUF FTUP RVJFSF EFDJS RVF r = 0 P CJFO r ∈ Q+ P CJFO −r ∈ Q+ .
&M DPOKVOUP Q+ TF MMBNB FM DPOKVOUP EF SBDJPOBMFT QPTJUJWPT

1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FBO r, s Z q OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT &OUPODFT

-B SFMBDJÓO i ≤ u EFàOJEB FO Q FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF PSEFO UPUBM

r < s ⇐⇒ r + q < s + q

r < s Z q > 0 JNQMJDB rq < sq

r < s Z q < 0 JNQMJDB rq > sq
%FNPTUSBDJÓO
&TUP FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF RVF ≤ FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF
PSEFO UPUBM FO Z

&YJTUFO m, n, m , n , k, l FO Z DPO n, n Z l QPTJUJWPT UBMFT RVF
m m k
r= , s= Z q= .
n n l
)BDJFOEP VTP EFM DPNFOUBSJP QSFWJP B MB %FàOJDJÓO TF PCUJFOF
r < s ⇐⇒ mn < nm ⇐⇒ mn l2 < nm l2

⇐⇒ mn l2 + nn kl < nm l2 + nn kl
ml + nk m l + n k m k m k
⇐⇒ < ⇐⇒ + < +
nl n l n l n l
⇐⇒ r + q < s + q.


4FBO r, s Z q DPNP FO
1VFTUP RVF q > 0 FOUPODFT kl > 0 Z BTÎ
mn < nm JNQMJDB mn kl < nm kl FT EFDJS
mk m k
< ,
nl nl
MP DVBM FT FRVJWBMFOUF B MB EFTJHVBMEBE rq < sq.

#BTUB BQMJDBS
B −q Z VTBS QSPQJFEBEFT WÃMJEBT FO FM
DPOKVOUP Z.

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF FOUSF EPT SBDJPOBMFT EJTUJOUPT TJFNQSF IBZ
PUSP SBDJPOBM
" DPOUJOVBDJÓO QSFTFOUBNPT EPT MFNBT RVF OPT TFSÃO EF VUJMJEBE
QBSB EFNPTUSBS RVF Q OP FT DPNQMFUP
-FNB 4FBO r, s ∈ Q àKPT UBMFT RVF QBSB UPEP n ∈ N, n ≥ 1 TF
DVNQMF RVF r < s + 1/n &OUPODFT r ≤ s.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO &YJTUFO FOUFSPT m, k, m , k DPO k Z k QPTJUJWPT UBMFT RVF
r = m/k Z s = m /k . -VFHP
1 m m n + k
r <s+ ⇐⇒ < ⇐⇒ mnk < m nk + k k
n k k n
⇐⇒ (mk − m k)n < k k.
$PNP FTUP FT WÃMJEP QBSB UPEP n ∈ N, n ≥ 1 FO QBSUJDVMBS TJ IBDFNPT
n = k k Z SFFNQMB[BNPT FO MB ÙMUJNB EFTJHVBMEBE PCUFOFNPT
mk − m k < 1.
%F BRVÎ TF JOàFSF RVF mk − m k ≤ 0 FT EFDJS m
≤ m
⇐⇒ r ≤ s.
k k
-FNB /P FYJTUF q ∈ Q UBM RVF q 2 = 2.

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUF VO SBDJPOBM q = m/n OP OVMP
DPO m Z n QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT UBM RVF q 2 = 2. -VFHP m2 = 2n2 MP RVF JN
QMJDB RVF m2 FT QBS Z QPS UBOUP m FT QBS &TUP RVJFSF EFDJS RVF m = 2k
QBSB BMHÙO FOUFSP k 4VTUJUVZFOEP FO MB JHVBMEBE BOUFSJPS FODPOUSBNPT
RVF n2 = 2k 2 Z BTÎ n UBNCJÊO FT QBS MP RVF DPOUSBEJDF RVF m Z n
OP UJFOFO EJWJTPSFT DPNVOFT EJGFSFOUFT EF MB VOJEBE &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO
QSVFCB FM MFNB

4JO QÊSEJEB EF HFOFSBMJEBE TF QVFEF TVQPOFS RVF (m, n) = 1 ZB RVF TJ (m, n) =
d > 1 FOUPODFT FYJTUFO FOUFSPT tm Z tn QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT WFS MB PCTFSWBDJÓO QPTUFSJPS
B MB 1SPQPTJDJÓO QÃHJOB
UBMFT RVF m = dtm Z n = dtn -VFHP q = m/n =
tm /tn Z BTÎ MB QSVFCB GVODJPOB DPO MPT FOUFSPT tm Z tn

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF MB FDVBDJÓO x2 = 8 OP UJFOF TPMVDJÓO

FO Q
&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB NVFTUSB RVF FYJTUFO TVCDPOKVOUPT EF Q BDP
UBEPT TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO Q RVF OP UJFOFO TVQSFNP FO FM DBNQP EF MPT
SBDJPOBMFT
5FPSFNB Q OP FT DPNQMFUP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 3B[POFNPT QPS DPOUSBEJDDJÓO Z DPOTJEFSFNPT FM
DPOKVOUP
S := q ∈ Q+ : q 2 < 2 .
&T FWJEFOUF RVF S ⊂ Q Z FT OP WBDÎP QVFT 1 ∈ S "EFNÃT S FT BDPUBEP
TVQFSJPSNFOUF ZB RVF TJ q ∈ S FOUPODFT q 2 < 2 < 22 MP RVF JNQMJDB
(q − 2)(q + 2) < 0 Z DPNP q + 2 > 0 FOUPODFT q < 2. 4J Q GVFSB
DPNQMFUP FYJTUJSÎB r ∈ Q UBM RVF r = TVQ S ≥ 1 > 0. "IPSB CJFO QPS MB
DBSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO EFM TVQSFNP QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM n ≥ 1 FYJTUF qn ∈ S UBM
RVF r − 1/n < qn Z QPS PUSB QBSUF FT DMBSP RVF QBSB DBEB n ≥ 1 TF UJFOF
RVF 1/n2 ≤ 1/n ≤ 1 < 2 QPS UBOUP 1/n ∈ S -VFHP 0 ≤ r − 1/n < qn
Z QPS FOEF (r − 1/n)2 < 2 ∀n ≥ 1. %F FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF
2r 2r 1
r2 − < r2 − + 2 <2
n n n
Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB DPNP 2r > 0 QBSB UPEP n ≥ 1 TF UJFOF RVF
r2 − 2 1
< .
2r n
r2 − 2
"QMJDBOEP FM -FNB DPO s = 0 MMFHBNPT B RVF ≤ 0 EF EPOEF
2r
TF TJHVF RVF r2 ≤ 2.
&M TJHVJFOUF SB[POBNJFOUP NVFTUSB RVF r2 ≥ 2 DPNP r FT FM TVQSFNP EF
1
S FOUPODFT QBSB DBEB n ∈ N, r + ∈
/ S Z QPS UBOUP
n+1
1 2
r+ ≥ 2,
n+1
MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF QBSB UPEP n ≥ 1
2r 1 2r 1 2r + 1
2 ≤ r2 + + 2
< r2 + + < r2 + ,
n + 1 (n + 1) n+1 n+1 n
Z EF FTUP TF UJFOF QBSB UPEP n ≥ 1
2 − r2 1
< ·
2r + 1 n

&M NJTNP -FNB HBSBOUJ[B RVF r2 ≥ 2. )FNPT EFNPTUSBEP BTÎ RVF
r2 = 2 MP RVF DPOUSBEJDF FM -FNB &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO QSVFCB RVF
Q OP FT DPNQMFUP

5FSNJOBNPT FTUB TFDDJÓO DPO PUSB DBSBDUFSÎTUJDB NVZ JNQPSUBOUF EF
MPT OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT MB MMBNBEB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB RVF TF EF
àOF FO FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
1SPQPTJDJÓO 1BSB UPEP r ∈ Q+ FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N ≥ 1 RVF
EFQFOEF EF r
UBM RVF
1
< r.
N
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 3B[POFNPT QPS FM BCTVSEP 4J UBM BàSNBDJÓO OP GVFSB
DJFSUB FYJTUJSÎBO OBUVSBMFT m0 Z n0 UBMFT RVF QBSB UPEP n ≥ 1 TF DVN
QMJSÎB RVF
m0 1
r0 := ≤ .
n0 n
1 m0
1BSUJDVMBSNFOUF QBSB n = n0 + 1 UFOESÎBNPT RVF ≥ Z QPS
n0 + 1 n0
UBOUP
1 1
1 ≥ ≥ 1+ > 1,
m0 n0
MP DVBM FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO -VFHP Q FT BSRVJNFEJBOP

&O HFOFSBM VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP F TF MMBNB BSRVJNFEJBOP TJ QBSB
DBEB r ∈ P, FM DPOKVOUP EF FMFNFOUPT QPTJUJWPT FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM
RVF (N · 1)−1 < r, EPOEF N · 1 := 1 + 1 +
· · · + 1
N WFDFT
&M SFTVMUBEP QSFTFOUBEP B DPOUJOVBDJÓO QSPQPSDJPOB PUSBT GPSNBT EF
DBSBDUFSJ[BS B Q DPNP BSRVJNFEJBOP
5FPSFNB -BT TJHVJFOUFT BàSNBDJPOFT TPO FRVJWBMFOUFT
B
Q FT BSRVJNFEJBOP
C
1BSB UPEP r ∈ Q Z QBSB UPEP s ∈ Q+ FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF r < N s
D
( ∀r ∈ Q )( ∃N ∈ N )( r < N ).
E
N OP FT BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO Q
%FNPTUSBDJÓO &M UFPSFNB RVFEBSÃ EFNPTUSBEP TJ QSPCBNPT MBT JNQMJ
DBDJPOFT
(a) ⇒ (b) ⇒ (c) ⇒ (d) ⇒ (a).
(a) ⇒ (b) 4FBO r ∈ Q Z s ∈ Q+ àKPT 4J r ≤ 0 CBTUB FMFHJS N = 1.
4J r > 0 MB IJQÓUFTJT HBSBOUJ[B MB FYJTUFODJB EF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF
1/N < s/r

(b) ⇒ (c) #BTUB IBDFS s = 1 FO C

(c) ⇒ (d) 4J N GVFSB BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO Q FYJTUJSÎB q0 ∈ Q
UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n ∈ N, n ≤ q0 1FSP D
EJDF RVF FYJTUJSÎB N ∈ N
UBM RVF q0 < N MP DVBM FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO -VFHP N OP FT BDPUBEP
TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO Q
(d) ⇒ (a) /VFWBNFOUF FM NÊUPEP JOEJSFDUP FT FM NÃT BQSPQJBEP 4J
FYJTUJFTF r0 ∈ Q+ UBM RVF ∀n ≥ 1, 1/n ≥ r0 FOUPODFT FM DPOKVOUP N
TFSÎB BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO Q QPS FM SBDJPOBM 1/r0

0CTFSWBDJÓO J
-B BàSNBDJÓO C
EFM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS FO UÊSNJOPT
HFPNÊUSJDPT TF JOUFSQSFUB BàSNBOEP RVF DVBMRVJFS MPOHJUVE r QPS NVZ
HSBOEF RVF TFB TF QVFEF TPCSFQBTBS DPO VO OÙNFSP àOJUP N EF MPOHJ
UVEFT JHVBMFT B s
JJ
&M UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS FT WÃMJEP FO DVBMRVJFS DBNQP PSEFOBEP F FO
FTF DBTP FM DPOKVOUP RVF EFTFNQFÒB FM QBQFM EFM DPOKVOUP EF OÙNFSPT
OBUVSBMFT FT
N := {n · 1 : n ∈ N}.
&KFSDJDJP
4FB r ∈ Q àKP 1SVFCF RVF FYJTUFO FOUFSPT m Z n UBMFT RVF
m < r < n.
1SVFCF EJSFDUBNFOUF RVF TJ r, s ∈ Q FOUPODFT

r > s ⇐⇒ r − s ∈ Q+ .
4FBO p Z q SBDJPOBMFT àKPT UBMFT RVF QBSB UPEP SBDJPOBM r > 1 TF

UJFOF RVF p < rq 1SVFCF RVF p ≤ q.
4FB k ∈ N, k > 1 àKP %FNVFTUSF
1
∀ ε ∈ Q+ ∃N ∈ N :< ε.
kN
BZVEB QSVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP n ∈ N, k n > n
%FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n ≥ 1
n
1 n
B
= .
k(k + 1) n+1
k=1
n
1 n
C
= .
(2k − 1)(2k + 1) 2n + 1
k=1
n
k n+2
D
=2− n .
2k 2
k=1

4FB A := {x ∈ Q+ : x2 > 2} %FNVFTUSF RVF A OP UJFOF ÎOàNP

FO Q
)BMMF FM TVQSFNP Z FM ÎOàNP EF MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT TJ FYJTUFO
Z EFNVFTUSF TV SFTQVFTUB
A = {1/n : n ∈ N∗ }, B = {1/n : n ∈ Z, n = 0},
C = {1/n + (−1)n : n ∈ N∗ }.
4FB A ⊂ Q BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF QPS s ∈ Q Z BDPUBEP JOGFSJPS

NFOUF QPS y ∈ Q 4J UBOUP s DPNP y QFSUFOFDFO BM DPOKVOUP A
QSVFCF RVF y = ÎOG A Z RVF s = TVQ A
1 1 1
4FB A = {a2 + b2 + c2 + a2
+ b2
+ c2
: a, b, c ∈ Q∗ } 1SVFCF RVF
ÎOG A = 6.
4VDFTJPOFT EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT

6O DPODFQUP EF NVDIB VUJMJEBE FO NBUFNÃUJDBT FT FM EF TVDFTJÓO &T
UVEJBSFNPT FTUF DPODFQUP Z BMHVOBT OPDJPOFT SFMBDJPOBEBT DPNP DPO
WFSHFODJB Z BDPUBNJFOUP 5BNCJÊO FTUVEJBSFNPT VOB DMBTF EF TVDFTJP
OFT MMBNBEBT EF $BVDIZ RVF TFSÃO VTBEBT FO FM DBQÎUVMP TJHVJFOUF QBSB
DPOTUSVJS FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB m VO OÙNFSP OBUVSBM àKP 6OB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙ

NFSPT SBDJPOBMFT FT VOB GVODJÓO EFM DPOKVOUP {n ∈ N : n ≥ m} BM
DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT Q FT EFDJS VOB BQMJDBDJÓO RVF
BTJHOB B DBEB OBUVSBM n ≥ m VO OÙNFSP SBDJPOBM rn . &O TÎNCPMPT
f : {n ∈ N : n ≥ m} → Q UBM RVF f (n) := rn ∈ Q TF MMBNB VOB
TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT P TVDFTJÓO FO Q
&O HFOFSBM VOB GVODJÓO f : {n ∈ N : n ≥ m} → X TF MMBNB VOB
TVDFTJÓO FO FM DPOKVOUP X.
&T QSFDJTP IBDFS VO DPNFOUBSJP SFTQFDUP B FTUF DPODFQUP &O MB QSÃD

UJDB FOUFOEFNPT Z IBDFNPT VTP EFM DPODFQUP EF TVDFTJÓO DPNP FM SBOHP
EF MB GVODJÓO f FT EFDJS TJ f (n) := rn IBCMBNPT EF {rn : n ≥ m} DP
NP MB TVDFTJÓO $PO FTUF BDVFSEP FT OBUVSBM EFOPUBS MBT TVDFTJPOFT QPS
{rn }∞
n=m &O FM DBTP FO FM RVF m = 0 TJNQMFNFOUF QPEFNPT FTDSJCJS
{rn } BMHVOBT WFDFT TF VTB UBNCJÊO MB FTDSJUVSB {rn }n∈N
&O MP RVF TJHVF EF FTUF UFYUP FO DVBOUP B TVDFTJPOFT TF SFàFSF TV
QPOESFNPT RVF m = 0 P m = 1.
&KFNQMP 4FB q ∈ Q àKP -B TVDFTJÓO {q}n∈N FT EFDJS rn = q QBSB

UPEP n ∈ N TF MMBNB TVDFTJÓO DPOTUBOUF

&KFNQMP " WFDFT TF BDPTUVNCSB EFàOJS VOB TVDFTJÓO QPS SFDVSSFO
DJB -B TJHVJFOUF TVDFTJÓO FT VOB NVFTUSB EF FMMP Z TF MMBNB TVDFTJÓO EF
'JCPOBDDJ {fn }∞
n=1 EFàOJEB QPS
f1 = f2 = 1, fn+2 = fn+1 + fn .
&TUB TVDFTJÓO NPEFMB FM GBNPTP QSPCMFNB EF MPT DPOFKPT QSPQVFTUP QPS
'JCPOBDDJ i&O VO QBUJP DFSSBEP TF DPMPDB VOB QBSFKB EF DPOFKPT SFDJÊO
OBDJEPT QBSB WFS DVÃOUPT EFTDFOEJFOUFT QSPEVDF FO FM DVSTP EF VO BÒP
Z TF TVQPOF RVF DBEB NFT B QBSUJS EFM TFHVOEP NFT EF TV WJEB DBEB
QBSFKB EF DPOFKPT EB PSJHFO B VOB OVFWBu 1BSB SFTPMWFS FTUF QSPCMFNB
TF TVQPOF BEJDJPOBMNFOUF RVF FO FTUF QFSJPEP EF UJFNQP OJOHÙO DPOFKP
NVFSF Z RVF MB IFNCSB TJFNQSF QSPEVDF VOB OVFWB QBSFKB GPSNBEB QPS
VO NBDIP Z VOB IFNCSB
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO {rn } Z {sn } TVDFTJPOFT FO Q %FàOJNPT MB TVNB
Z FM QSPEVDUP EF FMMBT EF MB NBOFSB OBUVSBM FT EFDJS
{rn } + {sn } := {rn + sn } , {rn } · {sn } := {rn · sn }.
%FCFNPT FOGBUJ[BS RVF IFNPT VTBEP FM NJTNP TÎNCPMP i + u QBSB
EFOPUBS TVNBT EF PCKFUPT EJGFSFOUFT QPS FKFNQMP FO MB FYQSFTJÓO rn +sn
FM TÎNCPMP DPSSFTQPOEF B VOB TVNB FOUSF SBDJPOBMFT &M DPNFOUBSJP UBN
CJÊO FT WÃMJEP QBSB MB NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO /ÓUFTF RVF TJ SQ SFQSFTFOUB FM DPO
KVOUP EF TVDFTJPOFT FO Q FOUPODFT MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP EFàOJEPT FO
FTUF DPOKVOUP TPO PQFSBDJPOFT CJOBSJBT QVFT MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP EF
GVODJPOFT UBNCJÊO MP TPO "EFNÃT QPS TFS Q VO DBNQP FTUBT PQFSBDJP
OFT TPO BTPDJBUJWBT DPONVUBUJWBT MB TVDFTJÓO DPOTUBOUF {0}n∈N FT FM
OFVUSP QBSB MB TVNB Z MB TVDFTJÓO DPOTUBOUF {1}n∈N FT FM OFVUSP QBSB FM
QSPEVDUP TF DVNQMF UBNCJÊO MB QSPQJFEBE EJTUSJCVUJWB Z DBEB FMFNFOUP
{rn } ∈ SQ UJFOF VO ÙOJDP PQVFTUP BEJUJWP {−rn } 1FSP DVJEBEP SQ
EPUBEP EF FTUBT PQFSBDJPOFT OP FT VO DBNQP y2VÊ FT MP RVF GBMMB
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO {rn } Z {sn } TVDFTJPOFT FO Q %FDJNPT RVF
{rn } = {sn } TJ rn = sn QBSB UPEP n ∈ N
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB r ∈ Q %FàOJNPT FM WBMPS BCTPMVUP EF r EFOPUBEP
QPS |r| DPNP
|r| := NÃY{r, −r}.
/PUFNPT RVF |r| FTUÃ CJFO EFàOJEP QVFT Q FTUÃ EPUBEP EF MB SFMBDJÓO
≤ MB DVBM FT EF PSEFO UPUBM Z QPS UBOUP r ≤ −r P CJFO −r ≤ r 5BNCJÊO

IUUQBNGBMFYCMPHTQPUDPN@@@BSDIJWFIUNM

QVFEF VTBSTF FM &KFSDJDJP 1 BM àOBM EFM DBQÎUVMP QBSB KVTUJàDBS MB CVFOB

EFàOJDJÓO EF |r| 0CTFSWFNPT BEFNÃT RVF EF MB EFàOJDJÓO TF EFTQSFOEF
RVF QBSB UPEP SBDJPOBM r, |r| ≥ 0
&T GÃDJM WFS RVF MB EFàOJDJÓO EF WBMPS BCTPMVUP FT FRVJWBMFOUF B MB
USBEJDJPOBMNFOUF QSFTFOUBEB FTUP FT

r TJ r ≥ 0
|r| =
−r TJ r ≤ 0 .
-B TJHVJFOUF QSPQPTJDJÓO SFTVNF MBT QSPQJFEBEFT NÃT VTBEBT EFM WBMPS

BCTPMVUP
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FBO r, s Z ε OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT &OUPODFT

B
|r| = 0 ⇐⇒ r = 0
C
| − r| = |r| 1BSJEBE EFM WBMPS BCTPMVUP

D
−|r| ≤ r ≤ |r|
E
4FB ε > 0 &OUPODFT |s| = ε ⇐⇒ (s = ε ∨ s = −ε).
F
r2 = s2 ⇐⇒ |r| = |s|
G
|r ± s| ≤ |r| + |s| %FTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS

H
|r| − |s| ≤ |r ± s|.
I
|r| < ε ⇐⇒ −ε < r < ε
J
|r| > ε ⇐⇒ ( r > ε ∨ r < −ε )

K
|r| − |s| ≤ |r − s|.
L
|rs| = |r||s|
r |r|

M
4J s = 0 FOUPODFT =
s |s|
%FNPTUSBDJÓO %FNPTUSBSFNPT BMHVOBT TJNQMFNFOUF DPO FM PCKFUJWP EF
JMVTUSBS PUSB NBOFSB EJTUJOUB EF QSPCBS FTUBT QSPQJFEBEFT -BT EFNÃT
DPOTUJUVZFO VO GÃDJM FKFSDJDJP
B
4J |r| = 0 FOUPODFT EF MB EFàOJDJÓO TF TJHVF RVF r ≤ |r| = 0 Z
−r ≤ |r| = 0 -VFHP r ≤ 0 ≤ r ⇐⇒ r = 0 -B PUSB JNQMJDBDJÓO FT
USJWJBM
C
Z D
TPO DPOTFDVFODJB JONFEJBUB EF MB EFàOJDJÓO EF WBMPS
BCTPMVUP
F
r2 = s2 ⇒ (r−s)(r+s) = 0 ⇒ r = s ∨ r = −s &O DVBMRVJFS DBTP

TF UJFOF RVF |r| = |s| 1BSB FM SFDÎQSPDP QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF UBOUP r
DPNP s TPO EJGFSFOUFT EF DFSP QVFT EF MP DPOUSBSJP MB DPODMVTJÓO TF UJFOF
USJWJBMNFOUF "QMJDBOEP E
DPO ε = |r| PCUFOFNPT RVF s2 = |r|2 = |s|2
Z OVFWBNFOUF E
DPO ε = |s| OPT QSPQPSDJPOB r2 = |s|2 -VFHP r2 = s2
G
6TBOEP MB EFàOJDJÓO UFOFNPT RVF

r ≤ |r| ∧ −r ≤ |r|
⇒ −(r + s) ≤ |r| + |s| ∧ (r + s) ≤ |r| + |s| ,
s ≤ |s| ∧ −s ≤ |s|
Z QPS UBOUP |r| + |s| FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EFM DPOKVOUP {r + s, −(r + s)} MP
DVBM RVJFSF EFDJS RVF
|r + s| ≤ |r| + |s|.
'JOBMNFOUF PCTFSWFNPT RVF |r − s| = |r +(−s)| ≤ |r| + |− s| = |r| + |s|.
H
4F TJHVF EF G
QVFTUP RVF |r| = |(r ± s) ∓ s| ≤ |r ± s| + |s|
I
/PUFNPT RVF TJ ε ≤ 0 BNCPT MBEPT EF MB FRVJWBMFODJB TPO GBMTPT Z
QPS UBOUP MB BàSNBDJÓO FT MÓHJDBNFOUF WFSEBEFSB 1FSP FTUF DBTP TPMP
PGSFDF WBMPS UFÓSJDP QPS MP RVF MB QSPQJFEBE UJFOF WBMPS QSÃDUJDP DVBOEP
ε > 0 4VQPOHBNPT FOUPODFT RVF ε > 0 -B QSPQJFEBE D
EFNVFTUSB MB
JNQMJDBDJÓO |r| < ε ⇒ −ε < r < ε %F MB EFàOJDJÓO TF TJHVF MB
PUSB JNQMJDBDJÓO 7BMF PCTFSWBS RVF MB QSPQJFEBE UBNCJÊO TF UJFOF TJ
DBNCJBNPT < QPS ≤
L
4J s = 0 MB BàSNBDJÓO FT USJWJBMNFOUF DJFSUB 4VQPOHBNPT FOUPODFT
RVF s = 0 -VFHP s > 0 P CJFO s < 0 FO DPOTFDVFODJB TF UJFOF RVF
{rs, −rs} = {r|s|, −r|s|} = |s|{r, −r} WFS &KFSDJDJP EF MB QÃHJOB

&TUF NJTNP FKFSDJDJP JNQMJDB RVF |rs| = |s||r|

&KFSDJDJP 4FB ε ∈ Q+ . 4J r, s, p ∈ Q FODVFOUSF VO q ∈ Q+ UBM RVF

|r − s| < q ∧ |p − s| < q ⇒ |r − p| < ε.
&M DPODFQUP EF WBMPS BCTPMVUP OPT QFSNJUF FTUVEJBS QSPQJFEBEFT JN

QPSUBOUFT EF TVDFTJPOFT DPNP FM BDPUBNJFOUP Z MB DPOWFSHFODJB
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJÓO FO Q %FDJNPT RVF MB TVDF

TJÓO FT BDPUBEB TVQFSJPSNFOUF SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF BDPUBEB JOGFSJPSNFOUF
TJ FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF M ∈ Q, JOEFQFOEJFOUF EF n UBM RVF QBSB UPEP

n ∈ N, rn ≤ M SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF rn ≥ M
-B TVDFTJÓO TF EJDF BDPUBEB
TJ MP FT TVQFSJPSNFOUF F JOGFSJPSNFOUF
0CTFSWBDJÓO &O MB QSÃDUJDB VTBNPT MB TJHVJFOUF DBSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO QBSB

TVDFTJPOFT BDPUBEBT {rn } FT BDPUBEB TJ Z TPMP TJ FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF

M ∈ Q, M ≥ 0 UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n ∈ N, |rn | ≤ M &O FGFDUP TJ {rn }

FT BDPUBEB FOUPODFT FYJTUFO DPOTUBOUFT q Z q FO Q UBMFT RVF QBSB UPEP
n ∈ N TF UJFOF RVF q ≤ rn ≤ q -VFHP TJ M := NÃY{|q |, |q|} FOUPODFT
QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n
−M ≤ −|q | ≤ q ≤ rn ≤ q ≤ |q| ≤ M,
FTUP FT |rn | ≤ M QBSB UPEP n ∈ N &M SFDÎQSPDP FT JONFEJBUP

&KFNQMP -B TVDFTJÓO {1 + (−1)n } FT BDPUBEB QVFTUP RVF FYJTUF MB
DPOTUBOUF 2 ∈ Q UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n ∈ N TF UJFOF RVF
|1 + (−1)n | ≤ 1 + |(−1)n | = 2.
*HVBMNFOUF MB TVDFTJÓO EF SBDJPOBMFT EFàOJEB QPS

n
1
sn := ,
(k + 1)(k + 2)
k=0
FT BDPUBEB QVFTUP RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n

n n
1 1 1 1
0 < sn = = − = 1− < 1.
(k + 1)(k + 2) k+1 k+2 n+2
k=0 k=0
"OUFT EF FOVODJBS MB EFàOJDJÓO EF DPOWFSHFODJB EF VOB TVDFTJÓO

QSFTFOUBSFNPT VO FKFNQMP RVF OPT BZVEF B BTJNJMBS NVZ CJFO EJDIB
EFàOJDJÓO
&KFNQMP $POTJEFSFNPT MB TVDFTJÓO EBEB QPS
2n
qn := ·
3n + 5
B
)BMMBS VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF |qn − 23 | < 10−3 QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM
n ≥ N
&O PUSBT QBMBCSBT RVFSFNPT FODPOUSBS VO ÎOEJDF N B QBSUJS EFM DVBM
UPEPT MPT UÊSNJOPT EF MB TVDFTJÓO EJTUBO EF 2/3 NFOPT RVF 10−3 1BSB
FMMP CBTUB PCTFSWBS RVF
2 10 9985

qn − < 10−3 ⇐⇒ < 10−3 ⇐⇒ n > .
3 3(3n + 5) 9
-VFHP VO ÎOEJDF RVF TJSWF FT N = 1110 &O FGFDUP TJ n ≥ 1110 FOUPODFT
9n + 15 ≥ 10005 Z BTÎ
2 10

qn − = < 10−3 .
3 9n + 15

C
%BEP ε ∈ Q+ BSCJUSBSJP QFSP àKP FODPOUSBS N ∈ N UBM RVF
2
|qn − | < ε,
3
QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n ≥ N
&TUP FT MB HFOFSBMJ[BDJÓO EFM DBTP BOUFSJPS FT EFDJS FODPOUSFNPT VO
ÎOEJDF N B QBSUJS EFM DVBM UPEPT MPT UÊSNJOPT EF MB TVDFTJÓO EJTUBO EF 2/3
NFOPT RVF VO ε ∈ Q+ DVBMRVJFSB QSFWJBNFOUF FTDPHJEP "RVÎ QPEFNPT
1 9ε
VTBS MB BSRVJNFEJBOB QBSB ε > 0 EBEP FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF <
N 10
NÃT BEFMBOUF FM DÓNQVUP EFKBSÃ DMBSB MB SB[ÓO EF FTUB FTDPHFODJB

-VFHP TJ n ≥ N FOUPODFT 9n + 15 ≥ 9N + 15 > 9N MP DVBM JNQMJDB
RVF
2 10 10 10
n
q − = ≤ < < ε.
3 9n + 15 9N + 15 9N
/PUBNPT EFM FKFNQMP RVF FM OBUVSBM N EFQFOEF EFM ε; TJ FO B
FT
DPHFNPT VO ε = 10−3 FM OBUVSBM N FODPOUSBEP OP OFDFTBSJBNFOUF FT

%FàOJDJÓO 6OB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT {rn } TF EJDF RVF
DPOWFSHF FO Q TJ FYJTUF VO OÙNFSP SBDJPOBM r UBM RVF QBSB DBEB ε ∈ Q+
FT QPTJCMF FODPOUSBS VO OBUVSBM N RVF QVFEF EFQFOEFS EF ε
DPO MB
QSPQJFEBE EF RVF TJ n ≥ N FOUPODFT |rn − r| < ε. 4JNCÓMJDBNFOUF MB
EFàOJDJÓO TF FYQSFTB BTÎ {rn } DPOWFSHF FO Q TJ
(∃ r ∈ Q)(∀ ε ∈ Q+ )(∃N ∈ N)(∀ n)(n ≥ N ⇒ |rn − r| < ε).
$VBOEP FTUP PDVSSF EFDJNPT RVF r FT FM MÎNJUF EF {rn } Z FTDSJCJNPT

MÎNn→∞ rn = r P TJ OP IBZ BNCJHÛFEBE rn → r.
/FHBOEP MB EFàOJDJÓO TF TJHVF RVF VOB TVDFTJÓO EF SBDJPOBMFT {rn }
OP DPOWFSHF FO Q TJ
(∀ r ∈ Q)(∃ ε0 ∈ Q+ )(∀N ∈ N)(∃ n)(n ≥ N ∧ |rn − r| ≥ ε0 ).
&KFNQMP -B QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB HBSBOUJ[B RVF MB TVDFTJÓO

{(−1)n /n} DPOWFSHF Z TV MÎNJUF FT DFSP -BT TVDFTJPOFT {n} Z {1+(−1)n }
OP DPOWFSHFO FO Q &O FGFDUP TJ {n} GVFSB DPOWFSHFOUF FYJTUJSÎB r ∈ Q
UBM RVF QBSB ε = 1 FODPOUSBSÎBNPT VO N ∈ N DPO MB QSPQJFEBE EF RVF TJ
n ≥ N FOUPODFT |n − r| < 1 %F BRVÎ TF TJHVF WÎB MB EFTJHVBMEBE USJBO
HVMBS RVF n < 1+|r| QBSB UPEP n ≥ N -VFHP TJ M := NÃY{N, 1+|r|}
QPESÎBNPT DPODMVJS RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n n ≤ M MP DVBM FRVJWBMF
B EFDJS RVF FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OBUVSBMFT FT BDPUBEP FO Q. &TUB DPOUSB
EJDDJÓO NVFTUSB RVF {n} OP DPOWFSHF FO Q %F MB NJTNB NBOFSB TJ MB

TVDFTJÓO {1 + (−1)n } GVFSB DPOWFSHFOUF FYJTUJSÎB q ∈ Q UBM RVF QBSB

ε = 1/2 FODPOUSBSÎBNPT VO N UBM RVF
n ≥ N ⇒ |1 + (−1)n − q| < 1/2.
&O QBSUJDVMBS QBSB n = 2N Z n = 2N + 1, MP BOUFSJPS BSSPKBSÎB RVF

|2 − q| < 1/2 Z |q| < 1/2 SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF -B EFTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS
JNQMJDBSÎB RVF 2 < 1 QVFT
2 = |2 − q + q| ≤ |2 − q| + |q| < 1.
&TUF BCTVSEP QSVFCB RVF MB TVDFTJÓO OP QVFEF TFS DPOWFSHFOUF
5FPSFNB 6OJDJEBE EFM MÎNJUF

4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT
SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF &OUPODFT TV MÎNJUF FT ÙOJDP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FBO q1 Z q2 MÎNJUFT EF {rn } 4FB ε ∈ Q+ BSCJUSBSJP 1PS

MB DPOWFSHFODJB FYJTUFO OBUVSBMFT N1 Z N2 UBMFT RVF
ε ε
n ≥ N1 ⇒ |rn − q1 | < Z n ≥ N2 ⇒ |rn − q2 | < .
2 2
-VFHP TJ EFàOJNPT N := NÃY{N1 , N2 } Z n ≥ N FOUPODFT QPS MB
EFTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS
|q1 − q2 | ≤ |q1 − rn | + |rn − q2 | < ε.
&O DPODMVTJÓO IFNPT EFNPTUSBEP RVF ∀ε ∈ Q+ , |q1 − q2 | < ε 6TBOEP

FM MJUFSBM B
EF MB 1SPQPTJDJÓO TF TJHVF RVF q1 = q2 . 1PS UBOUP FM
MÎNJUF FT ÙOJDP
)BTUB FTUF QVOUP TPMP UFOFNPT B EJTQPTJDJÓO MB EFàOJDJÓO QBSB QSPCBS

MB DPOWFSHFODJB EF VOB TVDFTJÓO $PO FM TJHVJFOUF FKFNQMP TF JMVTUSBO
GPSNBT EF FMBCPSBS DVFOUBT RVF QFSNJUFO VOB QSVFCB FYJUPTB
4n3 − 7
&KFNQMP $POTJEFSFNPT MB TVDFTJÓO qn = Z QSPCFNPT
3n3 − 9n − 5
RVF DPOWFSHF B 4/3. 3FDPSEFNPT RVF MB JEFB FT DPOUSPMBS MB EJGFSFODJB
FOUSF qn Z 4/3 DPO ε > 0 EBEP BSCJUSBSJBNFOUF Z QBSB n NBZPS RVF
DJFSUP N ∈ N. 1PS FMMP JOJDJBNPT BTÎ

4n3 − 7 4 36n − 1

|qn − 4/3| = 3 − = .
3n − 9n − 5 3 3(3n − 9n − 5)
3
1BSB FMJNJOBS MBT CBSSBT EF WBMPS BCTPMVUP EFCFNPT BTFHVSBSOPT EFM TJHOP
EF MB FYQSFTJÓO RVF FTUÃ FOUSF MBT CBSSBT &M OVNFSBEPS FT QPTJUJWP QBSB

UPEP OBUVSBM n ≥ 1 NJFOUSBT RVF FM EFOPNJOBEPS MP FT QBSB n ≥ 2

1BSB KVTUJàDBS FTUP ÙMUJNP OPUFNPT RVF 3n3 − 9n − 5 > 0 TJ Z TPMP
TJ 2n3 + n3 > 9n + 5 QBSB MP DVBM CBTUB RVF 2n3 > 9n Z n3 > 5
"NCBT TF TBUJTGBDFO QBSB UPEP n ≥ 3 QFSP MP RVF FTUBNPT KVTUJàDBOEP
TF DVNQMF UBNCJÊO QBSB n = 2 BTÎ RVF QPEFNPT FMJNJOBS MBT CBSSBT EFM
WBMPS BCTPMVUP TJFNQSF RVF n ≥ 2. 5FOFNPT FOUPODFT RVF QBSB n ≥ 2,
1 36n − 1
|qn − 4/3| = ·
3 3n3 − 9n − 5
"IPSB JOUSPEVDJNPT VO SB[POBNJFOUP RVF OPT BZVEB B BDPUBS FTUF DP
DJFOUF -B DMBWF DPOTJTUF FO RVFEBSOPT DPO MPT UÊSNJOPT iNBZPSFTu MPT
DVBMFT TPO MPT RVF EPNJOBO UPEB MB FYQSFTJÓO &O FM OVNFSBEPS FT 36n
Z FO FM EFOPNJOBEPS FT 3n3 MVFHP PMWJEÃOEPOPT EFM GBDUPS DPOTUBOUF
36n
1/3 FTUF DPDJFOUF TF DPNQPSUB DPNP = 12/n2 . &M QBTP B TFHVJS FT
3n3
WFSJàDBS RVF B QBSUJS EF DJFSUP OBUVSBM
36n − 1 12
≤ 2·
3n3 − 9n − 5 n
&TUB EFTJHVBMEBE FT FRVJWBMFOUF B EFDJS RVF 108n + 60 ≤ n2 QBSB MP

DVBM FT TVàDJFOUF RVF 108n ≤ n2 /2 Z RVF 60 ≤ n2 /2 $PO n ≥ 216 TF
DVNQMFO BNCBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT Z BTÎ TF UJFOF RVF
1 36n − 1 4
|qn − 4/3| = 3
≤ 2,
3 3n − 9n − 5 n
TJFNQSF RVF n ≥ 216.
'JOBMNFOUF FMBCPSBNPT OVFTUSP BSHVNFOUP EFàOJUJWP EF MB TJHVJFO
UF NBOFSB TFB ε ∈ Q+ EBEP 1PS MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB FYJT
UF M ∈ N UBM RVF 1/M < ε/4 &O DPOTFDVFODJB TJ n ≥ N EPOEF
N := NÃY{M, 216} FOUPODFT
4 4 4 4
|qn − 4/3| ≤ 2
< ≤ ≤ < ε,
n n N M
MP RVF EFNVFTUSB RVF qn → 4/3 DVBOEP n → ∞.
n2 − n 1
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF VTBOEP MB EFàOJDJÓO RVF 2
→ Z
4n − 1 4
n2 n2 + 1
− → −1.
n+1 n
4F EFNVFTUSB GÃDJMNFOUF RVF VOB TVDFTJÓO DPOTUBOUF DPOWFSHF Z TV
MÎNJUF FT MB NJTNB DPOTUBOUF RVF MB EFàOF

5FPSFNB 5PEB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF FT

BDPUBEB
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FBO {rn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF Z r ∈
Q TV MÎNJUF 6TBOEP MB EFàOJDJÓO EF DPOWFSHFODJB DPO ε = 1 FODPOUSB
NPT VO OBUVSBM N ≥ 1 UBM RVF
n ≥ N ⇒ |rn − r| < 1.
%F FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF QBSB UPEP n ≥ N, |rn | < 1 + |r| %FàOJFOEP
M := NÃY{|r0 |, |r1 |, |r2 |, . . . , |rN −1 |, 1 + |r|} > 0,
WFNPT RVF QBSB UPEP n ∈ N, |rn | ≤ M. 1PS UBOUP MB TVDFTJÓO {rn } FT

BDPUBEB

&KFSDJDJP 4FB {qn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF SBDJPOBMFT RVF DPOWFSHF B q

%FNVFTUSF VTBOEP BSHVNFOUPT ε−N, RVF |qn | → |q| Z qn2 → q 2 . "OBMJDF
MPT SFDÎQSPDPT
%FàOJDJÓO 6OB TVDFTJÓO EF SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF DPO MÎNJUF DFSP
FT MMBNBEB TVDFTJÓO OVMB
&O MB TJHVJFOUF QSPQPTJDJÓO SFTVNJNPT BMHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT EF MBT TV
DFTJPOFT OVMBT
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FBO {qn } Z {rn } TVDFTJPOFT EF SBDJPOBMFT
B
4J {qn } FT OVMB FOUPODFT {−qn } UBNCJÊO FT OVMB
C
4J {qn } Z {rn } TPO OVMBT FOUPODFT {qn + rn } FT OVMB
D
4J {qn } FT BDPUBEB Z {rn } FT OVMB FOUPODFT {qn rn } FT OVMB &O
QBSUJDVMBS FM QSPEVDUP EF EPT TVDFTJPOFT OVMBT UBNCJÊO FT OVMB
%FNPTUSBDJÓO B
&T JONFEJBUP QVFTUP RVF | − qn | = |qn |.
C
4FB ε ∈ Q+ &YJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF
ε ε
n ≥ N ⇒ |qn | < ∧ |rn | < .
2 2
&O SFBMJEBE FTUF N TF PCUJFOF DPNP VO NÃYJNP FOUSF PUSPT EPT OBUVSBMFT
N1 Z N2 UBM DVBM TF IJ[P FO MB QSVFCB EFM 5FPSFNB
-B EFTJHVBMEBE
USJBOHVMBS JNQMJDB RVF TJ n ≥ N FOUPODFT |qn +rn | < ε. 1PS UBOUP RVFEB
QSPCBEB MB BàSNBDJÓO
D
4FB M ∈ Q+ UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n ∈ N, |qn | ≤ M 4FB ε ∈ Q+ $PNP
rn → 0 FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF TJ n ≥ N FOUPODFT |rn | < ε/M. -VFHP TJ
n ≥ N TF UJFOF RVF |qn rn | < ε Z FTUP QSVFCB RVF {qn rn } FT OVMB


∞
n2
&KFNQMP -B TVDFTJÓO FT OVMB QVFTUP RVF QBSB DBEB
n3 + 2 n=1
n ≥ 1
n2 1 n3
= · ,
n3 + 2 n n3 + 2

∞
1 n3
EPOEF FT OVMB Z QBSB DBEB n ≥ 1 3 < 1
n n=1 n + 2
0CTFSWBDJÓO &T JONFEJBUP WFS RVF VOB TVDFTJÓO {rn } EF SBDJPOBMFT

DPOWFSHF BM SBDJPOBM r TJ Z TPMP TJ MB TVDFTJÓO {rn − r} FT VOB TVDFTJÓO
OVMB $PO FTUP Z DPO MB QSPQPTJDJÓO BOUFSJPS TF EFEVDFO MBT TJHVJFOUFT
QSPQJFEBEFT
4J {rn } DPOWFSHF B r Z {qn } DPOWFSHF B q FOUPODFT {rn +qn } Z {rn qn }
TPO DPOWFSHFOUFT Z UJFOFO QPS MÎNJUF B r + q Z rq SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF -B
TFHVOEB BàSNBDJÓO QPS FKFNQMP TF EFEVDF EF MB EFTJHVBMEBE
|rn qn − rq| ≤ |rn ||qn − q| + |q||rn − r|
Z EFM IFDIP EF RVF {rn } FT BDPUBEB

4J q = 0 FOUPODFT 1/qn → 1/q QSJNFSP WFBNPT RVF B QBSUJS EF
DJFSUP ÎOEJDF MPT UÊSNJOPT EF MB TVDFTJÓO TPO EJGFSFOUFT EF DFSP Z NÃT
BÙO FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF QPTJUJWB C UBM RVF |qn | > C QBSB UPEP n B
QBSUJS EF EJDIP ÎOEJDF $PNP |q| > 0 MB EFàOJDJÓO EF DPOWFSHFODJB OPT
|q|
QFSNJUF IBMMBS VO OBUVSBM N DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF B ε = UBM RVF
2
|q|
n ≥ N ⇒ |q − qn | < .
2
%F FTUP TF TJHVF RVF |q| − |qn | ≤ |q − qn | < |q|

2 TJFNQSF RVF n ≥ N Z
QPS UBOUP |qn | > |q|/2 := C QBSB UPEP n ≥ N FT EFDJS MPT UÊSNJOPT EF
MB TVDFTJÓO TPO EJGFSFOUFT EF DFSP QPS MP NFOPT B QBSUJS EFM UÊSNJOP EF
MVHBS N 4FB ε ∈ Q+ /VFWBNFOUF MB DPOWFSHFODJB OPT QSPQPSDJPOB VO
OBUVSBM N UBM RVF TJ n ≥ N FOUPODFT
1
|qn − q| < q 2 ε.
2
-VFHP TJ n ≥ NÃY{N, N } TF UJFOF RVF

1
− 1 = |q − qn | < ε.
qn q |q||qn |


rn
1BSUJDVMBSNFOUF TF EFEVDF RVF TJ q = 0 FOUPODFT MB TVDFTJÓO
qn
r
DPOWFSHF Z UJFOF QPS MÎNJUF BM SBDJPOBM ·
q
0CTFSWFNPT UBNCJÊO RVF DPO FTUBT QSPQJFEBEFT Z UFOJFOEP FO DVFO
UB RVF 1/n → 0, 1/n2 → 0 Z 1/n3 → 0 DVBOEP n → ∞, FKFSDJDJPT DPNP
FM JMVTUSBEP FO FM &KFNQMP TF QVFEFO SFTPMWFS EF GPSNB NÃT TFODJMMB
QPS FKFNQMP
4n3 − 7 4 − 7/n3 4
MÎNn→∞ 3
= MÎN n→∞ 2 3
= .
3n − 9n − 5 3 − 9/n − 5/n 3
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF FM 5FPSFNB EFM TBOEXJDI QBSB TVDFTJPOFT FO Q
TFBO {rn }, {sn } Z {qn } TVDFTJPOFT EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT UBMFT RVF FYJTUF
N0 DPO rn ≤ sn ≤ qn ∀n ≥ N0 . 4J rn → L ∈ Q Z qn → L, FOUPODFT
sn → L.
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF MBT TJHVJFOUFT TVDFTJPOFT TPO OVMBT
(−1)n n
B
pn :=
n2 + 2

n
1
C
r0 = 0 Z TJ n ≥ 1 rn :=
(n + i)2
i=0
1
D
qn :=
n!
"ZVEB VTF FM 5FPSFNB EFM TBOEXJDI QBSB C
Z D

" DPOUJOVBDJÓO TF JOUSPEVDF VOB DMBTF FTQFDJBM EF TVDFTJÓO &TUB TF
EJTUJOHVF EF MBT EFNÃT TVDFTJPOFT QPSRVF B QBSUJS EF DJFSUP ÎOEJDF FO
BEFMBOUF MB EJGFSFODJB FOUSF EPT EF TVT UÊSNJOPT FT UBO QFRVFÒB DPNP
VOP EFTFF
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT %FDJNPT
RVF {rn } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ TJ QBSB DBEB ε ∈ Q+ FT QPTJCMF
FODPOUSBS VO OBUVSBM N RVF QVFEF EFQFOEFS EF ε
UBM RVF QBSB DBEB
QBS EF OBUVSBMFT m Z n DPO n > N Z m > N TF UJFOF RVF |rn − rm | < ε.
&O TÎNCPMPT MB EFàOJDJÓO TF FTDSJCF {rn } FT EF $BVDIZ TJ
(∀ ε ∈ Q+ ) (∃ N ∈ N) (∀ n)(∀ m) (n > N ∧ m > N ⇒ |rn −rm | < ε).
4F EFEVDF FOUPODFT RVF VOB TVDFTJÓO {rn } OP FT EF $BVDIZ TJ
(∃ ε0 ∈ Q+ ) (∀N ∈ N) (∃ n)(∃ m) (n > N ∧ m > N ∧ |rn −rm | ≥ ε0 ),
FT EFDJS FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF SBDJPOBM QPTJUJWB ε0 UBM RVF EBEP DVBMRVJFS
OBUVSBM N FT QPTJCMF IBMMBS PUSPT OBUVSBMFT n Z m NBZPSFT RVF N DPO

MB QSPQJFEBE |rn − rm | ≥ ε0 EBEP VO OBUVSBM N FYJTUFO EPT UÊSNJOPT EF

MB TVDFTJÓO DPO ÎOEJDFT NBZPSFT RVF N TVàDJFOUFNFOUF BMFKBEPT

2n
&KFNQMP -B TVDFTJÓO {rn } = FT EF $BVDIZ &M TJHVJFOUF
n+1
DÃMDVMP OPT EJDF DÓNP DPOTUSVJS FM BSHVNFOUP QBSB DVBMRVJFS QBS EF
OBUVSBMFT n Z m TF UJFOF RVF

2n 2m 2|n − m| 2(n + m)

n + 1 − m + 1 = (n + 1)(m + 1) ≤ (n + 1)(m + 1)
2(n + m + 2)
<
(n + 1)(m + 1)

n+1 m+1
=2 +
(n + 1)(m + 1) (n + 1)(m + 1)
2 2
= + ·
m+1 n+1
"IPSB CJFO EBEP DVBMRVJFS ε ∈ Q+ MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB OPT

1 ε
QSPWFF VO OBUVSBM N ≥ 1 UBM RVF < Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB TJ n > N
N 4
Z m > N FOUPODFT
2 2 2 2 2 2 4
+ < + < + = < ε.
m+1 n+1 m n N N N
3FTVNJFOEP IFNPT QSPCBEP RVF EBEP ε ∈ Q+ FYJTUF N ∈ N DPOTFHVJEP
QPS MB BSRVJNFEJBOB
UBM RVF TJ n > N Z m > N FOUPODFT |rn −rm | < ε
MP DVBM QSVFCB RVF EJDIB TVDFTJÓO FT EF $BVDIZ
&KFSDJDJP 6TBOEP MB EFàOJDJÓO EFNVFTUSF RVF MBT TVDFTJPOFT
2
n
n −1 1
2
Z {qn } EPOEF q n := , TPO EF $BVDIZ TVHFSFODJB
n +1 k!
k=0
∀ k ∈ N TF WFSJàDB RVF k! ≥ 2k−1

&KFSDJDJP 4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ DPO rn ∈ Z QBSB UPEP
n 1SVFCF RVF {rn } FT DPOTUBOUF FO ÙMUJNB JOTUBODJB FT EFDJS FYJTUFO
DPOTUBOUFT C ∈ Z Z VO OBUVSBM N UBMFT RVF rn = C QBSB UPEP n ≥ N.
&YJTUF VO HSBO OÙNFSP EF TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ DPNP TF KVTUJàDB B

DPOUJOVBDJÓO
5FPSFNB 5PEB TVDFTJÓO EF SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF FT VOB TVDFTJÓO

EF $BVDIZ

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF DPO

MÎNJUF r ∈ Q Z TFB ε ∈ Q+ 1PS MB DPOWFSHFODJB FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF TJ
n ≥ N FOUPODFT |rn − r| < 2ε -VFHP TJ n > N Z m > N FOUPODFT
ε ε
|rn − rm | ≤ |rn − r| + |r − rm | < + = ε.
2 2
&TUP EFNVFTUSB FM UFPSFNB

6O QBS EF UFPSFNBT NÃT TFSÃO QSFTFOUBEPT BOUFT EF FOUSBS FO MPT

EFUBMMFT EF MB DPOTUSVDDJÓO EFM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
5FPSFNB 5PEB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT FT

BDPUBEB
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT

1BSB ε = 1 FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF TJ n > N Z m > N FOUPODFT
|rm − rn | < 1 &O QBSUJDVMBS àKBOEP VOB EF MBT WBSJBCMFT QPS FKFNQMP
m = N + 1 Z VTBOEP MB EFTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS PCUFOFNPT RVF QBSB
DBEB n > N, |rn | < 1 + |rN +1 | := M 1BSB DPOUSPMBS UPEPT MPT UÊSNJOPT
rn CBTUB UPNBS C := NÃY{|r0 |, |r1 |, . . . , |rN |, M } Z BTÎ TF DPODMVZF RVF
|rn | ≤ C QBSB UPEP n ∈ N.

5FPSFNB 4FBO {rn } Z {qn } TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ FO Q &OUPODFT

{rn + qn } Z {rn qn } TPO TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ FO Q
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB ε ∈ Q+ $PNP {rn } Z {qn } TPO EF $BVDIZ FYJTUFO

OBUVSBMFT N1 Z N2 UBMFT RVF

n > N1 ∧ m > N1 ⇒ |rn − rm | < ε/2
n > N2 ∧ m > N2 ⇒ |qn − qm | < ε/2.
-VFHP TJ n, m > NÃY{N1 , N2 } FOUPODFT
|(rn + qn ) − (rm + qm )| ≤ |rn − rm | + |qn − qm | < ε.
&TUP EFNVFTUSB MB QSJNFSB QBSUF EFM UFPSFNB 1PS FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS

FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF M ∈ Q+ UBM RVF |rn | ≤ M Z |qn | ≤ M QBSB UPEP
n 3B[POBOEP DPNP BOUFT QPEFNPT FODPOUSBS VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF

n > N ∧ m > N ⇒ |rn − rm | < ε/2M
n > N ∧ m > N ⇒ |qn − qm | < ε/2M,
Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB

|rn qn − rm qm | ≤ |rn qn − rn qm | + |rn qm − rm qm |

= |rn ||qn − qm | + |qm ||rn − rm |
ε ε
<M +M = ε,
2M 2M
MP RVF EFNVFTUSB MB TFHVOEB BàSNBDJÓO

&KFSDJDJPT
4FB A VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP Z OP WBDÎP EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT %F
NVFTUSF RVF A UJFOF NÎOJNP Z NÃYJNP
x+1
+
4FB A := : x ∈ Q . %FNVFTUSF RVF A FT BDPUBEP FO
x2 + 3
Q. "EFNÃT QSVFCF RVF TVQ A = 1/2 Z RVF ÎOG A = 0
%FNVFTUSF RVF |r + s| = |r| + |s| ⇐⇒ rs ≥ 0.
4FBO p Z q SBDJPOBMFT
B
1SVFCF RVF NÃY{p, q} = 12 (p + q + |p − q|).
C
1SVFCF RVF NÎO {p, q} = 12 (p + q − |p − q|).
D
4J q + := NÃY{q, 0} Z q − := q + − q, QSVFCF q + + q − = |q|.
4FB A ⊂ Q OP WBDÎP UBM RVF ÎOG A Z TVQ A FYJTUFO FO Q. %FNVFTUSF

RVF FYJTUFO TVDFTJPOFT {rn } Z {sn } FO A UBMFT RVF rn → TVQ A Z
sn → ÎOG A.
4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF SBDJPOBMFT UBM RVF |rn − rn+1 | < 3−n .
1SVFCF RVF {rn } FT EF $BVDIZ
4FBO {rn }, {sn } TVDFTJPOFT EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT RVF DPOWFS

HFO B r Z s SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF 4VQPOHB RVF FYJTUF N0 ∈ N DPO
rn ≤ sn QBSB UPEP n ≥ N0 . %FNVFTUSF RVF r ≤ s.

$BQÎUVMP
-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
*OJDJBNPT FTUF DBQÎUVMP DPO MB DPOTUSVDDJÓO EF MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT &YJT

UFO WBSJBT GPSNBT EF SFBMJ[BS UBM DPOTUSVDDJÓO MB RVF TFSÃ QSFTFOUBEB B
DPOUJOVBDJÓO FT WÎB TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ -BT SB[POFT QPS MBT DVBMFT
TF FMJHF FTUF DBNJOP TPO CÃTJDBNFOUF EPT QSJNFSP FT NFOPT BCTUSBDUP
RVF VTBS DPSUBEVSBT Z TFHVOEP FT FM NÊUPEP FTUÃOEBS QBSB DPNQMFUBS
FTQBDJPT NÊUSJDPT UFNB RVF TF FTUVEJB FO VO DVSTP EF BOÃMJTJT FMFNFOUBM
QPTUFSJPS B FTUF
$POTUSVDDJÓO EF MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT

&O FTUB TFDDJÓO VTBSFNPT MB TJHVJFOUF OPUBDJÓO Q EFOPUBSÃ FM DPOKVOUP
EF MBT TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT Z DPO Q0 SFQSFTFO
UBSFNPT FM DPOKVOUP EF MBT TVDFTJPOFT EF OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT RVF TPO
OVMBT /ÓUFTF RVF Q0 ⊂ Q
&O FM DPOKVOUP Q EFàOJNPT MB SFMBDJÓO ∼= BTÎ
{rn } ∼
= {qn } :⇐⇒ {rn − qn } ∈ Q0 .
&T GÃDJM WFS RVF FTUB FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJWBMFODJB FO FM DPOKVOUP Q
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF MB SFMBDJÓO ∼

= EFàOJEB FO Q FT VOB SFMBDJÓO
EF FRVJWBMFODJB

%FàOJDJÓO &M DPOKVOUP DPDJFOUF EF DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB Q ∼= MP
MMBNBNPT FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT Z MP EFOPUBNPT TJNQMFNFOUF
QPS R FT EFDJS
R := Q ∼ =.
6TBSFNPT QPS BIPSB MFUSBT HSJFHBT DPNP α, β, γ, . . . QBSB EFOPUBS

MPT FMFNFOUPT EF R.

&KFNQMP 4J

1 1 − 2n
α= −1 Z β=
n+1 2(n + 1)
FOUPODFT α = β. &O FGFDUP SFDPSEFNPT RVF EPT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB
TPO JHVBMFT TJ Z TPMP TJ TVT SFQSFTFOUBOUFT TPO FRVJWBMFOUFT Z QPS UBOUP

−n ∼ 1 − 2n −n 1 − 2n
α = β ⇐⇒ = ⇐⇒ − ∈ Q0
n+1 2(n + 1) n + 1 2(n + 1)

−1
⇐⇒ ∈ Q0 .
2(n + 1)

n − n2
&KFSDJDJP -B TVDFTJÓO , yRVÊ OÙNFSP SFBM SFQSFTFOUB
2n2
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO α = [{rn }] Z β = [{qn }] OÙNFSPT SFBMFT 4F EFàOF
α + β := [{rn + qn }] Z α · β := [{rn qn }] .
$PNP MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP EF TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ UBNCJÊO FT VOB

TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ FOUPODFT α + β ∈ R Z α · β ∈ R 7FBNPT RVF FTUB
TVNB FO R FT JOEFQFOEJFOUF EF MPT SFQSFTFOUBOUFT FTDPHJEPT 1BSB FMMP
FTDPKBNPT PUSPT SFQSFTFOUBOUFT FO MBT DMBTFT RVF EFàOFO B MPT SFBMFT α
Z β EJHBNPT {rn } ∈ α Z {qn } ∈ β. -VFHP rn − rn → 0 Z qn − qn → 0
Z QPS UBOUP TV TVNB UBNCJÊO UJFOEF B DFSP FT {rn + qn } ≈ {rn + qn }
MP RVF FT FRVJWBMFOUF B EFDJS RVF [{rn + qn }] = [{rn + qn }] . %FKBNPT
DPNP FKFSDJDJP QBSB FM MFDUPS MB QSVFCB EF RVF MB NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO FO R
FTUÃ CJFO EFàOJEB
" DPOUJOVBDJÓO EFNPTUSBNPT RVF R, +, · FT VO DBNQP -B QBSUF EF
MJDBEB FT QSPCBS MB FYJTUFODJB EFM JOWFSTP NVMUJQMJDBUJWP
4FBO α = [{rn }] , β = [{qn }] Z γ = [{pn }] OÙNFSPT SFBMFT &OUPODFT
α + (β + γ) = [{rn }] + [{qn + pn }] = [{rn + (qn + pn )}]

= [{(rn + qn ) + pn }]
= [{rn + qn }] + [{pn }] = (α + β) + γ.
&TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF MB TVNB FO R FT BTPDJBUJWB %F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF WF

RVF MB TVNB EF SFBMFT FT DPONVUBUJWB RVF FM QSPEVDUP FT BTPDJBUJWP Z
DPONVUBUJWP Z RVF TF DVNQMF MB QSPQJFEBE EJTUSJCVUJWB -BT TVDFTJPOFT
DPOTUBOUFT {0} Z {1} DPO 0 Z 1 EF Q PSJHJOBO MPT SFBMFT OFVUSPT FT EFDJS
α+[{0}] = [{rn + 0}] = [{rn }] = α Z α·[{1}] = [{rn · 1}] = [{rn }] = α.

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
%FOPUBNPT FTUPT FMFNFOUPT QPS [{0}] := 0 Z [{1}] := 1 NÃT BEFMBOUF FT

UB JEFOUJàDBDJÓO RVFEBSÃ QMFOBNFOUF KVTUJàDBEB
$BEB SFBM α = [{rn }]
QPTFF JOWFSTP BEJUJWP B TBCFS [{−rn }] , FM DVBM EFOPUBNPT QPS −α. 'J
OBMNFOUF FM TJHVJFOUF MFNB OPT QFSNJUJSÃ QSPCBS RVF UPEP SFBM α = 0
UJFOF JOWFSTP NVMUJQMJDBUJWP
-FNB 4FB α = [{rn }] = 0 &YJTUFO N ∈ N Z ε0 ∈ Q+ UBMFT RVF

|rn | > ε0 QBSB DBEB n > N.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP α = 0 FOUPODFT {rn } OP DPOWFSHF B DFSP -VFHP

FYJTUF ε ∈ Q+ DPO MB TJHVJFOUF QSPQJFEBE QBSB UPEP M ∈ N FYJTUF k ∈
N DPO k ≥ M Z |rk | ≥ ε . 1VFTUP RVF {rn } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ
FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF TJ n > N Z m > N FOUPODFT |rn − rm | < ε /2. -P
BOUFSJPS OPT QSPWFF VO k ∈ N DPO k > N Z |rk | ≥ ε . &O DPOTFDVFODJB
TJ n > N
ε ≤ |rk | ≤ |rk − rn | + |rn | < ε /2 + |rn |.
&TDPHJFOEP ε0 = ε /2 RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM MFNB

$POUJOVFNPT DPO MB OPUBDJÓO VTBEB FO MB QSVFCB EFM MFNB Z EFàOB

NPT MB TVDFTJÓO {qn } BTÎ

1 TJ n ≤ N
qn :=
1/rn TJ n > N.
7FBNPT RVF MB TVDFTJÓO {qn } FT EF $BVDIZ 4FB ε ∈ Q+ $PNP {rn }

FT EF $BVDIZ FYJTUF N1 ∈ N UBM RVF TJ n > N1 Z m > N1 FOUPODFT
|rn − rm | < ε. -VFHP TJ N2 := NÃY{N, N1 } n > N2 Z m > N2
FOUPODFT
|rn − rm | ε ε
|qn − qm | = < < 2.
|rn ||rm | |rn ||rm | ε0
%F FTUP TF TJHVF RVF {qn } FT EF $BVDIZ Z QPS UBOUP EFàOF VO OÙNFSP
SFBM EJHBNPT θ /PUFNPT RVF

rn − 1 TJ n ≤ N
rn qn − 1 =
0 TJ n > N,
MP DVBM TJHOJàDB RVF {rn qn −1} FT VOB TVDFTJÓO OVMB Z BTÎ {rn qn } ≈ {1}
FTUP FT [{rn qn }] = 1. 1PS UBOUP α · θ = 1. 5PEP FTUP RVFEB SFTVNJEP FO
FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB R, +, · FT VO DBNQP

&T JNQPSUBOUF FOGBUJ[BS VOB WF[ NÃT RVF MBT PCTFSWBDJPOFT Z DPO
TFDVFODJBT EF MPT BYJPNBT EF DBNQP NFODJPOBEBT FO MB 4FDDJÓO TF
DVNQMFO UBNCJÊO QBSB R. $PODSFUBNFOUF MB VOJDJEBE EF MPT FMFNFOUPT
OFVUSPT F JOWFSTPT Z MBT QSPQJFEBEFT (C1) − (C11) EFM 5FPSFNB
" DPOUJOVBDJÓO JOUSPEVDJNPT VOB SFMBDJÓO RVF QFSNJUF PSEFOBS FM DPO
KVOUP R
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB α = [{rn }] ∈ R %FDJNPT RVF α FT QPTJUJWP TJ

FYJTUFO VO OBUVSBM N Z s ∈ Q+ UBMFT RVF rn > s QBSB UPEP n ≥ N.
%FDJNPT RVF α FT OFHBUJWP TJ TV PQVFTUP −α FT QPTJUJWP
%FOPUBNPT QPS R+ Z R− FM DPOKVOUP EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT Z

OFHBUJWPT SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF $PO FTUB OPUBDJÓO MB EFàOJDJÓO BOUFSJPS TF
FOVODJB BTÎ α = [{rn }] ∈ R+ TJJ
(∃ s ∈ Q+ )(∃ N ∈ N)(∀n ∈ N)(n ≥ N ⇒ rn > s).
"IPSB CJFO
/ R+ ⇐⇒ (∀s ∈ Q+ )(∀N ∈ N)(∃ m ∈ N)(m ≥ N ∧ rm ≤ s).

α∈
-B EFàOJDJÓO EF OÙNFSP SFBM QPTJUJWP OP EFQFOEF EF MB TVDFTJÓO RVF

TF UPNF DPNP SFQSFTFOUBOUF EFM SFBM α. &O FGFDUP TJ α FT QPTJUJWP Z
{rn } ∈ α FOUPODFT rn − rn → 0 Z FYJTUFO N ∈ N Z s ∈ Q+ UBMFT RVF
rn > s TJFNQSF RVF n ≥ N 1PS PUSB QBSUF FYJTUF N1 UBM RVF TJ n ≥ N1
FOUPODFT |rn − rn | < s/2. -VFHP QBSB n ≥ N0 := NÃY{N, N1 } UFOFNPT
RVF
s < rn = (rn − rn ) + rn < s/2 + rn ,
FTUP FT rn > s/2 TJFNQSF RVF n ≥ N0 . &TUP QSVFCB RVF MB EFàOJDJÓO
TF DVNQMF DPO DVBMRVJFS PUSP FMFNFOUP EF MB DMBTF Z QPS UBOUP FTUÃ CJFO
IFDIB
1SPQPTJDJÓO -B TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP EF EPT SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT FT PUSP

SFBM QPTJUJWP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FBO α = [{rn }] Z β = [{qn }] SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT &YJTUFO

SBDJPOBMFT QPTJUJWPT s1 Z s2 Z OBUVSBMFT N1 Z N2 UBMFT RVF
(n ≥ N1 ⇒ rn > s1 ) ∧ (n ≥ N2 ⇒ qn > s2 ) .
)BDJFOEP r := s1 + s2 , s := s1 · s2 Z N := NÃY{N1 , N2 } UFOFNPT RVF

rn + qn > r Z rn · qn > s QBSB n ≥ N. &TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF α + β Z
α · β TPO QPTJUJWPT

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
&KFSDJDJP 1SPCBS RVF R+ ∩ R− = R+ ∩ {0} = R− ∩ {0} = ∅.
1BSB DPODMVJS RVF R FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP TPMP OPT SFTUB QSPCBS

RVF R FT USJDPUÓNJDP
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FB α ∈ R &YBDUBNFOUF VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT BàS

NBDJPOFT TF DVNQMF
α ∈ R+ , −α ∈ R+ , α = 0.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO &M &KFSDJDJP JNQMJDB RVF EPT EF MBT PQDJPOFT OP QVF
EFO PDVSSJS TJNVMUÃOFBNFOUF 1SPCFNPT BIPSB RVF BM NFOPT PDVSSF VOB
EF FMMBT 4VQPOHBNPT QPS FKFNQMP RVF α ∈/ R+ Z −α ∈ / R+ Z WFBNPT
RVF α = 0 TFBO ε > 0 SBDJPOBM Z α = [{rn }] . $PNP {rn } FT EF $BVDIZ
FYJTUF N1 ∈ N UBM RVF TJ m, n > N1 FOUPODFT |rm − rn | < ε. "IPSB
CJFO DPNP α ∈ / R+ , FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM M > N1 UBM RVF rM ≤ ε. -VFHP
TJ m > N1 ,
rm = (rm − rM ) + rM < ε + rM < 2ε.
/ R+ , FODPOUSBNPT VO OBUVSBM k >
%F NBOFSB TJNJMBS QVFTUP RVF −α ∈
N1 DPO −rk ≤ ε Z
−rm = (rk − rm ) − rk < ε − rk < 2ε,
QBSB m > N1 . 1PS UBOUP EBEP ε ∈ Q+ IFNPT IBMMBEP VO OBUVSBM N1 UBM

RVF TJ m ≥ N1 + 1 FOUPODFT |rm | < 2ε. &TUP QSVFCB RVF {rn } ∈ Q0
FTUP FT α = 0.
$PO FTUP RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB R FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO α Z β OÙNFSPT SFBMFT 4F EFàOF
α < β :⇐⇒ β − α ∈ R+ , α > β :⇐⇒ β < α

α ≤ β :⇐⇒ (α < β ∨ α = β) , α ≥ β :⇐⇒ β ≤ α.
0CTFSWBDJÓO -B 1SPQPTJDJÓO Z MBT PCTFSWBDJPOFT RVF MB BOUFDFEFO

TPO WÃMJEBT FO R
&T TFODJMMP EFNPTUSBS MP TJHVJFOUF
1SPQPTJDJÓO -B SFMBDJÓO ≤ FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF PSEFO UPUBM FO R.

" DPOUJOVBDJÓO QSPCBSFNPT RVF R DPOUJFOF B Q, DPODSFUBNFOUF R

DPOUJFOF VO TVCDPOKVOUP RVF TF QVFEF JEFOUJàDBS DPO Q.
4FB R := {[{q}] : q ∈ Q}, FT EFDJS FM DPOKVOUP EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT DV
ZP SFQSFTFOUBOUF FT VOB TVDFTJÓO DPOTUBOUF EF SBDJPOBMFT 4J EFàOJNPT
j:Q→R QPS j(q) = [{q}] FOUPODFT FT DMBSP RVF j FT VO JTPNPSàTNP
Z EF FTUB NBOFSB R DPOUJFOF VO TVCDPOKVOUP RVF FT JTPNPSGP B VOB
i DPQJB u EF
Q Z QPS UBOUP QPEFNPT JEFOUJàDBS FM SBDJPOBM q DPO FM SFBM
[{q}] FT EFDJS UPEP SBDJPOBM q MP QPEFNPT WFS UBNCJÊO DPNP FMFNFOUP
EF R Z FTDSJCJS [{q}] = q.
7FBNPT BIPSB RVF MB SFMBDJÓO EF DPNQBSBDJÓO i < u EFàOJEB FO R DPJO
DJEF DPO MB EFàOJEB FO Q DVBOEP DPNQBSBNPT EPT FMFNFOUPT EF Q TFBO
q Z r SBDJPOBMFT -VFHP TJ [{q}] <R [{r}] FOUPODFT [{r}] − [{q}] FT QP
TJUJWP Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUF VO SBDJPOBM s ∈ Q+ UBM RVF r − q >Q s
FO DPOTFDVFODJB r − q >Q 0 FT EFDJS q <Q r. 3FDÎQSPDBNFOUF TJ
UFOFNPT RVF q <Q r QPS MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB FO Q FYJTUF VO
OBUVSBM N UBM RVF r − q >Q 1/N QPS MP RVF FM SFBM [{r}] − [{q}] FT
QPTJUJWP FT EFDJS [{q}] <R [{r}] . &TUP QSVFCB RVF <R DPJODJEF DPO <Q
DVBOEP DPNQBSBNPT SBDJPOBMFT FO R.
1SPCBSFNPT FOTFHVJEB RVF FM DBNQP R EF MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT FT BSRVJ
NFEJBOP $PNP VO QSJNFS QBTP FOVODJBNPT MP TJHVJFOUF
-FNB 4FBO α = [{rn }] Z β = [{qn }] SFBMFT UBMFT RVF FYJTUF VO
OBUVSBM N0 DPO rn ≤ qn QBSB UPEP n ≥ N0 . &OUPODFT α ≤ β.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4VQPOHBNPT MP DPOUSBSJP -VFHP QPS USJDPUPNÎB TF UJFOF
RVF α > β Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUFO VO SBDJPOBM QPTJUJWP s Z N1 ∈ N UBMFT
RVF rn − qn > s QBSB DBEB n ≥ N1 . %F BRVÎ TF TJHVF RVF rn > qn
QBSB n ≥ N1 )BDJFOEP N = NÃY{N0 , N1 } TF PCUJFOF MB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO
rN > qN Z rN ≤ qN . &O DPOTFDVFODJB α ≤ β.

5FPSFNB &M DBNQP R FT BSRVJNFEJBOP FT EFDJS QBSB DBEB α ∈ R

FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF α < N.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB α = [{rn }] . $PNP {rn } FT BDPUBEB FO Q FYJTUF VOB
DPOTUBOUF SBDJPOBM QPTJUJWB M, UBM RVF rn ≤ M QBSB UPEP n. &M MFNB
BOUFSJPS JNQMJDB RVF α ≤ [{M }] = M. $PNP Q FT BSRVJNFEJBOP FYJTUF
VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF M < N -VFHP α < N.

1SPQPTJDJÓO 1BSB DBEB SFBM ε > 0 FYJTUF VO s ∈ Q+ UBM RVF s < ε.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB ε = [{rn }] . -B QPTJUJWJEBE EF ε QSPQPSDJPOB VO SB
DJPOBM QPTJUJWP r Z VO OBUVSBM N0 UBMFT RVF rn > r QBSB n ≥ N0 . &M -FNB
JNQMJDB RVF ε ≥ r > 2r := s.

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
0CTFSWBDJÓO -B QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB FO R TF QVFEF BQMJDBS DPNP

DVBMRVJFSB EF MPT FOVODJBEPT QSFTFOUBEPT FO FM 5FPSFNB TFHÙO MB
PCTFSWBDJÓO IFDIB EFTQVÊT EFM DJUBEP UFPSFNB
-PT NJTNPT DPODFQUPT RVF TF EFàOJFSPO FO FM DBNQP EF MPT SBDJPOBMFT
SFMBDJPOBEPT DPO TVDFTJPOFT TFSÃO UBNCJÊO USBCBKBEPT FO FM DBNQP EF
MPT SFBMFT 1BSB IBCMBS QPS FKFNQMP EF TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ Z TVDFTJÓO
DPOWFSHFOUF FO R OFDFTJUBNPT QSJNFSP QSFTFOUBS MB OPDJÓO EF WBMPS
BCTPMVUP FO FTUF DBNQP
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB β ∈ R 4F EFàOF FM WBMPS BCTPMVUP EF β EFOPUBEP

QPS |β|, DPNP
β TJ β ≥ 0
|β| :=
−β TJ β < 0.
&M TJHVJFOUF MFNB BEFNÃT EF TFS JNQPSUBOUF QPS TV QSPQJP DPOUFOJEP

FT ÙUJM QBSB QSPCBS BMHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT EFM WBMPS BCTPMVUP
-FNB 4J α = [{rn }] , FOUPODFT |α| = [{|rn |}] .

%FNPTUSBDJÓO -B EFTJHVBMEBE |rn | − |rm | ≤ |rn − rm | HBSBOUJ[B RVF MB
TVDFTJÓO {|rn |} FT EF $BVDIZ FT EFDJS {|rn |} ∈ Q. 1BSB QSPCBS FM MFNB
TVQPOHBNPT MPT DBTPT α = 0, α > 0 Z α < 0. 4J TF EB FM QSJNFS DBTP
FOUPODFT rn → 0 Z FWJEFOUFNFOUF |rn | → 0 -VFHP |α| = 0 = [{|rn |}] .
4J PDVSSF FM TFHVOEP DBTP FOUPODFT |α| = α Z BEFNÃT FYJTUFO s ∈ Q+
Z VO OBUVSBM N UBMFT RVF rn > s QBSB DBEB n ≥ N %F FTUP TF TJHVF
RVF MPT UÊSNJOPT EF MB TVDFTJÓO {rn − |rn |} TPO JHVBMFT B DFSP QBSB UPEP
n ≥ N. -VFHP [{rn }] = [{|rn |}] = |α|. 'JOBMNFOUF TJ α < 0, FOUPODFT
|α| = −α Z −rn > s QBSB BMHÙO SBDJPOBM QPTJUJWP s Z QBSB UPEP n
TVàDJFOUFNFOUF HSBOEF Z QPS MP UBOUP MB TVDFTJÓO {|rn | + rn } FT OVMB
&O DPOTFDVFODJB [{|rn |}] = [{−rn }] = −α = |α|.
&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB SFTVNF MBT QSJODJQBMFT QSPQJFEBEFT EFM WBMPS

BCTPMVUP
5FPSFNB 4FBO α, β Z ε OÙNFSPT SFBMFT &OUPODFT

B
|α| ≥ 0.
C
|α| = 0 ⇐⇒ α = 0
D
| − α| = |α| 1BSJEBE EFM WBMPS BCTPMVUP

E
−|α| ≤ α ≤ |α|
F
4FB ε > 0 &OUPODFT |α| = ε ⇐⇒ (α = ε ∨ α = −ε).

G
α2 = β 2 ⇐⇒ |α| = |β|
H
|α ± β| ≤ |α| + |β| %FTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS

I
|α| − |β| ≤ |α ± β|.
J
|α| < ε ⇐⇒ −ε < α < ε
K
|α| > ε ⇐⇒ ( α > ε ∨ α < −ε )

L
|α| − |β| ≤ |α − β|.
M
|αβ| = |α||β|

α |α|
N
0 FOUPODFT =
4J β =
β |β|
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FBO α = [{rn }] Z β = [{qn }]

B
$PNP FTUB QSPQJFEBE WBMF FO FM DBNQP Q FOUPODFT |rn | ≥ 0 QBSB
UPEP n Z QPS MPT -FNBT Z TF DPODMVZF RVF |α| ≥ 0.
C
D
Z F
TF TJHVFO EF MB EFàOJDJÓO EF WBMPS BCTPMVUP
E
1VFTUP RVF −|rn | ≤ rn ≤ |rn | ∀n, OVFWBNFOUF MPT -FNBT Z
OPT EBO MB QSVFCB EF MB QSPQJFEBE
G
*HVBM B MB IFDIB FO F
EF MB 1SPQPTJDJÓO
H
6TBOEP MB EFTJHVBMEBE |rn ±qn | ≤ |rn |+|qn |, WÃMJEB FO MPT SBDJPOBMFT
Z MPT MFNBT DJUBEPT BOUFSJPSNFOUF TF DPODMVZF MB QSVFCB
I
4F TJHVF EF H
QVFTUP RVF |α| = |(α ± β) ∓ β| ≤ |α ± β| + |β|
J
3FQFUJS MB EFNPTUSBDJÓO EF I
FO MB 1SPQPTJDJÓO
K
4F TJHVF EF J
ZB RVF (p ⇐⇒ q) ⇐⇒ (∼ p ⇐⇒ ∼ q). 6TBS UBNCJÊO
F

L
6TBS I
EPT WFDFT JOUFSDBNCJBOEP MPT SPMFT EF α Z β.
M
&T DPOTFDVFODJB EF MPT MFNBT Z EF MB JHVBMEBE |rn qn | = |rn ||qn |.
N
4F PCUJFOF EF M
ZB RVF |α| = |( αβ )β| = | αβ ||β|.

4VDFTJPOFT EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT

&O FTUB TFDDJÓO FYUFOEFNPT MPT DPODFQUPT QSFTFOUBEPT FO FM DBQÎUVMP
FO DVBOUP B TVDFTJPOFT TF SFàFSF -BT NJTNBT EFàOJDJPOFT EBEBT QB
SB OPDJPOFT SFMBDJPOBEBT DPO TVDFTJPOFT FO Q TF UJFOFO QBSB OPDJP
OFT DPSSFTQPOEJFOUFT FO FM DBNQP R CBTUB TJNQMFNFOUF QBSBGSBTFBS MB

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
SFTQFDUJWB EFàOJDJÓO TVTUJUVZFOEP SBDJPOBMFT QPS SFBMFT 1PS FKFNQMP

VOB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT {αn } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ TJ EB
EP ε ∈ R+ FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF TJ m, n > N, FOUPODFT |αn − αm | < ε.
4F EFKB DPNP FKFSDJDJP QBSB FM MFDUPS FTDSJCJS MBT EFNÃT EFàOJDJPOFT -PT
UFPSFNBT QSPQPTJDJPOFT Z PCTFSWBDJPOFT QSFTFOUBEPT FO MB TFDDJÓO
UBNCJÊO UJFOFO WBMJEF[ DVBOEP MBT TVDFTJPOFT TPO EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT MBT
QSVFCBT QSFTFSWBO FYBDUBNFOUF MBT NJTNBT JEFBT
0CTFSWBDJÓO :B TBCFNPT RVF TJ q FT VO SBDJPOBM QPEFNPT WFSMP UBN

CJÊO DPNP OÙNFSP SFBM B USBWÊT EFM JTPNPSàTNP j : q → [{q}] EFàOJEP
FO MB TFDDJÓO BOUFSJPS *HVBM PDVSSF QBSB MBT TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ EF
SBDJPOBMFT FT EFDJS TJ {rn } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ EF SBDJPOBMFT
FOUPODFT UBNCJÊO FT VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ EF SFBMFT &O FGFDUP EBEP
ε > 0 QPS MB 1SPQPTJDJÓO FYJTUF s ∈ Q+ DPO s < ε "EFNÃT FYJTUF
N0 UBM RVF TJ m, n > N0 FOUPODFT |rn −rm | < s. -VFHP QBSB m, n > N0
| [{rn }] − [{rm }] | = |rn − rm | < s < ε.
&M QSJNFS UFPSFNB EF FTUB TFDDJÓO OPT QFSNJUF DPOUJOVBS IBCMBOEP EF VO
OÙNFSP SFBM TJO UFOFS RVF VTBS SFQSFTFOUBOUFT EF DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB
NÃT QSFDJTBNFOUF DBEB SFBM TFSÃ FM MÎNJUF EF UPEBT MBT TVDFTJPOFT FO Q
RVF FTUÃO FO TV DMBTF "EFNÃT DPOUJOVBSFNPT VTBOEP DVBMRVJFS UJQP EF
MFUSB QBSB EFOPUBS VO OÙNFSP SFBM
5FPSFNB 4FB α VO SFBM 4J {rn } ∈ α FOUPODFT rn → α FO R.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB ε > 0 1PS MB 1SPQPTJDJÓO FYJTUF s ∈ Q+ DPO
s < ε $PNP {rn } FT EF $BVDIZ FYJTUF n0 UBM RVF TJ m, n > n0 FOUPODFT
|rn − rm | < s. &O QBSUJDVMBS TF UJFOF RVF
rn − rm < s Z rm − rn < s,
QBSB UPEP m, n > n0 "IPSB CJFO àKBOEP MB WBSJBCMF n DPO n > n0 FT

DMBSP RVF
[{rn }] − α = [{rn − rm }∞
m=0 ].
-VFHP VTBOEP MB QSJNFSB EFTJHVBMEBE EF
Z FM -FNB TF JOàFSF
RVF [{rn }] − α ≤ s MP DVBM FT WÃMJEP QBSB DBEB n > n0 . 3FQJUJFOEP
MPT NJTNPT BSHVNFOUPT QBSB MB TVDFTJÓO {rm − rn }∞ m=0 TF UJFOF RVF
α − [{rn }] ≤ s QBSB DBEB n > n0 . &TUBT EPT ÙMUJNBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT EJDFO
RVF | [{rn }] − α| ≤ s ∀n > n0 , MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF |rn − α| < ε ∀n > n0
Z BTÎ rn → α FO R.

0CTFSWBDJÓO /PUFNPT RVF EF FTUF UFPSFNB TF EFTQSFOEF RVF EBEP

α ∈ R FYJTUF VOB TVDFTJÓO EF SBDJPOBMFT {rn } RVF DPOWFSHF B α.

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF VTBOEP MB EFàOJDJÓO RVF MBT TJHVJFOUFT TV

DFTJPOFT DPOWFSHFO

n
B
n6 − 5n3 − 2n − 1

2n7 + 5n
C
3n7 − 5n2 + 12

5 − 2n − 3n2
D
n2 − 4n + 8

2
n −n+1
E
.
2n3 − n2 − 1
1+22 +32 +···+n2
&KFSDJDJP $BMDVMF MÎN n3
·
n→∞
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO a Z b SFBMFT àKPT DPO a < b. 4F EFàOFO MPT TJ
HVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT MMBNBEPT JOUFSWBMPT EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
(a, b) := {x ∈ R : a < x < b} *OUFSWBMP BCJFSUP

[a, b] := {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b} *OUFSWBMP DFSSBEP

(a, b] := {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b};
[a, b) := {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b};
(a, a] = [a, a) = (a, a) := ∅ Z [a, a] := {a}.
&TUPT JOUFSWBMPT TF EJDFO BDPUBEPT Z EF MPOHJUVE b − a.
'JKFNPT a ∈ R Z TFB A = {x ∈ R : x > a}. 1PS MB QSPQJFEBE

BSRVJNFEJBOB A = ∅ 'JKFNPT a0 ∈ A. "àSNBNPT RVF A OP FT BDPUBEP
TVQFSJPSNFOUF QVFT EF MP DPOUSBSJP FYJTUJSÎB VOB DPOTUBOUF SFBM C UBM
RVF x ≤ C QBSB DBEB x ∈ A. $PNP C + 1 > C ≥ a0 > a FOUPODFT
C + 1 ∈ A Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB C + 1 ≤ C RVF FT VO BCTVSEP 4JNJMBSFT
BàSNBDJPOFT QVFEFO EFDJSTF EFM DPOKVOUP {x ∈ R : x < a} &TUP OPT
QFSNJUF JOUSPEVDJS MPT TÎNCPMPT −∞, +∞ Z MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT
MMBNBEPT JOUFSWBMPT OP BDPUBEPT
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB a ∈ R àKP

(a, +∞) := {x ∈ R : x > a};
[a, +∞) := {x ∈ R : x ≥ a};
(−∞, a) := {x ∈ R : x < a};
(−∞, a] := {x ∈ R : x ≤ a}.

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
%F FTUB EFàOJDJÓO Z MB USJDPUPNÎB FO R TF EFEVDF RVF

(−∞, a) ∪ [a, +∞) = R,
MP DVBM OPT JOEVDF B EFàOJS (−∞, +∞) := R.
%FàOJDJÓO %FDJNPT RVF VOB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT {an } FT
DSFDJFOUF TJ QBSB DBEB n OBUVSBM TF UJFOF RVF an ≤ an+1 . 4J MB EFTJHVBM
EBE FT FTUSJDUB EFDJNPT RVF MB TVDFTJÓO FT FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFOUF -B
MMBNBSFNPT EFDSFDJFOUF TJ an ≥ an+1 QBSB DBEB n Z NPOÓUPOB TJ P CJFO
FT DSFDJFOUF P CJFO EFDSFDJFOUF -BT OPDJPOFT FTUSJDUBNFOUF EFDSFDJFOUF Z
FTUSJDUBNFOUF NPOÓUPOB TF EFàOFO EF NBOFSB TJNJMBS
" DPOUJOVBDJÓO QSFTFOUBNPT VO JNQPSUBOUF SFTVMUBEP TPCSF MPT OÙ
NFSPT SFBMFT &TUF IFDIP EJTUJOHVF B MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT EF MPT OÙNFSPT
SBDJPOBMFT QVFT ZB TBCFNPT RVF BVORVF Q FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z
BSRVJNFEJBOP OP FT DPNQMFUP &TUB JODPNQMFUF[ TF USBEVDF FO UÊSNJOPT
HFPNÊUSJDPT FO MP TJHVJFOUF TJ DBEB OÙNFSP SBDJPOBM TF JEFOUJàDB DPO
VO ÙOJDP QVOUP EF VOB NJTNB SFDUB FTUB RVFEB DPO i IVFDPT u RVF TPO
PSJHJOBEPT QPS MB OP FYJTUFODJB FO Q EF MPT TVQSFNPT EF BMHVOPT TVC
DPOKVOUPT EF SBDJPOBMFT OP WBDÎPT Z BDPUBEPT TVQFSJPSNFOUF &M QSÓYJNP
UFPSFNB EJDF RVF FTUP OP TVDFEF DPO MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT B DBEB OÙNFSP
SFBM MF DPSSFTQPOEF VO ÙOJDP QVOUP FO MB SFDUB Z WJDFWFSTB OP RVFEBO
iIVFDPTu
5FPSFNB "YJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ EF R
&M DBNQP R EF MPT OÙNFSPT
SFBMFT FT DPNQMFUP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB A ⊂ R OP WBDÎP Z BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF 1SPCFNPT
RVF A UJFOF TVQSFNP FO R. 7BNPT B DPOTFHVJS VO JOUFSWBMP FO FM DVBM
iDBQUVSBSFNPTu FM TVQSFNP -B JEFB EF MB QSVFCB FT DPOTUSVJS VOB TVDF
TJÓO EF SBDJPOBMFT MB DVBM TFSÃ EF $BVDIZ Z QPS UBOUP EFUFSNJOBSÃ VO
SFBM RVF SFTVMUBSÃ TFS FM TVQSFNP CVTDBEP 4FB s ∈ R VOB DPUB TVQFSJPS
EF A $PNP R FT BSRVJNFEJBOP FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM M ≥ 1 UBM RVF s < M
Z BTÎ M FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A 1PS PUSP MBEP FYJTUFO a ∈ A Z m ∈ N DPO
m ≥ 1 UBMFT RVF −a < m. 1PS UBOUP −m < M Z DPO FTUP DPOTFHVJNPT
FM JOUFSWBMP DFSSBEP [−m, M ]. "IPSB QBSB DBEB p ∈ N DPOTJEFSFNPT FO
USF −m Z M MPT (M + m)2p + 1 OÙNFSPT SFBMFT EF MB GPSNB −m + k · 2−p
DPO k = 0, 1, . . . , (M + m)2p 4FB rp FM NFOPS OBUVSBM UBM RVF
rp
ap := −m + p
2
FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A 5BM OBUVSBM FYJTUF QVFT DPO rp = (M + m)2p
PCUFOFNPT ap = M. /PUFNPT RVF QBSB UPEP p ∈ N
1 rp − 1
ap − = −m +
2p 2p

OP FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A QVFT rp FT FM NFOPS OBUVSBM DPO FTUB QSPQJFEBE

-B TVDFTJÓO {ap } SFTVMUB TFS EFDSFDJFOUF
rp+1 − 2rp
ap+1 − ap = ·
2p+1
4J FM OVNFSBEPS FO MB BOUFSJPS JHVBMEBE GVFSB QPTJUJWP QBSB BMHÙO OBUVSBM
p FTUP FT rp+1 > 2rp FOUPODFT rp+1 − 1 ≥ 2rp FTUP JNQMJDBSÎB RVF
1
ap+1 − ≥ ap
2p+1
Z TFSÎB DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A QVFT ap MP FT MP DVBM FT JNQPTJCMF 1PS UBOUP
EJDIP OVNFSBEPS FT OP QPTJUJWP QBSB UPEP p ∈ N Z EF FTUB NBOFSB TF
UJFOF RVF ap+1 ≤ ap .ÃT BÙO UFOFNPT RVF TJ q > p, FOUPODFT aq ≤ ap
"EFNÃT DPNP ap − 21p OP FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A FYJTUF xp ∈ A UBM RVF
ap − 21p < xp . -VFHP
1
ap − p < aq ≤ ap ,
2
EF EPOEF FODPOUSBNPT RVF |aq − ap | < 2−p QBSB UPEP QBS EF OBUVSBMFT
p Z q DPO p < q. &TUB EFTJHVBMEBE OPT QFSNJUF DPODMVJS RVF MB TVDFTJÓO
{ap } FT EF $BVDIZ FO Q -VFHP FTUB TVDFTJÓO EFUFSNJOB VO OÙNFSP
SFBM EJHBNPT α Z QPS FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS UFOFNPT RVF ap → α DVBOEP
p → ∞. )BDJFOEP RVF q → ∞ PCUFOFNPT EF
Z FM -FNB
1
ap − ≤ α ≤ ap ,
2p
MP DVBM FT WÃMJEP QBSB UPEP p. 'JOBMNFOUF QSPCFNPT RVF α = TVQ A DPO
MP RVF UFSNJOBNPT MB QSVFCB EFM UFPSFNB 7FBNPT QSJNFSP RVF α FT DPUB
TVQFSJPS EF A TJ OP GVFSB BTÎ FYJTUJSÎB a ∈ A UBM RVF a > α $PNP R
FT BSRVJNFEJBOP UFOESÎBNPT VO OBUVSBM po UBM RVF 2p1o < a − α. $PO
FTUP TF TFHVJSÎB FO QBSUJDVMBS EF

1
a p0 − α ≤ < a − α,
2 p0
Z TF DPODMVJSÎB RVF ap0 < a MP RVF OPT EJSÎB RVF ap0 OP FT DPUB TVQFSJPS
EF A &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO NVFTUSB RVF α FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A 4VQPOHB
NPT BIPSB RVF FYJTUF VOB DPUB TVQFSJPS s EF A DPO s < α. $PNP BOUFT
FODPOUSBNPT VO OBUVSBM p1 UBM RVF
1
< α − s .
2p1

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
1
"IPSB CJFO DPNP ap1 − 2 p1 OP FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A FYJTUF â ∈ A UBM
RVF
1
â > ap1 −
2 p1
Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB
1 1
ap1 < â + ≤ s + < α,
21
p 2p1
FTUP FT ap1 < α DPOUSBEJDJFOEP
1PS UBOUP α ≤ s QBSB UPEB DPUB
TVQFSJPS s EF A Z EF FTUB NBOFSB α = TVQ A.

0CTFSWBDJÓO 4F QVFEF EFNPTUSBS RVF DVBMRVJFS DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z

DPNQMFUP FT JTPNPSGP B MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT QPS FKFNQMP <4>
1PS UBOUP
QPEFNPT BàSNBS RVF FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z DPNQMFUP B
TBCFS FM DBNQP EF MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
-B TJHVJFOUF EFTJHVBMEBE EFTFNQFÒBSÃ VO QBQFM JNQPSUBOUF FO QSÓ
YJNBT EFNPTUSBDJPOFT TF MMBNB EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FB a ∈ R DPO a ≥ −1 àKP &OUPODFT QBSB DBEB
OBUVSBM n ≥ 1 TF UJFOF RVF (1 + a)n ≥ 1 + na.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4J n = 1 MB BàSNBDJÓO TF DVNQMF 4VQPOHBNPT RVF QBSB
n ≥ 1 TF WFSJàDB MB EFTJHVBMEBE Z QSPCÊNPTMB QBSB n + 1.
(1 + a)n+1 = (1 + a)n (1 + a) ≥ (1 + na)(1 + a)

= 1 + (1 + n)a + na2 ≥ 1 + (n + 1)a,
MP RVF EFNVFTUSB MB QSPQPTJDJÓO QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n ≥ 1.

5FPSFNB 5FPSFNB EFM TBOEXJDI

4FBO {xn }, {yn } Z {zn } TVDF
TJPOFT EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT UBMFT RVF FYJTUF N0 ∈ N DPO
xn ≤ zn ≤ yn ∀n ≥ N0 .
4J xn → L ∈ R Z yn → L, FOUPODFT zn → L.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB ε > 0 1PS MB DPOWFSHFODJB EF MBT TVDFTJPOFT {xn } Z
{yn } FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N1 ≥ N0 UBM RVF
|xn − L| < ε Z |yn − L| < ε TJ n ≥ N1 .
"IPSB CJFO TJ n ≥ N1 FOUPODFT
zn − L = (zn − yn ) + (yn − L) ≤ |yn − L| < ε.

1PS PUSB QBSUF TJ n ≥ N1 FOUPODFT
zn − L = (zn − xn ) + (xn − L) ≥ −|xn − L| > −ε.
%F FTUP TF TJHVF RVF TJ n ≥ N1 FOUPODFT |zn − L| < ε MP DVBM EFNVFTUSB

FM UFPSFNB

n
1
&KFSDJDJP 4FB qn = · %FNVFTUSF RVF MB TVDFTJÓO {qn }
k + n2
k=1
DPOWFSHF y2VÊ TF QVFEF BàSNBS EF {nqn }
&KFNQMP 4FB b ∈ R DPO |b| < 1 &OUPODFT MB TVDFTJÓO {bn }∞n=1 FT
UBM RVF bn → 0. 1BSB b = 0 FT JONFEJBUB MB BàSNBDJÓO BTÎ RVF QPEFNPT
TVQPOFS RVF 0 n(1 − b),
b b b
QBSB UPEP n ∈ N, n ≥ 1 Z QPS UBOUP
1
0 < bn <
n(1 − b)
QBSB DBEB n ≥ 1 MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF bn → 0.
5FPSFNB 4J {an } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO EF SFBMFT BDPUBEB TVQFSJPSNFOUF
Z DSFDJFOUF FOUPODFT {an } DPOWFSHF
%FNPTUSBDJÓO "QMJDBNPT FM BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ EF R FO FTUF DBTP BM
DPOKVOUP
A := {an : n ∈ N},
RVF DMBSBNFOUF FT OP WBDÎP Z BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF 4FBO a := TVQ A Z
ε > 0 -VFHP FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF a−ε < aN Z QPS MB NPOPUPOÎB
EF {an }
a − ε < aN ≤ an ≤ a < a + ε,
QBSB UPEP n ≥ N. 1PS UBOUP an → a.

/PUFNPT RVF FM UFPSFNB EJDF RVF VOB TVDFTJÓO {an } DSFDJFOUF Z BDP
UBEB TVQFSJPSNFOUF DPOWFSHF BM OÙNFSP SFBM TVQ{an : n ∈ N}.
$PSPMBSJP 4J {an } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO EF SFBMFT BDPUBEB JOGFSJPSNFOUF
Z EFDSFDJFOUF FOUPODFT {an } DPOWFSHF &O FTUF DBTP
an → ÎOG {an : n ∈ N}.

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
$PSPMBSJP 5PEB TVDFTJÓO {an } EF SFBMFT NPOÓUPOB Z BDPUBEB DPO

WFSHF
%FàOJDJÓO 6OB TVDFTJÓO EF JOUFSWBMPT {In } TF MMBNB TVDFTJÓO EF

JOUFSWBMPT FODBKBEPT TJ In+1 ⊆ In QBSB DBEB n ∈ N.
5FPSFNB %F MPT JOUFSWBMPT FODBKBEPT

4FB In = [an , bn ] DPO
an < bn , VOB TVDFTJÓO EF JOUFSWBMPT FODBKBEPT &OUPODFT
∞

I := In = ∅.
n=0
"EFNÃT TJ MB MPOHJUVE EF In = bn − an → 0, EJDIB JOUFSTFDDJÓO FT VO

DPOKVOUP TJOHVMBS
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP MPT JOUFSWBMPT TPO FODBKBEPT FOUPODFT an ≤ an+1

Z bn+1 ≤ bn QBSB UPEP n Z EF FTUP TF UJFOF RVF a0 ≤ an < bn ≤ b0
QBSB UPEP n 1PS MPT SFTVMUBEPT QSFWJPT MBT TVDFTJPOFT {an } Z {bn } TPO
DPOWFSHFOUFT DPO MÎNJUFT EJHBNPT a Z b UBMFT RVF an ≤ a Z b ≤ bn NÃT
BÙO a ≤ b &O DPOTFDVFODJB a, b ∈ I Z BEFNÃT an −bn ≤ a−b ≤ bn −an
QBSB UPEP n EF EPOEF TF EFEVDF RVF a = b TJ bn − an → 0 &TUP JNQMJDB
RVF a ∈ I 'JOBMNFOUF FT TFODJMMP WFS RVF I ⊆ {a} Z DPO FTUP TF
EFNVFTUSB RVF I = {a}.

0CTFSWBDJÓO &O FTUF UFPSFNB FT DSVDJBM MB IJQÓUFTJT EF RVF MPT JOUFS

WBMPT FODBKBEPT In TFBO DFSSBEPT Z BDPUBEPT DPNP MP EFNVFTUSBO MBT
TJHVJFOUFT TVDFTJPOFT EF JOUFSWBMPT FODBKBEPT

1
0, Z { [n, ∞) } ,
n+1
QBSB MBT DVBMFT I = ∅.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB {αn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT UBM RVF
1
|αn − αn+1 | < ∀ n ≥ 1.
n(n + 1)
1SVFCF RVF {αn } FT EF $BVDIZ

n
1
&KFNQMP 4F EFàOF MB TVDFTJÓO EF SFBMFT QPS an = . 1SPCFNPT
k2
k=1
RVF {an } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ -B QSPQJFEBE EF MB TVNB UFMFTDÓQJDB

FT EF HSBO BZVEB FO FTUF FKFNQMP &M QBTP DMBWF FTUÃ BM JOJDJP QBSB
n > m > 1 TF UJFOF RVF

n
1
n
1
|an − am | = 2
<
k k(k − 1)
k=m+1 k=m+1
n 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − < ·
k−1 k m n m
k=m+1
"IPSB TÎ EBEP ε > 0 FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF 1/N < ε -VFHP TJ m >
n ≥ N FOUPODFT |an − am | < ε MP DVBM EFNVFTUSB RVF MB TVDFTJÓO EBEB
FT EF $BVDIZ
n
1
&KFSDJDJP 4F EFàOF MB TVDFTJÓO EF SFBMFT QPS an = . 1SVFCF
k3
k=1
RVF {an } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF MB TVDFTJÓO {an } EBEB QPS

n
1
an = 2
DPOWFSHF Z IBMMF TV MÎNJUF
k + 2k
k=1
&KFSDJDJP $BMDVMF FM MÎNJUF EF MB TVDFTJÓO {(2n + 3n )1/n }.
5FPSFNB 5PEB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT DPOWFSHF

FO R
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB {xn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ FO R -VFHP FYJTUF

VOB DPOTUBOUF M > 0 UBM RVF |xn | ≤ M Z QPS UBOUP QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM
n UJFOF TFOUJEP EFàOJS
yn := TVQ{xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , . . .} = TVQ{xk : k ≥ n}.
$PNP {xn+1 , xn+2 , . . .} ⊆ {xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , . . .} FOUPODFT yn+1 ≤ yn

SFTVMUBOEP BTÎ RVF MB TVDFTJÓO {yn } FT EFDSFDJFOUF Z BEFNÃT FT BDPUBEB
JOGFSJPSNFOUF QVFTUP RVF yn ≥ xn ≥ −M QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n. &O
DPOTFDVFODJB FYJTUF y ∈ R UBM RVF yn −→ y "àSNBNPT RVF xn −→ y
&O FGFDUP TFB ε > 0 &YJTUF VO OBUVSBM No UBM RVF
|yn − y| < ε/3, TJ n ≥ No .
1PS TFS {xn } EF $BVDIZ FYJTUF N1 ∈ N EF NBOFSB RVF
|xn − xm | < ε/3 TJ n, m ≥ N1 .

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
4FB N2 = NÃY{No , N1 }. 1PS DBSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO EF TVQSFNP FYJTUF VO OB

UVSBM N3 ≥ N2 UBM RVF yN2 − ε/3 < xN3 ≤ yN2 , MP RVF JNQMJDB
|yN2 − xN3 | < ε/3.
'JOBMNFOUF QBSB n ≥ N3 Z UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB

Z
PCUF
OFNPT RVF
|y − xn | ≤ |y − yN2 | + |yN2 − xN3 | + |xN3 − xn | < ε/3 + ε/3 + ε/3 = ε.
&TUP EFNVFTUSB MB BàSNBDJÓO Z FM UFPSFNB

0CTFSWBDJÓO -B TVDFTJÓO {yn } Z FM SFBM y QSFTFOUBEPT FO MB EFNPTUSB

DJÓO EFM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS EFàOFO FM MÎNJUF TVQFSJPS EF MB TVDFTJÓO {xn }
.ÃT QSFDJTBNFOUF FM MÎNJUF TVQFSJPS EF VOB TVDFTJÓO {xn } EFOPUBEP QPS
MÎN TVQ xn ,
n→∞
TF EFàOF DPNP MÎN yn EPOEF

n→∞
yn := TVQ{xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , . . .} = TVQ{xk : k ≥ n}.
4JNJMBSNFOUF TF EFàOF FM MÎNJUF JOGFSJPS EF VOB TVDFTJÓO {xn } EFOPUBEP

QPS
MÎN JOG xn ,
n→∞
DPNP MÎN zn EPOEF zn := ÎOG {xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , . . .} = ÎOG {xk : k ≥ n}
n→∞
-PT 5FPSFNBT Z OPT QSPQPSDJPOBO FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP

5FPSFNB R FT DPNQMFUP TJ Z TPMP TJ UPEB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ EF
OÙNFSPT SFBMFT DPOWFSHF FO R.
4BCFNPT RVF FO R UPEB TVDFTJÓO FT DPOWFSHFOUF TJ Z TPMP TJ FT EF
$BVDIZ -B TVàDJFODJB FT DJFSUB TPMBNFOUF FO MPT iFTQBDJPTu RVF TPO
DPNQMFUPT &M DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT FT VO FKFNQMP FO FM
DVBM FYJTUFO TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ RVF OP TPO DPOWFSHFOUFT FO EJDIP
DPOKVOUP JODPNQMFUF[

&KFNQMP $POTJEFSFNPT MB TVDFTJÓO EF SBDJPOBMFT EFàOJEB EF NB
OFSB SFDVSTJWB BTÎ

q1 = 1
qn+1 = 12 (qn + q2n ), TJ n ≥ 1.

7FBNPT RVF FTUB TVDFTJÓO FT EF $BVDIZ FO Q QFSP OP DPOWFSHF FO Q

1BSB n ≥ 2 UFOFNPT RVF qn = 12 (qn−1 + qn−1
2
) EF MP DVBM TF EFTQSFOEF
RVF
0 ≤ (qn−1 − qn )2 = qn2 − 2.
&TUP JNQMJDB RVF qn2 ≥ 2 QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n ≥ 2. 1PS PUSB QBSUF FT
JONFEJBUP RVF
q2 − 2
|qn+1 − qn | = n .
2qn
$PNCJOBOEP
Z
PCUFOFNPT MB JHVBMEBE
1
|qn+1 − qn | = |qn−1 − qn |2 , ∀ n ≥ 2.
2qn
"EFNÃT UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB RVF
1 2 q2 + 2 q2 + 1 1 1
qn+1 = (qn + ) = n = n + ≥1+
2 qn 2qn 2qn 2qn 2qn
Z VO BSHVNFOUP EF JOEVDDJÓO TF NVFTUSB RVF qn ≥ 1 QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM

n -MFWBOEP FTUB DPODMVTJÓO B
TF MMFHB B MB EFTJHVBMEBE
1
|qn+1 − qn | ≤ |qn − qn−1 |2 , ∀ n ≥ 2,
2
MB DVBM OPT QFSNJUF EFNPTUSBS WÎB JOEVDDJÓO NBUFNÃUJDB FM TJHVJFOUF
FTUJNBUJWP
2n −1 2n 2n n
1 1 1 1
|qn+1 − qn | ≤ =2 <2 =2 ,
2 2 2 4
FM DVBM FT DMBWF QBSB QSPCBS RVF MB TVDFTJÓO FT EF $BVDIZ &O FGFDUP

QBSB OBUVSBMFT m > n,

m−1
m−1
|qm − qn | = | (qi+1 − qi )| ≤ |qi+1 − qi |
i=n i=n

m−1
1 i
≤2 (QPS
)
4
i=n
m−n
8 1 n 1
= 1−
3 4 4
8
< .
3 · 4n

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
&TUBNPT ZB DBTJ MJTUPT QBSB MB DPODMVTJÓO 4FB ε ∈ Q DPO ε > 0. 1PS MB

QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF 41N < 3ε8 . %F FTUB
NBOFSB TJ m, n TPO OBUVSBMFT DPO m > n ≥ N FOUPODFT
8 8
|qm − qn | < ≤ < ε,
3·4n 3 · 4N
MP RVF EFNVFTUSB RVF MB TVDFTJÓO {qn } FT EF $BVDIZ FO Q. 'JOBMNFOUF
WFBNPT RVF EJDIB TVDFTJÓO OP DPOWFSHF FO Q 4VQPOHBNPT MP DPOUSBSJP
RVF FYJTUF q ∈ Q UBM RVF qn → q. &T TFODJMMP WFS RVF qn+1 → q. -VFHP
BM UPNBS MÎNJUF DVBOEP n → ∞ FO MB JHVBMEBE RVF EFàOF qn , PCUFOFNPT
RVF
1 2
q = (q + ) ⇐⇒ q 2 = 2,
2 q
MP RVF FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO QVFT OP FYJTUF VO SBDJPOBM DVZP DVBESBEP
TFB
&KFSDJDJP 6OB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT {an } TF EJDF RVF FT
DPOUSBDUJWB TJ FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF C < 1 UBM RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n TF
DVNQMF RVF
|an+2 − an+1 | ≤ C |an+1 − an |.
1SVFCF RVF UPEB TVDFTJÓO DPOUSBDUJWB FT EF $BVDIZ
&KFSDJDJP 4F EFàOF MB TVDFTJÓO EF SFBMFT EF NBOFSB SFDVSTJWB BTÎ
1
x1 = 1, x2 = 2, xn = (xn−1 + xn−2 ) QBSB n ≥ 3.
2
1SVFCF RVF {xn } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ
4VHFSFODJB IBMMF VOB GÓSNVMB QBSB |xn − xn+1 |.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO {an }, {bn } TVDFTJPOFT EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT RVF DPO
WFSHFO B A Z B SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF 4VQPOHB RVF FYJTUF N0 ∈ N DPO an ≤ bn
QBSB UPEP n ≥ N0 . %FNVFTUSF RVF A ≤ B.
&O MB TJHVJFOUF QSPQPTJDJÓO QSFTFOUBNPT MB QBSUF FOUFSB EF VO OÙ
NFSP SFBM DPODFQUP RVF FT EF NVDIB VUJMJEBE FO UFPSÎB EF OÙNFSPT 7FS
QPS FKFNQMP FM UFYUP <+(3>
1SPQPTJDJÓO %BEP x ∈ R FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP FOUFSP Nx UBM RVF
Nx ≤ x < Nx + 1.
5BM FOUFSP TF MMBNB QBSUF FOUFSB EF x Z TF EFOPUB QPS [[ x ]], FT EFDJS
[[ x ]] ≤ x < [[ x ]] + 1.

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4J x ∈ Z FT DMBSP RVF Nx = x TBUJTGBDF MB DPODMVTJÓO EFM

UFPSFNB 4VQPOHBNPT RVF x ∈ / Z Z BEFNÃT RVF x > 0 4FB
A ≡ Ax = {n ∈ N : x < n}.
1PS MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB A = ∅ Z QPS FM 1#0 FYJTUF
m ≡ mx = NÎO A ≥ 1.
$PNP m−1 ≥ 0 FT VO OBUVSBM Z x OP FT VO FOUFSP FOUPODFT QPS MB NJOJ

NBMJEBE UFOFNPT RVF m − 1 < x < m DPODMVZÊOEPTF MB FYJTUFODJB DPO
Nx = m − 1. 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF x < 0 1PS FM SB[POBNJFOUP QSFWJP
BQMJDBEP B −x FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM M ≥ 1 UBM RVF M − 1 < −x < M
EF MP DVBM TF TJHVF RVF −M < x < −M + 1 FT EFDJS UFOFNPT MB FYJT
UFODJB DPO Nx = −M. 'JOBMNFOUF QSPCFNPT MB VOJDJEBE TVQPOHBNPT
RVF FYJTUF PUSP FOUFSP Kx UBM RVF Kx ≤ x < Kx + 1. $PNCJOBOEP EF
TJHVBMEBEFT DPOTFHVJNPT Nx ≤ x < Kx + 1, EF EPOEF TF JOàFSF RVF
Nx ≤ Kx ; Z DPNCJOBOEP MBT PUSBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT BOÃMPHBT JOGFSJNPT
RVF Kx ≤ Nx , FTUP FT Nx = Kx . &TUP QSVFCB MB VOJDJEBE Z FM UFPSFNB
RVFEB QSPCBEP

0CTFSWFNPT RVF EF MP BOUFSJPS TF EFTQSFOEF RVF x − 1 < [[ x ]] ≤ x.
&KFNQMP &T DMBSP RVF TJ x ∈ Z FOUPODFT [[ x ]] + [[ −x ]] = x − x = 0.

"IPSB CJFO TJ x ∈
/ Z FOUPODFT BM TVNBS MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT
x − 1 < [[ x ]] < x, Z − x − 1 < [[ −x ]] < −x.
PCUFOFNPT −2 < [[ x ]] + [[ −x ]] < 0 %F FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF
[[ x ]] + [[ −x ]] = −1.
&O SFTVNFO IFNPT QSPCBEP RVF

0 TJ x ∈ Z
[[ x ]] + [[ −x ]] =
−1 TJ x ∈
/ Z.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO x ∈ R àKP Z A = {m ∈ Z : m ≤ x}. 1SVFCF

RVF NÃY A = [[ x ]]. $PODMVZB RVF TJ m ∈ Z FT UBM RVF m ≤ x FOUPODFT
m ≤ [[ x ]].
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF
B
m ∈ Z ⇐⇒ [[ x + m ]] = [[ x ]] + m.

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
C
[[ x ]] + [[ y ]] ≤ [[ x + y ]] ≤ [[ x ]] + [[ y ]] + 1.
D
1BSB UPEP OBUVSBM n ≥ 1 TF DVNQMF RVF ∀ x ∈ R, [[ nx ]] ≤ [[ nx ]] . $PNP
DPOTFDVFODJB TF JOàFSF RVF [[ nx ]] ≥ n[[ x ]] QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n ≥ 1
Z QBSB UPEP x ∈ R.
E
4J x ≤ y FOUPODFT [[ x ]] ≤ [[ y ]].
F
4FBO x, y SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT .VFTUSF RVF [[ x ]] [[ y ]] ≤ [[ xy ]].
G
4FB n ∈ Z &OUPODFT [[ x ]] = n TJ Z TPMP TJ FYJTUF z ∈ [0, 1) UBM RVF
x = n + z. &M OÙNFSP SFBM z FT MMBNBEP MB QBSUF GSBDDJPOBSJB EF
x RVF EFOPUBNPT QPS ((x))
&KFNQMP %FNPTUSFNPT RVF TJ n ≥ 1 FT OBUVSBM FOUPODFT
[[ nx ]] = [[ [[ x ]]/n ]].
6OB FTUSBUFHJB RVF VTBSFNPT FT QSPCBS NVUVB EFTJHVBMEBE DPNP

[[ x ]] ≤ x FOUPODFT [[ x ]]/n ≤ x/n Z BTÎ QPS FM MJUFSBM E
EFM &KFSDJDJP
DPODMVJNPT RVF [[ nx ]] ≥ [[ [[ x ]]/n ]]. 1BSB QSPCBS MB EFTJHVBMEBE JO
WFSTB TFB ε > 0 Z àKFNPT UBOUP x DPNP n $PNP
[[ nx ]] = NÃY{m ∈ Z : m ≤ x/n}
FOUPODFT FYJTUF VO FOUFSP k ≤ x/n UBM RVF [[ nx ]] − ε < k. "IPSB CJFO

k ≤ [[ nx ]] Z MB QBSUF D
EFM &KFSDJDJP JNQMJDBO RVF k ≤ [[ nx ]] Z QPS
DPOTJHVJFOUF k ≤ [[ [[ x ]]/n ]]. &O DPOTFDVFODJB
[[ nx ]] − ε < [[ [[ x ]]/n ]].
1VFTUP RVF ε > 0 FT BSCJUSBSJP OFDFTBSJBNFOUF [[ nx ]] ≤ [[ [[ x ]]/n ]].
&KFNQMP %FNPTUSFNPT RVF [[ x ]] + [[ x + 1/2 ]] = [[ 2x ]]. 4FB
x = [[ x ]] + z
DPO 0 ≤ z < 1 WFS MJUFSBM G

EFM FKFSDJDJP BOUFSJPS
$POTJEFSFNPT EPT
DBTPT
$BTP 0 ≤ z < 1/2

5FOFNPT FOUPODFT RVF x + 1/2 = [[ x ]] + (z + 1/2) DPO
1/2 ≤ z + 1/2 < 1.

-VFHP QPS FM MJUFSBM DJUBEP [[ x + 1/2 ]] = [[ x ]] 5BNCJÊO TF UJFOF RVF

2x = 2[[ x ]] + 2z DPO 0 ≤ 2z < 1 Z QPS UBOUP [[ 2x ]] = 2[[ x ]]. &O DPOTF
DVFODJB [[ x ]] + [[ x + 1/2 ]] = [[ 2x ]].
$BTP 1/2 ≤ z < 1

#BKP FTUF TVQVFTUP TF UJFOF RVF
x + 1/2 = [[ x ]] + z + 1/2 = [[ x ]] + 1 + (z − 1/2)
DPO 0 ≤ z − 1/2 < 1/2. -VFHP [[ x + 1/2 ]] = [[ x ]] + 1. 1PS PUSB QBSUF

2x = 2[[ x ]] + 2z = 2[[ x ]] + 1 + (2z − 1) DPO 0 ≤ 2z − 1 < 1 Z EF FTUB
NBOFSB [[ 2x ]] = 2[[ x ]] + 1. 1PS UBOUP
[[ x ]] + [[ x + 1/2 ]] = 2[[ x ]] + 1 = [[ 2x ]].
&KFSDJDJP
B
1SVFCF RVF [[ x ]] + [[ x + 1/3 ]] + [[ x + 2/3 ]] = [[ 3x ]].
C
1SVFCF RVF [[ x ]] − 2[[ x/2 ]] ∈ {0, 1}.
D
.VFTUSF RVF FM OÙNFSP EF FOUFSPT m QBSB MPT DVBMFT x < m ≤ y
FT [[ y ]] − [[ x ]].
E
1SVFCF RVF FM SFTUP BM EJWJEJS FM FOUFSP a QPS FM FOUFSP m > 0 FT
m((a/m)) EPOEF ((x)) = x − [[ x ]] FT MB QBSUF GSBDDJPOBSJB EFM SFBM
x.
F
4FBO m ≥ 1 VO OBUVSBM Z x > 0 %FNVFTUSF RVF FM OÙNFSP EF
NÙMUJQMPT QPTJUJWPT EF m RVF OP FYDFEFO B x FTUÃ EBEP QPS [[ x/m ]].
6OB BQMJDBDJÓO JONFEJBUB EF FTUB BàSNBDJÓO FT MB TJHVJFOUF TFBO
n Z a FOUFSPT QPTJUJWPT &OUPODFT FM OÙNFSP EF FOUFSPT EF MB TVDF
TJÓO 1, 2, . . . , n RVF TPO EJWJTJCMFT QPS a FT [[ n/a ]]. &O FGFDUP FTUP
FRVJWBMF B FODPOUSBS FM OÙNFSP EF NÙMUJQMPT EF a RVF OP FYDFEFO
B n QPS MP BàSNBEP JOJDJBMNFOUF FTUF OÙNFSP FT [[ n/a ]].
" DPOUJOVBDJÓO QSFTFOUBNPT VO UFPSFNB RVF HBSBOUJ[B MB FYJTUFODJB

EF MB SBÎ[ nÊTJNB EF VO OÙNFSP SFBM QPTJUJWP Z TV EFNPTUSBDJÓO FTUÃ
TPQPSUBEB FO FM BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ %F FTUF SFTVMUBEP TF EFTQSFOEF
MB FYJTUFODJB EF SFBMFT RVF OP TPO SBDJPOBMFT &TUF IFDIP EB BM BYJPNB
EF DPNQMFUF[ VOB JNQPSUBODJB OPUBCMF FO NBUFNÃUJDBT QVFT QFSNJUF
EFNPTUSBS MB FYJTUFODJB EF MPT OÙNFSPT MMBNBEPT JSSBDJPOBMFT
5FPSFNB 4FBO a ∈ R DPO a > 0 Z n ≥ 1 OBUVSBM àKPT &OUPODFT
FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP SFBM QPTJUJWP b UBM RVF bn = a.

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
%FNPTUSBDJÓO %FàOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP
S := {x ∈ R+ : xn < a}.
S FT OP WBDÎP QVFTUP RVF FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N DPO 1/N < a QFSP BEFNÃT
FT GÃDJM WFS QPS JOEVDDJÓO RVF N m ≥ N QBSB UPEP m ∈ N DPO m ≥ 1
Z QPS UBOUP 1/N n ≤ 1/N < a MP RVF RVJFSF EFDJS RVF 1/N ∈ S
&TUF DPOKVOUP SFTVMUB BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF TFB x ∈ S QPS USJDPUPNÎB
a > 1 P CJFO a ≤ 1 &O FM QSJNFS DBTP an ≥ a Z BTÎ xn < a ≤ an . %F
FTUP TF JOàFSF RVF
(x − a)(xn−1 + xn−2 a + xn−3 a2 + · · · + an−1 ) < 0,
FT EFDJS x < a. &O FM TFHVOEP DBTP TF EFEVDF JONFEJBUBNFOUF RVF x < 1

&O DPODMVTJÓO UFOFNPT RVF x ≤ NÃY{a, 1} 1PS MB DPNQMFUF[ EF R FYJTUF
b ∈ R UBM RVF b = TVQ S, DPO b ≥ 1/N > 0. 7BNPT B QSPCBS RVF bn = a.
1BSB m ≥ N UFOFNPT RVF 1/m ∈ S Z QPS UBOUP 0 ≤ b − 1/m < xm
QBSB BMHÙO xm ∈ S -VFHP

1 n
b− < xnm < a
m
TJFNQSF RVF m ≥ N ; FTUP DPNCJOBEP DPO FM &KFSDJDJP QSPEVDF RVF
1 1 n
bn ≤ a. 1PS PUSB QBSUF DPNP b + m ∈
/ S TF UJFOF RVF (b + m ) ≥ a
QBSB UPEP m ≥ 1 OBUVSBM Z BTÎ b ≥ a DPNP DPOTFDVFODJB DPODMVJNPT
n
MB JHVBMEBE bn = a. -B VOJDJEBE TF TJHVF EF

n
0 = bn1 − bn2 = (b1 − b2 ) bn−i i−1
1 b2 ,
i=1

n
Z EF RVF bn−i i−1
FT QPTJUJWP

1 b2
i=1
&O FM DBTP a = 0 FT DMBSP RVF b = 0.

%FàOJDJÓO &M SFBM b FO FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS DVBOEP n ≥ 2 MP
√
MMBNBNPT SBÎ[ nÊTJNB EF B Z MP EFOPUBNPT QPS n a P UBNCJÊO QPS
a1/n .
5FOFNPT FOUPODFT RVF QBSB a ∈ R QPTJUJWP
√ 1
n
a = TVQ{x ∈ R+ : xn < a} = a n = b ⇐⇒ bn = a.
4J FO FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS√n = a = 2 UFOFNPT RVF FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP SFBM

QPTJUJWP b EFOPUBEP QPS 2, UBM RVF b2 = 2 OÙNFSP RVF OP FT SBDJPOBM

-VFHP FYJTUFO SFBMFT RVF OP TPO SBDJPOBMFT UBMFT OÙNFSPT TPO MMBNBEPT
JSSBDJPOBMFT Z EFOPUBNPT FM DPOKVOUP RVF MPT SFÙOF QPS I FT EFDJS
I := R Q.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO y ∈ I, r ∈ Q 1SVFCF RVF r + y ∈ I. 4J r = 0
FOUPODFT ry ∈ I.
5FPSFNB 4FBO a Z b SFBMFT DPO a < b &OUPODFT FYJTUFO VO SBDJPOBM
r VO JSSBDJPOBM y UBMFT RVF a < r < y < b.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 'JKFNPT MPT SFBMFT a Z b 1SPCFNPT QSJNFSP FM UFPSFNB
TVQPOJFOEP RVF 0 < a 0 FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N
UBM RVF 1/N < b−a. %F OVFWP QPS MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB TF EFEV
DF MB FYJTUFODJB EF VO OBUVSBM K UBM RVF K/N > a. -VFHP FM DPOKVOUP
A := {n ∈ N : n > N a} FT OP WBDÎP Z QPS FM 1#0 FYJTUF m = NÎO A. &T
DMBSP RVF m ≥ 1 Z FT FM NFOPS OBUVSBM FO A DPO MB QSPQJFEBE m/N > a.
-VFHP (m − 1)/N ≤ a Z DPO FTP
m m−1 1 1
a< = + ≤a+ < b.
N N N N
$PO r = m/N RVFEB QSPCBEB MB FYJTUFODJB EF VO SBDJPOBM FOUSF EPT
SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT "QMJDBOEP FTUF SFTVMUBEP DPO r Z b PCUFOFNPT PUSP SB
DJPOBM s UBM RVF a < r < s < b. 1PS PUSB QBSUF
{x ∈ R+ : x2 < 2} ⊂ {x ∈ R+ : x2 < 4}
√ √
JNQMJDB RVF 0 < 2 < 2 Z BTÎ 0 < 2/2 < 1 RVF BEFNÃT FT JSSBDJPOBM
-VFHP √
2
a<r<r+ (s − r) < s < b,
2
EF EPOEF TF TJHVF MB TFHVOEB BàSNBDJÓO EFM UFPSFNB FMJHJFOEP
√
2
y=r+ (s − r) ∈ I.
2
&O FM DBTP a < b < 0 BQMJDBNPT MP EFNPTUSBEP DPO MPT SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT
−b < −a FT EFDJS FYJTUFO SBDJPOBMFT r1 , s1 Z VO JSSBDJPOBM y1 UBMFT RVF
−b < r1 < y1 < s1 < −a MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF a < −s1 < −y1 < b
'JOBMNFOUF FO FM DBTP a < 0 < b QPEFNPT SB[POBS BTÎ DPNP 2a <
a < 0 FOUPODFT FYJTUFO VO SBDJPOBM r2 Z VO JSSBDJPOBM y2 UBMFT RVF
2a < r2 < y2 < a < b FT EFDJS
a < r2 /2 < y2 /2 < b/2 < b,
EF EPOEF TF TJHVF MB DPODMVTJÓO %F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB QSPCBEP FM
UFPSFNB

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
7PMWJFOEP B MB EJTDVTJÓO EF MB SBÎ[ nÊTJNB WBNPT B BOBMJ[BS FTUB

QBSB a < 0. /PUFNPT QSJNFSP√RVF DVBOEP n ≥ 2 FT VO OBUVSBM QBS
|a|n = |an | = an Z QPS UBOUP n an = |a| QBSB UPEP a ∈ R. 1VFTUP RVF
√
xn ≥ 0 QBSB UPEP x SFBM Z n ≥ 2 FT OBUVSBM QBS FOUPODFT n a OP FTUÃ
EFàOJEB FO R DVBOEP a < 0 Z n FT QBS FO FTUF DBTP MB FDVBDJÓO xn = a
OP UJFOF TPMVDJÓO
y2VÊ QVFEF EFDJSTF EFM DBTP n JNQBS Z a < 0 -B
SBÎ[ nÊTJNB QPEFNPT EFàOJSMB Z QBSB WFSMP QPEFNPT SB[POBS BTÎ DPNP
−a > 0 FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP SFBM QPTJUJWP x UBM RVF xn = −a Z FTUP OPT
√
QFSNJUF EFàOJS n a = −x QVFTUP RVF
(−x)n = (−1)n · xn = (−1)n · (−a) = (−1)n+1 a = a,
√ √
EPOEF IFNPT VTBEP RVF n + 1 FT QBS &O DPODMVTJÓO n a = − n −a
QBSB a OFHBUJWP Z n JNQBS -B VOJDJEBE TF PCUJFOF DPNP BOUFT HSBDJBT
B

0USPT IFDIPT SFMFWBOUFT TF EFUBMMBO B DPOUJOVBDJÓO
√ √ √ √ √ √
1BSB n a, n b Z n ab EFàOJEPT TJ n ab = x, n a = z Z n b = y FOUPO
DFT xn = ab, z n = a Z y n = b √
-VFHP (yz)n = y n z n = ab MP RVF RVJFSF EFDJS RVF√n ab = yz√Z
√
QPS MB VOJDJEBE TF UJFOF RVF yz = x. &TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF n ab = n a n b
DVBOEP DBEB SBÎ[ nÊTJNB FTUÃ EFàOJEB %F NBOFSB BOÃMPHB FT TFODJMMP
QSPCBS RVF
n 1 1
= √n
a a
Z MVFHP EFEVDJS √
n
n a a
= √n
,
b b
TJFNQSF RVF FYJTUBO
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO x, y OÙNFSPT SFBMFT UBMFT RVF x ≥ y ≥ 0. 1SVFCF
√ √
RVF x ≥ y.
-B GVODJÓO FYQPOFODJBM

)BTUB FM NPNFOUP FTUÃ EFàOJEP a1/n DPO n ≥ 1 OBUVSBM Z FM QSPQÓTJUP
BIPSB FT EFàOJS ax QBSB x SFBM DPO a > 0 Z a = 1 1BSB FMMP WBNPT B
EFàOJS QSJNFSP ar QBSB r ∈ Q Z a > 0. 4J r = m/n DPO m ∈ Z Z n > 0
OBUVSBM EFàOJNPT
ar = am/n := (am )1/n .
6O QSJNFS IFDIP B NFODJPOBS FT RVF ar > 0 ZB RVF am > 0 QBSB UPEP
m ∈ Z. 4FHVOEP WFBNPT RVF FTUB EFàOJDJÓO FT JOEFQFOEJFOUF EF MB

SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFM SBDJPOBM r Z QPS UBOUP ar RVFEBSÃ CJFO EFàOJEP

4FBO m, n, p, q FOUFSPT DPO n > 0 Z q > 0 UBMFT RVF r = m/n = p/q Z
TFBO
(am )1/n = x, (ap )1/q = y.
&OUPODFT xnq = amq = anp = y nq BDÃ IFNPT VTBEP QSPQJFEBEFT FYQSF
TBEBT FO FM &KFSDJDJP QÃH
MP DVBM TJHOJàDB RVF
x = (y nq )1/nq = y.
$PO FM ÃOJNP EF QSFTFOUBS ax DPO x SFBM WBNPT B SFBMJ[BS VOB FMBCP

SBDJÓO TJTUFNÃUJDB Z FO FTB EJSFDDJÓO EFEVDJSFNPT JOJDJBMNFOUF BMHVOPT
SFTVMUBEPT CÃTJDPT QBSB r, s ∈ Q, ar+s = ar as . &O FGFDUP TJ r = m/n Z
s = p/q DPO EFOPNJOBEPSFT QPTJUJWPT EF OVFWP QPS MBT QSPQJFEBEFT FO
FM &KFSDJDJP Z EF MB SBÎ[ nqÊTJNB UFOFNPT RVF
mq + np
r+s=
nq
Z
1 1 1 1
ar+s = (amq+np ) nq = (amq anp ) nq = (amq ) nq (anp ) nq = ar as .
%F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF EFNVFTUSB RVF (ab)r = ar br 5BNCJÊO TJ a > 1

Z k ∈ N DPO k ≥ 1 FT GÃDJM WFS QPS JOEVDDJÓO RVF ak > 1 Z BEFNÃT
VTBOEP MB JEFOUJEBE
⎡ ⎤
1
k
1 1
k−1
1
a − 1 = (a k − 1) (a k )k−j = (a k − 1) ⎣ (a k )k−j + 1⎦ ,
j=1 j=1
TF EFEVDF RVF a1/k > 1 QVFTUP RVF MB FYQSFTJÓO FOUSF MPT DPSDIFUFT FT
NBZPS RVF &O DPOTFDVFODJB TJ t FT SBDJPOBM QPTJUJWP Z a > 1 FOUPODFT
at > 1. 5BNCJÊO 1 = a0 = a−t+t = a−t at JNQMJDB RVF at = 1/a−t QPS
MP RVF TF UJFOF RVF TJ t FT SBDJPOBM OFHBUJWP Z a > 1 OFDFTBSJBNFOUF
at < 1.
'JKFNPT x SFBM Z DPOTJEFSFNPT a > 1 EFàOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP
Br,x := {ar : r ∈ Q, r ≤ x}.
&TUF DPOKVOUP FT OP WBDÎP TJ x ≥ 0 FOUPODFT 1 ∈ Br,x QVFT 1 = a0

0 ∈ Q Z 0 ≤ x TJ x < 0 FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM Nx UBM RVF −Nx < x Z BTÎ
a−Nx ∈ Br,x . &M DPOKVOUP Br,x SFTVMUB FTUBS BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO
R TFB ar ∈ Br,x . &YJTUF VO OBUVSBM Mx UBM RVF x < Mx Z QPS UBOUP
r < Mx QBSB UPEP r ∈ Q DPO r ≤ x Z BTÎ aMx = aMx −r ar > ar , MP

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
RVF EFNVFTUSB RVF Br,x FTUÃ BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF 1PS FM BYJPNB EF

DPNQMFUF[ UJFOF TFOUJEP EFàOJS QBSB a > 1 Z x SFBM
ax := TVQ Br,x = TVQ{ar : r ∈ Q, r ≤ x}.
&O FM DBTP 0 < a < 1 EFàOJNPT ax := 1/(a−1 )x .

0CTFSWFNPT RVF DPNP ar > 0 QBSB UPEP SBDJPOBM r FOUPODFT ax > 0
QBSB UPEP x ∈ R.
0CTFSWBDJÓO /PUFNPT RVF TJ àKBNPT t ∈ Q FOUPODFT at = TVQ Br,t .

&GFDUJWBNFOUF QBSB r SBDJPOBM DPO r ≤ t TF UJFOF RVF ar ≤ at MP RVF
QFSNJUF DPODMVJS RVF TVQ Br,t ≤ at 1PS PUSB QBSUF DPNP at ∈ Br,t
FOUPODFT at ≤ TVQ Br,t .
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FBO a Z b SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT EJGFSFOUFT EF DPO ab = 1

Z TFB x ∈ R &OUPODFT (ab)x = ax bx .
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 'JKFNPT x ∈ R $POTJEFSFNPT QSJNFSP FM DBTP FO FM RVF

a > 1 Z b > 1 &OUPODFT UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB RVF
{ar br : r ∈ Q, r ≤ x} ⊆ {ar bs : r, s ∈ Q; r, s ≤ x},
TF UJFOF RVF
(ab)x = TVQ{(ab)r : r ∈ Q, r ≤ x} = TVQ{ar br : r ∈ Q, r ≤ x}

≤ TVQ{ar bs : r, s ∈ Q, r, s ≤ x}
= (TVQ{ar : r ∈ Q, r ≤ x}) · (TVQ{br : r ∈ Q, r ≤ x})
= a x bx .
&O MB QFOÙMUJNB JHVBMEBE QSFWJB IFNPT VTBEP FM &KFSDJDJP E

QÃHJOB
1SPCFNPT BIPSB MB PUSB EFTJHVBMEBE 4FB ε > 0 1PS DBSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO
EF TVQSFNP FYJTUFO SBDJPOBMFT r Z s UBMFT RVF r ≤ x s ≤ x Z BEFNÃT
a x − ε < a r ≤ ax Z b x − ε < b s ≤ bx .
-VFHP DPNCJOBOEP MBT QSJNFSBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT FO

PCUFOFNPT RVF
ax bx < ε2 + ε(ar + bs ) + ar bs ,
Z FTUP QPS MBT TFHVOEBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT FO

FT NFOPS P JHVBM RVF
ε2 + ε(ax + bx ) + ar bs 1PS UBOUP UFOFNPT RVF
ax bx < ε2 + ε(ax + bx ) + ar bs = ε(ax + bx + ε) + ar bs .

"IPSB CJFO QPS USJDPUPNÎB r ≤ s P CJFO r > s 4J PDVSSF MP QSJNFSP

FOUPODFT OFDFTBSJBNFOUF ar bs = ar−s (ab)s ≤ (ab)s Z BTÎ QPS

UFOFNPT RVF
ax bx < ε(ax + bx + ε) + (ab)s ≤ ε(ax + bx + ε) + (ab)x .
%F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TJ r > s FOUPODFT VTBOEP ar bs = bs−r (ab)r < (ab)r

Z
DPODMVJNPT RVF
ax bx < ε(ax + bx + ε) + (ab)r ≤ ε(ax + bx + ε) + (ab)x .
%F

Z DPNP ε > 0 FT BSCJUSBSJP TF UJFOF RVF ax bx ≤ (ab)x
DPO MP DVBM RVFEB EFNPTUSBEB MB JHVBMEBE ax bx = (ab)x FO FM DBTP a > 1
Z b > 1.
$POTJEFSFNPT BIPSB RVF 0 < a < 1 Z 0 < b < 1 &O FTUF DBTP
0 < ab < 1 Z UBOUP a−1 DPNP b−1 TPO NBZPSFT RVF VOP QPS UBOUP
BQMJDBNPT MP BOUFSJPS QBSB PCUFOFS RVF (a−1 b−1 )x = (a−1 )x (b−1 )x &M
BSHVNFOUP TF DPNQMFUB VTBOEP MB EFàOJDJÓO EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB
1 1 1
(ab)x = = −1 −1 x = −1 x −1 x
[(ab)−1 ]x [a b ] (a ) (b )
1 1
= −1 x · −1 x = ax bx .
(a ) (b )
"IPSB TVQPOHBNPT RVF 0 < a < 1 Z b > 1. &OUPODFT
bx = (baa−1 )x = (ba)x (a−1 )x TJ ab > 1

1 1
= (ba)x x ZB RVF ax = ).
a (a−1 )x
%F BRVÎ TF DPODMVZF MB JHVBMEBE EFTFBEB (ba)x = bx ax .

"IPSB CJFO TJ ab < 1 FOUPODFT
ax = (abb−1 )x
= (ab)x (b−1 )x ZB RVF FM SFTVMUBEP WBMF TJ ab < 1 Z b−1 < 1)
1
= (ab)x x QPS EFàOJDJÓO FO FM DBTP b−1 < 1).
b
-B DPODMVTJÓO TF TJHVF EF FTUB JHVBMEBE Z BTÎ RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFP
SFNB

$PSPMBSJP 4FBO a Z b SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT DPO a = b, a = 1 Z b = 1.

&OUPODFT (a/b)x = ax /bx .

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
%FNPTUSBDJÓO #BTUB OPUBS RVF ax = ( ab b)x = ( ab )x bx EF MP DVBM TF TJHVF

MB BTFWFSBDJÓO

1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FB a > 0, a = 1. &OUPODFT QBSB x, y SFBMFT
ax+y = ax ay .
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FBO x, y SFBMFT Z s, t SBDJPOBMFT DPO s ≤ x Z t ≤ y.

-VFHP s + t ≤ x + y Z EF FTUB NBOFSB as at = as+t ≤ ax+y . 5PNBOEP FM
TVQSFNP TPCSF UPEPT MPT SBDJPOBMFT s Z t DPO s ≤ x Z t ≤ y FODPOUSBNPT
RVF ax ay ≤ ax+y . 1SPCFNPT BIPSB MB EFTJHVBMEBE JOWFSTB TFB ε > 0.
&YJTUF VO SBDJPOBM r < x + y UBM RVF ax+y − ε < ar . -VFHP TJ
δ := x + y − r > 0,
FYJTUFO SBDJPOBMFT s Z t DPO
x − δ/2 < s < x Z y − δ/2 < t < y,
MP DVBM OPT QSPEVDF x + y − δ = r < s + t < x + y Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB
ax ay ≥ as at = as+t > ar > ax+y − ε,
FT EFDJS ax+y < ax ay + ε Z DPNP ε > 0 FT BSCJUSBSJP FOUPODFT
ax+y ≤ ax ay .
2VFEB BTÎ QSPCBEB MB QSPQPTJDJÓO

)BTUB BIPSB IFNPT FTUVEJBEP Z QSFTFOUBEP QSPQJFEBEFT EF ax DPO

a > 0 Z a = 1 " DPOUJOVBDJÓO NPTUSBNPT FOUSF PUSBT DPTBT RVF
1x = 1 QBSB UPEP SFBM x FT QPS FTUP RVF FO MB QSFTFOUBDJÓO EF MB GVO
DJÓO FYQPOFODJBM x #→ ax TF FYDMVZF a = 1 QBSB OP DPOTJEFSBS FM DBTP
USJWJBM 1x
$PSPMBSJP 4FB a > 0, a = 1. &OUPODFT QBSB UPEP QBS EF SFBMFT
ax
x, y TF UJFOF RVF y = ax−y 5BNCJÊO TF UJFOF RVF (a−1 )x = a−x Z
a
QBSB DVBMRVJFS SFBM x, 1x = 1.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO -B QSJNFSB BàSNBDJÓO TF TJHVF EF MB JHVBMEBE
ax = ax−y+y = ax−y ay .
1BSB MB TFHVOEB OPUFNPT JOJDJBMNFOUF RVF QBSB UPEP SFBM x
1 = a0 = ax−x = ax a−x ,

EF MP RVF TF EFTQSFOEF MB SFMBDJÓO

1
a−x = ∀ x ∈ R.
ax
4VQPOHBNPT RVF a < 1 &OUPODFT QPS EFàOJDJÓO Z MVFHP VTBOEP

DBNCJBOEP a QPS a−1 UFOFNPT RVF
1
a−x = = (a−1 )x .
(a−1 )−x
"IPSB TJ a > 1 FOUPODFT a−1 < 1 Z BTÎ QPS EFàOJDJÓO Z QPS

(a−1 )x = 1/ax = a−x $PO FTUP RVFEB QSPCBEB MB TFHVOEB BàSNBDJÓO
'JOBMNFOUF 1x = (aa−1 )x = ax a−x = a0 = 1.

7FSFNPT B DPOUJOVBDJÓO RVF MB GVODJÓO FYQPOFODJBM x #→ ax FT NP

OÓUPOB FTUSJDUB
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FB a > 0, a = 1 4J x < y TPO OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
FOUPODFT
J
4J a > 1 TF UJFOF RVF ax < ay NPOÓUPOB DSFDJFOUF FTUSJDUB

JJ
4J a < 1 TF UJFOF RVF ax > ay NPOÓUPOB EFDSFDJFOUF FTUSJDUB

%FNPTUSBDJÓO J
'JKFNPT x, y ∈ R. $PNP y − x > 0 FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM
RVF 1/N < y − x Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB QPS EFàOJDJÓO ay−x ≥ a1/N > 1
-VFHP ay = ay−x ax > ax .
JJ
&O FTUF DBTP UFOFNPT RVF a−1 > 1 Z QPS FM SB[POBNJFOUP IFDIP
FO FM MJUFSBM QSFWJP TF DVNQMF RVF (a−1 )y−x > 1 -VFHP MB EFàOJDJÓO
JNQMJDB RVF ay−x = (a−11)y−x < 1 Z DPO FTUP MMFHBNPT B MP EFTFBEP FTUP
FT ay = ay−x ax < ax .

&M TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP NVFTUSB RVF MB GVODJÓO FYQPOFODJBM x #→ ax

FT TPCSFZFDUJWB
5FPSFNB 4FBO y > 0 Z a > 0, a = 1 SFBMFT àKPT &OUPODFT FYJTUF
VO ÙOJDP SFBM z UBM RVF az = y.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 7BNPT B VTBS DPNP BOUFT MB DPNQMFUF[ EF R QBSB EF
NPTUSBS MB FYJTUFODJB $POTJEFSFNPT QSJNFSP FM DBTP a > 1. 4F EFàOF FM
DPOKVOUP
A := {x ∈ R : ax < y}.
-B BSRVJNFEJBOB HBSBOUJ[B RVF A FT OP WBDÎP QVFTUP RVF FYJTUF N OB
UVSBM DPO 1/N < y(a − 1) Z BEFNÃT QPS MB EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ
N 1
aN = 1 + (a − 1) ≥ 1 + N (a − 1) > N (a − 1) > ;
y

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
QPS UBOUP a−N < y FT EFDJS −N ∈ A. 7FBNPT BIPSB RVF A FT BDPUBEP

TVQFSJPSNFOUF TJ x ∈ A FOUPODFT ax < y Z EF OVFWP MB BSRVJNFEJBOB
OPT QSPQPSDJPOB VO OBUVSBM M RVF OP EFQFOEF EF x UBM RVF
y/(a − 1) < M.
&O DPOTFDVFODJB
M
aM = 1 + (a − 1) ≥ 1 + M (a − 1) > M (a − 1) > y
Z DPO FTP ax < aM EF MP DVBM TF EFEVDF RVF x < M QBSB UPEP x ∈ A.

4FB z := TVQ A QSPCFNPT RVF az = y 1BSB FTUP WBNPT B EFTDBSUBS MBT
EFTJHVBMEBEFT az < y Z az > y 4J PDVSSJFSB MB QSJNFSB EF FMMBT FOUPODFT
ya−z > 1 Z FYJTUJSÎB VO OBUVSBM n UBM RVF
1 ya−z − 1
< ·
n a−1
$PNP BOUFT
a = (a1/n )n = [1 + (a1/n − 1)]n ≥ 1 + n(a1/n − 1),

a−1
MP RVF JNQMJDBSÎB RVF a1/n − 1 ≤ < ya−z − 1 Z BTÎ az+1/n < y
n
MP RVF QFSNJUJSÎB EFDJS RVF z + 1/n ∈ A DPOUSBEJDJFOEP RVF z FT FM
TVQSFNP EF A %F NBOFSB BOÃMPHB TJ GVFSB az > y FODPOUSBSÎBNPT VO
OBUVSBM k DPO
1 az /y − 1
< ;
k a−1
Z SB[POBOEP WÎB MB EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ DPNP TF IJ[P PCUFOFNPT
RVF (a − 1)/k ≥ a1/k − 1 EF EPOEF PCUFOESÎBNPT a1/k − 1 < az /y − 1
FT EFDJS az−1/k > y 1PS PUSB QBSUF TFSÎB QPTJCMF IBMMBS VO t ∈ A UBM RVF
z − 1/k < t Z DPO FTP az−1/k < at < y, VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO -B VOJDJEBE
TF EFTQSFOEF EF RVF az = aw ⇒ z = w.
$POTJEFSFNPT BIPSB FM DBTP a < 1. &OUPODFT a−1 > 1 Z QPS MP
EFNPTUSBEP QSFWJBNFOUF FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP w ∈ R UBM RVF (a−1 )w = y, FT
EFDJS a−w = y.

$PNP MB GVODJÓO FYQPOFODJBM FT CJZFDUJWB FYJTUF TV JOWFSTB " DPO

UJOVBDJÓO MB JOUSPEVDJNPT
%FàOJDJÓO &M OÙNFSP SFBM z UBM RVF az = y TF MMBNB FM MPHBSJUNP

EF y > 0 FO CBTF a Z TF EFOPUB QPS MPHa y &O PUSPT UÊSNJOPT QBSB
y > 0
az = y :⇐⇒ z = MPHa y.

&T TJNQMF WFS RVF TJ 0 < x < 1 FOUPODFT MPHa x < 0, TJ x > 1 Z
MPHa x > 0 BEFNÃT
MPHa (xy) = MPHa x + MPHa y.
1PS UBOUP MPHa y + MPHa y −1 = MPHa yy −1 = MPHa 1 = 0 JNQMJDB RVF
MPHa y −1 = − MPHa y;
Z EF FTUBT EPT QSPQJFEBEFT TF JOàFSF RVF MPHa (x/y) = MPHa x − MPHa y.

-B TJHVJFOUF QSPQPTJDJÓO BEFNÃT EF TV WBMPS FO TÎ NJTNB TFSÃ EF VUJMJ
EBE QBSB EFNPTUSBS MB QSPQJFEBE (ax )y = axy QBSB SFBMFT x, y.
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FB a VO SFBM QPTJUJWP 4J {xn } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO EF
SFBMFT UBM RVF xn → 0, FOUPODFT axn → 1.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO &M DBTP QBSUJDVMBS a = 1 FT JONFEJBUP 4VQPOHBNPT FO
UPODFT RVF a = 1. 4FBO ε > 0 Z yn := axn . -VFHP xn = MPHa yn Z QPS
MB EFàOJDJÓO EF DPOWFSHFODJB UFOFNPT MB FYJTUFODJB EF VO OBUVSBM N UBM
RVF
− MPHa (ε + 1) < MPHa yn < MPHa (ε + 1)
QBSB DBEB n ≥ N MP DVBM FT FRVJWBMFOUF B
1
< yn < ε + 1,
ε+1
QBSB n ≥ N Z EF FTUP TF EFTQSFOEF RVF
ε
−ε < − < yn − 1 < ε, TJ n ≥ N,
ε+1
RVFEBOEP QSPCBEB MB QSPQPTJDJÓO

0CTFSWFNPT RVF TJ xn → x FOUPODFT axn = axn −x ax → ax .

1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FBO x, y SFBMFT Z a ∈ R+ àKP &OUPODFT
(ax )y = axy .
%FNPTUSBDJÓO &T DMBSP RVF QBSB y = 0 MB JHVBMEBE FT WÃMJEB Z FT GÃDJM
QSPCBS QPS JOEVDDJÓO RVF (ax )n = axn QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n 5BNCJÊO
QBSB n OBUVSBM
1
(ax )−n = (ax )n(−1) = [(ax )n ]−1 = (anx )−1 =
anx
a0
= = a0−nx = a−xn ,
anx

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
RVFEBOEP EFNPTUSBEP RVF (ax )m = axm QBSB UPEP m ∈ Z Z QBSB UPEP

SFBM x "QMJDBOEP FTUF SFTVMUBEP UFOFNPT
ax = (ax/n )n ⇒ (ax )1/n = ax/n ;
Z EF FTUB NBOFSB TJ r = m/n FT VO SBDJPOBM DPO n > 0

% &n
[(ax )r ]n = (ax )m/n = (ax )m = axm ⇒ (axm )1/n = (ax )r .
1FSP (axm )1/n = axm/n MP RVF EFNVFTUSB MB JHVBMEBE (ax )r = axr QBSB
UPEP SBDJPOBM r 'JOBMNFOUF VTBOEP MB QSPQPTJDJÓO BOUFSJPS QSPCBNPT
MB JHVBMEBE QBSB y SFBM BTÎ FYJTUF VOB TVDFTJÓO EF SBDJPOBMFT {rn } UBM
RVF rn → y Z QPS UBOUP xrn → xy Z axrn → axy -VFHP
(ax )y = MÎNn→∞ (ax )rn = MÎNn→∞ axrn = axy .
$PO FTUP IFNPT QSPCBEP MB QSPQPTJDJÓO

%F FTUB QSPQJFEBE TF EFTQSFOEF QBSB x > 0, RVF MPHa xy = y MPHa x.

1SFTFOUBNPT BIPSB VO DBTP QBSUJDVMBS JNQPSUBOUF EF EJWFSHFODJB EF
VOB TVDFTJÓO
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT %FDJNPT RVF
an → +∞ TJ EBEP DVBMRVJFS SFBM M > 0 FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF
n ≥ N JNQMJDB an ≥ M. %FDJNPT RVF an → −∞ TJ −an → +∞
&KFSDJDJP 4VQPOHB RVF an −→ +∞ Z bn −→ b DPO b = 0. %F
NVFTUSF RVF an bn −→ +∞ TJ b > 0 Z an bn −→ −∞ TJ b < 0 y2VÊ
QVFEF EFDJS EF an + bn
&KFNQMP 4FBO a > 0, a = 1 Z {bn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF SFBMFT UBM RVF
bn → +∞ DVBOEP n → ∞. 1SPCFNPT RVF
B
4J a > 1 FOUPODFT abn → +∞ DVBOEP n → ∞.
C
4J a < 1 FOUPODFT abn → 0 DVBOEP n → ∞.
B
4FB M > 0 1PS MB IJQÓUFTJT FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N0 UBM RVF TJ n ≥ N0
FOUPODFT bn > 1 + a−1 M
$PNP QBSB MPT OBUVSBMFT n ≥ N0 , bn > 1
FOUPODFT [[ bn ]] FT VO OBUVSBM NBZPS P JHVBM RVF VOP "EFNÃT
[[ bn ]] + 1 > bn ≥ [[ bn ]]
Z MB EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ JNQMJDBO QBSB UPEP n ≥ N0
abn ≥ a[[ bn ]] = (1 + a − 1)[[ bn ]] ≥ 1 + [[ bn ]](a − 1) > [[ bn ]](a − 1)

≥ (bn − 1)(a − 1) > M,

DPO MP RVF TF QSVFCB FM MJUFSBM

C
1PS MB EFàOJDJÓO EF FYQPOFODJBM DPO CBTF NFOPS RVF VOP UFOFNPT
RVF
1
abn = −1 bn −→ 0, DVBOEP n → ∞,
(a )
ZB RVF a−1 > 1 Z QPS MP EFNPTUSBEP QSFWJBNFOUF
&KFSDJDJP 4FB x ∈ R DPO x = 0 Z x < 1. %FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP

OBUVSBM n ≥ 2 TF WFSJàDB (1 − x)n > 1 − nx.
&KFNQMP 4FB {an }∞

n=1 MB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT EFàOJEB QPS

1 n
an = 1 + .
n
7FBNPT RVF FTUB TVDFTJÓO FT DSFDJFOUF Z BDPUBEB Z QPS FOEF FT DPOWFS

HFOUF 1SJNFSP OPUFNPT RVF QPS FM 5FPSFNB EFM CJOPNJP WFS "
QÃH

n
n
n 1 n!
an = = 2 + ·
k nk (n − k)! k! nk
k=0 k=2
"IPSB FT GÃDJM QSPCBS QPS JOEVDDJÓO RVF QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM k k! ≥ 2k−1
Z
n!
∀k ∈ N, k ≤ n TF UJFOF RVF ≤ 1.
(n − k)! nk
-VFHP

n
1
n
1 1
2 ≤ an ≤ 2 + ≤2+ = 2 + 1 − n−1 < 3,
k! 2k−1 2
k=2 k=2
MP RVF JNQMJDB RVF 2 ≤ an < 3 QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM n Z QPS UBOUP MB

TVDFTJÓO FT BDPUBEB "IPSB CJFO
n n+1
an+1 n + 2 n+1 n n + 2 n+1 n n+1
= =
an n+1 n+1 n+1 n+1 n
n+1
1 n+1 1 n+1
= 1− 2
> 1− = 1,
(n + 1) n n+1 n
EPOEF MB ÙMUJNB EFTJHVBMEBE FT PCUFOJEB QPS MB EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ

&TUP QSVFCB RVF an < an+1 QPS UBOUP MB TVDFTJÓO FT DSFDJFOUF FTUSJDUB
/ÓUFTF RVF BM BQMJDBS #FSOPVMMJ MB EFTJHVBMEBE SFTVMUB FTUSJDUB QVFTUP
RVF n + 1 ≥ 2 Z (n + 1)−2 < 1 WFS &KFSDJDJP

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
0CTFSWBDJÓO $PNP FM MÎNJUF EF MB TVDFTJÓO BOUFSJPS FYJTUF Z FO SFBMJ

EBE FT EF HSBO JNQPSUBODJB WBNPT B SFTBMUBSMP DPO FM OPNCSF EF
OÙNFSP e

1 n
e := MÎNn→∞ 1 + .
n
"EFNÃT DPNP e ≥ 2 QVFEF VTBSTF DPNP CBTF EF VO MPHBSJUNP FO SFBMJ
EBE FTUF MPHBSJUNP TF MMBNB MPHBSJUNP OBUVSBM Z TF BDPTUVNCSB VTBS MB
OPUBDJÓO QBSB x > 0, MO x.
5FPSFNB 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT OP OVMPT UBM
RVF
an+1
l := MÎNn→∞ < 1.
an
&OUPODFT {an } DPOWFSHF B DFSP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 6TBOEP MB EFàOJDJÓO EF DPOWFSHFODJB DPO ε = 12 (1 − l)

FODPOUSBNPT VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF QBSB n ≥ N,

an+1 1

an < l + ε = 2 (1 + l) := c < 1.
-VFHP |an+1 | < c|an | QBSB UPEP n ≥ N EF EPOEF TF EFEVDF RVF
|am | < cm |aN |c−N ,
QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM m > N. $PNP 0 < c < 1 FOUPODFT cm −→ 0 Z FO

DPOTFDVFODJB am −→ 0 DVBOEP m −→ ∞.

&KFNQMP -BT TVDFTJPOFT

∞
(−1)n n! ∞ n2
Z
nn n=1 n! n=1
DPOWFSHFO B DFSP QVFT TJ an EFOPUB FM SFTQFDUJWP UÊSNJOP HFOFSBM

an+1
= n! (n + 1) n = 1 n −→ 1/e < 1,
n

an (n + 1)n+1 n! 1 + n1
Z QBSB MB PUSB TVDFTJÓO

an+1 (n + 1)2 n! 1 1

an = n! (n + 1) n2 = n + n2 −→ 0 < 1.

&KFNQMP 4FB a > 1 -B EFTJHVBMEBE an > n OP FT DJFSUB QBSB UPEP

OBUVSBM n Z QBSB UPEP a > 1 DPNP TF QVFEF WFSJàDBS QPS FKFNQMP DPO
a = 1, 01 1FSP TÎ TF DVNQMF B QBSUJS EF DJFSUP N ∈ N. -B JEFB FO FTUF
FKFNQMP FT NPTUSBS RVF DJFSUPT MÎNJUFT TPO ÙUJMFT QBSB EFNPTUSBS DJFSUBT
EFTJHVBMEBEFT 4J IBDFNPT bn = n/an FOUPODFT
bn+1 1n+1 1
= −→ < 1.
bn a n a
1PS FM 5FPSFNB DPODMVJNPT RVF bn −→ 0 Z QPS EFàOJDJÓO EF DPO
WFSHFODJB FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF TJ n ≥ N FOUPODFT bn < 1 FT
EFDJS an > n QBSB UPEP n ≥ N.
&KFSDJDJP
4VQPOHB RVF |a| < 1 %FNVFTUSF RVF MB TVDFTJÓO {nan }∞ n=1 FT UBM
RVF nan −→ 0 DVBOEP n → ∞.
n n!
n
%FUFSNJOF TJ MBT TVDFTJPOFT (−1) 10n Z 5n! DPOWFSHFO Z FO
DVFOUSF TV SFTQFDUJWP MÎNJUF FO FM DBTP EF RVF FYJTUB
&KFSDJDJP 4FB A ⊂ R BDPUBEP Z UBM RVF ÎOG A > 0. 4J EFàOJNPT FM
DPOKVOUP EF MPT SFDÎQSPDPT EF A DPNP A1 := {1/a : a ∈ A} QSVFCF RVF
FTUF DPOKVOUP FT BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF Z BEFNÃT

1 1
TVQ = ·
A ÎOG A
4VCTVDFTJPOFT Z FM UFPSFNB EF

#PM[BOP8FJFSTUSBTT
&M DPODFQUP EF TVCTVDFTJÓO DPNP TV OPNCSF MP TVHJFSF FT VO TVCDPO
KVOUP EF VOB TVDFTJÓO EBEB QFSP FTUB BàSNBDJÓO OP FT FYBDUB &O FTUB
TFDDJÓO QSFDJTBSFNPT FM DPODFQUP Z NPTUSBSFNPT TV JNQPSUBOUF QBQFM FO
FM BOÃMJTJT NBUFNÃUJDP
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO {xn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT Z {nk }k∈N
VOB TVDFTJÓO EF OBUVSBMFT FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFOUF -B TVDFTJÓO {xnk } TF
MMBNB VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO EF {xn }.
&T DMBSP EF MB EFàOJDJÓO RVF UPEB TVCTVDFTJÓO FT TVCDPOKVOUP EF MB
TVDFTJÓO
%FTDSJCJNPT DÓNP PCUFOFS TVCTVDFTJPOFT EF VOB TVDFTJÓO EBEB VOB
TVDFTJÓO {xn } EF FMMB FYUSBFNPT UÊSNJOPT DVZPT ÎOEJDFT GPSNBO VOB TF
DVFODJB FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFOUF MPT UÊSNJOPT BTÎ PCUFOJEPT DPOTUJUVZFO
VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO EF {xn }.

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
0USB GPSNB EF FOUFOEFS FM DPODFQUP EF TVCTVDFTJÓO FT MB TJHVJFO

UF BTPDJBEB B {xn } FYJTUF VOB GVODJÓO f : N −→ R DVZP SBOHP FT
QSFDJTBNFOUF MB TVDFTJÓO EF NBOFSB TJNJMBS TJ S : N −→ N FT MB
GVODJÓO FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFOUF RVF EFTDSJCF MB TVDFTJÓO {nk }, FOUPO
DFT MB DPNQPTJDJÓO f ◦ S : N −→ R FTUÃ CJFO EFàOJEB FT UBM RVF
(f ◦ S)(k) = f (nk ) = xnk Z TV SBOHP FT QSFDJTBNFOUF MB TVCTVDFTJÓO
EFUFSNJOBEB QPS S. &T EFDJS VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO TF PCUJFOF BM DPNQPOFS
VOB GVODJÓO FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFOUF EF N FO N DPO MB GVODJÓO RVF EFT
DSJCF MB TVDFTJÓO &O QBSUJDVMBS DPNP MB GVODJÓO JEFOUJEBE i(n) = n, FT
DSFDJFOUF FTUSJDUB UPEB TVDFTJÓO FT TVCTVDFTJÓO EF TÎ NJTNB
&KFNQMP $POTJEFSFNPT MB TVDFTJÓO {1/n}∞ n=1 -B TVDFTJÓO {1/2,
1, 1/4, 1/3, 1/6, 1/5, 1/8, . . .} OP FT VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO EF {1/n} QVFT MPT
UÊSNJOPT OP TPO PCUFOJEPT TJHVJFOEP VOB TFMFDDJÓO FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFO
UF TF FTDPHJÓ FM TFHVOEP MVFHP FM QSJNFSP EFTQVÊT FM DVBSUP FM UFSDFSP
FUD
&KFSDJDJP $POTJEFSF MB TVDFTJÓO EBEB QPS an = 1/n QBSB n JNQBS Z
an = 1 TJ n FT QBS y&T FTUB TVDFTJÓO DPOWFSHFOUF &MBCPSF VO BSHVNFOUP
RVF KVTUJàRVF TV SFTQVFTUB
&KFNQMP 4FB {an } MB TVDFTJÓO EF SFBMFT EFàOJEB QPS a1 = 1 Z
QBSB n ≥ 1,
1
an+1 = (2an + 3).
4
7FBNPT RVF FTUB TVDFTJÓO FT DPOWFSHFOUF Z IBMMFNPT TV MÎNJUF
-PT QSJNFSPT DVBUSP UÊSNJOPT 1, 5/4, 11/8, 23/16 OPT JOEVDFO B
QFOTBS RVF EJDIB TVDFTJÓO FT DSFDJFOUF FTUSJDUB 1SPCFNPT FTUB BàSNB
DJÓO QPS JOEVDDJÓO QBSB n = 1 MB BàSNBDJÓO FT JONFEJBUB 4VQPOHBNPT
RVF an < an+1 Z EFNPTUSFNPT RVF an+1 < an+2
1 1 1
an+1 − an+2 = (2an + 3) − (2an+1 + 3) = (an − an+1 ) < 0.
4 4 2
-B ÙMUJNB EFTJHVBMEBE TF EFCF B MB IJQÓUFTJT JOEVDUJWB 7FBNPT BIPSB
RVF {an } FT BDPUBEB TVQFSJPSNFOUF VOB FYQMPSBDJÓO TPCSF BMHVOPT UÊS
NJOPT EF ÎOEJDF NBZPS OPT QFSNJUFO JOUVJS RVF 3/2 FT VOB DPUB TVQFSJPS
EF MB TVDFTJÓO MP DVBM UBNCJÊO QSPCBSFNPT QPS JOEVDDJÓO &M QBTP CBTF
FT DMBSP QBSB FM QBTP JOEVDUJWP TVQPOHBNPT RVF an < 3/2 Z WFBNPT
RVF FTUB EFTJHVBMEBE UBNCJÊO FT DJFSUB QBSB FM UÊSNJOP (n + 1)ÊTJNP
1PS EFàOJDJÓO UFOFNPT RVF an+1 = 14 (2an + 3), RVF QPS MB IJQÓUFTJT EF
JOEVDDJÓO FT NFOPS RVF 14 (3 + 3) = 3/2 RVFEBOEP QSPCBEB BTÎ MB BTFWF
SBDJÓO TPCSF FM BDPUBNJFOUP TVQFSJPS %FCJEP BM 5FPSFNB DPODMVJNPT
RVF {an } DPOWFSHF 7FBNPT BIPSB DÓNP FODPOUSBS TV MÎNJUF 6OB GPSNB

DPOTJTUF FO BQMJDBS FM DJUBEP UFPSFNB FM DVBM EJDF RVF FM MÎNJUF CVTDBEP

FT TVQ an &TUP SFRVJFSF DBMDVMBS FTF TVQSFNP RVF EFCF TFS NFOPS P JHVBM
RVF 3/2 MP RVF QPTJCMFNFOUF OP TFB UBO TFODJMMP EF MMFWBS B DBCP &M PUSP
DBNJOP NVDIP NÃT TJNQMF DPOTJTUF FO UPNBS MÎNJUF FO MB JHVBMEBE RVF
EFàOF an+1 UFOJFOEP QSFTFOUF RVF
MÎN an = MÎN an+1 = MÎN an+1 .

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
4J EFOPUBNPT EJDIP MÎNJUF QPS - UFOFNPT RVF - = 14 (2- + 3) EF EPOEF

TF EFEVDF RVF - = 3/2
&KFSDJDJP 4FB {xn } MB TVDFTJÓO FO R EBEB QPS x1 > 1 Z QBSB

n ≥ 1, xn+1 = 2−1/xn 1SVFCF RVF MB TVDFTJÓO FT NPOÓUPOB Z BDPUBEB
&ODVFOUSF TV MÎNJUF
&KFSDJDJP 4FB an ≥ 0 QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n. 4J an −→ a DVBOEP

√ √
n → ∞, QSVFCF RVF a ≥ 0 Z BEFNÃT RVF an −→ a.
&KFSDJDJP "SHVNFOUF MB DPOWFSHFODJB P OP EF MB TVDFTJÓO EFàOJEB

QPS
J
a1 = 1 Z QBSB n ≥ 1, an+1 = 12 an + 2.
1
JJ
x1 > 0, xn+1 = 2 + xn QBSB n ≥ 1.
√
JJJ
y1 = 1 Z QBSB n ≥ 1, yn+1 = 2 + yn .
&ODVFOUSF FM MÎNJUF EF MBT RVF TFBO DPOWFSHFOUFT
&KFSDJDJP 4FB {xn } MB TVDFTJÓO EF SFBMFT EBEB QPS
1
x1 > 0, xn+1 = xn + QBSB n ≥ 1.
x2n
1SVFCF RVF {xn } OP FT BDPUBEB
&KFSDJDJP 4J {an } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO DPOWFSHFOUF Z TVT UÊSNJOPT TPO

BMUFSOBUJWBNFOUF EF TJHOP QPTJUJWP OFHBUJWP QPTJUJWP w yDVÃM FT FM
WBMPS EFM MÎNJUF &YQMJRVF TV SFTQVFTUB
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT UBM RVF
an → +∞ &OUPODFT (1 + 1/an )an → e.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB ε > 0 $PNP {(1 + 1/n)n } DPOWFSHF BM OÙNFSP e

FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N1 UBM RVF TJ n ≥ N1 FOUPODFT |(1 + 1/n)n − e| < ε/2

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
$PNP UBNCJÊO FT VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ FOUPODFT FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM

N2 UBM RVF
k, m ≥ N2 ⇒ |(1 + 1/k)k − (1 + 1/m)m | < ε/2.
1PS PUSP MBEP DPNP an → +∞ FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N3 UBM RVF TJ n > N3

FOUPODFT an ≥ N2 . &O DPOTFDVFODJB TJ N := NÃY{N1 , N2 , N3 } Z n ≥
N FOUPODFT
|(1 + 1/an )an − e| ≤ |(1 + 1/an )an − (1 + 1/n)n | + |(1 + 1/n)n − e|

< ε/2 + ε/2 = ε,
MP DVBM EFNVFTUSB MB QSPQPTJDJÓO

n 2 ∞
&KFNQMP -B TVDFTJÓO 1 + 1/n2 DPOWFSHF BM OÙNFSP e
n=1
#BTUB BQMJDBS FM SFTVMUBEP QSFWJP DPO an = n2 /PUFNPT
RVF FTUB TVDF
TJÓO FT VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO EF {(1 + 1/n)n } QVFT MB GVODJÓO n #−→ n2 FT
FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFOUF
$PSPMBSJP 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT UBM RVF an →
+∞ &OUPODFT TF DVNQMF RVF (1 + 1/an )an → e.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP an → +∞ QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF an > 1 /PUF

NPT RVF QPS EFàOJDJÓO EF QBSUF FOUFSB 1 ≤ [[ an ]]. 5BNCJÊO
bn := 1 + 1/an > 1
Z BEFNÃT
[[ an ]] ≤ an < [[ an ]] + 1.
%F FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF [[ an ]] → +∞ Z
bn[[ an ]] ≤ bann < b[[nan ]]+1 = (1 + 1/an )[[ an ]]+1 .
0CTFSWFNPT RVF EF MB QSJNFSB EFTJHVBMEBE FO

TF EFEVDF RVF
bn ≤ 1 + 1/[[ an ]]
[[ a ]]+1
Z BTÎ MMFHBNPT B RVF bn n ≤ (1 + 1/[[ an ]])[[ an ]]+1 , MP DVBM DPNCJOBEP
DPO MB TFHVOEB EFTJHVBMEBE FO
OPT BSSPKB MB
EFTJHVBMEBE
bann < (1 + 1/[[ an ]])[[ an ]]+1 = (1 + 1/[[ an ]])[[ an ]] (1 + 1/[[ an ]]).

&T JNQPSUBOUF OPUBS RVF QPS MB 1SPQPTJDJÓO FM MBEP EFSFDIP EF

DPOWFSHF BM OÙNFSP e DVBOEP n → ∞. "IPSB CJFO MB TFHVOEB
EFTJHVBMEBE FO
QSPEVDF
1
bn > 1 + ,
[[ an ]] + 1
Z BTÎ QPS MB QSJNFSB EFTJHVBMEBE FO

UFOFNPT RVF
[[ an ]]+1
bn 1 1
bann ≥ b[[nan ]] = > (1 + )[[ an ]]+1 .
bn bn [[ an ]] + 1
$PNP FM MBEP EFSFDIP EF

DPOWFSHF BM OÙNFSP e BM DPNCJOBS FTUP
DPO
PCUFOFNPT FM SFTVMUBEP EFTFBEP Z QPS UBOUP MB QSVFCB RVFEB
DPNQMFUB

6O SFTVMUBEP TFODJMMP QFSP EF VUJMJEBE TF QSFTFOUB FO FM TJHVJFOUF

MFNB Z TV EFNPTUSBDJÓO FKFSDJDJP
TF IBDF QPS JOEVDDJÓO
-FNB 4FB {xnk } VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO EF {xn } &OUPODFT QBSB UPEP
OBUVSBM k TF UJFOF RVF nk ≥ k.
5FPSFNB 4FBO {xn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF SFBMFT Z L VOB DPOTUBOUF

&OUPODFT {xn } DPOWFSHF B L TJ Z TPMP TJ UPEB TVCTVDFTJÓO EF FMMB UBNCJÊO
DPOWFSHF B L.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $POEJDJÓO OFDFTBSJB TFBO {xnk } VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO EF {xn }

Z ε > 0. $PNP xn −→ L FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF TJ n > N FOUPODFT
|xn − L| < ε. 4FB k > N QPS UBOUP UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB RVF nk ≥ k
PCUFOFNPT RVF nk > N Z BTÎ DPODMVJNPT RVF |xnk − L| < ε QBSB UPEP
k > N MP RVF TJHOJàDB RVF xnk −→ L DVBOEP k → ∞.
$POEJDJÓO TVàDJFOUF TVQPOHBNPT RVF MB TVDFTJÓO {xn } OP DPOWFSHF
B L. -VFHP FYJTUF VO εo > 0 UBM RVF
∀m ∈ N ∃n > m Z |xn − L| ≥ εo .
"QMJDBOEP
JOEVDUJWBNFOUF DPOTFHVJNPT VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO QBSB
m = 1 FYJTUF n1 > 1 UBM RVF |xn1 − L| ≥ εo . %F OVFWP QBSB m = n1
FYJTUF n2 > n1 UBM RVF |xn2 − L| ≥ εo . 4VQPOHBNPT RVF IFNPT PCUFOJ
EP OBUVSBMFT n1 < n2 < · · · < nk UBMFT RVF |xnk − L| ≥ εo . )BDJFOEP
m = nk FO
FODPOUSBNPT nk+1 > nk UBM RVF |xnk+1 − L| ≥ εo .
%F FTUB NBOFSB IFNPT DPOTUSVJEP VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO EF {xn } RVF OP DPO
WFSHF B L MP DVBM WB FO DPOUSBWÎB DPO MB IJQÓUFTJT &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO
EFNVFTUSB RVF MB TVDFTJÓO {xn } DPOWFSHF B L.

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
n
&KFSDJDJP %FUFSNJOF TJ MB TVDFTJÓO { (−1) n
2n+1 } DPOWFSHF P
OP &YQMJRVF
0CTFSWBNPT RVF FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS OPT QSPQPSDJPOB VO DSJUFSJP EF

OP DPOWFSHFODJB EF VOB TVDFTJÓO B VO WBMPS EBEP FTUP FT {xn } OP DPO
WFSHF B L TJ Z TPMP TJ FYJTUF VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO EF FMMB RVF OP DPOWFSHF B
L. /ÓUFTF UBNCJÊO RVF QBSB DPODMVJS MB DPOWFSHFODJB EF VOB TVDFTJÓO
B VO WBMPS EBEP FT OFDFTBSJP RVF UPEBT MBT TVCTVDFTJPOFT EF FMMB DPO
WFSKBO B EJDIP WBMPS &M TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP EJDF RVF DPO BM NFOPT VOB
TVCTVDFTJÓO RVF DPOWFSKB TJFNQSF RVF TFB EF $BVDIZ FT TVàDJFOUF QBSB
DPODMVJS MB DPOWFSHFODJB EF MB TVDFTJÓO
5FPSFNB 4FBO {xn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ Z {xnk } VOB TVCTV
DFTJÓO RVF DPOWFSHF B L. &OUPODFT MB TVDFTJÓO DPOWFSHF B L.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB ε > 0 $PNP {xn } FT EF $BVDIZ FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM

No UBM RVF QBSB n > No Z m > No TF UJFOF RVF |xn − xm | < ε. 1PS PUSB
QBSUF FYJTUF N1 ∈ N UBM RVF TJ j > N1 FOUPODFT |xnj − L| < ε. -VFHP TJ
j > NÃY{No , N1 } := N UFOFNPT RVF nj ≥ j > N ≥ Ni QBSB i = 0, 1
MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF |xnj − xj | < ε Z |xnj − L| < ε. &O DPOTFDVFODJB
QBSB j > N,
|xj − L| ≤ |xj − xnj | + |xnj − L| < 2ε.
&TUP RVJFSF EFDJS RVF xn → L.

5FPSFNB 5FPSFNB EF #PM[BOP8FJFSTUSBTT

5PEB TVDFTJÓO BDPUBEB
EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT QPTFF VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO DPOWFSHFOUF
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJÓO BDPUBEB EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT 7B

NPT B TVQPOFS RVF MB TVDFTJÓO OP DPOTUJUVZF VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP QVFT
FO FTF DBTP FM BSHVNFOUP FT TJNQMF Z TF EFEVDF TFHÙO FM DBTP QBSUJDV
MBS $POTUSVJNPT DPNP FO MB QSVFCB EFM 5FPSFNB MB TVDFTJÓO {bn }
EBEB QPS
bn = TVQ{an , an+1 , an+2 , . . .},
MB RVF SFTVMUB EFDSFDJFOUF Z BDPUBEB JOGFSJPSNFOUF QPS UBOUP FYJTUF VO
OÙNFSP SFBM L BM DVBM DPOWFSHF %PT QSPQJFEBEFT JNQPSUBOUFT DBSBDUFSJ
[BO FTUF OÙNFSP L MBT DVBMFT TFSÃO ÙUJMFT FO MP RVF SFTUB EF MB QSVFCB
"àSNBDJÓO 1BSB UPEP ε > 0 FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF TJ n ≥ N FOUPODFT

an < L + ε.
&O FGFDUP DPNP {bn } FT EFDSFDJFOUF Z L = ÎOG bn FYJTUF N ∈ N
UBM RVF TJ n ≥ N FOUPODFT L + ε > bN ≥ bn ≥ an

"àSNBDJÓO 1BSB UPEP ε > 0 TF DVNQMF RVF
(∀ n ∈ N) (∃ m ≥ n) (am > L − ε).
4J FTUB BàSNBDJÓO OP GVFTF DJFSUB FYJTUJSÎB VO ε0 > 0 UBM RVF
(∃ N ∈ N) (∀ m ≥ N ) (am ≤ L − ε0 ).
&TUP JNQMJDBSÎB QPS EFàOJDJÓO EF bN RVF bN ≤ L − ε0 . $PNP

L − ε0 ≤ bN − ε0 TF UFOESÎB MB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO bN ≤ bN − ε0 . 1PS
UBOUP MB BàSNBDJÓO FT DJFSUB
6TBNPT MB BàSNBDJÓO DPO FM NJTNP ε > 0 Z N ∈ N EF MB BàSNBDJÓO
Z BTÎ IBMMBNPT n1 ≥ N UBM RVF an1 > L − ε. 7PMWFNPT B BQMJDBS
MB TFHVOEB BàSNBDJÓO DPO FM NJTNP ε > 0 Z FM OBUVSBM n1 + 1 QBSB
PCUFOFS n2 > n1 UBM RVF an2 > L − ε. 4VQPOHBNPT PCUFOJEPT OBUVSBMFT
n1 > n2 > · · · > nk UBMFT RVF anj > L − ε QBSB UPEP j = 1, 2, . . . , k.
1BSB FM QBTP JOEVDUJWP BQMJDBNPT MB BàSNBDJÓO DPO FM OBUVSBM nk + 1
Z FM NJTNP ε > 0 EF MB QSJNFSB BàSNBDJÓO QBSB FODPOUSBS nk+1 > nk
UBM RVF ank+1 > L − ε. %F FTUB NBOFSB IFNPT IBMMBEP VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO
{ank } UBM RVF
L − ε < ank < L + ε QBSB UPEP k ∈ N.
&O DPOTFDVFODJB RVFEB QSPCBEB MB FYJTUFODJB EF VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO {ank }

RVF DPOWFSHF BM OÙNFSP SFBM L.

0CTFSWBDJÓO -B QSVFCB UBNCJÊO FT FYJUPTB TJ TF EFàOF MB TVDFTJÓO
cn = ÎOG {an , an+1 , an+2 , . . .}.
&TUB TVDFTJÓO SFTVMUB DSFDJFOUF Z BDPUBEB QPS UBOUP FYJTUF l ∈ R UBM RVF
cn → l DVBOEP n → ∞. &O FTUF DBTP MBT DPSSFTQPOEJFOUFT BàSNBDJPOFT
RVF DBSBDUFSJ[BO FM OÙNFSP SFBM l TPO MBT TJHVJFOUFT
"àSNBDJÓO 1 . 1BSB UPEP ε > 0 FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF TJ n ≥ N FOUPODFT
an > l − ε.
"àSNBDJÓO 2 . 1BSB UPEP ε > 0 TF DVNQMF RVF
(∀ n ∈ N) (∃ m ≥ n) (am < l + ε).
$PNCJOBOEP MB QSVFCB BOUFSJPS Z MBT EFàOJDJPOFT EBEBT FO MB PCTFSWB

DJÓO EF MB QÃHJOB QPEFNPT DPODMVJS RVF TJ
L = MÎN TVQ an ,
n→∞

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
FOUPODFT FYJTUF VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO {ank } UBM RVF ank → L DVBOEP k → ∞.

5BNCJÊO QPS MB QSJNFSB QBSUF EF FTUB PCTFSWBDJÓO TF UJFOF RVF TJ
l = MÎN JOG an ,
n→∞
FOUPODFT FYJTUF VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO {anj } UBM RVF anj → l DVBOEP j → ∞.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB x1 > 0 Z TVQPOHBNPT RVF xn+1 = xn + 1/xn QBSB

UPEP OBUVSBM n ≥ 1. %FNVFTUSF RVF xn −→ +∞ DVBOEP n → ∞.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO S VO TVCDPOKVOUP OP WBDÎP EF R Z u ∈ R. .VFTUSF

RVF u = TVQ S TJ Z TPMP TJ
1 1
(∀ n ∈ N∗ )(u − n OP FT VOB DPUB TVQFSJPS EF S Z u + n FT VOB DPUB
TVQFSJPS EF S

&KFSDJDJP 4FB A ⊂ (0, +∞) OP WBDÎP 1SVFCF RVF u = TVQ A TJ Z

TPMP TJ
i) ∀ x ∈ A x ≤ u
ii) ∀ d > 1 ∃ a ∈ A : ud < a.
&KFSDJDJP %FDJNPT RVF VO QBS PSEFOBEP (A, B) EF TVCDPOKVOUPT

EJTKVOUPT OP WBDÎPT EF R FT VOB DPSUBEVSB TJ A ∪ B = R Z BEFNÃT
(∀ a ∈ A) (∀ b ∈ B) (a < b). 4J (A, B) FT VOB DPSUBEVSB FO R QSVFCF
RVF TVQ A = ÎOG B.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a, b ∈ R àKPT Z A := {x ∈ R : a < x < b} 1SVFCF

RVF ÎOG A = a Z TVQ A = b
&KFSDJDJP 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF SFBMFT UBM RVF a2n → 0 Z
a2n+1 → 0 %FNVFTUSF RVF an → 0.
n
1
&KFSDJDJP 4VQPOHB RVF MB TVDFTJÓO {bn } EBEB QPS bn =
k!
k=1
DPOWFSHF B MB DPOTUBOUF A ∈ R &ODVFOUSF FM MÎNJUF FO UÊSNJOPT EF MB
DPOTUBOUF A
EF MB TVDFTJÓO {an } EBEB QPS

n
3k 2 − 4k + 2
an = ·
k!
k=1
&KFSDJDJP 6O TVCDPOKVOUP S EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT TF EJDF RVF FT

JOEVDUJWP TJ TF DVNQMFO MBT DPOEJDJPOFT

J
0 ∈ S
J
(∀ x) (x ∈ S ⇒ x + 1 ∈ S).
%FNVFTUSF MBT BàSNBDJPOFT

B
&M DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT FT VO DPOKVOUP JOEVDUJWP
C
-B JOUFSTFDDJÓO EF UPEPT MPT TVCDPOKVOUPT JOEVDUJWPT FT VO DPOKVOUP
JOEVDUJWP
'
D
N = {I ⊆ R : I FT VO DPOKVOUP JOEVDUJWP}.
E
4J A ⊆ N Z A FT VO DPOKVOUP JOEVDUJWP FOUPODFT A = N.
5PQPMPHÎB EF MB SFDUB SFBM

)BTUB BIPSB BMHVOPT EF MPT DPODFQUPT P SFTVMUBEPT QSFTFOUBEPT IBO JOWP
MVDSBEP JOUFSWBMPT BCJFSUPT P DFSSBEPT &TUF UJQP EF JOUFSWBMPT TPO DBTPT
QBSUJDVMBSFT EF VOB DMBTF NÃT BNQMJB EF DPOKVOUPT MMBNBEPT BCJFSUPT P
DFSSBEPT SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF MPT DVBMFT TPO MPT FMFNFOUPT EF MP RVF TF DP
OPDF DPNP 5PQPMPHÎB -B OPDJÓO EF UPQPMPHÎB OP FT JNQPSUBOUF BIPSB
TJO FNCBSHP QBSB DMBSJEBE Z QBSB OP DPOGVOEJS BM MFDUPS QSJODJQJBOUF TF
FOUJFOEF DPNP VOB DPMFDDJÓO EF TVCDPOKVOUPT EF VO DPOKVOUP EBEP X
MMBNBEPT BCJFSUPT RVF FT DFSSBEB CBKP VOJPOFT BSCJUSBSJBT JOUFSTFDDJPOFT
àOJUBT Z UBOUP X DPNP FM DPOKVOUP WBDÎP FTUÃO FO MB DPMFDDJÓO
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO a ∈ R àKP Z ε > 0. -MBNBNPT CPMB FO R EF
DFOUSP a Z SBEJP ε BM JOUFSWBMP BCJFSUP (a − ε, a + ε) 0USPT OPNCSFT RVF
TF TVFMFO VTBS TPO FOUPSOP P WFDJOEBE EF SBEJP ε &O DVBMRVJFSB EF FTUPT
DBTPT IBCMBSFNPT EF εCPMB εFOUPSOP P εWFDJOEBE EFM QVOUP a Z MB
EFOPUBSFNPT QPS #ε (a).
0CTFSWFNPT RVF #ε (a) := (a − ε, a + ε) = {x ∈ R : |x − a| < ε}, MP
DVBM EFKB DMBSJEBE BDFSDB EFM OPNCSF EF CPMB
&KFNQMP $VBMRVJFS JOUFSWBMP BCJFSUP BDPUBEP (a, b) DPO a < b FT
VOB CPMB FO R EF DFOUSP a+b b−a
2 Z SBEJP 2 .
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO S ⊆ R DPO S OP WBDÎP Z a ∈ R àKPT %FDJNPT

RVF a FT VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF S TJ UPEB εWFDJOEBE EFM QVOUP a
DPOUJFOF VO QVOUP EF S EJTUJOUP EF a &O PUSPT UÊSNJOPT TJ QBSB UPEP
ε > 0 TF UJFOF RVF #ε (a) ∩ (S {a}) = ∅.
&M DPOKVOUP EF QVOUPT EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF VO DPOKVOUP S MP EFOPUBNPT
QPS S .

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
&KFNQMP $POTJEFSFNPT MBT TJHVJFOUFT JMVTUSBDJPOFT

J
4FB S = [0, 1]. &OUPODFT 0 FT QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF S ZB RVF
EBEP ε > 0 UFOFNPT RVF (−ε, ε) ∩ (S {0}) = (−ε, ε) ∩ (0, 1] = ∅.
JJ
4FB S = {1/n}∞ n=1 . &OUPODFT FT QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF S
ZB RVF QBSB DVBMRVJFS OÙNFSP ε > 0 DPNP 1/n → 0 FYJTUF
VO OBUVSBM N0 UBM RVF TJ n ≥ N0 FOUPODFT 1/n < ε. 1PS UBOUP
1/n ∈ (−ε, ε) ∩ (S {0}) QBSB UPEP n ≥ N0 .
JJJ
&M MJUFSBM QSFWJP TF DVNQMF FO HFOFSBM FTUP FT TJ FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM
N0 UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n ≥ N0 , an = a Z an → a FOUPODFT a FT VO
QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF MB TVDFTJÓO {an }
JW
4FB S = (0, 1) ∪ {2} &M QVOUP a = 2 OP FT VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMB
DJÓO EF S ZB RVF FYJTUF QPS FKFNQMP ε = 1/2 UBM RVF
(2 − ε, 2 + ε) ∩ (S {2}) = (3/2, 5/2) ∩ (0, 1)
FT WBDÎP
4J EFUBMMBNPT OVFWBNFOUF MPT USFT QSJNFSPT ÎUFNT OPT EBNPT DVFOUB
EF EPT DPTBT QSJNFSP OP OFDFTBSJBNFOUF VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF
VO DPOKVOUP FT VO FMFNFOUP EF EJDIP DPOKVOUP Z TFHVOEP RVF UPEB ε
WFDJOEBE EF VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO a EF VO DPOKVOUP S FO SFBMJEBE
DPOUJFOF JOàOJUPT QVOUPT EF S. &TUF IFDIP MP SFTBMUBNPT FO FM TJHVJFOUF
SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB 4FB a ∈ R VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF S &OUPODFT
UPEB εWFDJOEBE EF a DPOUJFOF JOàOJUPT QVOUPT EF S
%FNPTUSBDJÓO -B QSVFCB RVF QSFTFOUBNPT FT JOEJSFDUB FTUP FT TVQPO
HBNPT RVF FYJTUF VOB εWFDJOEBE EF a RVF DPOUJFOF VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP
EF QVOUPT EF S %JHBNPT RVF QBSB BMHÙO ε > 0,
#ε (a) ∩ (S {a}) = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xm }.
-B JEFB BIPSB FT WFS RVF FYJTUF VOB WFDJOEBE EF a RVF OP TBUJTGBDF MB

EFàOJDJÓO EF QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO 5BM WFDJOEBE TF DPOTUSVZF FMJHJFOEP
VO OÙNFSP QPTJUJWP NFOPS RVF MBT EJTUBODJBT FOUSF a Z MPT xj MBT DVBMFT
TPO QPTJUJWBT .ÃT QSFDJTBNFOUF UPNFNPT
δ := NÎO {|xj − a| : j = 1, 2, . . . , m}

7FS FM BQÊOEJDF EPOEF IBDFNPT VOB CSFWF QSFTFOUBDJÓO EFM DPODFQUP EF DPOKVOUP
JOàOJUP

Z DPOTJEFSFNPT #δ/2 (a) "àSNBNPT RVF FTUB δ/2WFDJOEBE EF a OP DPO

UJFOF QVOUPT EF S {a}. &O FGFDUP TJ FYJTUJFSB
z ∈ #δ/2 (a) ∩ (S {a})
FOUPODFT |z − a| < δ/2 Z z ∈ S {a} "IPSB CJFO VTBOEP

UFO
ESÎBNPT RVF |z − a| < δ/2 < δ ≤ |xj − a| < ε FTUP FT |z − a| < ε Z
BTÎ DPODMVJSÎBNPT RVF z = xk QBSB BMHÙO k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , m}, MP DVBM OPT
BSSPKBSÎB MB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO δ ≤ |xk − a| = |z − a| < δ/2.

$PSPMBSJP 5PEP DPOKVOUP àOJUP DBSFDF EF QVOUPT EF BDVNVMBDJÓO

&KFSDJDJP 4FBO A Z B TVCDPOKVOUPT EF R %FNVFTUSF
B
4J A ⊆ B FOUPODFT A ⊆ B
C
(A ∪ B) = A ∪ B
4VQPOHBNPT RVF a ∈ A OP FT QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF A &OUPODFT
FYJTUF VOB δCPMB EF a EJHBNPT #δ , UBM RVF #δ ∩ A ∩ {a}c = ∅, FT EFDJS
FYJTUF VOB δCPMB EF a RVF TPMP DPOUJFOF VO QVOUP EFM DPOKVOUP A &O
TÎNCPMPT #δ ∩ A = {a}. &TUF UJQP EF QVOUPT UJFOF OPNCSF QSPQJP
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO A VO DPOKVOUP FO MB SFDUB SFBM Z a ∈ A %FDJNPT
RVF a FT VO QVOUP BJTMBEP EF A TJ FYJTUF VOB δCPMB EF a EJHBNPT #δ ,
UBM RVF #δ ∩ A = {a}.
%FàOJDJÓO 6O TVCDPOKVOUP G ⊆ R TF EJDF RVF FT BCJFSUP TJ QBSB
DBEB x ∈ G FYJTUF VOB δWFDJOEBE EF x, #δ (x) UBM RVF
#δ (x) ⊂ G.
0CTFSWBDJÓO &M OÙNFSP QPTJUJWP δ QSFTFOUBEP FO MB EFàOJDJÓO EF DPO

KVOUP BCJFSUP EFQFOEF EFM QVOUP x ∈ G DPNP WFSFNPT FO QSÓYJNBT
JMVTUSBDJPOFT
&KFNQMP
B
&M JOUFSWBMP BCJFSUP (0, 1) FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R TFB
x ∈ (0, 1) BSCJUSBSJP QFSP àKP 7FBNPT RVF FYJTUF VOB δWFDJOEBE
EF x DPOUFOJEB FO (0, 1) &O FGFDUP UPNFNPT DPNP SBEJP EF MB CPMB
B FYIJCJS FM OÙNFSP δx ≡ δ := NÎO {1−x, x} OPUF RVF FM SBEJP EF
QFOEF EFM QVOUP x
"àSNBNPT RVF #δ (x) ⊂ (0, 1) TJ y ∈ #δ (x)
FOUPODFT QPS MB EFàOJDJÓO EFM OÙNFSP δ > 0 UFOFNPT RVF
|y − x| < δ ≤ 1 − x Z |y − x| < δ ≤ x,
EF EPOEF TF TJHVF RVF 0 < y < 1 FTUP FT y ∈ (0, 1).

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
C
&M SB[POBNJFOUP FO FM ÎUFN QSFWJP TF QVFEF FYUFOEFS B JOUFSWBMPT
HFOFSBMFT EF MB GPSNB (a, b) DPO a < b. $PODSFUBNFOUF FM JOUFSWBMP
BCJFSUP (a, b) FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R FO QBSUJDVMBS UPEB εCPMB
FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP
D
&T JONFEJBUP EF MB EFàOJDJÓO RVF FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R
E
&M DPOKVOUP WBDÎP FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R ZB RVF MB TJHVJFOUF
BàSNBDJÓO FT WFSEBEFSB
(∀ x ∈ ∅) (∃ δ > 0 : #δ (x) ⊂ ∅).
F
4FB a ∈ R àKP &OUPODFT MPT JOUFSWBMPT OP BDPUBEPT (a, +∞) Z
(−∞, a) TPO DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO R FTDPKBNPT x ∈ (a, +∞) Z
TFB δx = δ = x − a > 0 &OUPODFT FT JONFEJBUB MB JODMVTJÓO
#δ (x) ⊂ (a, +∞) &M SB[POBNJFOUP FT TJNJMBS QBSB (−∞, a)
G
'JKFNPT a < b 1PS FM ÎUFN BOUFSJPS FM DPOKVOUP A := (−∞, a) ∪
(b, +∞) SFTVMUB TFS VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R.
H
&M JOUFSWBMP S = (0, 1] OP FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R &TUP TF
FYQMJDB EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB FYJTUF VO QVOUP FO S FM 1 RVF OP
FT FM DFOUSP EF BMHVOB CPMB MB DVBM RVFEF DPOUFOJEB FO S.
0CTFSWFNPT RVF FO FM QFOÙMUJNP FKFNQMP FM DPNQMFNFOUP EF A

Ac := R A = [a, b] FM DVBM BDPTUVNCSBNPT MMBNBS JOUFSWBMP DFSSB
EP $PO FTUP JOUSPEVDJNPT FM TJHVJFOUF DPODFQUP
%FàOJDJÓO 6O TVCDPOKVOUP F EF R TF EJDF RVF FT VO DPOKVOUP

DFSSBEP FO R TJ TV DPNQMFNFOUP F c FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R
&M &KFNQMP QSPQPSDJPOB MB TJHVJFOUF MJTUB JONFEJBUB EF DPOKVO

UPT DFSSBEPT FO MB SFDUB SFBM
B
&M JOUFSWBMP DFSSBEP [a, b] QVFT TV DPNQMFNFOUP FO R FT
(−∞, a) ∪ (b, +∞),
FM DVBM FT BCJFSUP FO R
C
&M DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT Z FM DPOKVOUP WBDÎP TPO DPOKVO
UPT DFSSBEPT FO R
D
1BSB a ∈ R àKP MPT JOUFSWBMPT OP BDPUBEPT (−∞, a] Z [a, +∞)
SFTVMUBO TFS DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT FO R.

E
1BSB UPEP a ∈ R FM DPOKVOUP TJOHVMBS {a} FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP
FO R ZB RVF c
{a} = (−∞, a) ∪ (a, +∞) .
F
&M JOUFSWBMP S = (0, 1] OP FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R ZB RVF TV
DPNQMFNFOUP (−∞, 0] ∪ (1, +∞) OP FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R
0CTFSWBDJÓO &T JNQPSUBOUF FOGBUJ[BS RVF MPT DPODFQUPT EF DPOKVOUP

BCJFSUP Z DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP OP TPO DPODFQUPT DPOUSBSJPT FT EFDJS RVF TJ
VO DPOKVOUP EBEP OP FT BCJFSUP FTUP JNQMJDB RVF UFOHB RVF TFS DFSSBEP
Z WJDFWFSTB DPNP TF JMVTUSÓ DPO FM DPOKVOUP (0, 1].
&KFNQMP 4FB A ⊂ R VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP OP WBDÎP Z BDPUBEP

1SPCFNPT RVF TVQ A ∈ / A. &GFDUJWBNFOUF TJ TVQ A ∈ A DPNP A FT VO
DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FYJTUF δ > 0 UBM RVF
(TVQ A − δ, TVQ A + δ) ⊂ A.
&O QBSUJDVMBS TF UJFOF RVF TVQ A + δ/2 ∈ A, MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF
TVQ A + δ/2 ≤ TVQ A,
RVF FWJEFOUFNFOUF FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a Z b EPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT EJTUJOUPT 1SVFCF RVF

FYJTUFO EPT BCJFSUPT EJTKVOUPT U Z V UBMFT RVF a ∈ U Z b ∈ V. &TUB
QSPQJFEBE EJDF RVF FO R EPT QVOUPT TF QVFEFO TFQBSBS QPS EPT BCJFSUPT
EJTKVOUPT Z TF TVFMF MMBNBS QSPQJFEBE )BVTEPSGG
&KFSDJDJP 4FB F VO TVCDPOKVOUP DFSSBEP OP WBDÎP Z BDPUBEP TV

QFSJPSNFOUF %FNVFTUSF RVF TVQ F ∈ F.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO G VO TVCDPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R Z a ∈ G 4FB {an }

VOB TVDFTJÓO RVF DPOWFSHF BM SFBM a %FNVFTUSF RVF FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N
UBM RVF an ∈ G QBSB UPEP n ≥ N.
"MHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT JNQPSUBOUFT EF MPT DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT Z MPT

DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT TPO QSFTFOUBEPT B DPOUJOVBDJÓO
5FPSFNB 4F DVNQMFO MBT TJHVJFOUFT QSPQJFEBEFT
J
5PEB VOJÓO BSCJUSBSJB EF DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO R FT VO DPOKVOUP
BCJFSUP FO R
JJ
6OB JOUFSTFDDJÓO EF VO OÙNFSP àOJUP EF DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO R
FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
JJJ
5PEB JOUFSTFDDJÓO BSCJUSBSJB EF DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT FO R FT VO DPO
KVOUP DFSSBEP FO R
JW
6OB VOJÓO EF VO OÙNFSP àOJUP EF DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT FO R FT VO
DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R
(
%FNPTUSBDJÓO J
4FBO I VO DPOKVOUP EF ÎOEJDFT Z O = Gi VOB VOJÓO
i∈I
BSCJUSBSJB EF DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO R 7FBNPT RVF O FT VO DPOKVOUP
BCJFSUP FO R 4FB x ∈ O. 1PS EFàOJDJÓO EF VOJÓO FYJTUF j ∈ I UBM RVF
x ∈ Gj Z DPNP FTUF FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FOUPODFT FYJTUF VO OÙNFSP
QPTJUJWP δx UBM RVF #δ (x) ⊂ Gj $PNP Gj ⊆ O FOUPODFT #δ (x) ⊂ O Z
BTÎ DPODMVJNPT MB QSVFCB EF J

JJ
4FBO G1 , G2 , . . . , Gk DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO MB SFDUB Z WFBNPT
k
RVF G := Gi FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R 4J BMHVOP EF MPT Gi FT
i=1
WBDÎP MB DPODMVTJÓO FT JONFEJBUB 4VQPOHBNPT FOUPODFT RVF UPEPT MPT
Gi TPO OP WBDÎPT Z TFB x ∈ G -VFHP QPS EFàOJDJÓO EF JOUFSTFDDJÓO
x ∈ Gi QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , k $PNP FTUPT TPO DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO
R FYJTUFO k OÙNFSPT QPTJUJWPT δ1 , δ2 , . . . , δk DBEB VOP EFQFOEF EF x
UBM RVF #δi (x) ⊂ Gi . -B JEFB B DPOUJOVBDJÓO FT IBMMBS VO SBEJP δ UBM RVF
#δ (x) ⊂ G Z QBSB FTF àO EFàOBNPT
δ := NÎO {δi : i = 1, 2, . . . , k}.
&T DMBSP RVF δ > 0. "àSNBNPT RVF #δ (x) ⊂ G FGFDUJWBNFOUF TJ

y ∈ #δ (x) FOUPODFT QPS MB EFàOJDJÓO EFM OÙNFSP δ UFOFNPT RVF
|y − x| < δ ≤ δi QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , k MP RVF JNQMJDB RVF
y ∈ #δi (x) ⊂ Gi QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , k Z QPS UBOUP y ∈ G. 2VFEB
EFNPTUSBEP JJ

JJJ
&TUP FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF J
Z VOB EF MBT MFZFT EF %h.PSHBO EF MB
UFPSÎB EF DPOKVOUPT FM DPNQMFNFOUP EF VOB JOUFSTFDDJÓO FT MB VOJÓO EF
MPT DPNQMFNFOUPT
JW
&TUP FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF JJ
Z MB PUSB MFZ EF %h.PSHBO EF MB UFPSÎB
EF DPOKVOUPT
0CTFSWBDJÓO -B DPOEJDJÓO EF àOJUVE FO MPT ÎUFNT JJ

Z JW
FT DSVDJBM
1PS FKFNQMP TJ Gn = (0, 2 + 1/n) EPOEF n FT OBUVSBM Z n ≥ 1 DBEB Gn
∞
FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R QFSP Gn = (0, 2] RVF DMBSBNFOUF OP FT
n=1
VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO MB SFDUB 1BSB JMVTUSBS MB JNQPSUBODJB EFM OÙNFSP

àOJUP EF DPOKVOUPT FO FM DBTP JW

DPOTJEFSFNPT Fn = [0, 1 − 1/n]
EPOEF n FT OBUVSBM Z n ≥ 1 $BEB DPOKVOUP Fn FT DFSSBEP FO R QFSP
(∞
Fn = [0, 1) RVF DMBSBNFOUF OP FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO MB SFDUB
n=1
∞
(
&M IFDIP [0, 1) ⊆ Fn FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB
n=1
QVFT TJ 0 ≤ y < 1 FOUPODFT 1 − y > 0 Z BTÎ FYJTUF BMHÙO OBUVSBM N UBM
RVF 1/N < 1 − y FTUP FT 0 ≤ y < 1 − 1/N MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF y ∈ FN .
-B PUSB JODMVTJÓO FT TJNQMF
&KFNQMP 5PEP TVCDPOKVOUP àOJUP EF OÙNFSPT SFBMFT FT VO DPO

KVOUP DFSSBEP FO MB SFDUB &TUP TF FYQMJDB TJNQMFNFOUF FTDSJCJFOEP EJDIP
DPOKVOUP DPNP MB VOJÓO àOJUB EF MPT TJOHVMBSFT GPSNBEPT QPS TVT FMF
NFOUPT Z BQMJDBOEP JW
EFM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS 3FDPSEBS UBNCJÊO RVF UPEP
DPOKVOUP TJOHVMBS FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO F ⊆ R Z x0 ∈ F %FNVFTUSF RVF x0 FT VO QVOUP

BJTMBEP EF F TJ Z TPMP TJ F {x0 } FT DFSSBEP
%FàOJDJÓO %FDJNPT RVF a ∈ R FT VO QVOUP JOUFSJPS EF VO TVC

DPOKVOUP G ⊆ R TJ FYJTUF VOB εCPMB EF a DPOUFOJEB FO G.
%FOPUBNPT QPS G◦ FM DPOKVOUP EF QVOUPT JOUFSJPSFT EFM DPOKVOUP G
Z MP MMBNBNPT FM JOUFSJPS EF G.
&T JONFEJBUP EF MB EFàOJDJÓO RVF G◦ FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP Z BEF

NÃT G◦ ⊆ G
&KFSDJDJP )BMMF FM JOUFSJPS EF MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT

Q, I, [0, 1).
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF MBT TJHVJFOUFT BàSNBDJPOFT
B
4FBO A Z B TVCDPOKVOUPT EF R UBMFT RVF A ⊆ B &OUPODFT A◦ ⊆
B◦.
C
(A ∩ B)◦ = A◦ ∩ B ◦ . y2VÊ QVFEF BàSNBS TJ TF DBNCJB ∩ QPS ∪
)
D
G◦ = {A ⊂ R : A FT BCJFSUP Z A ⊆ G} &TUP TF USBEVDF EJDJFOEP
RVF FM JOUFSJPS EF G FT FM BCJFSUP i NÃT HSBOEF u DPOUFOJEP FO G.
E
4FB A ⊆ R VO BCJFSUP OP WBDÎP 1SVFCF RVF UPEP QVOUP EF A FT VO
QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF A
F
4FB A OP WBDÎP UBM RVF A Z A ∪ {a} TPO BCJFSUPT 1SVFCF RVF a FT
VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF A

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
$PNP FT MP VTVBM FO NBUFNÃUJDBT MBT EFàOJDJPOFT TPO MBT IFSSBNJFO

UBT QSJNBSJBT QBSB DBSBDUFSJ[BS MPT DPODFQUPT 4JO FNCBSHP FO NVDIPT
DBTPT FTUBT TPO DPNQMJDBEBT EF WFSJàDBS Z QPS FMMP FT OFDFTBSJP QSFTFO
UBS PUSBT DBSBDUFSJ[BDJPOFT RVF TFBO ÃHJMFT -BT TJHVJFOUFT TPO EF NVDIB
VUJMJEBE
5FPSFNB $BSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO EF DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT Z DPOKVOUPT DF
SSBEPT

B
6O TVCDPOKVOUP G ⊆ R FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R TJ Z TPMP TJ
UPEPT TVT QVOUPT TPO JOUFSJPSFT FT EFDJS G = G◦ .
C
6O TVCDPOKVOUP F ⊆ R FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R TJ Z TPMP TJ
DPOUJFOF UPEPT TVT QVOUPT EF BDVNVMBDJÓO FT EFDJS F ⊆ F.
D
6O TVCDPOKVOUP F ⊆ R FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R TJ Z TPMP TJ
UPEB TVDFTJÓO EF QVOUPT EF F RVF DPOWFSHF UJFOF MÎNJUF FO F
%FNPTUSBDJÓO B
4VQPOHBNPT RVF G FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R Z
WFBNPT RVF G = G◦ . 1BSB FMMP CBTUB EFNPTUSBS RVF G ⊆ G◦ . 4FB QVFT
x ∈ G $PNP FTUF FT BCJFSUP FYJTUF VOB δCPMB EF x MB DVBM FTUÃ DPO
UFOJEB FO G MP RVF TJHOJàDB RVF x ∈ G◦ &TUP EFNVFTUSB MB DPOEJDJÓO
OFDFTBSJB MB PUSB JNQMJDBDJÓO FT TFODJMMB EF QSPCBS
C
4VQPOHBNPT RVF F FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO MB SFDUB SFBM Z
WFBNPT RVF F ⊆ F. 3B[POFNPT QPS DPOUSBEJDDJÓO FT EFDJS TFB x VO
QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF F FM DVBM OP FTUÃ FO F -VFHP x ∈ F c Z DPNP
FTUF FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FYJTUF δ > 0 UBM RVF (x − δ, x + δ) ⊂ F c
EF MP DVBM TF JOàFSF RVF (x − δ, x + δ) ∩ F = ∅. "IPSB CJFO DPNP x FT
VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF F FOUPODFT TF EFCF DVNQMJS MB EFàOJDJÓO
DPO FTUB δCPMB Z QPS UBOUP TF UJFOF RVF (x − δ, x + δ) ∩ F ∩ {x}c = ∅,
MP RVF FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO $PO FTUP RVFEB EFNPTUSBEB MB JODMVTJÓO
F ⊆ F. 7FBNPT BIPSB MB PUSB JNQMJDBDJÓO TVQPOHBNPT RVF F ⊆ F
Z EFNPTUSFNPT RVF F FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP 1BSB IBDFSMP QSPCFNPT
RVF TV DPNQMFNFOUP FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP 5PNFNPT x ∈ F c 1PS MB
IJQÓUFTJT x OP QVFEF TFS VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF F -VFHP FYJTUF
ε > 0 UBM RVF (x − ε, x + ε) ∩ F ∩ {x}c = ∅. %F FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF
(x − ε, x + ε) ⊆ {x} ∪ F c = F c MP RVF EFNVFTUSB RVF F c FT VO DPOKVOUP
BCJFSUP Z QPS FOEF F FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP
D
4VQPOHBNPT RVF F FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP Z TFB {xn } VOB TV
DFTJÓO EF QVOUPT FO F RVF DPOWFSHF B x 1SPCFNPT RVF x ∈ F 4J OP
GVFSB BTÎ FOUPODFT x FTUBSÎB FO F c Z EBEP RVF FTUF DPOKVOUP FT BCJFSUP
FO MB SFDUB SFBM FYJTUJSÎB VOB CPMB EF SBEJP ε Z EF DFOUSP FO x, #ε (x) UBM
RVF

(x − ε, x + ε) ⊂ F c .
1PS PUSB QBSUF EF MB DPOWFSHFODJB EF MB TVDFTJÓO BM QVOUP x Z QBSB FTUF

ε > 0 FODPOUSBSÎBNPT VO xj ∈ F UBM RVF |xj − x| < ε 1PS
TF
DPODMVJSÎB RVF xj ∈ F c MP DVBM TFSÎB VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO %F FTUB NBOFSB
RVFEB EFNPTUSBEB MB OFDFTJEBE 1BSB EFNPTUSBS MB TVàDJFODJB VTBNPT MB
DBSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO PCUFOJEB FO FM MJUFSBM BOUFSJPS 4FB y VO QVOUP EF BDVNV
MBDJÓO EF F Z WFBNPT RVF y ∈ F -VFHP QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n DPO n ≥ 1,
WÎB MB EFàOJDJÓO EF QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO DPO MBT 1/nWFDJOEBEFT

PCUFOFNPT RVF
(y − 1/n, y + 1/n) ∩ F ∩ {y}c = ∅,
Z QPS UBOUP QBSB UPEP n ≥ 1 FYJTUF yn ∈ F DPO yn = y Z UBM RVF
|yn − y| < 1/n 0CUFOFNPT BTÎ VOB TVDFTJÓO {yn } FO F RVF DPOWFSHF BM
QVOUP y 1PS OVFTUSB IJQÓUFTJT DPODMVJNPT RVF y ∈ F MP DVBM TJHOJàDB
RVF F FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R.

&KFNQMP 4FB a VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF MB TVDFTJÓO {xn }
1SPCFNPT RVF FYJTUF VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO {xnk } RVF DPOWFSHF BM OÙNFSP a.
#BTUB BQMJDBS MB DBSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO EF QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF NBOFSB
SFDVSTJWB EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB FYJTUF VO FMFNFOUP EF MB TVDFTJÓO
EJHBNPT xn1 UBM RVF |xn1 − a| < 1 DPO xn1 = a 1PS FM 5FPSFNB
FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM n2 > n1 UBM RVF |xn2 −a| < 1/2 Z xn2 = a 4VQPOHBNPT
FTDPHJEPT n1 < n2 < · · · < nk UBMFT RVF |xnk − a| < 1/k. %BEP RVF FO
1
MB k+1 WFDJOEBE EF a FYJTUFO JOàOJUPT QVOUPT EF MB TVDFTJÓO QPEFNPT
1
FTDPHFS nk+1 > nk UBM RVF |xnk+1 − a| < k+1 . %F FTUB NBOFSB IFNPT
DPOTUSVJEP VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO {xnk } UBM RVF xnk → a DVBOEP k → ∞
&KFSDJDJP 4VQPOHB RVF {an } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO RVF OP UJFOF DPMB
DPOTUBOUF Z FT UBM RVF an → a DVBOEP n → ∞ 1SVFCF RVF a FT FM ÙOJDP
QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF MB TVDFTJÓO
&KFSDJDJP 4FB A ⊆ R OP WBDÎP %FNVFTUSF RVF A FT VO DPOKVOUP
BCJFSUP TJ Z TPMP TJ TF DVNQMF MB QSPQJFEBE TJHVJFOUF
4J {an } FT VOB TVDFTJÓO RVF DPOWFSHF B VO QVOUP EF A FOUPODFT
FYJTUF VOB mDPMB EF MB TVDFTJÓO DPOUFOJEB FO A
&KFSDJDJP $POTJEFSF MBT GVODJPOFT f, g, h : R −→ R EBEBT QPS
f (x) = ax + b DPO a = 0, g(x) = x2 Z h(x) = x3 . 4FB A VO BCJFSUP OP
WBDÎP

%BEB VOB TVDFTJÓO {xn } MMBNBNPT mDPMB EF MB TVDFTJÓO BM DPOKVOUP
{xk : k ≥ m}

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
B
1SVFCF RVF MPT DPOKVOUPT f −1 (A), g −1 (A) Z h−1 (A) TPO BCJFSUPT
C
1SVFCF RVF f (A) FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP
D
1SPQPSDJPOF VO FKFNQMP EF VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP O UBM RVF g(O) OP
FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP
&KFSDJDJP 5SBTMBEP EF VO BCJFSUP FT VO BCJFSUP TFBO G ⊆ R VO

BCJFSUP OP WBDÎP Z c ∈ R 1SVFCF RVF FM DPOKVOUP
c + G := {c + g : g ∈ G}
FT BCJFSUP FO R. "EFNÃT TJ c = 0 QSVFCF RVF c · G := {c · g : g ∈ G} FT

BCJFSUP FO R.
&KFSDJDJP 4VNB EF DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP TFBO

A Z B DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO MB SFDUB SFBM %FNVFTUSF RVF FM DPOKVOUP
A + B FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB A ⊆ R %FàOJNPT MB DMBVTVSB P DFSSBEVSB EFM

DPOKVOUP A MB DVBM EFOPUBNPT QPS A DPNP MB JOUFSTFDDJÓO EF UPEPT MPT
DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT FO R RVF DPOUJFOFO BM DPOKVOUP A &O TÎNCPMPT

A = {F ⊆ R : F FT DFSSBEP Z F ⊇ A}.
0USB GPSNB EF EFDJS FTUP FT RVF MB DMBVTVSB EF A FT FM iNFOPSu DFSSBEP

RVF DPOUJFOF BM DPOKVOUP A %FTUBDBNPT RVF EF MB QBSUF JJJ
EFM 5FPSFNB
TF TJHVF RVF A FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R
&O FM QSÓYJNP UFPSFNB TF SFÙOFO BMHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT Z DBSBDUFSJ
[BDJPOFT EF MB DMBVTVSB EF VO DPOKVOUP
5FPSFNB 4FB A ⊆ R &OUPODFT
J
-B DMBVTVSB EF A DPOUJFOF BM DPOKVOUP A FT EFDJS A ⊆ A.
JJ
&M DPOKVOUP A FT DFSSBEP TJ Z TPMP TJ A = A. &O QBSUJDVMBS A = A.
JJJ
4J A ⊆ B FOUPODFT A ⊆ B.
JW
4F WFSJàDB RVF A ∪ B = A ∪ B.
W
x ∈ A TJ Z TPMP TJ UPEB εCPMB EF x DPOUJFOF QVOUPT EFM DPOKVOUP
A TJ Z TPMP TJ FYJTUF VOB TVDFTJÓO EF QVOUPT FO A RVF DPOWFSHF
B x
WJ
x ∈ A TJ Z TPMP TJ ÎOG {|x − a| : a ∈ A} = 0.

%FNPTUSBDJÓO J
4JNQMFNFOUF VTBNPT MB EFàOJDJÓO QVFT TJ x ∈ A
FOUPODFT x QFSUFOFDF B DVBMRVJFS DFSSBEP F RVF DPOUFOHB BM DPOKVOUP
A MP DVBM RVJFSF EFDJS RVF x ∈ A.
JJ
4VQPOHBNPT RVF A FT DFSSBEP Z QSPCFNPT RVF A = A. 1PS J
CBTUB WFS MB JODMVTJÓO A ⊆ A TFB QVFT x ∈ A. -VFHP x QFSUFOFDF B UPEPT

MPT DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT RVF DPOUJFOFO B A Z DPNP A FT DFSSBEP Z A ⊇ A
FOUPODFT x ∈ A &TUP QSVFCB MB DPOEJDJÓO OFDFTBSJB -B TVàDJFODJB FT
JONFEJBUB
JJJ
$PNP B ⊇ B ⊇ A, TJ x ∈ A FOUPODFT x QFSUFOFDF B UPEPT MPT
DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT RVF DPOUJFOFO B A TJFOEP B VOP EF FMMPT -VFHP
A ⊆ B.
JW
:B RVF UBOUP A DPNP B FTUÃO JODMVJEPT FO A ∪ B MB JODMVTJÓO
A∪B ⊆A∪B
FT DPOTFDVFODJB EFM ÎUFN QSFWJP 1BSB MB JODMVTJÓO SFDÎQSPDB UPNBNPT

x ∈ A ∪ B Z QPS UBOUP x ∈ F QBSB UPEP DPOKVOUP F DFSSBEP RVF
DPOUFOHB MB VOJÓO EF A Z B FO QBSUJDVMBS x QFSUFOFDF BM DFSSBEP
F := A ∪ B, FM DVBM DPOUJFOF B A ∪ B. "TÎ RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FTUF
ÎUFN
W
7BNPT B EFNPTUSBS FM DJDMP QSJNFSB BàSNBDJÓO ⇒ TFHVOEB BàS
NBDJÓO ⇒ UFSDFSB BàSNBDJÓO ⇒ QSJNFSB BàSNBDJÓO 4FBO x ∈ A Z TV
QPOHBNPT QPS FM BCTVSEP
RVF FYJTUF VOB δCPMB EF x EJHBNPT
#δ (x) ≡ # RVF OP DPOUJFOF QVOUPT EF A FTUP FT A ∩ #δ (x) = ∅.
&TUP JNQMJDBSÎB RVF A ⊆ #c , FM DVBM FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP -VFHP QPS
EFàOJDJÓO EF DMBVTVSB UFOESÎBNPT RVF x ∈ / # RVF DMBSBNFOUF FT VOB
DPOUSBEJDDJÓO "IPSB WFBNPT FM TFHVOEP DJDMP BQMJDBOEP MB IJQÓUFTJT
DPO ε = 1/n FODPOUSBNPT RVF QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM n ≥ 1, #1/n (x) DPO
UJFOF QVOUPT EF A MP RVF TJHOJàDB RVF FYJTUF xn ∈ A UBM RVF xn → x.
'JOBMNFOUF QSPCFNPT RVF MB UFSDFSB BàSNBDJÓO JNQMJDB MB QSJNFSB TFB
F VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R RVF DPOUJFOF BM DPOKVOUP A Z QSPCFNPT
RVF x ∈ F $PNP FYJTUF VOB TVDFTJÓO EF QVOUPT FO A RVF DPOWFSHF B
x FTUB SFTVMUB DPOUFOJEB FO F Z QPS D
EFM 5FPSFNB TF DPODMVZF
RVF x ∈ F %BEP RVF FM DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP F FT BSCJUSBSJP PCUFOFNPT
RVF x ∈ A.
WJ
4VQPOHBNPT RVF x ∈ A. 1PS MP EFNPTUSBEP QSFWJBNFOUF FYJTUF
VOB TVDFTJÓO EF QVOUPT xn ∈ A UBM RVF xn → x. %JDIP EF PUSB GPSNB
UFOFNPT RVF |xn − x| → 0 DVBOEP n → ∞ "IPSB CJFO TJ EFOPUBNPT
m := ÎOG {|x − a| : a ∈ A} FT DMBSP RVF 0 ≤ m ≤ |xn − x| QBSB UP
EP OBUVSBM n )BDJFOEP RVF n → ∞ FO FTUBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT PCUFOFNPT

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
RVF m = 0. 3FDÎQSPDBNFOUF TVQPOHBNPT RVF m = 0 Z WFBNPT RVF

x ∈ A. 1BSB FMMP QSPCFNPT RVF FO UPEB εWFDJOEBE EF x FYJTUFO FMFNFO
UPT EF A 4FB ε > 0 1PS DBSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO EF ÎOàNP FYJTUF a ∈ A UBM RVF
ε > |x − a | FTUP FT a ∈ #ε (x) Z BTÎ UFOFNPT RVF A ∩ #ε (x) = ∅. 1PS
UBOUP DVBMRVJFS εCPMB EF x DPOUJFOF QVOUPT EF A MP DVBM RVJFSF EFDJS
RVF x ∈ A. &TUP DPNQMFUB MB QSVFCB EFM UFPSFNB

/PUFNPT RVF EF MB QSJNFSB FRVJWBMFODJB FO W

TF TJHVF RVF A ⊆ A.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB A ⊆ R %FNVFTUSF RVF A = A ∪ A .
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF x ∈ A◦ ⇐⇒ ÎOG {|x − y| : y ∈ Ac } > 0.
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF G FT BCJFSUP TJ Z TPMP TJ
(∀ A ⊆ R) (G ∩ A ⊆ G ∩ A).
5FPSFNB 4FB A ⊆ R &OUPODFT FM DPOKVOUP EF QVOUPT EF BDVNV

MBDJÓO EF A, A FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO #BTUB QSPCBS RVF (A ) ⊆ A . 4FB x ∈ (A ) Z TVQPOHB

NPT MP DPOUSBSJP FT EFDJS RVF x ∈ / A . &OUPODFT FYJTUJSÎB δ > 0 UBM RVF
#δ (x) ∩ A ⊆ {x}. 1PS PUSB QBSUF UFOFNPT RVF #δ (x) ∩ A FT VO DPOKVOUP
JOàOJUP Z DPNP A ⊆ A FOUPODFT #δ (x) ∩ A UBNCJÊO FT VO DPOKVOUP
JOàOJUP 1PS FM &KFSDJDJP BQMJDBEP DPO G = #δ (x) PCUFOESÎBNPT
RVF #δ (x) ∩ A ⊆ #δ (x) ∩ A ⊆ {x} = {x}, EF MP DVBM TF DPODMVJSÎB
RVF #δ (x) ∩ A TFSÎB VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO EFNVFTUSB FM
UFPSFNB

%FàOJDJÓO 4FB A ⊆ R %FDJNPT RVF a ∈ R FT VO QVOUP GSPOUFSB

EFM DPOKVOUP A TJ UPEB εCPMB EF a DPOUJFOF QVOUPT EF A Z
EF Ac
&M DPOKVOUP EF QVOUPT GSPOUFSB EF A MP EFOPUBNPT QPS ∂A Z MP MMB
NBNPT MB GSPOUFSB EF A
&T TFODJMMP WFS RVF MB EFàOJDJÓO EF GSPOUFSB EF VO DPOKVOUP FT FRVJ

WBMFOUF B MB JHVBMEBE ∂A = A ∩ Ac . &O DPOTFDVFODJB MB GSPOUFSB EF VO
TVCDPOKVOUP A EF R FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R
-BT OPDJPOFT EF DMBVTVSB Z GSPOUFSB EF VO DPOKVOUP FTUÃO SFMBDJPOB
EBT DPNP TF NVFTUSB B DPOUJOVBDJÓO
5FPSFNB 4FB A ⊆ R &OUPODFT
B
&M DPOKVOUP A FT DFSSBEP TJ Z TPMP TJ ∂A ⊆ A.

C
A = A ∪ ∂A.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO B
4VQPOHBNPT RVF A FT DFSSBEP &OUPODFT
∂A = A ∩ Ac = A ∩ Ac ⊆ A.
3FDÎQSPDBNFOUF TVQPOHBNPT RVF ∂A ⊆ A Z WFBNPT RVF A ⊆ A DPO

MP DVBM TF DPODMVZF RVF A FT DFSSBEP &O FGFDUP FTUP FT JONFEJBUP QVFT
TJ x ∈ A Z x OP QFSUFOFDJFSB BM DPOKVOUP A FOUPODFT x ∈ Ac ⊆ Ac Z
QPS UBOUP x ∈ ∂A ⊆ A RVF QPS TVQVFTUP FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO
C
A ∪ ∂A = A ∪ (A ∩ Ac ) = (A ∪ A) ∩ (A ∪ Ac ) =
A ∩ (A ∪ Ac ) = A ∩ R = A. -B QFOÙMUJNB JHVBMEBE TF UJFOF QPSRVF
R ⊇ A ∪ Ac ⊇ A ∪ Ac = R.

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF x ∈ ∂A TJ Z TPMP TJ FYJTUFO TVDFTJPOFT {xn }

FO A Z {yn } FO Ac SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF UBMFT RVF xn −→ x DVBOEP n → ∞
Z yn −→ x DVBOEP n → ∞
&KFSDJDJP &ODVFOUSF MB DMBVTVSB FO R EF MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT

I, Z, Q Z MB TVDFTJÓO {1/n}
&KFSDJDJP %FUFSNJOF MB WFSBDJEBE P GBMTFEBE EF MBT BàSNBDJPOFT
4J A ⊆ B FOUPODFT ∂A ⊆ ∂B.
∂A = ∂Ac .
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF MBT BàSNBDJPOFT
B
-B GSPOUFSB EF VO DPOKVOUP FT WBDÎB TJ Z TPMP TJ EJDIP DPOKVOUP FT
BCJFSUP Z DFSSBEP
C
6O DPOKVOUP FT BCJFSUP TJ Z TPMP TJ OP DPOUJFOF QVOUPT EF TV GSPO
UFSB
D
1BSB UPEP TVCDPOKVOUP A EF R TF DVNQMF RVF Ac = (A◦ )c .
E
1BSB UPEP TVCDPOKVOUP A EF R TF DVNQMF RVF ∂A = Ac A◦ .
F
4J F ⊆ R FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FOUPODFT (∂F )◦ = ∅.
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF TJ A ⊂ R FT OP WBDÎP Z BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF

FOUPODFT TVQ A ∈ ∂A. &TUBCMF[DB VO SFTVMUBEP BOÃMPHP QBSB VO DPOKVOUP
BDPUBEP JOGFSJPSNFOUF

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF MBT BàSNBDJPOFT

B
∂(S1 ∪ S2 ) ⊆ ∂S1 ∪ ∂S2 .
C
∂(S1 ∩ S2 ) ⊆ ∂S1 ∪ ∂S2 .
D
∂(S1 S2 ) ⊆ ∂S1 ∪ ∂S2 .
E
∂(S) ⊆ ∂S.
$POKVOUPT DPNQBDUPT FO MB SFDUB SFBM

-B OPDJÓO EF DPNQBDJEBE FT VOB EF MBT NÃT ÙUJMFT FO FM BOÃMJTJT NB
UFNÃUJDP 4PO WBSJBEBT TVT BQMJDBDJPOFT QPS DJUBS VO QBS EF FKFNQMPT
NFODJPOFNPT RVF QFSNJUF HBSBOUJ[BS MB FYJTUFODJB EF QVOUPT EF NÃ
YJNP P NÎOJNP EF VOB GVODJÓO DPOUJOVB FO VO JOUFSWBMP DFSSBEP Z MB
PCUFODJÓO EF SFTVMUBEPT EF FYJTUFODJB EF TPMVDJPOFT EF DJFSUP UJQP EF
FDVBDJPOFT MMBNBEBT FDVBDJPOFT EJGFSFODJBMFT
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO J = ∅ VO DPOKVOUP EF ÎOEJDFT Z Oα ⊆ R VO
BCJFSUP QBSB DBEB α ∈ J. %FDJNPT RVF MB DPMFDDJÓO {Oα : α ∈ J} FT VO
DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP QBSB VO DPOKVOUP A ⊆ R TJ
(
A⊆ Oα .
α∈J
4J I ⊂ J EFDJNPT
( RVF {Oα : α ∈ I} FT VO TVCDVCSJNJFOUP EFM DPOKVOUP
A TJ A ⊆ Oα . 4J I ⊂ J FT àOJUP EFDJNPT RVF FM TVCDVCSJNJFOUP
α∈I
FT àOJUP
&KFNQMP -B DPMFDDJÓO {(0, n) : n ∈ N} FT VO DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFS
UP QBSB A := (0, +∞) ZB RVF EBEP x ∈ A FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF
0 < x < N Z BTÎ x ∈ (0, N ). "RVÎ FM DPOKVOUP EF ÎOEJDFT FT J = N. 6O
TVCDVCSJNJFOUP QBSB A FT {(0, n) : n ∈ 2N} FO FTUF DBTP FM TVCDPOKVOUP
EF ÎOEJDFT FT I = 2N FM DPOKVOUP EF OBUVSBMFT QBSFT
7FBNPT RVF MB DPMFDDJÓO {(0, n+1
n
) : n ∈ N} FT VO DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFS
UP QBSB A := (0, 1). 4J 0 < x < 1 FOUPODFT QPS MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNF
EJBOB FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF 1 − x > 1/N > 1/(N + 1) Z QPS
(∞
UBOUP x < N /(N + 1). &TUP JNQMJDB RVF (0, 1) ⊆ (0, n/(n + 1)).
n=0
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB K ⊂ R %FDJNPT RVF K FT VO DPOKVOUP DPNQBDUP

TJ DVBMRVJFS DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP EF K BENJUF VO TVCDVCSJNJFOUP àOJUP
QBSB K

&KFNQMP &T JONFEJBUP EF MB EFàOJDJÓO RVF FM DPOKVOUP WBDÎP FT

DPNQBDUP .ÃT BÙO DVBMRVJFS DPOKVOUP àOJUP FT VO DPOKVOUP DPNQBDUP
$PNP VOB UFSDFSB JMVTUSBDJÓO WFBNPT RVF FM JOUFSWBMP (0, 1) OP FT
VO DPOKVOUP DPNQBDUP 1BSB FMMP EFCFNPT FYIJCJS VO DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP
EF (0, 1) UBM RVF UPEP TVCDVCSJNJFOUP àOJUP OP DVCSF B EJDIP DPOKVOUP
6TBSFNPT FM DVCSJNJFOUP EFM &KFNQMP %FOPUFNPT QPS Vn DBEB
BCJFSUP EFM DVCSJNJFOUP Z TVQPOHBNPT QPS DPOUSBEJDDJÓO RVF FYJTUF BMHÙO
TVCDVCSJNJFOUP àOJUP RVF DVCSF B (0, 1) FTUP FT TVQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUFO
OBUVSBMFT n1 , n2 , . . . , np UBMFT RVF
(
p
(0, 1) ⊆ Vi .
i=1
4FB M := NÃY{n1 , n2 , . . . , np }. $PNP {Vn } FT VOB DPMFDDJÓO DSFDJFOUF

FOUPODFT TF UFOESÎB RVF (0, 1) ⊆ VM = (0, M /(M + 1)). &M BCTVSEP TF
UJFOF BM PCTFSWBS RVF (M + 1)/(M + 2) ∈ (0, 1) QFSP OP FTUÃ FO VM
&TUB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO NVFTUSB RVF FM DPOKVOUP (0, 1) OP FT DPNQBDUP
" QSJNFSB WJTUB MB EFàOJDJÓO EF DPNQBDJEBE RVF IFNPT QSFTFOUBEP
FT RVJ[Ã QPDP JOUVJUJWB *OUSPEVDJSFNPT GPSNBT FRVJWBMFOUFT EF FYQSFTBS
FTUF DPODFQUP EF NBOFSB RVF TFB DPNQMFUBNFOUF BNJHBCMF B OVFTUSB
JOUVJDJÓO Z BEFNÃT EF GÃDJM JOUFSJPSJ[BDJÓO &O FTB EJSFDDJÓO FNQF[BNPT
DPO FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP RVF QFSNJUF NPTUSBS DMBSBNFOUF FM QPS RVÊ
EF MB SFTQVFTUB OFHBUJWB FO FM BOUFSJPS FKFNQMP Z NÃT BÙO FT VO DBTP
QBSUJDVMBS EF VO IFDIP HFOFSBM RVF QSFTFOUBSFNPT NÃT BEFMBOUF
5FPSFNB 4FBO a Z b OÙNFSPT SFBMFT DPO a < b. &OUPODFT FM
JOUFSWBMP [a, b] FT VO DPOKVOUP DPNQBDUP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO -B QSVFCB FT JMVTUSBUJWB FO FM TFOUJEP EF RVF TF QVFEF
DPOTJEFSBS DPNP VOB UÊDOJDB MB DVBM DPOTJTUF FO DPOTUSVJS VO DPOKVOUP
RVF SFÙOB MPT FMFNFOUPT DPO MBT QSPQJFEBEFT RVF VOP EFTFB 4FB {Vα }
DPO α ∈ J VO DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP QBSB [a, b] %FàOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP
EF UPEPT MPT JOUFSWBMPT EF MB GPSNB [a, x] RVF TF QVFEFO DVCSJS DPO VO
TVCDVCSJNJFOUP àOJUP EF {Vα } FT EFDJS
*
(
E := x ∈ [a, b] : [a, x] ⊆ Vα QBSB BMHÙO I ⊂ J àOJUP .
α∈I
%FNPTUSFNPT RVF b ∈ E, MP DVBM UFSNJOB MB QSVFCB EFM UFPSFNB 1BSB FMMP

VTBSFNPT MB DPNQMFUF[ EF MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT Z QSPQJFEBEFT EFM TVQSFNP
*OJDJBMNFOUF OPUFNPT RVF E FT OP WBDÎP QVFT a ∈ E : [a, a] = {a} Z
FYJTUF β ∈ J UBM RVF a ∈ Vβ . "EJDJPOBMNFOUF FM DPOKVOUP E FTUÃ BDPUBEP

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
TVQFSJPSNFOUF QPS b -VFHP FYJTUF c ∈ R UBM RVF c = TVQ E 0CTFSWFNPT

UBNCJÊO RVF a ≤ c ≤ b Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUF λ ∈ J UBM RVF c ∈ Vλ . $PNP
FTUF ÙMUJNP FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FYJTUF ε > 0 UBM RVF (c−ε, c+ε) ⊂ Vλ
1PS PUSB QBSUF FYJTUF x0 ∈ E UBM RVF c − ε < x0 Z EF FTUB NBOFSB
UFOFNPT RVF
(
m
[a, x0 ] ⊆ V αi .
i=1
$PNP c + ε/2 ∈ / E FTUF OÙNFSP OP WFSJàDB QPS MP NFOPT VOB EF MBT
DPOEJDJPOFT RVF DBSBDUFSJ[B MPT FMFNFOUPT EF E 1FSP
(
m
[a, c + ε/2] = [a, x0 ] ∪ [x0 , c + ε/2] ⊆ Vαi ∪ Vλ ,
i=1
FOUPODFT OFDFTBSJBNFOUF c + ε/2 ∈ / [a, b]. &TUP JNQMJDB RVF c + ε/2 < a
P CJFO c + ε/2 > b -B QSJNFSB OP QVFEF PDVSSJS ZB RVF TF PCUFOESÎB
c + ε/2 < a ≤ c MP DVBM BSSPKBSÎB MB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO ε < 0. 1PS UBOUP
UJFOF RVF EBSTF MB TFHVOEB PQDJÓO FTUP FT c + ε/2 > b EF FTUP TF TJHVF
RVF
(
m
[a, b] ⊂ [a, c + ε/2] ⊆ V αi ∪ V λ .
i=1
$PO FTUP RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP RVF b ∈ E.

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF VTBOEP MB EFàOJDJÓO RVF FM DPOKVOUP [0, +∞)

OP FT DPNQBDUP
&KFSDJDJP 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJÓO FO R UBM RVF an → a 4J
K = {an } ∪ {a},
QSVFCF RVF K FT DPNQBDUP

&KFSDJDJP $POTJEFSF MBT GVODJPOFT EFM &KFSDJDJP Z TFB K ⊂ R
VO DPNQBDUP %FNVFTUSF RVF f (K), g(K) Z h(K) TPO DPOKVOUPT DPN
QBDUPT 4VHFSFODJB FM ÎUFN B
EFM DJUBEP FKFSDJDJP QVFEF BZVEBS
5FPSFNB 4FBO A Z K TVCDPOKVOUPT EF R UBMFT RVF A FT DFSSBEP

K FT DPNQBDUP Z A ⊆ K. &OUPODFT A FT DPNQBDUP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB {Vα } DPO α ∈ J VO DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP QBSB A Z
WFBNPT RVF FT QPTJCMF FYUSBFS VO TVCDVCSJNJFOUP
) àOJUP QBSB EJDIP DPO
KVOUP %BEP RVF K ⊆ R = A ∪ A ⊆ α∈J (Vα ∪ Ac ) )
c QPS MB DPNQBDJEBE
EF K FYJTUF VO TVCDPOKVOUP àOJUP I ⊂ J UBM RVF K ⊆ α∈I (Vα ∪Ac ) %F
)
FTUP TF TJHVF RVF A ⊆ α∈I Vα MP DVBM TJHOJàDB RVF A FT DPNQBDUP

&KFNQMP &M DPOKVOUP RVF EFTDSJCJNPT B DPOUJOVBDJÓO FT EF TVNB

JNQPSUBODJB FO NBUFNÃUJDBT Z UJFOF QSPQJFEBEFT JODSFÎCMFT QFSP TPMB
NFOUF EFTUBDBSFNPT VO QBS EF FMMBT 4FB F0 = [0, 1] %JWJEJNPT FTUF
FO USFT UFSDJPT EF JHVBM MPOHJUVE Z EFTDBSUBNPT FM UFSDJP NFEJP BCJFSUP

RVFEÃOEPOPT DPO F1 = [0, 1/3] ∪ [2/3, 1]. $BEB VOP EF MPT JOUFSWBMPT RVF
DPOGPSNBO F1 MP EJWJEJNPT FO UFSDJPT JHVBMFT Z EFTDBSUBNPT MPT UFSDJPT
DFOUSBMFT BCJFSUPT
"TÎ FO FTUB TFHVOEB FUBQB PCUFOFNPT
F2 = [0, 1/32 ] ∪ [2/32 , 3/32 ] ∪ [6/32 , 7/32 ] ∪ [8/32 , 1].
&M QSPDFTP TF SFQJUF Z FO MB nÊTJNB FUBQB PCUFOFNPT Fn DPNP VOJÓO

EF 2n JOUFSWBMPT EF MPOHJUVE 1/3n DBEB VOP %FàOJNPT FM DPOKVOUP EF
$BOUPS EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB

C := Fn .
n∈N
0CTFSWFNPT RVF C = ∅ QVFT 0, 1 ∈ C JODMVTP MPT FYUSFNPT EF MPT JOUFS

WBMPT UFSDJPT EFTDBSUBEPT QFSUFOFDFO BM DPOKVOUP EF $BOUPS 'JOBMNFOUF
DPNP DBEB Fn FT DFSSBEP FOUPODFT FM DPOKVOUP EF $BOUPS FT DFSSBEP Z
BEFNÃT FT DPNQBDUP QVFT F0 MP FT Z C ⊆ F0 . -B PUSB QSPQJFEBE RVF NFO
DJPOBSFNPT FT RVF FM DPOKVOUP EF $BOUPS UJFOF JOUFSJPS WBDÎP TJ OP GVFSB
BTÎ FYJTUJSÎB x0 ∈ C ◦ FT EFDJS FYJTUJSÎB JO JOUFSWBMP BCJFSUP (a, b) ⊂ C
Z QPS UBOUP (a, b) ⊂ Fn QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n %F FTUP TF TFHVJSÎB RVF
0 < b − a ≤ (2/3)n QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n Z BTÎ UFOESÎBNPT RVF b = a MP
DVBM FT BCTVSEP %F FTUB NBOFSB DPODMVJNPT RVF FM DPOKVOUP EF $BOUPS
OP UJFOF QVOUPT JOUFSJPSFT
"IPSB QSFTFOUBNPT VO SFTVMUBEP NÃT HFOFSBM RVF FM 5FPSFNB
5FPSFNB 5PEP TVCDPOKVOUP DFSSBEP Z BDPUBEP EF R FT DPNQBDUP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB A VO TVCDPOKVOUP EF R DFSSBEP Z BDPUBEP 1PS FM

BDPUBNJFOUP FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF M > 0 UBM RVF QBSB UPEP x ∈ A TF
DVNQMF |x| ≤ M &O PUSBT QBMBCSBT A ⊆ [−M, M ] %FCJEP B MB DPNQB
DJEBE EF [−M, M ] 5FPSFNB
Z B MB DFSSBEVSB EF A DPODMVJNPT
RVF A FT DPNQBDUP

&M SFDÎQSPDP EF FTUF UFPSFNB UBNCJÊO FT DJFSUP
5FPSFNB 4FB K ⊂ R VO DPOKVOUP DPNQBDUP &OUPODFT K FT

DFSSBEP Z BDPUBEP

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 1VFTUP RVF {(−n, n) : n ∈ N} FT VO DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP

QBSB R ⊃ K QPS MB IJQÓUFTJT FYJTUF VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP EF OBUVSBMFT
{n1 , n2 , . . . , np } UBM RVF
(
p
K⊆ (−ni , ni ).
i=1
4J M := NÃY{n1 , n2 , . . . , np } FOUPODFT SFTVMUB RVF K ⊆ (−M, M ) Z

QPS UBOUP K FT BDPUBEP 7FBNPT BIPSB RVF K FT DFSSBEP 1BSB FTUP
QSPCFNPT RVF K c FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP TFB y ∈ K c 1BSB DBEB OBUVSBM
n ≥ 1 FM DPOKVOUP Gn := (−∞, y−1/n)∪(y+1/n, +∞) FT VO DPOKVOUP
∞
(
BCJFSUP Z BEFNÃT TF DVNQMF RVF K ⊆ Gn ZB RVF TJ w ∈ K FOUPODFT
n=1
|w − y| > 0 QPS UBOUP FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF 1/N < w − y P CJFO
1/N < y − w MP RVF RVJFSF EFDJS RVF w ∈ GN . 1PS MB DPNQBDJEBE EFM
DPOKVOUP K QPEFNPT SFEVDJS FM DVCSJNJFOUP B VO TVCDVCSJNJFOUP àOJUP
FT EFDJS
(m
K⊆ Gni .
i=1
$PNP BOUFT TJ L := NÃY{ni : i = 1, 2, . . . , m} FOUPODFT K ⊆ GL RVF

FT FRVJWBMFOUF B EFDJS RVF GcL ⊆ K c MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF
1 1
(y − 2L , y+ 2L ) ⊂ K c.
&TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF K c FT BCJFSUP Z QPS UBOUP K FT DFSSBEP

-PT EPT ÙMUJNPT UFPSFNBT TF DPOKVHBO FO VOP TPMP FM DVBM FT VO

SFTVMUBEP DMÃTJDP EF DPNQBDJEBE
5FPSFNB 5FPSFNB EF )FJOF#PSFM
6O DPOKVOUP K ⊂ R FT DPN
QBDUP TJ Z TPMP TJ K FT DFSSBEP Z BDPUBEP
&KFSDJDJP 4FB K ⊂ R Z OP WBDÎP %FNVFTUSF K FT DPNQBDUP TJ Z
TPMP TJ UPEB TVDFTJÓO FO K UJFOF BM NFOPT VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO RVF DPOWFSHF
FO K.
-ÎNJUFT Z DPOUJOVJEBE FO MB SFDUB

)BTUB BIPSB MB OPDJÓO EF MÎNJUF OPT FT DPOPDJEB QBSB VOB DMBTF QBSUJDVMBS
EF GVODJÓO DVZP EPNJOJP FT VO TVCDPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT
VOB TVDFTJÓO &M DPODFQUP EF MÎNJUF UBNCJÊO TF QSFTFOUB QBSB GVODJPOFT
NÃT HFOFSBMFT DPO EPNJOJP VO TVCDPOKVOUP EF R

%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO f : A ⊆ R −→ R VOB GVODJÓO Z c ∈ R VO QVOUP

EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF A %FDJNPT RVF L ∈ R FT VO MÎNJUF EF f FO c, TJ QBSB
UPEP ε > 0 FYJTUF VO δ > 0 RVF WFSJàDB MB TJHVJFOUF DPOEJDJÓO
(∀ x) (x ∈ A ∧ 0 < |x − c| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − L| < ε).
6TBSFNPT MBT OPUBDJPOFT MÎN f (x) = L P UBNCJÊO f (x) −→ L DVBO

x→c
EP x → c.
0CTFSWFNPT RVF FTUB EFàOJDJÓO TF GPSNVMB EF NBOFSB FRVJWBMFOUF
BTÎ MÎN f (x) = L TJ Z TPMP TJ QBSB UPEB εCPMB #ε (L) EF L FYJTUF VOB
x→c
δCPMB #δ (c) EF c UBM RVF
(∀ x) (x ∈ A ∩ #δ (c) ∧ x = c ⇒ f (x) ∈ #ε (L)).
5FPSFNB 4J FM MÎNJUF EF VOB GVODJÓO f : A ⊆ R −→ R FYJTUF FO

VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO c ∈ R EF A FOUPODFT FT ÙOJDP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUFO SFBMFT L1 = L2 UBMFT RVF
MÎN f (x) = L1 Z MÎN f (x) = L2 .

x→c x→c
&OUPODFT QBSB ε = 12 |L1 − L2 | > 0 FYJTUFO δ1 > 0 Z δ2 > 0 UBMFT RVF
(∀ x) (x ∈ A ∧ 0 < |x − c| < δ1 ⇒ |f (x) − L1 | < ε)
(∀ x) (x ∈ A ∧ 0 < |x − c| < δ2 ⇒ |f (x) − L2 | < ε).
4FB δ = NÎO {δ1 , δ2 } > 0 1PS UBOUP QBSB UPEP x ∈ A DPO 0 < |x−c| < δ
MBT JNQMJDBDJPOFT EF
Z
TF DVNQMFO Z BTÎ TF UJFOF RVF
|f (x) − L1 | < ε Z |f (x) − L2 | < ε.
-VFHP QBSB MPT x ∈ A DPO 0 < |x − c| < δ TF JOàFSF RVF
|L1 − L2 | ≤ |L1 − f (x)| + |f (x) − L2 | < 2ε = |L1 − L2 |,
RVF FWJEFOUFNFOUF FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO -VFHP FM MÎNJUF FT ÙOJDP

&KFNQMP 4J f FT VOB GVODJÓO DPOTUBOUF EJHBNPT f (x) = b QBSB

UPEP x ∈ A Z c ∈ A FOUPODFT MÎN b = b.
x→c

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
&KFNQMP 4FBO f : (0, +∞) −→ R EBEB QPS f (x) = x1 Z c > 0

àKP $PNP FM JOUFSWBMP (0, +∞) FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP Z c ∈ (0, +∞)
FOUPODFT c FT VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF EJDIP JOUFSWBMP 7FBNPT RVF
1 1
MÎN = ·
x→c x c
4FB ε > 0 Z FODPOUSFNPT δ > 0 UBM RVF TJ x > 0 Z 0 < |x − c| < δ
FOUPODFT |1/x − 1/c| < ε. /PUFNPT RVF
1 1 |x − c|
| − |= ,
x c cx
TFSÃ NFOPS RVF ε TJ MPHSBNPT BDPUBS JOGFSJPSNFOUF FM EFOPNJOBEPS RVF
JOUVJUJWBNFOUF FTUÃ DFSDBOP B c2 QBSB UPEPT MPT x > 0 DFSDBOPT B c
4VQPOHBNPT RVF 0 < |x − c| < δ DPO δ > 0 B EFUFSNJOBS Z USBUFNPT
FOUPODFT EF BDPUBS JOGFSJPSNFOUF FM EFOPNJOBEPS
x = c − (c − x) ≥ c − |x − c| > c − δ.
&TUP OPT TVHJFSF SFTUSJOHJS δ > 0 EF NBOFSB RVF δ < c QPS FKFNQMP
δ ≤ c/2 "TÎ MBT DPTBT x > c/2 QBSB UPEP x > 0 DPO |x − c| < δ Z
δ ≤ c/2 -MFWBOEP FTUP BM FTUJNBUJWP
MMFHBNPT B RVF
1 1 2δ
| − | < 2,
x c c
MP DVBM TFSÃ NFOPS RVF ε > 0 TJ 2δ/c2 ≤ ε &O SFTVNFO EBEP ε > 0
UPNBNPT δ > 0 DPNP δ = NÎO {c/2, εc2 /2} EF NBOFSB RVF TJ x > 0
DPO 0 < |x − c| < δ FOUPODFT |1/x − 1/c| < ε &TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF
1/x −→ 1/c DVBOEP x → c.
x−4
&KFNQMP 1SPCFNPT RVF MÎN f (x) = 4 EPOEF f (x) = √ · &M
x→4 x−2
EPNJOJP EF f FT FM DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP (0, 4) ∪ (4, +∞) Z FT VO QVOUP EF
BDVNVMBDJÓO EF EJDIP DPOKVOUP /PUFNPT RVF
√
(x − 4) ( x + 2) √

|f (x) − 4| = √ √ − 4 = | x − 2|.
( x − 2) ( x + 2)
√ √
"EFNÃT |x − 4| = | x + 2| | x − 2| OPT NPUJWB B FODPOUSBS VOB DPUB
√
JOGFSJPS EF x + 2 RVF QPEFNPT IBMMBS EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB TJ δ < 1
Z |x − 4| < δ FOUPODFT |x − 4| < 1 Z BTÎ 3 < x < 5 FO QBSUJDVMBS
√
x > 1 -VFHP x + 2 > 3 %F FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF TJ δ = NÎO {1, 3ε} Z
|x − 4| < δ FOUPODFT
√ |x − 4| δ
|f (x) − 4| = | x − 2| = √ < ≤ ε.
x+2 3

-BT TVDFTJPOFT VOB WF[ NÃT EFNVFTUSBO TFS VOB IFSSBNJFOUB QP
EFSPTB &M QSÓYJNP UFPSFNB QSPQPSDJPOB VO DSJUFSJP QPS TVDFTJPOFT QBSB
EFUFSNJOBS TJ VO OÙNFSP SFBM L FT MÎNJUF P OP EF VOB GVODJÓO
5FPSFNB $SJUFSJP QBSB MÎNJUFT QPS TVDFTJPOFT
4FBO
f : A ⊆ R −→ R
Z c ∈ R VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF A &OUPODFT
MÎN f (x) = L ⇐⇒ (∀ {xn }) (xn ∈ A {c} ∧ xn → c ⇒ f (xn ) → L).

x→c
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF MÎN f (x) = L Z TFB {xn } VOB TVDFTJÓO

x→c
EF QVOUPT FO A UBM RVF xn = c QBSB UPEP n ∈ N Z xn → c. 1SPCFNPT
RVF f (xn ) → L. 4FB QVFT ε > 0 $PNP MÎN f (x) = L FYJTUF δ > 0 UBM
x→c
RVF TJ x ∈ A Z 0 < |x − c| < δ FOUPODFT |f (x) − L| < ε. "IPSB CJFO ZB
RVF xn → c FYJTUF N0 ∈ N UBM RVF TJ n ≥ N0 FOUPODFT 0 < |xn − c| < δ
Z QPS UBOUP QBSB UPEP n ≥ N0 TF UJFOF RVF |f (xn ) − L| < ε MP DVBM
TJHOJàDB RVF f (xn ) → L
1BSB QSPCBS MB PUSB JNQMJDBDJÓO FT NÃT TFODJMMP QPS SFEVDDJÓO BM BC
TVSEP TVQPOHBNPT RVF OP TF UJFOF MB DPODMVTJÓO FT EFDJS MÎN f (x) = L
x→c
&OUPODFT FYJTUF ε0 > 0 UBM RVF QBSB UPEP δ > 0 FYJTUF x ∈ A, x = c
RVF EFQFOEF EF δ DPO 0 < |x − c| < δ Z |f (x) − L| ≥ ε0 6TBOEP
FTUP DPO δ = 1/n EPOEF n ≥ 1 FT OBUVSBM FODPOUSBNPT VOB TVDFTJÓO
xn ∈ A {c} UBM RVF xn → c Z |f (xn ) − L| ≥ ε0 MP RVF DPOUSBEJDF MB
IJQÓUFTJT %F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB QSPCBEP FM UFPSFNB

"QSPWFDIBOEP FTUB DBSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO QPS TVDFTJPOFT Z MBT QSPQJFEBEFT

EF FTUBT QPEFNPT EFNPTUSBS MBT QSPQJFEBEFT CÃTJDBT EF MPT MÎNJUFT
5FPSFNB 4FBO f, g : A ⊆ R −→ R GVODJPOFT Z c ∈ R VO QVOUP
EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF A 4J
MÎN f (x) = L Z MÎN g(x) = M

x→c x→c

Z TJ K FT VOB DPOTUBOUF SFBM FOUPODFT MÎN Kf (x) MÎN f (x) + g(x)
x→c x→c
Z MÎN f (x) · g(x) FYJTUFO Z BEFNÃT
x→c

MÎN Kf (x) = KL, MÎN f (x)+g(x) = L+M Z MÎN f (x)·g(x) = L·M.
x→c x→c x→c

4J BEFNÃT g(x) = 0 QBSB UPEP x ∈ A Z M = 0 FOUPODFT MÎN f (x)/g(x)
x→c
FYJTUF Z FT JHVBM B L/M.

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB {xn } VOB TVDFTJÓO EF QVOUPT FO A UBM RVF xn = c

QBSB UPEP n ∈ N Z xn → c. 1PS MB IJQÓUFTJT f (xn ) → L Z
g(xn ) → M DVBOEP n → ∞. 1PS QSPQJFEBEFT EF MBT TVDFTJPOFT DPO
WFSHFOUFT DPODMVJNPT RVF
Kf (xn ) → KL, f (xn ) + g(xn ) → L + M
Z f (xn ) · g(xn ) → LM EF MP RVF TF TJHVF RVF
Kf (x) → KL, f (x) + g(x) → L + M
Z f (x) · g(x) → L · M DVBOEP x → c. 'JOBMNFOUF WFBNPT RVF
f (x)/g(x) → L/M
DVBOEP x → c : TFB ε > 0. 1PS MB QSJNFSB DPODMVTJÓO EF FTUF UFPSFNB
f (xn )M − g(xn )L → 0 DVBOEP n → ∞ Z BTÎ FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF
|f (xn )M − g(xn )L| < ε QBSB UPEP n ≥ N 1PS PUSB QBSUF FYJTUF N1 ∈ N
UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n ≥ N1 UFOFNPT RVF |g(xn ) − M | < |M |/2 Z EF
FTUP ÙMUJNP TF EFEVDF RVF |g(xn )| > |M |/2 QBSB UPEP n ≥ N1 -VFHP
TJ N0 = NÃY{N, N1 } Z UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB MBT DPODMVTJPOFT QSFWJBT
PCUFOFNPT RVF QBSB UPEP n ≥ N0

f (xn ) L |f (xn )M − g(xn )L| 2ε

g(xn ) − M = |g(xn ) M |
< 2·
M
%F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB

"DUP TFHVJEP OPT PDVQBSFNPT EF MB OPDJÓO EF DPOUJOVJEBE *OUVJUJ

WBNFOUF DPOUJOVJEBE OPT JOEJDB iBVTFODJB EF TBMUPTu
$POTJEFSBSFNPT GVODJPOFT EFàOJEBT FO VO TVCDPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT
SFBMFT Z RVF UPNBO WBMPSFT SFBMFT &O QBMBCSBT TJNQMFT f FT DPOUJOVB
FO VO QVOUP EF TV EPNJOJP x0 TJ FT QPTJCMF MPHSBS RVF f (x) FTUÊ iBSCJ
USBSJBNFOUFu DFSDB EF f (x0 ) DVBOEP x FTUÃ iTVàDJFOUFNFOUF QSÓYJNP B
x0 u
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO A ⊆ R f : A → R VOB GVODJÓO Z x0 ∈ A
%FDJNPT RVF f FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 TJ TF DVNQMF MP TJHVJFOUF ∀ε > 0
∃ δ > 0 UBM RVF
TJ x ∈ A DPO |x − x0 | < δ FOUPODFT |f (x) − f (x0 )| < ε.
0CTFSWBDJPOFT J
&O HFOFSBM FM OÙNFSP δ EFQFOEF EF f, ε Z x0
JJ
-B BOUFSJPS EFàOJDJÓO QVFEF GPSNVMBSTF DMBSBNFOUF FO UÊSNJOPT EF
CPMBT BCJFSUBT MB GVODJÓO f FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 ∈ A TJ
∀ ε > 0 ∃ δ > 0 : f [#δ (x0 )] ⊆ #ε (f (x0 ));

FT EFDJS TJ EBEB DVBMRVJFS εCPMB BCJFSUB FO R DPO DFOUSP f (x0 ) FYJTUF

VOB δCPMB BCJFSUB FO A EF DFOUSP x0 DVZB JNBHFO CBKP f FTUÃ DPOUFOJEB
FO MB CPMB JOJDJBM
JJJ
-B OPDJÓO EF DPOUJOVJEBE QVFEF TFS GPSNVMBEB VUJMJ[BOEP FM DPODFQUP
EF DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP MB GVODJÓO f FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 TJ Z TPMP TJ QBSB
DVBMRVJFS TVCDPOKVOUP BCJFSUP G ⊆ R RVF DPOUFOHB B f (x0 ) FYJTUF VO
TVCDPOKVOUP BCJFSUP G EF R RVF DPOUFOHB B x0 Z f [G] ⊂ G &O FGFDUP
TFB f DPOUJOVB FO x0 Z TFB G ⊂ R VO BCJFSUP UBM RVF f (x0 ) ∈ G
%FCJEP B RVF G FT BCJFSUP FYJTUF ε0 > 0 UBM RVF #ε0 (f (x0 )) ⊂ G Z QPS
MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f FO x0 FYJTUF δ0 > 0 UBM RVF f [#δ (x0 )] ⊆ #ε0 (f (x0 ))
5PNBOEP G = #δ (x0 ) TF UJFOF RVF G FT VO BCJFSUP FO R UBM RVF x0 ∈ G
Z f [G] ⊂ G
3FDÎQSPDBNFOUF TVQPOHBNPT RVF QBSB UPEP BCJFSUP G FO R UBM RVF
f (x0 ) ∈ G FYJTUF VO BCJFSUP G FO R UBM RVF x0 ∈ G Z f [G] ⊂ G
7FBNPT RVF f FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 4FB ε > 0 EBEP $PNP G = #ε (f (x0 ))
FT VO BCJFSUP FO R RVF DPOUJFOF B f (x0 ) FYJTUF G ⊂ R G BCJFSUP
x0 ∈ G Z f [G] ⊂ G $PNP G FT BCJFSUP Z x0 ∈ G FYJTUF δ > 0 UBM RVF
#δ (x0 ) ⊂ G -VFHP
f [#δ (x0 )] ⊂ f [G] ⊂ G = #ε (f (x0 ));
JF G FT DPOUJOVB FO x0
JW
-B DPOUJOVJEBE QVOUVBM QVFEF GPSNVMBSTF FO UÊSNJOPT EF TVDFTJPOFT
f FT DPOUJOVB FO VO QVOUP c EF TV EPNJOJP TJ Z TPMP TJ QBSB UPEB TVDFTJÓO
{xn } FO FM EPNJOJP EF f UBM RVF xn → c TF DVNQMF RVF f (xn ) → f (c)
-B WFSJàDBDJÓO EF FTUB BàSNBDJÓO FT DPNP FO FM 5FPSFNB
&O PUSPT UÊSNJOPT FTUBNPT EJDJFOEP RVF
f FT DPOUJOVB FO c ⇐⇒ (∀ {xn } ⊂ %PN f )

% &
xn → c ⇒ MÎN f (xn ) = f ( MÎN xn ) .
n→∞ n→∞
%FàOJDJÓO %FDJNPT RVF VOB GVODJÓO f : A ⊆ R → R FT DPOUJOVB

TJ QBSB UPEP x ∈ A G FT DPOUJOVB FO x
&KFNQMP $POTJEFSFNPT MB GVODJÓO f : R → R EFàOJEB QPS

f (x) = x2 QBSB UPEP x ∈ R 7FBNPT RVF f FT DPOUJOVB FO R 4FB
x0 ∈ R Z EFNPTUSFNPT RVF QBSB DVBMRVJFS ε > 0 QPEFNPT FODPOUSBS VO
δ > 0 UBM RVF |x − x0 | < δ ⇒ |x2 − x20 | < ε &O FGFDUP
|x2 − x20 | = |(x + x0 )(x − x0 )| = |(x − x0 + 2x0 )(x − x0 )|

≤ (|x − x0 | + 2|x0 |)|x − x0 |.

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
1PS MP UBOUP TJ 0 < δ ≤ 1 FOUPODFT

|x − x0 | < δ ⇒ |x2 − x20 | ≤ (1 + 2|x0 |)|x − x0 |.
4J BEFNÃT δ ≤ ε
1+2|x0 | UFOESFNPT RVF
|x − x0 | < δ ⇒ |x2 − x20 | < ε.

%F FTUB NBOFSB TJ δ ≤ NÎO {1, 1+2|x
ε
0|
} TF UJFOF RVF
|x − x0 | < δ ⇒ |x2 − x20 | < ε.

-VFHP f (x) = x2 FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 Z DPNP FTUF FT BSCJUSBSJP FOUPODFT
f FT DPOUJOVB FO UPEP R.
&KFNQMP -B GVODJÓO f : R → R EFàOJEB QPS

0 si x < 0
f (x) =
1 si x ≥ 0
FT DPOUJOVB QBSB UPEP x = 0 QFSP OP FT DPOUJOVB FO x = 0 -B QSJNFSB
QBSUF FT JONFEJBUB QVFT f FT DPOTUBOUF FO DBEB JOUFSWBMP (−∞, 0) Z
(0, +∞) %FNPTUSFNPT BIPSB RVF f OP FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 = 0 1BSB
ε = 12 > 0 OP FYJTUF δ > 0 UBM RVF
1
|x| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (0)| < ·
2
&O FGFDUP TJ FYJTUJFSB UBM δ > 0 FO QBSUJDVMBS QBSB x ∈ (−δ, 0) UFOESÎB
NPT |x| < δ Z TJO FNCBSHP |f (x) − f (0)| = |0 − 1| = 1 > 12
&YJTUFO GVODJPOFT RVF TPO EJTDPOUJOVBT FO UPEP QVOUP EF TV EPNJOJP
&KFNQMP -B GVODJÓO EF %JSJDIMFU f : R → R EFàOJEB QPS

1 si x es racional
f (x) =
0 si x es irracional,
FT EJTDPOUJOVB FO UPEP QVOUP 4FB x0 VO OÙNFSP SBDJPOBM WFBNPT RVF f
OP FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 &O FGFDUP QBSB ε0 = 12 > 0 TF DVNQMF MB OFHBDJÓO
EF
EBEP δ > 0

f [#δ (x0 )] = f [(x0 − δ, x0 + δ)] ⊆ #ε0 (f (x0 )) = #1/2 (1) ,
ZB RVF ∀ δ > 0 FYJTUF y0 ∈ #(x0 , δ) UBM RVF y0 FT JSSBDJPOBM Z BTÎ
0 = f (y0 ) ∈ f [(x0 − δ, x0 + δ)]
/ ( 12 , 32 )
QFSP 0 = f (y0 ) ∈
1
%F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF QSVFCB DPO FM NJTNP ε0 = 2 > 0 RVF TJ x0 FT VO
JSSBDJPOBM f OP FT DPOUJOVB FO x0

&KFNQMP "OBMJDFNPT MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF MB GVODJÓO f : R → R

EFàOJEB QPS

0 si x es irracional
f (x) = 1 p
q si x = q ,
EPOEF p Z q TPO QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT Z q > 0 $POTJEFSFNPT f (0) = 1.

"àSNBNPT RVF f OP FT DPOUJOVB FO Q 4VQPOHBNPT x0 ∈ Q DPO x0 = pq
EPOEF p Z q TPO QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT Z q > 0 1PS EFàOJDJÓO f (x0 ) = 1q
1
1BSB ε0 = 2q > 0 OP FYJTUF δ > 0 UBM RVF
1
x ∈ R ∧ |x − x0 | < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 )| < ·
2q
&O FGFDUP ∀ δ > 0 ∃ i ∈ I UBM RVF |i − x0 | < δ QFSP
1 1
|f (i) − f (x0 )| = > ε0 = .
q 2q
-VFHP f OP FT DPOUJOVB FO x0
"IPSB WFBNPT RVF f FT DPOUJOVB FO I. 4FBO i0 ∈ I Z ε > 0 1PS MB QSP
QJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB FYJTUF N ∈ N UBM RVF N1 < ε 1BSB j ∈ {1, . . . , N }
m m +1
FYJTUF mj := [[ j i0 ]] ∈ Z UBM RVF jj < i0 < jj · 4FBO
mj mj + 1
δj = NÎO {i0 − , − i0 } > 0, j = 1, . . . , N
j j
Z δ = NÎO {δ1 , . . . , δN } > 0 /PUFNPT RVF DPNP MPT FOUFSPT mj Z mj + 1

m m +1
TPO MPT ÓQUJNPT RVF DPOUJFOFO B j i0 FOUPODFT jj Z jj TPO MPT SBDJP
OBMFT ÓQUJNPT RVF DPOUJFOFO B i0 1PS UBOUP FO UÊSNJOPT HFPNÊUSJDPT
FM OÙNFSP δ FT MB NÎOJNB EJTUBODJB FOUSF FM OÙNFSP JSSBDJPOBM i0 Z MPT
m m +1
SBDJPOBMFT jj Z jj MPT DVBMFT UJFOFO EFOPNJOBEPS NFOPS P JHVBM RVF
N %FNPTUSFNPT RVF
x ∈ R ∧ |x − i0 | < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (i0 )| = |f (x)| < ε.
&GFDUJWBNFOUF TJ x ∈ I Z |x − i0 | < δ FOUPODFT |f (x) − f (i0 )| = 0 < ε.

"IPSB TVQPOHBNPT RVF x ∈ Q DPO x = nk EPOEF k Z n TPO QSJNPT
SFMBUJWPT n > 0 Z |x − i0 | < δ "àSNBNPT RVF OFDFTBSJBNFOUF n > N
DPNP FT EF FTQFSBSTF HFPNÊUSJDBNFOUF
Z BTÎ VOB WF[ KVTUJàDBEP FTUF
IFDIP TF UJFOF RVF
1 1
|f (x) − f (i0 )| = < < ε,
n N

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
DPO MP RVF TF QSVFCB MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f FO i0 ∈ I %FNPTUSFNPT MB

ÙMUJNB BàSNBDJÓO QVFTUP RVF |x − i0 | = | nk − i0 | < δ ≤ δj QBSB UPEP
j ∈ {1, . . . , N } FOUPODFT
mj k mj + 1
< < , QBSB UPEP j ∈ {1, . . . , N }.
j n j
4J PDVSSJFSB RVF n ≤ N IBDJFOEP j = n FO
FODPOUSBSÎBNPT VO
OÙNFSP FOUFSP FOUSF EPT FOUFSPT DPOTFDVUJWPT MP RVF QPS TVQVFTUP FT VO
BCTVSEP &TUP QSVFCB OVFTUSB BàSNBDJÓO FT EFDJS n > N.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB f : R −→ R VOB GVODJÓO DPOUJOVB FO Z UBM RVF

f (x) = f (2x) QBSB UPEP x ∈ R 1SVFCF RVF f FT DPOTUBOUF
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF FM TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB TFB f : R −→ R VOB

GVODJÓO &OUPODFT f FT DPOUJOVB TJ Z TPMP TJ QBSB UPEP BCJFSUP O FO
R, f −1 (O) FT BCJFSUP FO R TJ Z TPMP TJ QBSB UPEP DFSSBEP F FO R, f −1 (F)
FT DFSSBEP FO R.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB f : R −→ R VOB GVODJÓO DPOUJOVB %FNVFTUSF RVF

QBSB UPEP E ⊆ R TF DVNQMF RVF f (E) ⊆ f (E).
0CTFSWBDJÓO 5PEB GVODJÓO FT DPOUJOVB FO VO QVOUP BJTMBEP EF TV EP

NJOJP TFBO A FM EPNJOJP EF VOB GVODJÓO EF WBMPS SFBM f, x0 VO QVOUP
BJTMBEP EF A Z ε > 0 $PNP x0 FT VO QVOUP BJTMBEP EF A FOUPODFT FYJTUF
δ > 0 UBM RVF A ∩ #δ (x0 ) = {x0 } Z BTÎ QBSB UPEP x ∈ A DPO |x − x0 | < δ
FM ÙOJDP FT x = x0
TF UJFOF RVF |f (x) − f (x0 )| = 0 < ε. /ÓUFTF RVF FM
OÙNFSP δ WJFOF EBEP QPS MB EFàOJDJÓO EF QVOUP BJTMBEP Z QPS UBOUP OP
EFQFOEF EF ε
$PO MP FYQVFTUP UJFOF TFOUJEP FYBNJOBS MB DPOUJOVJEBE QVOUVBM EF
VOB GVODJÓO TPMBNFOUF FO MPT QVOUPT EF BDVNVMBDJÓO EF TV EPNJOJP Z
FO DPOTFDVFODJB QVFEF TFS WFSJàDBEB WÎB MÎNJUFT DPNP TF FTUBCMFDF FO
FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP DVZB EFNPTUSBDJÓO FT VOB BQMJDBDJÓO EJSFDUB EF
MBT EFàOJDJPOFT
5FPSFNB 4FBO A ⊆ R f : A → R VOB GVODJÓO Z x0 ∈ A

&OUPODFT f FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 TJ Z TPMP TJ MÎN f (x) = f (x0 ).
x→x0
&KFSDJDJP 4FB f : R −→ R DPOUJOVB FO Z BEJUJWB FTUP FT QBSB

UPEP x, y ∈ R TF DVNQMF f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y). %FNVFTUSF RVF f FT
DPOUJOVB FO UPEP QVOUP
&KFSDJDJP )BMMF UPEBT MBT GVODJPOFT DPOUJOVBT f : R −→ R UBMFT

RVF f (a + b) = f (ab) QBSB UPEP a, b ∈ I.

-B DPOUJOVJEBE FT QSFTFSWBEB QPS MBT PQFSBDJPOFT BMHFCSBJDBT EF GVO

DJPOFT DPOUJOVBT "OUFT EF QSPCBS FTUF IFDIP EFNPTUSBNPT VO MFNB
JNQPSUBOUF RVF TFSÃ EF VUJMJEBE FO VOB EF MBT BàSNBDJPOFT &M MFNB HB
SBOUJ[B RVF VOB GVODJÓO DPOUJOVB FO VO QVOUP QSFTFSWB FM TJHOP FO VOB
WFDJOEBE EFM QVOUP
-FNB 4FB f VOB GVODJÓO DPOUJOVB FO VO QVOUP c EF TV EPNJOJP Z

UBM RVF f (c) > 0 &OUPODFT FYJTUF VO δCPMB #δ (c) EF c UBM RVF f (x) > 0
QBSB UPEP x ∈ #δ (c). 3FTVMUBEP TJNJMBS TF UJFOF TJ f (c) < 0
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP f FT DPOUJOVB FO c FOUPODFT QBSB ε = 12 f (c) > 0

FYJTUF δ > 0 UBM RVF TJ x FTUÃ FO FM EPNJOJP EF f ≡ A Z |x−c| < δ TF UJFOF
|f (x) − f (c)| < 12 f (c) %F FTUP TF TJHVF RVF 0 < 12 f (c) < f (x) < 32 f (c)
QBSB UPEP x ∈ A DPO |x − c| < δ &O FM DBTP f (c) < 0 TF SB[POB
BOÃMPHBNFOUF DPO ε = − 12 f (c) > 0 QBSB DPODMVJS RVF
3 1
f (c) < f (x) < f (c) < 0
2 2
QBSB UPEP x ∈ A Z FO DJFSUB WFDJOEBE EF c -B QSVFCB EFM MFNB RVFEB
DPNQMFUB

0CTFSWBDJÓO 4J VOB GVODJÓO f FT DPOUJOVB FO VO QVOUP c EPOEF

f (c) = 0 OP OFDFTBSJBNFOUF TF QVFEF BàSNBS RVF MB GVODJÓO f TF BOVMB
FO BMHVOB WFDJOEBE EF c DPNP QVFEF TFS JMVTUSBEP DPO f (x) = x Z c = 0
P VO DBTP NÃT FYÓUJDP FT FM &KFNQMP
5FPSFNB 4FBO f Z g GVODJPOFT DPOUJOVBT FO VO QVOUP c Z K VOB

DPOTUBOUF SFBM &OUPODFT MBT GVODJPOFT Kf, f + g Z f g TPO DPOUJOVBT FO
c 4J BEFNÃT g(c) = 0 FOUPODFT f /g FT DPOUJOVB FO FM QVOUP c.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 6TBNPT VO BSHVNFOUP QPS TVDFTJPOFT TFB {xn } VOB

TVDFTJÓO UBM RVF xn → c $PNP f Z g TPO DPOUJOVBT FO c FOUPODFT
f (xn ) → f (c) Z g(xn ) → g(c) 1SPQJFEBEFT EF MBT TVDFTJPOFT DPOWFS
HFOUFT JNQMJDBO RVF Kf (xn ) → Kf (c) Z
f (xn ) + g(xn ) → f (c) + g(c), f (xn ) · g(xn ) → f (c) · g(c),
MP DVBM TJHOJàDB RVF Kf, f + g Z f g TPO DPOUJOVBT FO c 'JOBMNFOUF

QPS FM MFNB QSFWJP FYJTUF δ > 0 UBM RVF g(x) = 0 QBSB UPEP x ∈ #δ (c)
-VFHP DPNP xn → c FYJTUF N0 ∈ N UBM RVF xn ∈ #δ (c) QBSB UPEP
n ≥ N0 Z QPS UBOUP g(xn ) = 0 QBSB FTUB N0 DPMB 1PEFNPT FOUPODFT
BQMJDBS MB QSPQJFEBE EF FYJTUFODJB EFM MÎNJUF EF VO DPDJFOUF EF TVDFTJPOFT

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
DPOWFSHFOUFT DVBOEP MB TVDFTJÓO EFM EFOPNJOBEPS UJFOF DPMB OP OVMB Z

DPOWFSHF B VO SFBM EJTUJOUP EF DFSP QBSB DPODMVJS RVF
f (xn )/g(xn ) → f (c)/g(c).
&TUP EFNVFTUSB MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f /g FO FM QVOUP c.

1PS JOEVDDJÓO TF QVFEF QSPCBS RVF VOB TVNB àOJUB EF GVODJPOFT

DPOUJOVBT UBNCJÊO FT DPOUJOVB 4JNJMBSNFOUF QBSB VO QSPEVDUP EF VO
OÙNFSP àOJUP EF GVODJPOFT DPOUJOVBT
&KFSDJDJP -BT TJHVJFOUFT BTFWFSBDJPOFT TF QVFEFO DPOTJEFSBS UFP

SFNBT
B
4FBO a < b OÙNFSPT SFBMFT Z f, g : [a, b] −→ R GVODJPOFT DPOUJ
OVBT 1SVFCF RVF FM DPOKVOUP {x ∈ [a, b] : f (x) = g(x)} FT DFSSBEP
C
#BKP MBT NJTNBT DPOEJDJPOFT EF B
QSVFCF RVF FM DPOKVOUP
{x ∈ [a, b] : f (x) < g(x)}
FT BCJFSUP
D
4VQPOHB RVF f : R −→ R FT DPOUJOVB .VFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP
α ∈ R FM DPOKVOUP {x ∈ [a, b] : f (x) ≤ α} FT DFSSBEP Z RVF
{x ∈ [a, b] : f (x) < α} FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO f Z g GVODJPOFT EF WBMPS SFBM Z DPOUJOVBT FO FM

DPOKVOUP [a, b] 1SVFCF RVF FM DPOKVOUP K = {x ∈ [a, b] : f (x) ≥ g(x)}
FT DPNQBDUP
-B DPOUJOVJEBE UBNCJÊO FT QSFTFSWBEB QPS MB DPNQPTJDJÓO EF GVO

DJPOFT DPOUJOVBT
5FPSFNB 4FBO f : A −→ R Z g : B −→ R GVODJPOFT UBMFT RVF

f (A) ⊆ B 4J f FT DPOUJOVB FO c ∈ A Z g FT DPOUJOVB FO f (c) ∈ B
FOUPODFT g ◦ f : A −→ R FT DPOUJOVB FO c
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB ε > 0 EBEP $PNP g FT DPOUJOVB FO f (c) FYJTUF

η > 0 UBM RVF
y ∈ B ∧ |y − f (c)| < η ⇒ |g(y) − g(f (c)| < ε.
1PS PUSB QBSUF QPS MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f FO c QBSB FTUF η > 0 FYJTUF δ > 0
UBM RVF
x ∈ A ∧ |x − c| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (c)| < η.

1PS DPOTJHVJFOUF DPNCJOBOEP

Z
UFOFNPT RVF
x ∈ A ∧ |x − c| < δ ⇒ |g(f (x)) − g(f (c))| < ε,
FT EFDJS g ◦ f FT DPOUJOVB FO c

%FàOJDJÓO 6OB GVODJÓO f : A −→ R TF EJDF BDPUBEB FO A TJ TV

SBOHP f (A) FT VO DPOKVOUP BDPUBEP FO R FT EFDJS TJ FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF
C > 0 JOEFQFOEJFOUF EF x UBM RVF ∀ x ∈ A, |f (x)| ≤ C.
-B DPOTUBOUF C TÎ EFQFOEF EFM EPNJOJP FO FM TFOUJEP EF RVF BM DBN

CJBS FM EPNJOJP EF MB GVODJÓO MB DPOTUBOUF DBNCJB QFSP VOB WF[ àKBEP
FM EPNJOJP MB DPOTUBOUF OP EFQFOEF EF x FO FM EPNJOJP EF MB GVODJÓO
"MHVOPT FKFNQMPT JMVTUSBO FTUP DMBSBNFOUF
&KFNQMP -B GVODJÓO f (x) = 1/x FT BDPUBEB FO A = [1, +∞) ZB

RVF QBSB UPEP x ∈ A, x ≥ 1 Z BTÎ |f (x)| = x1 ≤ 1. 4J DBNCJBNPT FM
EPNJOJP EJHBNPT A = (1/4, +∞) FOUPODFT MB DPOTUBOUF DBNCJB QVFT
QBSB UPEP x ∈ A, |f (x)| < 4 "IPSB TJ FTDPHFNPT FM EPNJOJP A = (0, 1)
1
ZB MB GVODJÓO f OP FT BDPUBEB BMMÎ QVFT QBSB xn = n+1 DPO n ≥ 1 OBUVSBM
TF UJFOF RVF |f (xn )| = n + 1 MP RVF UJFOEF B +∞
0CTFSWBDJÓO &T JNQPSUBOUF NFODJPOBS RVF TJ VOB GVODJÓO f : A −→ R

OP FT BDPUBEB FO A FOUPODFT FYJTUF VOB TVDFTJÓO {xn } EF QVOUPT FO A
UBM RVF |f (xn )| → +∞ FGFDUJWBNFOUF MB OFHBDJÓO EF GVODJÓO BDPUBEB
FRVJWBMF B EFDJS RVF
∀ C > 0 ∃ x ∈ A : |f (x)| > C.
"QMJDBOEP FTUP DPO C = n ∈ N FODPOUSBNPT xn ∈ A UBM RVF

|f (xn )| > n. &TUP KVTUJàDB OVFTUSB BàSNBDJÓO
&KFNQMP 4FBO A ∈ R, b ∈ R Z m ∈ N∗ DPOTUBOUFT àKBT 4J

f : (b − 1, b + 1) −→ R FTUÃ EBEB QPS f (x) = Axm FOUPODFT f FT
BDPUBEB FO (b − 1, b + 1) ZB RVF QBSB UPEP x FO FTUF EPNJOJP TF DVNQMF
RVF
|x| ≤ |x − b| + |b| < 1 + |b|
Z QPS DPOTJHVJFOUF |f (x)| ≤ A(1 + |b|)m , FT EFDJS FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF
C := A(1 + |b|)m UBM RVF QBSB UPEP x ∈ (b − 1, b + 1) TF DVNQMF RVF
|f (x) ≤ C 7BNPT B BQSPWFDIBS FTUP QBSB EFNPTUSBS RVF UPEP QPMJOPNJP
DPO DPFàDJFOUFT SFBMFT EFàOF VOB GVODJÓO DPOUJOVB WFS MB TFDDJÓO "
QÃH

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
4FB p : R −→ R EFàOJEB QPS p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0

EPOEF UBOUP n ∈ N∗ DPNP DBEB DPFàDJFOUF ai ∈ R FTUÃO àKBEPT Z an = 0
"àSNBNPT RVF p FT VOB GVODJÓO DPOUJOVB 1BSB FMMP UPNFNPT b ∈ R
BSCJUSBSJP Z MP EFKBNPT àKP FO FM SB[POBNJFOUP RVF TJHVF 1PS FM BMHPSJUNP
EF MB EJWJTJÓO QBSB QPMJOPNJPT Z FM UFPSFNB EFM SFTJEVP WFS 5FPSFNBT
" Z " QÃH
FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP QPMJOPNJP c EF HSBEP n − 1
MMBNBEP FM DPDJFOUF Z UBM RVF p(x) = c(x)(x − b) + p(b) EPOEF
c(x) = An−1 xn−1 + An−2 xn−2 + · · · + A1 x + A0 .
4FB ε > 0 Z IBMMFNPT δ > 0 UBM RVF TJ x ∈ R Z |x − b| < δ FOUPODFT

|p(x) − p(b)| < ε $PNP |p(x) − p(b)| = |c(x)| |x − b| CBTUB RVF BDP
UFNPT |c(x)| 0CTFSWFNPT RVF DBEB UÊSNJOP RVF EFàOF BM QPMJOPNJP c
FT EF MB GPSNB f (x) = Axm Z TJ SFTUSJOHJNPT δ EF NBOFSB RVF δ ≤ 1
FOUPODFT QPS MP IFDIP BM JOJDJP TBCFNPT RVF FYJTUFO DPOTUBOUFT QPTJUJWBT
C1 , C2 , · · · , Cn−1 UBMFT RVF TJ |x − b| < 1 FOUPODFT
|c(x)| ≤ Cn−1 + Cn−2 + · · · C1 + A0 ≡ C.
-VFHP TJ δ = NÎO {1, ε/2C} Z |x − b| < δ FOUPODFT |p(x) − p(b)| < ε

MP RVF EFNVFTUSB MB DPOUJOVJEBE EFM QPMJOPNJP p FO b Z DPNP FTUPT TPO
BSCJUSBSJPT DPODMVJNPT RVF UPEP QPMJOPNJP FT DPOUJOVP FO R
-B JEFB EF QSPCBS MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF VO QPMJOPNJP DPNP TF IB IFDIP

TF BQPZB FO iPCMJHBSu BM MFDUPS B SFDPSEBS P SFWJTBS BMHVOPT UFPSFNBT
JNQPSUBOUFT EF QPMJOPNJPT DPNP FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO FM UFPSFNB
EFM SFTJEVP Z PUSPT IFDIPT RVF TF EFTDSJCFO FO FM BQÊOEJDF -B QSVFCB
QVEP TFS QSFTFOUBEB EF PUSB GPSNB DBEB UÊSNJOP RVF EFàOF BM QPMJOPNJP
p FT EF MB GPSNB Axm FM DVBM FT VO QSPEVDUP EF m + 1 GBDUPSFT Z DBEB
VOP EF FMMPT FT DPOUJOVP -VFHP FM QPMJOPNJP p SFTVMUB DPOUJOVP QVFT FT
MB TVNB EF VO OÙNFSP àOJUP EF FTUPT UÊSNJOPT
-B DPOUJOVJEBE EF VOB GVODJÓO f OP FT TVàDJFOUF QBSB RVF FTUB TFB
BDPUBEB &M &KFNQMP NVFTUSB VOB GVODJÓO DPOUJOVB RVF FT BDPUBEB
FO VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP OP BDPUBEP Z UBNCJÊO FT BDPUBEB FO VO BCJFSUP
OP BDPUBEP QFSP OP MP FT FO VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP BDPUBEP &M TJHVJFOUF
SFTVMUBEP EJDF RVF BEFNÃT EF DPOUJOVJEBE EF MB GVODJÓO TF SFRVJFSF RVF
FM EPNJOJP TFB DPNQBDUP DFSSBEP Z BDPUBEP

5FPSFNB 4FBO K ⊂ R DPNQBDUP Z f : K −→ R VOB GVODJÓO

DPOUJOVB &OUPODFT f FT BDPUBEB
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF f OP FT BDPUBEB -VFHP FYJTUF VOB TV

DFTJÓO {xn } ⊂ K UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n ∈ N TF DVNQMF RVF |f (xn )| > n

$PNP K FT BDPUBEP FOUPODFT MB TVDFTJÓO {xn } FT BDPUBEB Z QPS UBOUP

FM UFPSFNB EF #PM[BOP8FJFSTUSBTT JNQMJDB RVF FYJTUF VOB TVCTVDFTJÓO
{xnk } RVF DPOWFSHF FT EFDJS FYJTUF a ∈ R UBM RVF xnk → a DVBOEP
k → ∞ %FCJEP B RVF K FT DFSSBEP a ∈ K Z QPS MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f
PCUFOFNPT RVF f (xnk ) → f (a) DVBOEP k → ∞ MP RVF QFSNJUF BàSNBS
RVF {f (xnk )} FT BDPUBEB 1FSP FM TVQVFTUP RVF FTUBNPT IBDJFOEP EJDF
RVF |f (xnk )| > nk ≥ k QBSB UPEP k ∈ N MP DVBM DPOUSBEJDF FM BDPUB
NJFOUP EF {f (xnk )} &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO QSVFCB RVF f FT BDPUBEB

&M UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS HBSBOUJ[B RVF TJ f FT DPOUJOVB FO FM DPNQBDUP

K FOUPODFT MPT OÙNFSPT ÎOG f Z TVQ f FYJTUFO &O SFBMJEBE TF BMDBO[BO
K K
MPT FYUSFNPT NÃT QSFDJTBNFOUF UFOFNPT
5FPSFNB 5FPSFNB EFM WBMPS FYUSFNP
4FB f VOB GVODJÓO EF WBMPS
SFBM Z DPOUJOVB FO FM DPNQBDUP K &OUPODFT FYJTUFO a, b ∈ K UBMFT RVF
f (a) = NÃY f Z f (b) = NÎO f
K K
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB s = TVQ f 7FBNPT RVF FYJTUF a ∈ K UBM RVF

K
s = f (a) MP RVF EFNVFTUSB RVF s = NÃY f 1PS DBSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO EF
K
TVQSFNP QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM n ≥ 1 FYJTUF xn ∈ K UBM RVF
s − 1/n < f (xn ) ≤ s.
$PNP TF SB[POÓ FO MB QSVFCB EFM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS FYJTUFO VOB TVCTV

DFTJÓO {xnk } Z a ∈ K UBMFT RVF f (xnk ) → f (a) -VFHP
s − 1/nk < f (xnk ) ≤ s
QBSB UPEP k ∈ N∗ 5PNBOEP MÎNJUF DVBOEP k → ∞ FO MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT

QSFWJBT MMFHBNPT B MP EFTFBEP FT EFDJS s = f (a) 1BSB EFNPTUSBS MB
FYJTUFODJB EF NÎO f TF BQMJDB MP RVF TF IB QSPCBEP B −f FGFDUJWBNFOUF
K
FYJTUF b ∈ K UBM RVF
−f (b) = NÃY (−f ) = −NÎO f,

K K
EF EPOEF TF PCUJFOF MB DPODMVTJÓO 2VFEB BTÎ QSPCBEP FM UFPSFNB

&KFSDJDJP 4FB f : [a, b] −→ R DPOUJOVB Z UBM RVF f (x) > 0 QBSB
UPEP x ∈ [a, b] 1SVFCF RVF FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF m > 0 UBM RVF f (x) ≥ m
QBSB UPEP x ∈ [a, b]
&O MB QSVFCB EFM QSÓYJNP UFPSFNB TF FYIJCF VOB WF[ NÃT MB GVFS[B
EFM BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ FO MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT

-PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
5FPSFNB 4FBO a < b Z f VOB GVODJÓO DPO WBMPSFT FO R DPOUJOVB

FO [a, b] Z UBM RVF f (a) < 0 < f (b) &OUPODFT FYJTUF c ∈ (a, b) UBM RVF
f (c) = 0.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO %FàOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP A = {t ∈ [a, b] : f (t) < 0}

&TUF DPOKVOUP FT OP WBDÎP QVFT a ∈ A Z FT BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF QPS
b. -VFHP QPS FM BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ FO MPT SFBMFT FYJTUF c ∈ R UBM
RVF c = TVQ A 1SPCFNPT RVF c ∈ (a, b) Z RVF f (c) = 0 DPO MP DVBM
TF UFSNJOB MB EFNPTUSBDJÓO EFM UFPSFNB 0CTFSWFNPT JOJDJBMNFOUF RVF
f (c) ≤ 0 ZB RVF FYJTUF VOB TVDFTJÓO tn ∈ A UBM RVF tn → c Z DPNP
f (tn ) < 0 QPS MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f TF UJFOF RVF f (c) = MÎN f (tn ) ≤ 0
n→∞
%FCJEP B f (a) < 0 MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f Z FM -FNB MB GVODJÓO f
DPOTFSWB FM TJHOP OFHBUJWP FO VOB WFDJOEBE EF a FT EFDJS FYJTUF δ1 > 0
UBM RVF f (t) < 0 QBSB UPEP t ∈ [a, a + δ1 ] /PUFNPT RVF
{t ∈ [a, a + δ1 ] : f (t) < 0} ⊆ A
Z QPS UBOUP TVQ{t ∈ [a, a + δ1 ] : f (t) < 0} ≤ c MP RVF JNQMJDB

c ≥ a + δ1 > a %F NBOFSB TJNJMBS DPNP f (b) > 0 FYJTUF δ2 > 0
UBM RVF f (t) > 0 QBSB UPEP t ∈ [b − δ2 , b] "àSNBNPT RVF c 0 %F FTUB BàSNBDJÓO TF TJHVF RVF c 0 TVàDJFOUFNFOUF QFRVFÒP UBM RVF f (t) < 0 QBSB UPEP
t ∈ (c − δ3 , c + δ3 ) 'JKBSÎBNPT VO t ∈ (c, c + δ3 ) Z TFSÎB DMBSP RVF
t ∈ [a, b] Z f (t ) < 0 3FTVMUBSÎB FOUPODFT RVF t ∈ A Z t ≤ c, VOB
DPOUSBEJDDJÓO &TUP QSVFCB RVF f (c) = 0

"QMJDBOEP FTUF UFPSFNB B MB GVODJÓO g(x) = f (x) − c TF QSVFCB FM

TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
$PSPMBSJP 5FPSFNB EFM WBMPS JOUFSNFEJP

4FBO a c > f (b)
TF PCUJFOF MB NJTNB DPODMVTJÓO VTBOEP MB GVODJÓO −g(x) = c − f (x)
&KFNQMP 4FB f : [0, 1] −→ [0, 1] VOB GVODJÓO DPOUJOVB &OUPODFT

FYJTUF c ∈ [0, 1] UBM RVF f (c) = c. &TUF QVOUP c TF MMBNB QVOUP àKP EF
MB GVODJÓO f &GFDUJWBNFOUF TJ f (0) = 0 P f (1) = 1 MB DPODMVTJÓO FT
JONFEJBUB 4VQPOHBNPT FOUPODFT RVF f (0) = 0 Z RVF f (1) = 1 $PNP
f (0) ≥ 0 Z f (1) ≤ 1 FOUPODFT f (0) > 0 Z f (1) < 1 *OUSPEVDJNPT MB
GVODJÓO BVYJMJBS g : [0, 1] −→ R EFàOJEB QPS g(x) = f (x) − x /PUFNPT

RVF g(0) = f (0) > 0 Z g(1) = f (1) − 1 < 0. "QMJDBOEP FM UFPSFNB EFM
WBMPS JOUFSNFEJP B MB GVODJÓO g FODPOUSBNPT c ∈ (0, 1) UBM RVF g(c) = 0
FT EFDJS f (c) = c.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB f : [a, b] −→ [a, b] VOB GVODJÓO UBM RVF FYJTUF VOB
DPOTUBOUF 0 ≤ c < 1 DPO MB TJHVJFOUF QSPQJFEBE QBSB UPEP x, y ∈ [a, b]
TF DVNQMF RVF |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ c |x − y| 1SVFCF RVF f FT DPOUJOVB Z
UJFOF B MP TVNP VO QVOUP àKP
JBMBT`Qv2+iQ $POTVMUF TPCSF OÙNFSPT BMHFCSBJDPT Z OÙNFSPT

USBTDFOEFOUFT EFàOJDJÓO FKFNQMPT QSFHVOUBT BCJFSUBT TPCSF FM QBSUJ
DVMBS FUD

$BQÎUVMP
-PT OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT
%BEP RVF QBSB UPEP OÙNFSP SFBM x TF UJFOF RVF x2 ≥ 0 FOUPODFT MB

2
√ = −1 OP UJFOF TPMVDJÓO FO FM DBNQP R FO PUSBT QBMBCSBT
FDVBDJÓO x
OP FYJTUF −1 FO R 1PS FM &KFSDJDJP EF MB TFDDJÓO QÃH FYJTUF
VO DBNQP NÃT BNQMJP FO FM DVBM FTUB SBÎ[ DVBESBEB TÎ FYJTUF %JDIP
DBNQP TFSÃ MMBNBEP FM EF MPT OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT
$POTUSVDDJÓO EF MPT OÙNFSPT

DPNQMFKPT
%FàOJDJÓO &M $POKVOUP C := R × R FT MMBNBEP FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT
OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT
&O FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT EFàOJNPT WÎB FM FKFSDJDJP

DJUBEP MBT TJHVJFOUFT PQFSBDJPOFT MBT DVBMFT EFOPUBNPT QPS DPNPEJEBE
DPO MPT TÎNCPMPT DMÃTJDPT i + u Z i · u QBSB x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ R
(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ),
(x1 , y1 ) · (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + y1 x2 ).

&OGBUJ[BNPT OVFWBNFOUF RVF QBSB OP IBDFS QFTBEB MB FTDSJUVSB IFNPT
VTBEP FM NJTNP TÎNCPMP QBSB EFOPUBS MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP FO DPOKVOUPT
EJGFSFOUFT Z RVF FM DPOUFYUP QFSNJUF DMBSBNFOUF FMJNJOBS BNCJHÛFEBEFT
(FPNÊUSJDBNFOUF VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP z = (x, y) TF SFQSFTFOUB DP
NP FM FYUSFNP EFM WFDUPS FO FM QMBOP DBSUFTJBOP R×R DPO QVOUP JOJDJBM
FO FM PSJHFO
&M FKFSDJDJP RVF IFNPT WFOJEP NFODJPOBOEP SFTQBMEB FM TJHVJFOUF
IFDIP
5FPSFNB &M DPOKVOUP C EF MPT OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT EPUBEP EF MBT

PQFSBDJPOFT QSFWJBNFOUF EFàOJEBT FT VO DBNQP

'JHVSB 3FQSFTFOUBDJÓO HFPNÊUSJDB EF VO DPNQMFKP z = (x, y).
%BEP RVF (x, 0) + (y, 0) = (x + y, 0) Z RVF (x, 0) · (y, 0) = (xy, 0)

QPEFNPT JEFOUJàDBS x DPO (x, 0) .ÃT QSFDJTBNFOUF TJ
Ĉ := {(x, 0) : x ∈ R}
Z TF EFàOF Φ : R → Ĉ QPS Φ(x) = (x, 0) FOUPODFT Φ FT VO JTPNPSàTNP

&TUB BQMJDBDJÓO OPT QFSNJUF UBNCJÊO BàSNBS RVF C DPOUJFOF B R FO FM
TFOUJEP EF RVF C DPOUJFOF VO TVCDPOKVOUP Ĉ FM DVBM FT JTPNPSGP B R
$PO FTUP RVFEB EFNPTUSBEB MP TJHVJFOUF
1SPQPTJDJÓO &M DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT FT VO TVCDPOKVOUP
QSPQJP EFM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT
0CTFSWBDJÓO &T NVZ JNQPSUBOUF FM TJHVJFOUF DPNFOUBSJP TFB n ≥ 1 VO

OÙNFSP OBUVSBM 4F EFàOF Rn DPNP FM DPOKVOUP EF UPEBT MBT nUVQMBT EF
OÙNFSPT SFBMFT FT EFDJS
Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : xi ∈ R, i = 1, 2, . . . , n}.
1BSB n = 1 UFOFNPT MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT Z QBSB n = 2 UFOFNPT MPT

OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT 1BSB FTUPT ÙOJDPT WBMPSFT EF n TF EFNVFTUSB FO <:>
RVF Rn FT VO DBNQP
%FàOJDJÓO %BEP VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP z = (x, y) MMBNBNPT B x
MB QBSUF SFBM EF z Z MB EFOPUBNPT QPS Re(z) -MBNBNPT B y MB QBSUF
JNBHJOBSJB EF z MB DVBM EFOPUBNPT QPS Im(z). 6O OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP EF
MB GPSNB (0, y) DPO y = 0 MP MMBNBNPT JNBHJOBSJP QVSP
1PEFNPT FOUPODFT BàSNBS RVF VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP FT VO OÙNFSP
SFBM TJ TV QBSUF JNBHJOBSJB FT DFSP /PUFNPT UBNCJÊO RVF
(x, y) = (x, 0) + (0, y) = (x, 0) + (0, 1) · (y, 0).

%FàOJDJÓO &M JNBHJOBSJP QVSP (0, 1) MP MMBNBNPT VOJEBE JNBHJOBSJB

Z MP EFOPUBNPT QPS i FT EFDJS i := (0, 1).
&TUB EFàOJDJÓO OPT QFSNJUF FTDSJCJS VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP z = (x, y)
EF MB GPSNB z = x + iy 6TBNPT DVBMRVJFSB EF FTUBT EPT FTDSJUVSBT QBSB
VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP 6O JNBHJOBSJP QVSP FT FOUPODFT EF MB GPSNB iy
DPO y = 0
$VBOEP SFQSFTFOUBNPT HFPNÊUSJDBNFOUF VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP FTDSJ
UP FO MB GPSNB z = x + iy FM NJTNP QMBOP DBSUFTJBOP EF EPT FKFT SFDUBO
HVMBSFT SFDJCF PUSP OPNCSF EJBHSBNB EF "SHBOE EFOPNJOBEP B WFDFT
QMBOP EF "SHBOE P QMBOP DPNQMFKP
"M FKF IPSJ[POUBM TF MF MMBNB FKF SFBM
FO WF[ EF FKF EF MBT BCTDJTBT
Z BM WFSUJDBM TF MF MMBNB FKF JNBHJOBSJP FO
WF[ EF FKF EF MBT PSEFOBEBT
6O DPNQMFKP z = x + iy HSÃàDBNFOUF MVDF
BTÎ
Im(z)
y x + iy
Re(z)
x
'JHVSB %JBHSBNB EF "SHBOE
0CTFSWFNPT RVF i2 = (0, 1) · (0, 1) = (−1, 0) = −1 Z UBNCJÊO

(−i)2 = −1 %F FTUB NBOFSB −1 UJFOF EPT SBÎDFT DVBESBEBT FO C B TBCFS
±i. .ÃT BEFMBOUF QSFTFOUBSFNPT VO NÊUPEP QBSB IBMMBS SBÎDFT nÊTJNBT
EF DVBMRVJFS OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP z.
$PNP DPOTFDVFODJB EFM &KFSDJDJP TF UJFOF FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
FM DVBM NBOJàFTUB VOB EF MBT EJGFSFODJBT OPUBCMFT DPO MPT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT
%JDIB EJGFSFODJB DPOTJTUF FO RVF OP IBZ PSEFO FO MPT OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT
FT EFDJS OP IBZ EFTJHVBMEBEFT
1SPQPTJDJÓO &M DBNQP C OP FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP
%FàOJDJÓO 4FBO z1 = (x1 , y1 ) Z z2 = (x2 , y2 ) OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT
%FDJNPT RVF z1 = z2 TJ x1 = x2 Z y1 = y2
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO z Z w DPNQMFKPT Z TVQPOHB RVF z + w Z zw TPO
OÙNFSPT SFBMFT OFHBUJWPT 1SVFCF RVF z Z w EFCFO TFS OÙNFSPT SFBMFT

%FàOJDJÓO %BEP VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP z = x + iy EFàOJNPT TV

DPNQMFKP DPOKVHBEP FM DVBM EFOPUBNPT QPS z DPNP z = x − iy
/PUFNPT RVF VO DPNQMFKP Z TV DPOKVHBEP TPO TJNÊUSJDPT SFTQFDUP BM

FKF SFBM
Im(z)
w
z
Re(z)
z
w
'JHVSB $PNQMFKP Z TV DPOKVHBEP
"MHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT EFM DPOKVHBEP TF QSFTFOUBO B DPOUJOVBDJÓO
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FBO z Z w OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT &OUPODFT
z + w = z + w Z z · w = z · w.
4J w = 0 FOUPODFT z/w = z/w.
z = z ⇐⇒ z ∈ R.
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FBO z = x+iy, w = u+iv. &M QSJNFS Z UFSDFS OVNFSBMFT

TPO VOB DVFOUB EJSFDUB Z TJNQMF 1BSB FM TFHVOEP OVNFSBM VTBNPT FM
BOUFSJPS QBSB PCUFOFS z = w · (z/w) = w · (z/w) EF MP DVBM TF TJHVF FM
SFTVMUBEP
%FàOJDJÓO %BEP VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP z = x + iy EFàOJNPT TV

+ EFOPUBNPT QPS |z|
NÓEVMP OPSNB MPOHJUVE P WBMPS BCTPMVUP FM DVBM
DPNP FM OÙNFSP SFBM OP OFHBUJWP EBEP QPS |z| = x2 + y 2
&O FM DBTP FO FM RVF Im(z) = 0 FT EFDJS z = x ∈ R |z| DPJODJEF DPO

FM WBMPS BCTPMVUP EF |x| EFàOJEP FO R.
%F MB EFàOJDJÓO EF NÓEVMP EF VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP z = (x, y)
TV SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO HFPNÊUSJDB FO FM QMBOP DBSUFTJBOP Z FM UFPSFNB EF

1JUÃHPSBT WFNPT RVF |z| SFQSFTFOUB MB MPOHJUVE EF MB IJQPUFOVTB EFM

USJÃOHVMP SFDUÃOHVMP DVZPT WÊSUJDFT TPO MPT QVOUPT (0, 0), (x, 0) Z (x, y).
-B JEFB B DPOUJOVBDJÓO FT VTBS MBT OPDJPOFT FMFNFOUBMFT EF USJHPOP
NFUSÎB QBSB QSFTFOUBS MB GPSNB USJHPOPNÊUSJDB EF VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP
z = (x, y) = x + iy = 0. /PUFNPT RVF x = |z| DPT θ, y = |z| TJO θ, EPOEF
θ ∈ (−π, π] FT FM ÙOJDP ÃOHVMP NFEJEP FO SBEJBOFT FOUSF FM FKF SFBM
QPTJUJWP Z FM TFHNFOUP Oz. 0CTÊSWFTF RVF FYJTUFO JOàOJUPT ÃOHVMPT RVF
TBUJTGBDFO MBT JHVBMEBEFT BOUFSJPSFT Z FT QPS FTP RVF BM ÙOJDP ÃOHVMP RVF
WFSJàDB FTUBT JHVBMEBEFT FO FM JOUFSWBMP (−π, π] TF MF BTJHOB VO OPNCSF
QBSUJDVMBS
y (x, y)
x θ
x
θ
(x, y)
'JHVSB 'PSNB USJHPOPNÊUSJDB
%FàOJDJÓO 4FB z = (x, y) VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP OP OVMP &M ÙOJ

DP ÃOHVMP θ ∈ (−π, π] NFEJEP FO SBEJBOFT UBM RVF x = |z| DPT θ
y = |z| TJO θ, TF MMBNB BSHVNFOUP QSJODJQBM EF z Z MP EFOPUBNPT QPS
"SH z -PT EFNÃT ÃOHVMPT RVF TBUJTGBDFO EJDIBT JHVBMEBEFT TF MMBNBO
BSHVNFOUPT Z EFOPUBNPT QPS BSH z FM DPOKVOUP EF UPEPT MPT BSHVNFOUPT
-B FYQSFTJÓO z = |z| DPT θ + i|z| TJO θ TF MMBNB GPSNB USJHPOPNÊUSJDB P
QPMBS EFM OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP z.
1VFTUP RVF x2 ≤ x2 + y 2 = |z|2 FOUPODFT |Re(z)| ≤ |z|. %F NBOFSB

TJNJMBS |Im(z)| ≤ |z|. 5BNCJÊO TF UJFOF RVF
z+z z−z
Re(z) = , Im(z) = ·
2 2i
&T JONFEJBUP EF MBT EFàOJDJPOFT Z MBT NBOJQVMBDJPOFT BMHFCSBJDBT EJT
QPOJCMFT FO MPT DBNQPT RVF |z|2 = zz. &TUP OPT QFSNJUF IBMMBS VOB FY
QSFTJÓO IBTUB BIPSB OP FTUBCMFDJEB QBSB FM JOWFSTP EF z = (x, y) = 0
&O FGFDUP DPNP
1 z
= z −1 = 2 ,
z |z|

x −y
FOUPODFT z −1 = , 2 .
x2
+ y x + y2
2
6TBOEP MB EFàOJDJÓO EF JHVBMEBE EF EPT DPNQMFKPT TF QVFEF FTUBCMF
DFS EF PUSB NBOFSB MB FYQSFTJÓO QBSB FM SFDÎQSPDP EF z = (x, y) = 0 TFB
z −1 = (u, v) EJDIP JOWFSTP FOUPODFT (x, y) · (u, v) = (1, 0) EF EPOEF TF
PCUJFOF MB FYQSFTJÓO EBEB BSSJCB QBSB z −1 .
6OB EF MBT WFOUBKBT EFM DPODFQUP EF DPOKVHBEP EF VO DPNQMFKP FT
RVF QFSNJUF DPOPDFS FO MB GPSNB FTUÃOEBS FM DPDJFOUF EF EPT DPNQMFKPT
5−i
&KFNQMP )BMMBS FO MB GPSNB FTUÃOEBS a + ib FM DPDJFOUF .
3 + 2i
&M QVOUP DMBWF FT VTBS FM DPOKVHBEP EFM EFOPNJOBEPS EF MB TJHVJFOUF
NBOFSB
5−i 5 − i 3 − 2i 1
= = (13 − 13i) = 1 − i.
3 + 2i 3 + 2i 3 − 2i 13
&KFSDJDJP &TDSJCB FM SFTVMUBEP FO MB GPSNB a + ib :
2+i 4+i
B
− ·
3 − i 1 + 2i

3 + 2i 5 − 2i
C
+ ·
1+i i−1
&KFSDJDJP &ODVFOUSF UPEPT MPT WBMPSFT QPTJCMFT EF in WBSJBOEP
n ∈ N.
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF MB JEFOUJEBE EFM QBSBMFMPHSBNP QBSB OÙNFSPT

DPNQMFKPT
|z + w|2 + |z − w|2 = 2(|z|2 + |w|2 ).
√ UBMFT RVF |z| ≤ 1, |w| ≤ 1

&KFSDJDJP 4FBO z Z w OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT
Z |z − w| ≥ 1. %FNVFTUSF RVF |z + w| ≤ 3.
√
&KFSDJDJP 4FB z = x + iy ∈ C. 1SVFCF RVF |x| + |y| ≤ 2 |z|.

z−a
&KFSDJDJP 4J |z| < 1 Z |a| < 1 QSVFCF RVF < 1.
1 − az
&KFSDJDJP &TDSJCB FO UÊSNJOPT EF MB WBSJBCMF z MB FDVBDJÓO EF MB
IJQÊSCPMB x2 − y 2 = 1.
-B NJTNB QSVFCB EF $
FO FM 5FPSFNB EFNVFTUSB
1SPQPTJDJÓO 4FBO z1 Z z2 OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT UBMFT RVF z1 z2 = 0.

&OUPODFT z1 = 0 Ó z2 = 0.

&M NÓEVMP EF VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP TBUJTGBDF MBT TJHVJFOUFT

QSPQJFEBEFT
5FPSFNB 4FBO z Z w OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT &OUPODFT
B
|zw| = |z| |w|. 4J w = 0 FOUPODFT |z/w| = |z|/|w|.
C
|z + w| ≤ |z| + |w| %FTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS

D
|z| − |w| ≤ |z − w| $POUJOVJEBE EFM NÓEVMP

%FNPTUSBDJÓO B
/PUFNPT RVF |zw|2 = (zw)zw = zzww = |z|2 |w|2
JNQMJDB MB BàSNBDJÓO -B TFHVOEB QBSUF FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF MB QSJ
NFSB QVFT |z| = |w(z/w)| = |w| |z/w|.
C
$PNP FO FM OVNFSBM BOUFSJPS MB DMBWF FT QSPCBS RVF MPT DVBESBEPT
TBUJTGBDFO VOB EFTJHVBMEBE EF MB DVBM TF EFTQSFOEB FM SFTVMUBEP
EFTFBEP
|z + w|2 = (z + w)(z + w)
= |z|2 + zw + wz + |w|2
= |z|2 + zw + zw + |w|2
= |z|2 + 2Re(zw) + |w|2 QPS
2 2
≤ |z| + 2|zw| + |w|
= |z|2 + 2|z| |w| + |w|2 QPS (a)
2
= (|z| + |w|) .
D
#BTUB BQMJDBS MB EFTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS BTÎ
|z| = |z − w + w| ≤ |z − w| + |w| ⇒ |z| − |w| ≤ |z − w|.
$BNCJBOEP MPT SPMFT EF z Z w TF PCUJFOF |w| − |z| ≤ |z − w| Z BM

DPNCJOBS FTUBT EPT EFTJHVBMEBEFT TF PCUJFOF FM SFTVMUBEP
2VFEB BTÎ QSPCBEP FM UFPSFNB

-B JHVBMEBE FO MB EFTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS TF UJFOF DVBOEP MPT DPN

QMFKPT JOWPMVDSBEPT TPO QBSBMFMPT Z FO MB NJTNB EJSFDDJÓO : SFDÎQSPDB
NFOUF
&KFNQMP 4FBO z Z w DPNQMFKPT OP OVMPT 1SPCFNPT RVF
|w + z| = |w| + |z|

TJ Z TPMP TJ FYJTUF t > 0 UBM RVF w = tz.

-B DPOEJDJÓO TVàDJFOUF FT JONFEJBUB QVFT
|w + z| = |tz + z| = (t + 1)|z| = |tz| + |z| = |w| + |z|.
4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF |w + z| = |w| + |z| &MFWBOEP BM DVBESBEP Z
SFBMJ[BOEP MPT DÃMDVMPT MMFHBNPT B MB JHVBMEBE
Re(z w) = |zw| ≥ 0.
&TDSJCBNPT z = x + iy Z w = u + iv 1PS MB JHVBMEBE Z MB EFTJHVBMEBE FO

TF UJFOF RVF Im(zw) = yu−vx = 0 Z ux+vy ≥ 0 SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF
7BNPT B DPOTJEFSBS EPT DBTPT v = 0 Z v = 0. %FM QSJNFS DBTP MB
IJQÓUFTJT Z MB JHVBMEBE QSFWJB TF TJHVF RVF y = 0 Z QPS UBOUP z = x Z
w = u. $PNP u = 0 FOUPODFT IBDJFOEP t = x/u UFOFNPT RVF
z = x = (x/u)u = tw.
0CTFSWFNPT RVF FO FTUF DBTP Re(zw) = ux > 0 Z BTÎ t > 0, RVFEBOEP
QSPCBEB MB DPOEJDJÓO OFDFTBSJB FO FTUF DBTP 4J v = 0 FOUPODFT x =
(u/v)y Z EFàOJFOEP t = y/v TF PCUJFOF RVF z = x+iy = (y/v)(u+iv) =
tw TPMP SFTUB WFS RVF t > 0 EBEP RVF 0 ≤ Re(zw) = ux + vy Z v 2 > 0
FOUPODFT (ux + vy)/v 2 ≥ 0 FT EFDJS (u2 /v 2 )t + t ≥ 0 MP DVBM FRVJWBMF B
EFDJS RVF t|w|2 ≥ 0. 4J t = 0 FOUPODFT y = x = z = 0 MP DVBM DPOUSBEJDF
MB IJQÓUFTJT 1PS UBOUP t > 0.
'ÓSNVMB EF %F .PJWSF

-B GPSNB USJHPOPNÊUSJDB EF VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP QFSNJUF FO PDBTJPOFT
SFBMJ[BS DJFSUBT PQFSBDJPOFT DPNP MB QPUFODJBDJÓO Z MB SBEJDBDJÓO EF VOB
NBOFSB NÃT TJNQMF *OJDJBNPT FTUB TFDDJÓO EFTDSJCJFOEP MB FYQSFTJÓO
USJHPOPNÊUSJDB DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF BM QSPEVDUP Z BM DPDJFOUF EF EPT DPN
QMFKPT OP OVMPT Z MVFHP MB QPUFODJBDJÓO QBSB B QBSUJS EF BIÎ EFEVDJS FM
UFPSFNB EF %F .PJWSF 'JOBMNFOUF OPT PDVQBNPT EF MB SBEJDBDJÓO
4FBO z1 = |z1 |(DPT θ1 + i TFOθ1 ) Z z2 = |z2 |(DPT θ2 + i TFOθ2 ) EPT
OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT
z1 · z2 = |z1 z2 |(DPT θ1 DPT θ2 − TFOθ1 TFOθ2
+ i(DPT θ1 TFOθ2 + TFOθ1 DPT θ2 ))

= |z1 z2 | DPT(θ1 + θ2 ) + i TFO(θ1 + θ2 ) .
-B FYQSFTJÓO
MB QPEFNPT JOUFSQSFUBS EJDJFOEP EF NBOFSB MJHFSB Z OP
QSFDJTB RVF QBSB IBMMBS FM QSPEVDUP EF EPT DPNQMFKPT FTDSJUPT FO GPSNB
USJHPOPNÊUSJDB CBTUB NVMUJQMJDBS TVT NÓEVMPT Z TVNBS TVT BSHVNFOUPT

&KFNQMP 4FB z = |z|(DPT θ + i TFOθ) = 0 )BMMFNPT FM QSPEVDUP iz

OPUFNPT QSJNFSP RVF i = cos(π/2) + i TFO(π/2) Z QPS
TF PCUJFOF
RVF
iz = |z|(DPT(θ + π/2) + i TFO(θ + π/2) = |z|(−TFOθ + i DPT θ).
&O SFBMJEBE FM PCKFUJWP QSJODJQBM EF FTUF FKFNQMP FT JMVTUSBS RVF FM QSP

EVDUP EF VO DPNQMFKP z = 0 QPS MB VOJEBE JNBHJOBSJB i FT PUSP DPNQMFKP
FM DVBM TF PCUJFOF SPUBOEP FM i WFDUPS u BTPDJBEP B z FO VO ÃOHVMP EF π/2
FO TFOUJEP BOUJIPSBSJP &TUP TF EFEVDF EF MB QSJNFSB JHVBMEBE FO

Im(z)
z
iz
Re(z)
'JHVSB &GFDUP HFPNÊUSJDP iz
7FBNPT BIPSB FM DPDJFOUF QBSB DPNQMFKPT z1 Z z2 OP OVMPT UFOJFOEP

FO DVFOUB RVF FM DPOKVHBEP EF z2 FTUÃ EBEP QPS
z2 = |z2 |(DPT θ2 − i TFOθ2 ),
UFOFNPT RVF
z1 z1 z2
=
z2 |z2 |2
|z1 |
= (DPT θ1 DPT θ2 + TFOθ1 TFOθ2 + i(DPT θ2 TFOθ1 − TFOθ2 DPT θ1 ))
|z2 |
|z1 |
= DPT(θ1 − θ2 ) + i TFO(θ1 − θ2 ) .
|z2 |
-B FYQSFTJÓO
EJDF EF NBOFSB MJHFSB Z OP QSFDJTB RVF QBSB IBMMBS
FM DPDJFOUF EF EPT DPNQMFKPT FTDSJUPT FO GPSNB USJHPOPNÊUSJDB CBTUB
FTUBCMFDFS FM DPDJFOUF EF TVT NÓEVMPT Z SFTUBS TVT BSHVNFOUPT

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF VTBOEP JOEVDDJÓO RVF TJ

z = |z|(DPT θ + i TFOθ) = 0
FOUPODFT QBSB UPEP n ∈ N TF WFSJàDB MB JHVBMEBE

z n = |z|n DPT(nθ) + i TFO(nθ) .
%F FTUF FKFSDJDJP TF PCUJFOF MB WBMJEF[ QBSB FOUFSPT OFHBUJWPT FO
FGFDUP TFBO n ∈ Z DPO n ≤ −1 Z m = −n. &OUPODFT m FT VO OBUVSBM
DPO m ≥ 1. -VFHP TJ z = |z|(DPT θ + i TFOθ) = 0 BM BQMJDBS FM FKFSDJDJP
QSFWJP Z FM IFDIP EF RVF z −1 = z/|z|2 UFOFNPT RVF
−1
z n = z −m = (z m )−1 = |z|m DPT(mθ) + i TFO(mθ)
−1
= |z|−m DPT(mθ) + i TFO(mθ)

= |z|n DPT(mθ) − i TFO(mθ)

= |z|n DPT(−mθ) + i TFO(−mθ)

= |z|n DPT(nθ) + i TFO(nθ) .
&O QBSUJDVMBS TJ |z| = 1 DPODMVJNPT FM TJHVJFOUF JNQPSUBOUF SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB 'ÓSNVMB EF %F .PJWSF
1BSB UPEP SFBM θ Z QBSB UPEP
FOUFSP n TF UJFOF RVF
(DPT θ + i TFOθ)n = DPT(nθ) + i TFO(nθ).
6OB BQMJDBDJÓO JONFEJBUB EF MB GÓSNVMB EF %F .PJWSF FT MB EFEVDDJÓO
EF VOB SFHMB QBSB IBMMBS MB SBÎ[ nÊTJNB n ≥ 2
EF VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP
5FPSFNB 4FB z = 0 VO OÙNFSP DPNQMFKP DPO "SH z = θ. &OUPODFT
z QPTFF FYBDUBNFOUF n SBÎDFT nÊTJNBT EJGFSFOUFT MBT DVBMFT FTUÃO EBEBT
QPS
θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
z 1/n = |z|1/n DPT( )+i TFO( ) , DPO k = 0, 1, . . . , n−1.
n n
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FBO z = |z|(DPT θ + i TFOθ) Z w = |w|(DPT α + i TFOα)
UBMFT RVF z 1/n = w FTUP FT wn = z. -VFHP QPS MB GÓSNVMB EF %F .PJWSF
UFOFNPT RVF

|z|(DPT θ + i TFOθ) = |w|n DPT(nα) + i TFO(nα) .

&O IPOPS B "CSBIBN %F .PJWSF
B RVJFO TF BUSJCVZF TV EFTDVCSJNJFOUP
&SB VO GSBODÊT SFGVHJBEP FO -POESFT RVF DVSTÓ TVT FTUVEJPT DPO NVDIBT EJàDVMUBEFT
*OUSPEVKP DBOUJEBEFT JNBHJOBSJBT FO USJHPOPNFUSÎB

5PNBOEP NÓEVMPT FO MB JHVBMEBE

DPOTFHVJNPT RVF |z| = |w|n FT
EFDJS |w| = |z|1/n . 3FFNQMB[BOEP FTUP FO
PCUFOFNPT MBT TJHVJFOUFT
JHVBMEBEFT DPT θ = DPT(nα) Z TFOθ = TFO(nα) "IPSB CJFO MPT TJHVJFO
UFT DÓNQVUPT
TFO(nα − θ) = TFO(nα) DPT θ − TFOθ DPT(nα)

= TFOθ DPT θ − TFOθ DPT θ = 0,
DPT(nα − θ) = DPT(nα) DPT θ + TFOθ TFO(nα) = 1,
θ + 2kπ
JNQMJDBO RVF nα − θ = 2kπ DPO k ∈ Z. -VFHP α = DPO k ∈ Z.
n
)BTUB FM NPNFOUP IFNPT QSPCBEP RVF
θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
wk = |z|1/n DPT( ) + i TFO( ) ,
n n
DPO k ∈ Z TPO SBÎDFT nÊTJNBT EF z 7FBNPT RVF FYBDUBNFOUF n EF FMMBT
TPO EJGFSFOUFT QPS MBT QSPQJFEBEFT EF MBT GVODJPOFT USJHPOPNÊUSJDBT TFOP
Z DPTFOP FT JONFEJBUP RVF QBSB UPEP l ∈ Z TF DVNQMF RVF wn+l = wl
3FTUB EFNPTUSBS RVF w0 , w1 , . . . , wn−1 TPO EJGFSFOUFT "SHVNFOUFNPT
QPS DPOUSBEJDDJÓO Z TVQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUFO OBUVSBMFT m Z j DPO
0≤m<n−1
Z 0 ≤ j < n − 1 UBMFT RVF m = j Z wm = wj . %F MBT SFTUSJDDJPOFT TPCSF

m Z j TF DPODMVZF RVF
|m − j| < n − 1.
%F MB TVQVFTUB JHVBMEBE EF MBT EPT SBÎDFT TF EFTQSFOEF RVF

θ + 2mπ θ + 2jπ θ + 2mπ θ + 2jπ
DPT( ) = DPT( ) Z TFO( ) = TFO( ).
n n n n
)BDJFOEP VTP EF MBT JEFOUJEBEFT QBSB TFO(x − y) DPT(x − y) DPO
x = θ+2mπ
n , y = θ+2jπ
n TF EFEVDF RVF x − y = 2N π EPOEF N ∈ Z. %F
FTUB JHVBMEBE TF MMFHB B RVF m − j = nN Z BTÎ QPS
DPODMVJNPT RVF
|N | < 1 − 1/n < 1 MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF N = 0 Z QPS UBOUP PCUFOFNPT
RVF x = y FT EFDJS MMFHBNPT B MB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO m = j. &TUF BCTVSEP
EFNVFTUSB FM UFPSFNB

0CTFSWBDJÓO )FNPT IFDIP MB FYDMVTJÓO z = 0 ZB RVF QBSB z = 0 OP

TF EFàOF BSHVNFOUP Z BEFNÃT FT DMBSP RVF MB ÙOJDB SBÎ[ nÊTJNB EF
z = 0 FT DFSP

&KFNQMP 3FTPMWBNPT MB FDVBDJÓO z 4 + 4 = 0 QBSB z ∈ C. /PUF

NPT RVF FTUP FRVJWBMF B FODPOUSBS MBT SBÎDFT DVBSUBT EFM DPNQMFKP −4.
)BZ QPS MP NFOPT EPT NBOFSBT EF QSPDFEFS FO FTUF DBTP GBDUPSJ[BOEP
QBSB FTDSJCJS MB FDVBDJÓO EF MB GPSNB (z 2 + 2i)(z 2 − 2i) = 0 Z IBMMBS
MBT EPT SBÎDFT DVBESBEBT UBOUP EF 2i DPNP EF −2i P BQMJDBS EJSFDUB
NFOUF FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS 7BNPT B FTDPHFS FTUB ÙMUJNB /PUFNPT RVF
"SH (−4) = π Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB MBT SBÎDFT EF −4 FTUÃO EBEBT QPS
π + 2kπ π + 2kπ
wk = 41/4 DPT( ) + i TFO( ) , k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
4 4
6OB DVFOUB EJSFDUB Z TJNQMF OPT BSSPKB MBT SBÎDFT
w0 = 1 + i, w1 = −1 + i, w2 = −1 − i, w3 = 1 − i.
&KFSDJDJP 3FTVFMWB MPT TJHVJFOUFT QSPCMFNBT

)BMMF MBT SBÎDFT TFYUBT EF
&TDSJCB FO MB GPSNB a + ib FM SFTVMUBEP EF (1 − i)23 .

(1 + i)10
)BMMF MB QBSUF SFBM EF ·
(1 − i)6
0CTFSWBDJÓO &T DMBSP RVF FO FM DBTP n = 2 TJ w FT VOB SBÎ[ DVBESBEB

EF z FOUPODFT −w FT MB PUSB SBÎ[
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF MBT TPMVDJPOFT EF MB FDVBDJÓO az 2 +bz+c = 0,
FO MB DVBM a, b Z c TPO OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT DPO a = 0 FTUÃO EBEBT QPS MB
GÓSNVMB DVBESÃUJDB VTVBM FTUP FT
+
z = (−b ± b2 − 4ac )/(2a).
&KFSDJDJP 3FTVFMWB MB FDVBDJÓO z 2 − (5 + i)z + 8 + i = 0.

0USB VUJMJEBE EF MB 'ÓSNVMB EF %F .PJWSF DPOTJTUF FO MB EFEVDDJÓO
EF VOB NBOFSB TJNQMF EF BMHVOBT JEFOUJEBEFT USJHPOPNÊUSJDBT
&KFNQMP 1SPCFNPT RVF TFO3θ = 3 DPT2 θ TFOθ − TFO3 θ Z
DPT 3θ = DPT3 θ − 3 DPT θ TFO2 θ.
&O FGFDUP DPNP (DPT θ + iTFOθ)3 = DPT 3θ + i TFO3θ BM EFTBSSPMMBS FM MBEP

J[RVJFSEP Z BQMJDBS MB JHVBMEBE EF MBT QBSUFT SFBM F JNBHJOBSJB SFTQFDUJ
WBNFOUF TF PCUJFOF RVF
DPT 3θ = DPT3 θ − 3 DPT θTFO2 θ, TFO3θ = 3 DPT2 θ TFOθ − TFO3 θ.

&KFNQMP %FNPTUSFNPT RVF QBSB UPEP θ ∈ R EJGFSFOUF EF VO NÙM

UJQMP EF 2π Z QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n TF DVNQMF RVF
1 TFO(nθ + θ/2)
1 + DPT θ + DPT(2θ) + · · · + DPT(nθ) = + ·
2 2 TFO(θ/2)
n+1
-B DMBWF DPOTJTUF FO VTBS MB JEFOUJEBE 1+z +z 2 +· · ·+z n = z z−1−1 , QBSB
z = 1 DPO z = DPT θ + i TFOθ /PUFNPT RVF DPNP θ OP FT VO NÙMUJQMP EF
2π FOUPOFT z = 1. "TÎ MBT DPTBT UFOFNPT RVF
1 + (DPT θ + i TFOθ) + (DPT θ + i TFOθ)2 + · · ·

(DPT θ + i TFOθ)n+1 − 1
+ (DPT θ + i TFOθ)n = ,
DPT θ + i TFOθ − 1
MP DVBM QPS MB GÓSNVMB EF %F .PJWSF FT FRVJWBMFOUF B
1 + DPT θ + i TFOθ + DPT(2θ) + i TFO(2θ) + · · · + DPT(nθ)

DPT(nθ + θ) + i TFO(nθ + θ) − 1
+ iTFO(nθ) = ·
DPT θ + i TFOθ − 1
1BSB EFNPTUSBS
CBTUB JHVBMBS MBT QBSUFT SFBMFT FO MB JEFOUJEBE QSF
WJB PCUFOJÊOEPTF RVF
1 + DPT θ + DPT(2θ) + · · · + DPT(nθ) =

1 DPT(nθ + θ) DPT θ − DPT(nθ + θ) + TFO(nθ + θ) TFOθ
2 +
2(1 − DPT θ)
1 DPT(nθ) − DPT(nθ + θ)
= 2 +
2(1 − DPT θ)
1 2 TFO( 2nθ+θ
2 ) TFO( 2 )
θ
= 2 + (∗∗)
2(1 − DPT θ)
1 TFO(nθ+θ/2)
= 2 + 2 TFO(θ/2) ·
&O (∗∗) IFNPT VTBEP MB JEFOUJEBE
DPT x − DPT y = 2 TFO((x + y)/2) TFO((y − x)/2),
Z FO MB ÙMUJNB MÎOFB VTBNPT MB JEFOUJEBE 1 − DPT θ = 2 TFO2 (θ/2).

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP θ ∈ R EJGFSFOUF EF VO NÙMUJQMP EF
2π Z QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n TF DVNQMF RVF
DPU(θ/2) DPT(nθ + θ/2)
1 + TFOθ + TFO(2θ) + · · · + TFO(nθ) = − ·
2 2 TFO(θ/2)

&KFSDJDJP 6TBOEP MB GÓSNVMB EF %F .PJWSF Z MB JEFOUJEBE CÃTJDB

EF MB USJHPOPNFUSÎB QSVFCF RVF
TFO 5θ = 5 DPT4 θ TFOθ − 10 DPT2 θ TFO3 θ + TFO5 θ
Z
DPT 5θ = 16 DPT5 θ − 20 DPT3 θ + 5 DPT θ.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB vn = DPT( 2π 2π
n ) + i TFO( n ) DPO n ≥ 2 àKP VOB SBÎ[
nÊTJNB EF 1 1SVFCF RVF UPEBT MBT SBÎDFT EJGFSFOUFT
EF MB VOJEBE TPO
1, vn , vn2 , . . . , vnn−1 .
)BDJFOEP VTP EF MB JEFOUJEBE FOVODJBEB FO FM &KFNQMP EFEV[DB RVF

MB TVNB EF MBT SBÎDFT nÊTJNBT EF 1 TVNBO DFSP
$PNP DPOTFDVFODJB EF MB QSJNFSB QBSUF EF FTUF FKFSDJDJP QPEFNPT
FOVODJBS PUSB GPSNB EF IBMMBS MBT SBÎDFT nÊTJNBT EF VO DPNQMFKP z0 = 0
1BSB FMMP CBTUB DPOPDFS MBT SBÎDFT nÊTJNBT EF MB VOJEBE Z VOB SBÎ[
nÊTJNB EF z0 &O FGFDUP TJ c ∈ C FT EJDIB SBÎ[ FOUPODFT
c, cvn , cvn2 , . . . , cvnn−1 ,
FT FM DPOKVOUP EF UPEBT MBT SBÎDFT nÊTJNBT EJTUJOUBT EFM DPNQMFKP

z0 = 0
Im(z) Im(z)
v82
v3
v83 v8
1 v84
Re(z)
1
v87
v85
v32
v86
'JHVSB 3BÎDFT DÙCJDBT Z PDUBWBT EF MB VOJEBE
0CTFSWBDJÓO $VBOEP n ≥ 3 MBT SBÎDFT nÊTJNBT EF 1 DPSSFTQPOEFO

B MPT WÊSUJDFT EF VO QPMÎHPOP SFHVMBS EF n MBEPT JOTDSJUP FO VOB DJS
DVOGFSFODJB VOJUBSJB DFOUSBEB FO FM PSJHFO 6OP EF UBMFT WÊSUJDFT FT MB
SBÎ[ w = 1 ZB RVF vnn = 1. 1BSB BZVEBS DPO FTUB FYQMJDBDJÓO WB
NPT B JMVTUSBS QSJNFSP FM DBTP n = 3 6OB SBÎ[ DÙCJDB EJGFSFOUF EF 1 FT

v3 = DPT( 2π 2π 2
3 ) + i TFO( 3 ) "M DBMDVMBS v3 , FT EFDJS NVMUJQMJDBSMB QPS TÎ
NJTNB PCUFOFNPT PUSB SBÎ[ FKFSDJDJP BOUFSJPS
DPO BSHVNFOUP BVNFO
UBEP FO 2π/3 -VFHP MBT USFT SBÎDFT DÙCJDBT EF 1 TF PCUJFOFO BTÎ SPUBOEP
SFTQFDUP B v3 VO ÃOHVMP EF 2π/3 DPOTFHVJNPT v32 Z SFTQFDUP B FTUB SP
UBOEP 2π/3 MPHSBNPT v33 = 1. &M NJTNP SB[POBNJFOUP WBMF QBSB FM DBTP
HFOFSBM n > 3 FTUP FT MB SBÎ[ vn UJFOF BSHVNFOUP 2π/n Z QPS UBOUP
SPUBOEP VO ÃOHVMP EF 2π/n FM WFDUPS BTPDJBEP B vn DPOTFHVJNPT vn2
SPUBOEP FTUB FM NJTNP ÃOHVMP TF PCUJFOF MB SBÎ[ vn3 , Z BTÎ TVDFTJWBNFOUF
IBTUB MMFHBS B MB SBÎ[ nÊTJNB vnn = 1.

#JCMJPHSBGÎB
<"&> "NBOO ) Z &TDIFS + "OBMZTJT * #JSLIÅVTFS 7FSMBH

<#4> #BSUMF 3 Z 4IFSCFSU % *OUSPEVDUJPO UP SFBM BOBMJTZT B &E

+PIO 8JMFZ 4POT

<#$> #BVNTMBH # Z $IBOEMFS # 5IFPSZ BOE 1SPCMFNT PG (SPVQ

5IFPSZ 4DIBVNhT 0VUMJOF 4FSJFT .D(SBX)JMM #PPL $PNQBOZ

<#> #MPDI & % 5IF 3FBM /VNCFST BOE 3FBM "OBMZTJT 4QSJOHFS

<'8> 'MFUDIFS 1 Z 8BZOF 1BUUZ $ 'PVOEBUJPOT PG IJHIFS NBUIF

NBUJDT 184 1VC
<(> (BVHIBO & % *OUSPEVDUJPO UP BOBMZTJT B &E ".4O

<),> )PGGNBO , Z ,VO[F 3 ¦MHFCSB MJOFBM 1)* 1SFOUJDF)BMM *O

UFSOBUJPOBM

<+(3> +JNÊOF[ #FDFSSB - 3 (PSEJMMP "SEJMB + & Z 3VCJBOP 0SUF

HÓO ( / 5FPSÎB EF /ÙNFSPT QBSB QSJODJQJBOUFT 'BDVMUBE EF
$JFODJBT 6OJWFSTJEBE /BDJPOBM EF $PMPNCJB

<+#> #VSHPT 3PNÓO + EF $ÃMDVMP JOàOJUFTJNBM EF VOB WBSJBCMF

.D(SBX)JMM

<-> -BOH 4 ¦MHFCSB MJOFBM 'POEP &EVDBUJWP *OUFSBNFSJDBOP 4"

<-> -BOH 4 6OEFSHSBEVBUF "MHFCSB B &E 4QSJOHFS

<.2> .VÒP[ + . *OUSPEVDDJÓO B MB UFPSÎB EF DPOKVOUPT B &E

6OJWFSTJEBE /BDJPOBM EF $PMPNCJB

<1#> 1FUUPGSF[[P " + Z #ZSLJU % 3 *OUSPEVDDJÓO B MB UFPSÎB EF

MPT OÙNFSPT -POEPO 1SFOUJDF)BMM

<4> 4QJWBL . $BMDVMVT $ÃMDVMP JOàOJUFTJNBM 3FWFSUF

4F
HVOEB &EJDJÓO
<:> :PVOH 3 . 8IFO JT Rn B àFME .BUI (B[

"QÊOEJDF
5FNBT PQDJPOBMFT
&O MB QSJNFSB QBSUF EF FTUF BQÊOEJDF QSFTFOUBNPT BMHVOPT FMFNFOUPT

SFMBDJPOBEPT DPO UÊDOJDBT EF DPOUFP MVFHP JOUSPEVDJNPT MBT OPDJPOFT
EF DPOKVOUP àOJUP F JOàOJUP Z BMHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT &O MB UFSDFSB QBS
UF TF QSFTFOUBSÃO BMHVOPT IFDIPT FMFNFOUBMFT Z DPNQMFNFOUBSJPT TPCSF
DBNQPT QPTUFSJPSNFOUF VO CPTRVFKP TPCSF QPMJOPNJPT Z àOBMNFOUF MB
SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM EF VO OÙNFSP SFBM
" &MFNFOUPT EF DPOUFP

-PT DPODFQUPT RVF QSFTFOUBSFNPT FO FTUB TFDDJÓO TFSÃO EF UJQP CÃTJDP
*OJDJBSFNPT DPO FM QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP EFTQVÊT MBT OPDJP
OFT EF WBSJBDJÓO Z DPNCJOBDJÓO
1BSB GBDJMJUBS MP RVF TJHVF TVQPOHBNPT RVF FO VOB QFRVFÒB SFVOJÓO
IBZ USFT IPNCSFT h1 , h2 , h3 Z UBNCJÊO IBZ DJODP NVKFSFT m1 , . . . , m5 .
y$VÃOUBT QPTJCMFT QBSFKBT EF CBJMF IPNCSFNVKFS TF QVFEFO GPSNBS $PO
FM IPNCSF h1 TF QVFEFO GPSNBS DJODP QBSFKBT EF CBJMF VOB QPS DBEB
NVKFS RVF TF BTPDJF DPO ÊM FM IPNCSF h2 UBNCJÊO QVFEF GPSNBS DJODP
QBSFKBT EF CBJMF Z EF JHVBM NBOFSB FM IPNCSF h3 . &O UPUBM TF DPOTUJUVZFO
5 + 5 + 5 = 3 · 5 = 15 QBSFKBT EF CBJMF &O FTUB JMVTUSBDJÓO MBT QBSFKBT
TF PCUJFOFO BM DPOTJEFSBS DPOKVOUBNFOUF EPT FWFOUPT VOP FTDPHFS VO
IPNCSF Z EPT FTDPHFS VOB NVKFS
1SJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EF DPOUFP TJ VO FWFOUP QVFEF PDVSSJS EF m NB

OFSBT Z DVBOEP IB TJEP FGFDUVBEP QPS DVBMRVJFSB EF FMMBT PUSP FWFOUP
QVFEF PDVSSJS EF n NBOFSBT FOUPODFT MPT EPT FWFOUPT KVOUPT QVFEFO
PDVSSJS EF m · n NBOFSBT
&KFNQMP " y%F DVÃOUBT NBOFSBT QVFEFO FTDPHFSTF VOB DPOTPOBOUF

Z VOB WPDBM EF MB QBMBCSB `m/BK2MiQ $PNP IBZ DJODP DPOTPOBOUFT Z

DVBUSP WPDBMFT QPS FM QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP QPEFNPT FTDPHFS

5 · 4 = 20 QBSFKBT EF MFUSBT DPOGPSNBEBT DBEB VOB EF FMMBT QPS VOB
DPOTPOBOUF Z VOB WPDBM
&M QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP TF QVFEF HFOFSBMJ[BS EF MB NB
OFSB OBUVSBM B WBSJPT FWFOUPT
&KFNQMP " $POTJEFSFNPT MPT EÎHJUPT EFM TJTUFNB EFDJNBM FT EFDJS MPT
FMFNFOUPT EFM DPOKVOUP D = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. y$VÃOUPT OÙNFSPT
QBSFT EF USFT DJGSBT NBZPSFT RVF TF QVFEFO PCUFOFS DPO FTUPT EÎHJ
UPT 1BSB PCUFOFS OÙNFSPT EF USFT DJGSBT DPO MBT DPOEJDJPOFT TFÒBMBEBT
EFCFNPT DPOTJEFSBS USFT FWFOUPT VOP FM EÎHJUP EF MBT DFOUFOBT EFCF TFS
NBZPS RVF DFSP EPT FM EÎHJUP EF MBT EFDFOBT QVFEF TFS DVBMRVJFSB Z USFT
FM EF MBT VOJEBEFT EFCF TFS QBS $PNP FM QSJNFS FWFOUP QVFEF EBSTF EF
GPSNBT FM TFHVOEP EF Z FM UFSDFSP EF NBOFSBT FOUPODFT FM OÙNFSP
QPTJCMF EF OÙNFSPT DPO MBT DPOEJDJPOFT QFEJEBT FT 9 · 10 · 5 = 450.
&KFNQMP " $POTJEFSFNPT MPT EÎHJUPT 2, 5, 6 Z 8.
B
y$VÃOUPT OÙNFSPT EF EPT DJGSBT TF QVFEFO PCUFOFS TJ TF QVFEFO SFQFUJS
MBT DJGSBT )BZ EPT FWFOUPT JOWPMVDSBEPT BDÃ VOP MMFOBS MB DBTJMMB
EF MBT EFDFOBT DPO MPT OÙNFSPT EBEPT Z EPT MMFOBS MB DBTJMMB EF
MBT VOJEBEFT &M QSJNFS FWFOUP QVFEF DVNQMJSTF EF DVBUSP GPSNBT
EJGFSFOUFT Z QPS DBEB VOB EF FTUBT DPNP TF QVFEFO SFQFUJS MBT
DJGSBT FM TFHVOEP FWFOUP UJFOF UBNCJÊO DVBUSP PQDJPOFT 1PS FM
QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP SFTVMUBO 42 = 16 OÙNFSPT EF
EPT DJGSBT
C
y$VÃOUPT OÙNFSPT EF USFT DJGSBT TF QVFEFO PCUFOFS TJ TF QVFEFO SFQF
UJS TPMP MBT EPT ÙMUJNBT DJGSBT "QMJDBNPT OVFWBNFOUF FM QSJODJQJP
GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP FO FTUF DBTP TPO USFT FWFOUPT MPT RVF EF
CFO PDVSSJS DPOKVOUBNFOUF QBSB PCUFOFS MPT OÙNFSPT EF USFT DJGSBT
DPO MBT DPOEJDJPOFT QFEJEBT &M EÎHJUP EF MBT DFOUFOBT TF QVFEF FT
DPHFS EF 4 NBOFSBT VOB WF[ FTDPHJEP FTUF RVFEBO TPMP USFT EÎHJUPT
EJTQPOJCMFT QBSB MMFOBS MB DBTJMMBT EF MBT EFDFOBT Z DPNP QVFEFO
SFQFUJSTF MBT EPT ÙMUJNBT DJGSBT UBNCJÊO EJTQPOFNPT EF USFT QPTJ
CJMJEBEFT QBSB FTDPHFS FM EÎHJUP EF MBT VOJEBEFT "TÎ RVF SFTVMUBO
4 · 3 · 3 = 36 OÙNFSPT
D
y$VÃOUPT OÙNFSPT NBZPSFT RVF 6000 Z NFOPSFT RVF 10000 TF QVFEFO
PCUFOFS $PNP MPT OÙNFSPT EFCFO TFS EF DVBUSP DJGSBT UFOFNPT RVF
DPNCJOBS DVBUSP FWFOUPT FM EÎHJUP EF MBT VOJEBEFT EF NJMMBS TPMP
UJFOF EPT PQDJPOFT FM Z FM $BEB VOP EF MPT PUSPT USFT FWFOUPT
UJFOFO DVBUSP QPTJCJMJEBEFT ZB RVF TF QVFEFO SFQFUJS DJGSBT (6555

"QÊOEJDF
P 8266 TBUJTGBDFO MBT DPOEJDJPOFT

-VFHP SFTVMUBO 2 · 43 = 128
OÙNFSPT FOUSF 6000 Z 10000
E
y$VÃOUPT OÙNFSPT EF DVBUSP DJGSBT TF QVFEFO PCUFOFS $PO MP FY
QVFTUP FO MPT MJUFSBMFT BOUFSJPSFT DPOTJEFSBNPT RVF RVFEB DMBSP
RVF SFTVMUBO 44 = 256 OÙNFSPT EF DVBUSP DJGSBT
&KFSDJDJP " 3FTVFMWB MPT TJHVJFOUFT QSPCMFNBT

"M MBO[BS BM UJFNQP EPT NPOFEBT Z VO EBEP yEF DVÃOUBT NBOFSBT
QVFEFO DBFS

y$VÃOUPT OÙNFSPT EF USFT DJGSBT EJGFSFOUFT NFOPSFT RVF 400 QVFEFO
GPSNBSTF DPO MPT EÎHJUPT 1, 2, 3, 4 Z 5

y$VÃOUPT OÙNFSPT EF USFT DJGSBT P NFOPT QVFEFO GPSNBSTF DPO MPT
EÎHJUPT 1, 2, 3, 4 Z 5 TJ OP UJFOFO DJGSBT SFQFUJEBT
%FQFOEJFOEP EF MB JNQPSUBODJB EFM PSEFO P OP FO MBT BHSVQBDJPOFT
PCUFOJEBT EF n FMFNFOUPT IBCMBNPT EF WBSJBDJPOFT P DPNCJOBDJPOFT
&TUPT DPODFQUPT TPO EFàOJEPT B DPOUJOVBDJÓO
%FàOJDJÓO " 6OB WBSJBDJÓO EF n PCKFUPT UPNBEPT EF r FO r (r ≤ n)
FT VOB PSEFOBDJÓO EF MPT r FMFNFOUPT UPNBEPT FOUSF MPT n MB DVBM TF
EJTUJOHVF EF PUSB ZB TFB QPS VO FMFNFOUP P QPS VO PSEFO EJGFSFOUF
-BT WBSJBDJPOFT FO MBT RVF TF JOWPMVDSBO MPT n PCKFUPT (n = r) TF
MMBNBO QFSNVUBDJPOFT
1PS FKFNQMP MBT WBSJBDJPOFT EF EPT FO EPT GPSNBEBT DPO MBT MFUSBT
a, b, c, d TPO MBT TJHVJFOUFT
ab ac ad ba bc bd ca cb cd da db dc
/PUFNPT RVF EPT EF FMMBT EJàFSFO ZB TFB QPS VOB MFUSB P QPS VOB PS
EFOBDJÓO EJGFSFOUF EF MBT MFUSBT -BT WBSJBDJPOFT EF USFT FO USFT TPO FO
UPUBM 24 MP DVBM TF FYQMJDB BTÎ MB QSJNFSB MFUSB TF PCUJFOF EF NBOFSBT
VOB WF[ TF UFOHB FTUB RVFEBO QPTJCJMJEBEFT QBSB MB TFHVOEB MFUSB Z
àOBMNFOUF QBSB MB QPTJDJÓO UFSDFSB RVFEBO EPT PQDJPOFT 1PS FM QSJODJ
QJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP UFOFNPT 4 · 3 · 2 = 24 WBSJBDJPOFT UPNBEBT
EF B USFT
6OB GÓSNVMB QBSB DBMDVMBS MBT WBSJBDJPOFT EF n PCKFUPT UPNBEPT EF

r FO r TF EFEVDF EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB OPUFNPT JOJDJBMNFOUF RVF FTUP
FRVJWBMF B FODPOUSBS FM OÙNFSP EF PSEFOBNJFOUPT EF r PCKFUPT DVBOEP
EJTQPOFNPT EF n EF FMMPT &M QSJNFS MVHBS TF QVFEF FTDPHFS EF n QPTJCJ
MJEBEFT Z DVBOEP IB TJEP FTDPHJEP EF BMHVOB EF FMMBT FM TFHVOEP MVHBS

QVFEF TFS MMFOBEP EF BMHVOB EF MBT n − 1 PQDJPOFT EJTQPOJCMFT $PNP

DBEB NBOFSB EF PDVQBS FM QSJNFS MVHBS QVFEF BTPDJBSTF DPO DBEB NB
OFSB EF PDVQBS FM TFHVOEP QPS FM QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP FM
OÙNFSP EF NBOFSBT FO RVF TF QVFEFO PDVQBS MPT EPT QSJNFSPT MVHBSFT
FTUÃ EBEP QPS n(n − 1). "IPSB CJFO DVBOEP MPT EPT QSJNFSPT MVHBSFT
IBO TJEP PDVQBEPT EF DVBMRVJFSB EF FTUBT NBOFSBT FM UFSDFS MVHBS QVFEF
MMFOBSTF EF n − 2 GPSNBT 3B[POBOEP DPNP BOUFT FM OÙNFSP EF NBOFSBT
FO RVF QVFEFO TFS PDVQBEPT USFT MVHBSFT FT n(n−1)(n−2). 1SPDFEJFOEP
EF FTUB GPSNB Z OPUBOEP RVF TF JOUSPEVDF VO OVFWP GBDUPS QPS DBEB MVHBS
PDVQBEP UFOFNPT RVF FM OÙNFSP EF NBOFSBT EF PDVQBS MPT r QVFTUPT FT
FM QSPEVDUP EF MPT r GBDUPSFT
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − (r − 1)).
4J EFOPUBNPT QPS n Vr FM OÙNFSP EF MBT WBSJBDJPOFT EF n PCKFUPT UPNBEPT

EF r FO r UFOFNPT RVF
n
Vr = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1).
&M TVQFSÎOEJDF n EFOPUB FM OÙNFSP EF PCKFUPT EJTQPOJCMFT Z FM TVCÎOEJDF

r JOEJDB UBOUP FM OÙNFSP EF FMFNFOUPT FO DBEB VOB EF MBT BHSVQBDJPOFT
FO FM PSEFOBNJFOUP DPNP FM OÙNFSP EF GBDUPSFT FO FM QSPEVDUP
0CTFSWFNPT RVF DVBOEP r = n FT EFDJS FO FM DBTP EF QFSNVUBDJPOFT

EF n PCKFUPT MBT DVBMFT EFOPUBNPT QPS Pn FM OÙNFSP EF FTUBT FTUÃ EBEP
QPS n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · 1 = n! $PODSFUBOEP Pn = n!
&KFNQMP "

y$VÃOUPT OÙNFSPT EJGFSFOUFT EF DJGSBT QVFEFO PCUFOFSTF DPO MPT
OVFWF EÎHJUPT 1, 2, 3, . . . , 9 $PNP MB JEFB FT PDVQBS TJFUF MVHBSFT
JNQPSUB FM PSEFO
EJTQPOJFOEP EF PCKFUPT FTUBNPT IBCMBOEP EF
WBSJBDJPOFT EF FMFNFOUPT UPNBEPT BM NJTNP UJFNQP EF FO
FT EFDJS 9 V7 = 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 = 181440.

y$VÃOUBT PSEFOBDJPOFT QVFEFO UFOFSTF DPO MB MFUSBT EF MB QBMBCSB
+m/2`MQ y$VÃOUBT DPNJFO[BO DPO + Z UFSNJOBO DPO Q -B QSJ
NFSB QBSUF TF USBUB EF QFSNVUBS MBT PDIP MFUSBT EF MB QBMBCSB
DVBEFSOP Z QPS UBOUP MB SFTQVFTUB FT 8! = 40320. 1BSB MB TF
HVOEB QBSUF WBO B RVFEBS àKBT MB QSJNFSB Z ÙMUJNB MFUSBT Z FO
DPOTFDVFODJB CBTUB QFSNVUBS MBT PUSBT TFJT MFUSBT MP RVF OPT EB
VO OÙNFSP EF 1 · 6! · 1 = 720 FT EFDJS 720 QFSNVUBDJPOFT EF
MBT MFUSBT EF MB QBMBCSB DVBEFSOP DPNJFO[BO DPO + Z UFSNJOBO
DPO Q

"QÊOEJDF

y%F DVÃOUBT NBOFSBT QVFEFO PSEFOBSTF MJCSPT FO VO FTUBOUF TJ USFT
MJCSPT EFUFSNJOBEPT TJFNQSF EFCFO FTUBS KVOUPT 7BNPT B DPOTJEF
SBS MPT USFT MJCSPT RVF TJFNQSF EFCFO FTUBS KVOUPT DPNP VO TPMP UPNP
Z BTÎ DPOWFSUJNPT FM QSPCMFNB FO VOB QFSNVUBDJÓO EF PCKFUPT
MP DVBM EB 4! NBOFSBT EF PSEFOBSMPT 1FSP QPS DBEB VOB EF FTUBT
EFCFNPT UFOFS FO DVFOUB RVF FM UPNP EF MPT USFT MJCSPT OPT PGSFDF
3! PSEFOBDJPOFT &O DPOTFDVFODJB FYJTUFO 4! · 3! = 144 NBOFSBT
EF PSEFOBS MPT MJCSPT EFKBOEP USFT MJCSPT EFUFSNJOBEPT TJFNQSF
KVOUPT
&KFSDJDJP "

5SFT NBUSJNPOJPT TF SFÙOFO QBSB DFMFCSBS FM BOJWFSTBSJP EF VOP EF
FMMPT %FTFBO RVF MFT UPNFO VOB GPUPHSBGÎB EF GPSNB RVF FTUÊO UPEPT
MPT IPNCSFT KVOUPT Z UBNCJÊO MBT NVKFSFT y%F DVÃOUBT GPSNBT
EJTUJOUBT QVFEFO IBDFSMP

$PO MPT EÎHJUPT QBSFT yDVÃOUPT OÙNFSPT NFOPSFT RVF TF QVFEFO
GPSNBS

&O MBT WBSJBDJPOFT TJO SFQFUJDJÓO
RVF QPEFNPT GPSNBS DPO MBT OVFWF
DJGSBT TJHOJàDBUJWBT FT EFDJS DPO MBT DJGSBT 1, 2, . . . , 9 UPNBEBT EF
USFT FO USFT yDVÃOUBT WFDFT FTUÃ MB DJGSB

4J TF TVQPOFO PSEFOBEBT UPEBT MBT QFSNVUBDJPOFT RVF TF QVFEFO GPS
NBS DPO MBT DJGSBT 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 FO PSEFO DSFDJFOUF yRVÊ MVHBS PDV
QB MB QFSNVUBDJÓO
"IPSB OPT PDVQBNPT EF QSFTFOUBS MBT BHSVQBDJPOFT FO MBT DVBMFT FM

PSEFO OP JNQPSUB
%FàOJDJÓO " $BEB VOP EF MPT HSVQPT RVF QVFEFO GPSNBSTF UPNBOEP
BMHVOPT P UPEPT MPT PCKFUPT EJTQPOJCMFT EF NPEP RVF EPT DVBMFTRVJFSB EF
FMMPT EJàFSFO FO BMHÙO PCKFUP TF MMBNB VOB DPNCJOBDJÓO
$PNP FKFNQMP OPUFNPT RVF MBT DPNCJOBDJPOFT RVF QVFEFO GPSNBS

TF DPO MBT MFUSBT a, b, c, d UPNBEBT EF EPT FO EPT TPO MBT TJHVJFOUFT
ab, ac, ad, bc, bd, cd EPOEF EPT DVBMFTRVJFSB EF FMMBT EJàFSFO FO VOB MF
USB 3FDBMDBNPT RVF QBSB GPSNBS DPNCJOBDJPOFT TPMP JOUFSFTB FM OÙNFSP
EF FMFNFOUPT RVF DPOUJFOF DBEB TFMFDDJÓO NJFOUSBT RVF QBSB GPSNBS WB
SJBDJPOFT UFOFNPT RVF DPOTJEFSBS UBNCJÊO FM PSEFO EF MPT FMFNFOUPT RVF
GPSNBO DBEB PSEFOBDJÓO "TÎ ab Z ba TPO MB NJTNB DPNCJOBDJÓO QFSP
TPO WBSJBDJPOFT EJTUJOUBT

&KFNQMP " %F MBT MFUSBT a, b, c, d UPNBEBT EF B USFT PCUFOFNPT MBT

DPNCJOBDJPOFT abc, abd, bcd Z acd $BEB VOB EF FTUBT DPNCJOBDJPOFT
BENJUF 3! PSEFOBDJPOFT Z QPS UBOUP FM UPUBM EF WBSJBDJPOFT EF MBT DVBUSP
MFUSBT UPNBEBT EF B USFT FO USFT TPO DPNP ZB TBCÎBNPT
7BNPT B EFEVDJS BIPSB VOB GÓSNVMB RVF OPT QFSNJUB IBMMBS FM OÙNFSP
EF DPNCJOBDJPOFT EF n PCKFUPT EJGFSFOUFT UPNBEPT EF r FO r %FOPUFNPT
UBM OÙNFSP QPS n Cr $PO n = 4 Z r = 3 FM FKFNQMP BOUFSJPS TVHJFSF
RVF n Cr · r! = n Vr . "àSNBNPT RVF FO SFBMJEBE FTUB JHVBMEBE FT DJFSUB
FO FGFDUP DPNP DBEB VOB EF MBT DPNCJOBDJPOFT DPOUJFOF r FMFNFOUPT
EJGFSFOUFT RVF DPNP TBCFNPT QVFEFO TFS PSEFOBEPT FOUSF TÎ EF r! NB
OFSBT FOUPODFT FM QSPEVDUP n Cr · r! FT JHVBM BM OÙNFSP EF WBSJBDJPOFT
EF n PCKFUPT UPNBEPT EF B r FM DVBM IFNPT EFOPUBEP QPS n Vr %F FTUB
NBOFSB RVFEB QSPCBEB MB BàSNBDJÓO 4FHVJEBNFOUF WBNPT B PCUFOFS MB
GÓSNVMB QSPNFUJEB Z QBSB FMMP SFDPSEFNPT RVF
n
Vr = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1)
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1)(n − r)!
=
(n − r)!
n!
= ,
(n − r)!
EF MP DVBM TF TJHVF RVF
n!
n
Cr = · "
r!(n − r)!
4J FO MB GÓSNVMB "
IBDFNPT n = r Z DPNP n Cn = 1 FOUPODFT MB
EFàOJDJÓO 0! = 1 RVFEB QMFOBNFOUF NPUJWBEB 0CTFSWFNPT UBNCJÊO RVF
FO EJDIB GÓSNVMB BM DBNCJBS r QPS n − r PCUFOFNPT RVF n Cr = n Cn−r .
&KFNQMP " 6O FTUVEJBOUF UJFOF RVF DPOUFTUBS EF MBT QSFHVO

UBT EF VO FYBNFO y%F DVÃOUBT GPSNBT EJGFSFOUFT QVFEF DPOUFTUBS y:
TJ MBT USFT QSJNFSBT TPO PCMJHBUPSJBT y: TJ EF MBT DJODP QSJNFSBT IB EF
DPOUFTUBS B DVBUSP 1BSB MB QSJNFSB QBSUF OP JNQPSUB FM PSEFO TF USBUB
EF IBMMBS UPEPT MPT HSVQPT QPTJCMFT EF FMFNFOUPT EF VO UPUBM EF
10!
FT EFDJS IBZ 10 C8 = 2!8! = 45 QPTJCMFT HSVQPT EJGFSFOUFT EF QSFHVO
UBT 1BSB MB TFHVOEB QBSUF DPNP PCMJHBUPSJBNFOUF EFCF SFTQPOEFS MBT
USFT QSJNFSBT FOUPODFT EF MBT TJFUF SFTUBOUFT GPSNB HSVQPT EF B DJODP
7!
Z BTÎ QVFEF SFTQPOEFS MBT QSFHVOUBT EF 7 C5 = 5!2! = 21 NBOFSBT
'JOBMNFOUF QBSB SFTPMWFS FTUB JORVJFUVE OPUFNPT RVF IBZ EPT FWFOUPT
JOWPMVDSBEPT FM QSJNFSP DPOTJTUF FO TFMFDDJPOBS HSVQPT EF B EF DJODP
EJTQPOJCMFT Z FM TFHVOEP FWFOUP DPOTJTUF FO FTDPHFS HSVQPT EF B EF

"QÊOEJDF
MBT DJODP SFTUBOUFT &M QSJNFS FWFOUP QVFEF EBSTF EF 5 C4 = 5 NBOFSBT

Z FM TFHVOEP UBNCJÊO EF 5 C4 NBOFSBT 1PS FM QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM
DPOUFP IBZ NBOFSBT EF SFTQPOEFS FM FYBNFO CBKP FTUBT DPOEJDJPOFT
&KFNQMP " $BMDVMFNPT FM OÙNFSP EF EJBHPOBMFT RVF UJFOF VO QP

MÎHPOP EF MBEPT Z FO HFOFSBM QBSB VOP EF O MBEPT -BT EJBHPOBMFT
TF PCUJFOFO VOJFOEP WÊSUJDFT QFSP EFCFNPT SFTUBS MPT MBEPT EFM QP
MÎHPOP ZB RVF FTUPT OP TPO EJBHPOBMFT $PO MPT WÊSUJDFT TF GPSNBO
12 C = 66 TFHNFOUPT Z BTÎ FM OÙNFSP EF EJBHPOBMFT EF VO EPEFDÃHPOP
2
FT 66 − 12 = 54 1BSB FM QPMÎHPOP EF n MBEPT BQMJDBNPT FM NJTNP SB[P
OBNJFOUP FM OÙNFSP EF TFHNFOUPT RVF TF DPOTJHVFO DPO MPT n WÊSUJDFT
FTUÃ EBEP QPS n C2 Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB FM OÙNFSP EF EJBHPOBMFT FT
n! n(n − 1) n(n − 3)
n
C2 − n = −n= −n= ·
2(n − 2)! 2 2
&KFNQMP " &O VO UFTU EF QSFHVOUBT DPO EPT PQDJPOFT yEF DVÃO
UBT GPSNBT QVFEFO NBSDBSTF MBT QSFHVOUBT QBSB RVF BM NFOPT FTUÊO
DPSSFDUBT &M QSPCMFNB FT FRVJWBMFOUF B FODPOUSBS FM OÙNFSP EF NBOFSBT
EF SFTQPOEFS FM FYBNFO GBMMBOEP FO B MP TVNP USFT QSFHVOUBT FTUP FT
Ó JODPSSFDUBT &TUF OÙNFSP FTUÃ EBEP QPS
20 20 20 20
C3 + C2 + C1 + C0 = 1351.
&KFSDJDJP " %F JOHMFTFT Z BNFSJDBOPT TF WB B GPSNBS VO DPNJUÊ

EF JOUFHSBOUFT y%F DVÃOUBT NBOFSBT QVFEF IBDFSTF TJ DPNP NÎOJNP
EFCFO FTUBS BNFSJDBOPT
n 7BMF MB QFOB NFODJPOBS

n
RVF TF BDPTUVNCSB UBNCJÊO VTBS MB OPUBDJÓO
r QBSB EFOPUBS Cr .
&KFSDJDJP "
n+1 n
n

4FBO n, r ∈ N DPO r + 1 ≤ n %FNVFTUSF RVF r+1 = r+1 + r .

1SVFCF RVF TJ r ∈ N FTUÃ àKP FOUPODFT
n

r+k r+n+1
= .
k n
k=0

n
n

%FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB DBEB n ∈ N TF DVNQMF RVF k = n2n−1
k
k=0

" $POKVOUPT àOJUPT F JOàOJUPT

%FàOJDJÓO "
J
4FBO A Z B EPT DPOKVOUPT OP WBDÎPT %FDJNPT RVF A Z B TPO
FRVJQPUFOUFT P RVF UJFOFO MB NJTNB QPUFODJB TJ FYJTUF VOB GVODJÓO
CJZFDUJWB f EF A FO B
4J A Z B TPO FRVJQPUFOUFT FTDSJCJNPT A ∼ B.
JJ
%FàOJNPT FM TFHNFOUP JOJDJBM EF OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT DPNP FM DPO
KVOUP Jn := {k ∈ N : 1 ≤ k ≤ n} QBSB BMHÙO n ∈ N.
/ÓUFTF RVF Jn = Jm TJ Z TPMP TJ Jn ⊆ Jm Z Jm ⊆ Jn TJ Z TPMP TJ
m ≤ n Z n ≤ m TJ Z TPMP TJ m = n
JJJ
6O DPOKVOUP A TF EJDF àOJUP TJ FT WBDÎP P FT FRVJQPUFOUF B BMHÙO
TFHNFOUP JOJDJBM EF OBUVSBMFT Jn .
JW
6O DPOKVOUP A FT JOàOJUP TJ OP FT àOJUP
0CTFSWBDJPOFT
4J VO DPOKVOUP A FT àOJUP Z OP WBDÎP QPEFNPT
FTDSJCJS A = {x1 , . . . , xn }. &O FGFDUP FYJTUFO n ∈ N Z f : Jn → A
CJZFDUJWB Z QPS UBOUP TJ QBSB DBEB i ∈ Jn , xi := f (i), FOUPODFT
A = {f (i) : 1 ≤ i ≤ n} = {xi : 1 ≤ i ≤ n} ≡ {x1 , . . . , xn }.

&T GÃDJM WFS RVF ∼ FT VOB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJWBMFODJB FT EFDJS FT
SFáFYJWB TJNÊUSJDB Z USBOTJUJWB
&KFSDJDJP " %FNVFTUSF RVF MB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJQPUFODJB ∼ FT VOB

SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJWBMFODJB
&M TJHVJFOUF MFNB FT EF HSBO JNQPSUBODJB Z OPT TFSÃ EF BZVEB NÃT

BEFMBOUF
-FNB " 4FBO m ≥ 1 Z n ≥ 1 OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT 4J FYJTUF

f : Jm → Jn VOP B VOP FOUPODFT m ≤ n : SFDÎQSPDBNFOUF
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 'JKBSFNPT MB WBSJBCMF n ∈ N Z VTBSFNPT JOEVDDJÓO TPCSF

m &O FM DBTP QBSUJDVMBS n = 1 TJ FYJTUF f : Jm → {1} JOZFDUJWB
FOUPODFT f FT VOB GVODJÓO DPOTUBOUF Z QPS MB JOZFDUJWJEBE TF UJFOF RVF
m = 1 1PS UBOUP QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF n > 1 4FB
Pm : FYJTUF f : Jm → Jn JOZFDUJWB ⇒ m ≤ n.
1SPCFNPT RVF Pm TF DVNQMF QBSB UPEP m ∈ N.

"QÊOEJDF
4J m = 1 DPNP FM DPOTFDVFOUF EF P1 FT WFSEBEFSP FOUPODFT P1 FT DJFSUB

4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF Pk FT DJFSUB QBSB k ≥ 1 Z EFNPTUSFNPT RVF Pk+1
UBNCJÊO FT DJFSUB 4VQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUF F : Jk+1 → Jn JOZFDUJWB Z
WFBNPT RVF k + 1 ≤ n 1BSB FMMP DPOTJEFSFNPT EPT DBTPT
∃ l ∈ Jk+1 UBM RVF F (l) = n 1PS TFS F JOZFDUJWB FTUF l FT ÙOJDP 4J
l = k + 1 QPS FM TVQVFTUP RVF FTUBNPT IBDJFOEP MB SFTUSJDDJÓO EF F B
Jk Z DPO WBMPSFT FO Jn {n} FT EFDJS MB BQMJDBDJÓO F |Jk : Jk → Jn−1 FT
JOZFDUJWB -B IJQÓUFTJT EF JOEVDDJÓO JNQMJDB RVF k ≤ n − 1 Z QPS UBOUP
k + 1 ≤ n. "IPSB CJFO TJ l = k + 1 FOUPODFT EFàOJFOEP
F (k + 1) := p (p < n)
DPOTUSVJNPT MB GVODJÓO φ : Jk → Jn−1 BTÎ

F (x) TJ x = l
φ(x) :=
p TJ x = l.
&T DMBSP RVF FTUB BQMJDBDJÓO SFTVMUB JOZFDUJWB -B IJQÓUFTJT JOEVDUJWB

JNQMJDB RVF k ≤ n − 1
∀ l ∈ Jk+1 , F (l) = n. %FàOBNPT ψ : Jk+1 → Jn QPS

F (x) TJ x = k + 1
ψ(x) :=
n TJ x = k + 1.
$PNP ψ FT JOZFDUJWB FOUPODFT MB BQMJDBDJÓO ψ|Jk : Jk → Jn {n} UBN

CJÊO FT JOZFDUJWB Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB MB IJQÓUFTJT EF JOEVDDJÓO OVFWB
NFOUF JNQMJDB RVF k ≤ n − 1. -VFHP FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO HBSBOUJ[B
RVF Pm TF DVNQMF QBSB UPEP m ≥ 1. 1BSB FM SFDÎQSPDP OÓUFTF RVF MB

BQMJDBDJÓO JODMVTJÓO i : Jm → Jn EBEB QPS i(x) = x FT JOZFDUJWB
4VQPOHBNPT RVF MB SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJQPUFODJB ∼ FTUÃ EFàOJEB FO

BMHVOB DPMFDDJÓO BEFDVBEB EF DPOKVOUPT C %FOPUBSFNPT QBSB A ∈ C
MB DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB EF A QPS |A| Z MB MMBNBNPT DBSEJOBM EFM DPOKVOUP
" FT EFDJS
|A| := {X ∈ C : X ∼ A}.
&O FM DBTP EF RVF FM DPOKVOUP A TFB àOJUP UFOFNPT VOB EFàOJDJÓO BM
UFSOBUJWB EFM DBSEJOBM EF A DPNP TJHVF

n TJ A ∼ Jn , QBSB BMHÙO n ≥ 1
|A| :=
0 TJ A = ∅.

&T FWJEFOUF RVF Jn UJFOF DBSEJOBM n 0CTFSWFNPT RVF |A| FTUÃ CJFO EF
àOJEP QVFT TJ A ∼ Jn Z A ∼ Jm FOUPODFT Jn ∼ Jm Z FO WJSUVE EFM
-FNB " TF UJFOF m = n /PUFNPT UBNCJÊO RVF EF FTUB EFàOJDJÓO TF
EFTQSFOEF RVF FO FM DBTP A àOJUP FM DBSEJOBM EF A FT FM OÙNFSP EF
FMFNFOUPT EFM DPOKVOUP A
&KFNQMP " &M DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT FT JOàOJUP 4J N

GVFSB àOJUP FYJTUJSÎB VOB GVODJÓO f : Jn → N CJZFDUJWB QBSB BMHÙO
n ∈ N 1FSP p := f (1) + · · · + f (n) > f (x) QBSB UPEP x ∈ Jn Z BTÎ
p∈ / f (Jn ) = N MP DVBM DPOUSBEJDF RVF p ∈ N 0USB GPSNB EF QSPCBS RVF
N FT JOàOJUP DPOTJTUF FO BQMJDBS FM BYJPNB EF 1FBOP "1
TVQPOHBNPT
RVF N FT àOJUP Z TFB k FM NÃYJNP EF TVT FMFNFOUPT 1PS FM DJUBEP BYJPNB
k + FT VO OÙNFSP OBUVSBM Z FT UBM RVF k + > k, MP RVF DPOUSBEJDF MB
NBYJNBMJEBE EF k.
&KFNQMP " 4FBO A, B, C, D TVCDPOKVOUPT OP WBDÎPT EF VO DPOKVO

UP U 4J A ∼ C Z B ∼ D FOUPODFT A × B ∼ C × D. 4J BEFNÃT
A ∩ B = C ∩ D = ∅ FOUPODFT A ∪ B ∼ C ∪ D 1SPCFNPT MB QSJNFSB
BàSNBDJÓO FYJTUFO CJZFDDJPOFT f : A → C Z g : B →D %FàOBNPT MB
GVODJÓO h : A × B → C × D QPS h(a, b) := f (a), g(b) . $PNP f Z g TPO
CJZFDUJWBT h UBNCJÊO FT CJZFDUJWB -VFHP A × B ∼ C × D. 1BSB QSPCBS
MB TFHVOEB BàSNBDJÓO EFàOBNPT Φ : A ∪ B → C ∪ D QPS

f (x) TJ x ∈ A
Φ(x) :=
g(x) TJ x ∈ B.
&O QSJNFS MVHBS PCTFSWFNPT RVF Φ FTUÃ CJFO EFàOJEB QVFTUP RVF A ∩ B
FT WBDÎP 7FBNPT RVF Φ FT VOP B VOP 4VQPOHBNPT RVF x, y ∈ A ∪ B
TPO UBMFT RVF x = y. &OUPODFT TJ x, y ∈ A QPS MB JOZFDUJWJEBE EF f
Φ(x) = Φ(y) %F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF DPODMVZF TJ x, y ∈ B. &O FM DBTP EF
RVF x ∈ A Z y ∈ B FT DMBSP RVF Φ(x) = Φ(y) QVFT C ∩ D = ∅. -VFHP Φ
FT JOZFDUJWB 'JOBMNFOUF TJ z ∈ C ∪D FOUPODFT MB EJTZVOUJWJEBE EF FTUPT
DPOKVOUPT JNQMJDB RVF P CJFO z ∈ C P CJFO z ∈ D &O DVBMRVJFS DBTP MB
TPCSFZFDUJWJEBE EF f Z EF g OPT QFSNJUF DPODMVJS RVF FYJTUF x ∈ A ∪ B
UBM RVF Φ(x) = z. -VFHP Φ FT TPCSF
-FNB " 1BSB UPEP n ∈ N DPO n ≥ 1 UPEP TVCDPOKVOUP EF Jn FT

àOJUP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO -B EFNPTUSBDJÓO FT QPS JOEVDDJÓO TPCSF n. 4J n = 1 MPT

ÙOJDPT TVCDPOKVOUPT EF J1 TPO ∅ Z J1 RVF TPO àOJUPT 4VQPOHBNPT RVF MB
BàSNBDJÓO TF DVNQMF QBSB n ≥ 1 Z TFB B ⊆ Jn+1 DPO B = ∅. 1SPCFNPT
RVF B FT àOJUP 4J B ⊆ Jn MB IJQÓUFTJT EF JOEVDDJÓO JNQMJDB RVF B FT

"QÊOEJDF
àOJUP 4J B OP FT TVCDPOKVOUP EF Jn FOUPODFT FYJTUF x ∈ B DPO x ∈ / Jn

MP RVF JNQMJDB RVF x ∈ Jn+1 Jn . 1PS UBOUP x = n + 1 Z BTÎ n + 1 ∈ B
"IPSB CJFO DPNP B ⊆ Jn+1 FYJTUF A ⊆ Jn UBM RVF B = A ∪ {n + 1}.
1PS MB IJQÓUFTJT EF JOEVDDJÓO A FT àOJUP Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUFO r ∈ N Z
f : A → Jr CJZFDUJWB %FàOBNPT h : B → Jr+1 QPS

f (x) TJ x ∈ A
h(x) :=
r + 1 TJ x = n + 1.
%FKBNPT DPNP FKFSDJDJP QBSB FM MFDUPS QSPCBS RVF h FT CJZFDUJWB -VFHP

B ⊆ Jn+1 FT àOJUP Z RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM MFNB QBSB UPEP n ≥ 1

&KFSDJDJP " %FNVFTUSF RVF MB BQMJDBDJÓO h EFàOJEB FO MB QSVFCB EFM

-FNB " FT CJZFDUJWB
1SPQPTJDJÓO " 4J A FT àOJUP Z B ⊆ A FOUPODFT B FT àOJUP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4J B FT WBDÎP MB DPODMVTJÓO FT JONFEJBUB 4VQPOHBNPT

RVF B = ∅ 1PS MB IJQÓUFTJT FYJTUFO n ∈ N Z f : A → Jn CJZFDUJWB Z
FO DPOTFDVFODJB f (B) ⊆ f (A) = Jn 1PS FM MFNB BOUFSJPS f (B) SFTVMUB
àOJUP $PNP f |B : B → f (B) FT CJZFDUJWB FOUPODFT f (B) ∼ B Z QPS
UBOUP B FT àOJUP
&T JONFEJBUP MP TJHVJFOUF
$PSPMBSJP " 4J A FT JOàOJUP Z B ⊇ A FOUPODFT B UBNCJÊO FT JOà

OJUP
&KFNQMP " $PNP N ⊂ Z Z N FT JOàOJUP FOUPODFT FM $PSPMBSJP "

JNQMJDB RVF Z FT JOàOJUP
5FPSFNB " 4J A Z B TPO àOJUPT FOUPODFT A ∪ B FT VO DPOKVOUP

àOJUP Z BEFNÃT
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|. "
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4J BMHVOP EF MPT DPOKVOUPT FT WBDÎP MBT DPODMVTJPOFT TF

DVNQMFO USJWJBMNFOUF 4VQPOHBNPT FOUPODFT RVF BNCPT DPOKVOUPT TPO
OP WBDÎPT Z RVF BEFNÃT TPO EJTKVOUPT 1PS MB IJQÓUFTJT FYJTUFO OBUVSBMFT
m Z n Z GVODJPOFT f : B → Jm , g : A → Jn CJZFDUJWBT "IPSB CJFO
VTBOEP MB CJZFDDJÓO h : B → {n + 1, . . . , n + m} EBEB QPS
h(k) = f (k) + n,

TF EFEVDF RVF B ∼ {n + 1, . . . , n + m} Z BQMJDBOEP FM &KFNQMP " TF

UJFOF RVF
A ∪ B ∼ Jn ∪ {n + 1, . . . , n + m} = {1, . . . , n + m} = Jn+m .
&O DPOTFDVFODJB A ∪ B FT àOJUP "EFNÃT EF MB EFàOJDJÓO EF DBSEJOBM

EF VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP
|A ∪ B| = n + m = |A| + |B|;
FT EFDJS TF DVNQMF "

QVFT |A ∩ B| = 0. &O FM DBTP HFOFSBM
A ∩ B = ∅, BQMJDBNPT MP PCUFOJEP BOUFSJPSNFOUF B MPT DPOKVOUPT A B
Z B MPT DVBMFT TPO EJTKVOUPT àOJUPT Z A ∪ B = (A B) ∪ B QPS UBOUP
|A ∪ B| = |A B| + |B|. 1FSP A B Z A ∩ B TPO DPOKVOUPT àOJUPT Z
EJTKVOUPT DVZB VOJÓO FT A Z BTÎ |A| = |A B| + |A ∩ B| %F FTUBT EPT
ÙMUJNBT JHVBMEBEFT TF EFEVDF "

6TBOEP JOEVDDJÓO TPCSF FM OÙNFSP EF DPOKVOUPT TF EFNVFTUSB RVF

MB VOJÓO EF VO OÙNFSP àOJUP EF DPOKVOUPT àOJUPT FT VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP
(
k
$PSPMBSJP " 4FB Ai àOJUP QBSB i = 1, 2, . . . , k &OUPODFT Ai FT
i=1
VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP
" &KFSDJDJPT
%FNVFTUSF FM $PSPMBSJP "
1SVFCF RVF TJ |A| = n ∈ N FOUPODFT |P(A)| = 2n , EPOEF P(A)

EFOPUB FM DPOKVOUP EF QBSUFT EF A.
4J A FT VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP EF n FMFNFOUPT Z B FT VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP

EF k FMFNFOUPT yDVÃOUBT GVODJPOFT EF A FO B TF QVFEFO EFàOJS
y$VÃOUBT GVODJPOFT JOZFDUJWBT EF A FO B TF QVFEFO FTUBCMFDFS
4FB k ∈ N àKP %FNVFTUSF RVF N ∼ N {k}
4FB A = ∅ 1SVFCF RVF A × {x} ∼ {x} × A ∼ A.
4FBO A1 , . . . , Ak DPOKVOUPT àOJUPT NVUVBNFOUF EJTKVOUPT FT EFDJS

TJ j = i FOUPODFT Aj ∩ Ai = ∅ %FNVFTUSF RVF
(k k

Ai = |Ai |.
i=1 i=1

"QÊOEJDF
4FBO A Z B DPOKVOUPT àOJUPT &OUPODFT A × B FT àOJUP Z BEFNÃT

|A × B| = |A||B|
4VHFSFODJB VTF MPT FKFSDJDJPT Z
4FBO A Z B DPOKVOUPT àOJUPT DPO A ⊆ B 1SVFCF RVF |A| ≤ |B|.

y&T DJFSUP FM SFDÎQSPDP
4FBO A, B Z C DPOKVOUPT àOJUPT 1SVFCF RVF
|A∪B∪C| = |A|+|B|+|C|−|A∩B|−|A∩C|−|B∩C|+|A∩B∩C|.
4FB A = ∅ VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP %FNVFTUSF RVF FYJTUF VOB GVODJÓO

JOZFDUJWB f : A → N y&T DJFSUP FM SFDÎQSPDP
4FB A = ∅ VO DPOKVOUP àOJUP %FNVFTUSF RVF FYJTUF VOB GVODJÓO
g : N → A TPCSFZFDUJWB y&T DJFSUP FM SFDÎQSPDP
4J f : A → B FT JOZFDUJWB Z A FT JOàOJUP QSVFCF RVF B FT JOàOJUP
%FNVFTUSF RVF TJ A B ∼ B A FOUPODFT A ∼ B
4J A FT JOàOJUP Z B ⊂ A FT àOJUP FOUPODFT A B FT JOàOJUP
" .ÃT TPCSF DBNQPT

&O FTUB TFDDJÓO TF QSFTFOUBO EF NBOFSB CSFWF BMHVOPT IFDIPT SFMBDJP
OBEPT DPO FM DPODFQUP EF DBNQP *OJDJBNPT DPO BMHVOPT FKFNQMPT
&KFNQMP " 4FB F = {0, 1, 2, 3} Z EFàOBNPT FO F MBT PQFSBDJPOFT
⊕ Z EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB m⊕n = m + n Z mn = mn EPOEF m
TJHOJàDB FM SFTUP BM EJWJEJS m QPS 4 &M BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO JNQMJDB
RVF ⊕ Z TPO PQFSBDJPOFT CJOBSJBT -BT TJHVJFOUFT UBCMBT JMVTUSBO UPEPT
MPT SFTVMUBEPT
⊕

&KFNQMP " 4FB F FM DPOKVOUP EFM FKFNQMP BOUFSJPS EPUBEP DPO MBT
NJTNBT PQFSBDJPOFT ⊕ Z &T DMBSP RVF 0 FT OFVUSP QBSB MB TVNB FO
DÎSDVMP ⊕ Z RVF 1 FT OFVUSP QBSB FM QSPEVDUP FO DÎSDVMP y&T F, ⊕,
VO DBNQP /P QPSRVF 2 ∈ F FT EJTUJOUP EF 0 Z OP FYJTUF b ∈ F WFS
UBCMB EF
UBM RVF 2 b = 1 FT EFDJS OP TF DVNQMF FM BYJPNB 1*

&YJTUF VOB NBOFSB EF PCUFOFS DBNQPT àOJUPT DPNP TF JMVTUSB FO FM

FKFNQMP RVF TJHVF
&KFNQMP " 4FBO p ∈ N QSJNP Z Zp := {0, 1, . . . , p − 1} EPUBEP EF
MBT PQFSBDJPOFT CJOBSJBT ⊕ Z NFODJPOBEBT FO MPT FKFNQMPT BOUFSJPSFT
7FBNPT RVF Zp , ⊕, FT VO DBNQP &O FM DBTP QBSUJDVMBS EF VO WBMPS
EF p QPS FKFNQMP p = 3 FODPOUSBNPT RVF QBSB QSPCBS TPMBNFOUF 4"

FM BYJPNB EF MB BTPDJBUJWJEBE EF ⊕ OFDFTJUBNPT WFSJàDBS 33 JHVBMEBEFT
MP DVBM FT QPDP QSÃDUJDP y2VÊ IBDFS FOUPODFT QBSB QSPCBS RVF ⊕ Z
DVNQMFO MPT BYJPNBT EF DBNQP &YJTUF VO DPODFQUP EF MB SBNB EFM ÃMHF
CSB RVF OPT TFSÃ EF NVDIB VUJMJEBE QBSB MMFWBS B DBCP OVFTUSB QSVFCB
IPNPNPSàTNP (SPTTP NPEP FTUF UÊSNJOP EFTDSJCF VOB BQMJDBDJÓO EF VO
TJTUFNB BMHFCSBJDP FO PUSP RVF QSFTFSWB MB FTUSVDUVSB 6OB DBSBDUFSÎTUJDB
EF MPT IPNPNPSàTNPT FT RVF DVBOEP TF DPOPDF VO DÓNQVUP FO VOP EF
MPT TJTUFNBT TF QVFEF SFBMJ[BS FM DÓNQVUP DPO MPT FMFNFOUPT DPSSFTQPO
EJFOUFT FO FM PUSP &T FTB MB JEFB RVF WBNPT B VUJMJ[BS
4FB h : Z → Zp EBEB QPS h(m) := m EPOEF m TJHOJàDB FM SFTUP PCUF
OJEP BM EJWJEJS m QPS p &M BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO HBSBOUJ[B RVF h FTUÃ
CJFO EFàOJEB -B JEFB FT VTBS MB GVODJÓO h QBSB MMFWBS MBT QSPQJFEBEFT
EF MB TVNB PSEJOBSJB FO Z B MB TVNB ⊕ EFàOJEB FO Zp 1BSB FTUP TF
EFNVFTUSB RVF h FT BEJUJWB FT EFDJS h(m + n) = h(m) ⊕ h(n) OPUFNPT
QSJNFSP RVF h(x) = x QBSB UPEP x ∈ Zp FO QBSUJDVMBS h FT TPCSFZFDUJ
WB
1BSB m, n ∈ Z FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO EJDF RVF FYJTUFO ÙOJDPT
FOUFSPT q, q , r Z r DPO 0 ≤ r < p Z 0 ≤ r < p UBMFT RVF
m = pq + r = pq + m , n = pq + r = pq + n. "
"IPSB CJFO QPS EFàOJDJÓO EF ⊕ UFOFNPT RVF h(m)⊕h(n) = h(m) + h(n)

Z QPS PUSB QBSUF EF "
TF EFEVDF RVF
h(m) + h(n) = m + n = m + n − p(q + q ). "
0CTFSWFNPT RVF TJ c ∈ Z FOUPODFT QBSB UPEP z ∈ Z TF UJFOF RVF h(z +

cp) = h(z) &O FGFDUP OVFWBNFOUF FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO HBSBOUJ[B
RVF z = c p + r DPO 0 ≤ r < p Z QPS UBOUP
z + cp = c p + r + cp = (c + c)p + r ;
EF MB EFàOJDJÓO EF h TF TJHVF RVF h(z + cp) = r = h(z). -VFHP EF
"
TF UJFOF RVF
h(m)⊕h(n) = h(m) + h(n) = m + n − p(q + q ) = m + n = h(m+n).

&TUP TJHOJàDB RVF h FT QFSJÓEJDB DPO QFSÎPEP p.

"QÊOEJDF
6O SB[POBNJFOUP BOÃMPHP NVFTUSB RVF h FT NVMUJQMJDBUJWB FTUP FT
h(mn) = h(m) h(n).
$PO BZVEB EF FTUBT EPT QSPQJFEBEFT EF MB GVODJÓO h TF QSVFCBO MPT

BYJPNBT EF DBNQP QBSB Zp 7FBNPT RVF ⊕ FT BTPDJBUJWB TFBO m, n
Z k FO Zp 1PS MB TPCSFZFDUJWJEBE EF h FYJTUFO m , n Z k FO Z UBMFT
RVF h(m ) = m, h(n ) = n Z h(k ) = k -B DMBWF FT BQSPWFDIBS MB
BTPDJBUJWJEBE EF + FO Z Z MBT QSPQJFEBEFT EF h QBSB USBOTGFSJS FTUB
NJTNB QSPQJFEBE B ⊕ FO Zp BTÎ
(m ⊕ n) ⊕ k = [h(m ) ⊕ h(n )] ⊕ h(k ) = h(m + n ) ⊕ h(k )

= h[(m + n ) + k ] = h[m + (n + k )]
= h(m ) ⊕ h(n + k )
= h(m ) ⊕ [h(n ) ⊕ h(k )] = m ⊕ (n ⊕ k).
%F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF QSVFCBO 1"

4$
1$
Z %
$MBSBNFOUF 0
FT OFVUSP EF ⊕ Z FM TJHVJFOUF DÓNQVUP NVFTUSB RVF 1 FT OFVUSP QBSB
TJ m ∈ Zp FOUPODFT
m = h(m) = h(m · 1) = h(m) h(1) = m 1.
1BSB QSPCBS MB FYJTUFODJB EF JOWFSTPT QBSB ⊕ OÓUFTF RVF TJ m ∈ Zp DPO

m > 0 FOUPODFT 0 < p − m < p FT EFDJS p − m ∈ Zp "EFNÃT
m ⊕ (p − m) = m + (p − m) = p = h(p) = 0,
QFSNJUF DPODMVJS RVF p − m FT JOWFSTP BEJUJWP EF m 'JOBMNFOUF WFB

NPT MB FYJTUFODJB EF JOWFSTPT QBSB TFB m = 0, m ∈ Zp &O FTUF
QVOUP VTBSFNPT MB IJQÓUFTJT EF MB QSJNBMJEBE EF p $PNP m < p TV
.ÃYJNP $PNÙO %JWJTPS FT 1 Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUFO FOUFSPT x, y UBMFT RVF
mx + py = 1 -VFHP
h(mx + py) = 1 = h(mx) = h(m) h(x) = m h(x).
&T DMBSP RVF h(x) = 0 Z QPS UBOUP m−1 = h(x) ∈ Zp 2VFEB DPNQMFUB
MB QSVFCB EF RVF Zp , ⊕, FT VO DBNQP DVBOEP p FT QSJNP
1 1 3 2
&KFSDJDJP " &O FM DBNQP Z5 , ⊕, FODVFOUSF , , , ·
2 4 2 4
&KFNQMP " 4FB F VO DBNQP FO FM DVBM 1 + 1 = 0 1PS FKFNQMP
Z2 , ⊕, FT VOP EF FMMPT %FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP a ∈ F, a + a = 0
&O FGFDUP a + a = 1 · a + 1 · a = (1 + 1)a = 0 · a = 0

&KFNQMP " %FNPTUSBS RVF FO VO DBNQP F TF DVNQMF

∀ m, n ∈ N∗ (1 + 1 + · · · + 1) · (1 + 1 + · · · + 1) = 1 + 1 +
· · · + 1

m WFDFT n WFDFT mn WFDFT
-B QSVFCB TF IBDF QPS JOEVDDJÓO TPCSF m Z QBSB TJNQMJàDBS MB FTDSJ

UVSB VTBSFNPT MB OPUBDJÓO n · 1 FO MVHBS EF 1 + 1 +
· · · + 1
n WFDFT
4J m = 1 QPS FM BYJPNB 1/
MB BàSNBDJÓO FT DJFSUB 4VQPOHBNPT RVF
QBSB m = k ≥ 1 TF DVNQMF MB BàSNBDJÓO Z QSPCFNPT QBSB m = k + 1
"QMJDBOEP MB BTPDJBUJWJEBE EF MB TVNB VO OÙNFSP àOJUP EF WFDFT %

1/
Z MB IJQÓUFTJT JOEVDUJWB UFOFNPT
(1 + 1 + · · · + 1) (1 + 1 + · · · + 1) = [(k + 1) · 1][n · 1]

k+1 WFDFT n WFDFT
= [k · 1 + 1][n · 1] = [k · 1][n · 1] + n · 1
= (kn) · 1 + n · 1 = (kn + n) · 1
= [(k + 1)n] · 1
= (1 + 1 + · · · + 1) .

(k+1)n WFDFT
-VFHP MB BàSNBDJÓO TF UJFOF QBSB UPEP m ∈ N

&KFNQMP " 4FB F VO DBNQP Z TVQÓOHBTF RVF QBSB BMHÙO OBUVSBM k
TF UJFOF
1 + 1 +
· · · + 1 = 0. "
k WFDFT
%FNPTUSBS RVF TJ p FT FM NFOPS OBUVSBM DPO FTUB QSPQJFEBE FOUPODFT p
FT VO OÙNFSP QSJNP
&O FGFDUP TFB p FM NFOPS OBUVSBM RVF WFSJàDB "
Z TVQPOHBNPT
RVF OP FT QSJNP &OUPODFT FYJTUFO OBUVSBMFT m Z n DPO 1 < m < p Z
1 < n < p UBMFT RVF p = mn 1PS FM FKFNQMP BOUFSJPS
· · · + 1 = 1 + 1 +
0 = 1 + 1 + · · · + 1
p WFDFT mn WFDFT
= (1 + 1 + · · · + 1) (1 + 1 + · · · + 1) .

m WFDFT n WFDFT
-B DPOTFDVFODJB $
EF MPT BYJPNBT EF DBNQP 5FPSFNB QÃH
JNQMJDB RVF
· · · + 1 = 0
1 + 1 + Ó 1 + 1 +
· · · + 1 = 0.
m WFDFT n WFDFT

"QÊOEJDF
$VBMRVJFSB EF MBT EPT BMUFSOBUJWBT DPOUSBEJDF MB NJOJNBMJEBE EF p. -VF

HP p FT QSJNP
&O FM FKFNQMP BOUFSJPS FM NFOPS OBUVSBM p RVF DVNQMF "
TF MMBNB DB
SBDUFSÎTUJDB EFM DBNQP F &O FM DBTP EF RVF OP FYJTUB UBM OBUVSBM EFDJNPT
RVF MB DBSBDUFSÎTUJDB FT DFSP
&KFNQMP " $POTJEFSFNPT FM DBNQP Zp , ⊕, FTUVEJBEP FO FM &KFN

QMP " &TUF DBNQP OP FT PSEFOBEP QVFT TJ MP GVFSB FM BYJPNB EF
DFSSBEVSB JNQMJDBSÎB RVF
· · · ⊕ 1 ∈ P.
0 = 1 ⊕ 1 ⊕
p WFDFT
&O SFBMJEBE TJ VO DBNQP FT àOJUP FOUPODFT OP QVFEF TFS PSEFOBEP

&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB FTUBCMFDF FTUB BàSNBDJÓO
5FPSFNB " 4J F FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP FOUPODFT F FT JOàOJUP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4F EFàOF MB GVODJÓO ϕ : N∗ → F QPS
ϕ(n) := 1 + 1 +
· · · + 1 .
n WFDFT
7FBNPT RVF ϕ SFTVMUB JOZFDUJWB &GFDUJWBNFOUF TJ ϕ(m) = ϕ(n) Z m = n

TJO QFSEFS HFOFSBMJEBE QPEFNPT TVQPOFS m < n
FOUPODFT
· · · + 1 = 1 + 1 +
1 + 1 + · · · + 1
m WFDFT n WFDFT
Z TFHÙO MB QSPQJFEBE DBODFMBUJWB
· · · + 1 = 0,
1 + 1 +
n−m WFDFT
DPO n − m ∈ N∗ &TUP OP QVFEF PDVSSJS QVFT F FT PSEFOBEP 1PS UBOUP

m = n Z BTÎ ϕ FT VOP B VOP &T DMBSP RVF ϕ(N∗ ) ⊆ F Z RVF
ϕ : N∗ → ϕ(N∗ )
FT CJZFDUJWB FO DPOTFDVFODJB ϕ(N∗ ) ∼ N∗ $PNP N∗ FT JOàOJUP ϕ(N∗ )

UBNCJÊO MP FT Z FTUP JNQMJDB RVF F FT JOàOJUP

" 1PMJOPNJPT
&O FTUB TFDDJÓO QSFTFOUBNPT BMHVOPT UFNBT FMFNFOUBMFT TPCSF QPMJOP
NJPT DPO MB JOUFODJÓO EF QSPWFFS BM MFDUPS JOUFSFTBEP MB JOGPSNBDJÓO
NÎOJNB SFRVFSJEB TPCSF FTUF QBSUJDVMBS &TUÃ FODBNJOBEP B VOB QSFTFO
UBDJÓO EF UJQP PQFSBUJWP Z QPS UBOUP MBT QSVFCBT TFSÃO QPDBT Z MBT SFNJ
UJNPT B SFGFSFODJBT P DVSTPT TVQFSJPSFT EF ÃMHFCSB &YJTUF VOB NBOFSB EF
QSFTFOUBS FM DPODFQUP EF QPMJOPNJP FM DVBM DPOTJTUF FO VTBS TVDFTJPOFT
DVZPT UÊSNJOPT EF VO DBNQP K
TPO OVMPT FYDFQUP VO OÙNFSP àOJUP EF
FMMPT QFSP MB QSFTFOUBDJÓO RVF IBDFNPT FO FTUF UFYUP QPS SB[POFT EF
TJNQMJDJEBE TFSÃ MB USBEJDJPOBM
%FàOJDJÓO " 4FB K VO DBNQP 1PS VO QPMJOPNJP TPCSF K P DPO
DPFàDJFOUFT FO K
FOUFOEFNPT VOB FYQSFTJÓO GPSNBM RVF UJFOF MB GPSNB
p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 ,
EPOEF n ∈ N DBEB DPFàDJFOUF ai ∈ K Z x FT VOB WBSJBCMF P JOEFUFSNJ
OBEB
4J an = 0 EFDJNPT RVF FM QPMJOPNJP p UJFOF HSBEP n MP DVBM EFOPUB
NPT QPS ;`/ (p) = n 1PS SB[POFT UÊDOJDBT FM HSBEP EFM QPMJOPNJP DFSP
0xn + 0xn−1 + · · · + 0, TF EFàOF DPNP −∞.
%FOPUBNPT QPS K[x] FM DPOKVOUP EF QPMJOPNJPT DPO DPFàDJFOUFT FO
K &O EJDIP DPOKVOUP TF EFàOF MB JHVBMEBE Z MBT PQFSBDJPOFT EF TVNB Z
QSPEVDUP EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB QBSB EPT QPMJOPNJPT p(x) = an xn +
an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 Z q(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b0 EFDJNPT
RVF p = q TJ ai = bi QBSB UPEP i TJ QPS FKFNQMP m < n FOUPODFT
am+1 = · · · = an = 0

-B TVNB p + q TF EFàOF DPNP
p(x) + q(x) := a0 + b0 + (a1 + b1 )x + · · · + (aN + bN )xN ,
EPOEF N = NÃY{n, m}. 'JOBMNFOUF FM QSPEVDUP pq TF EFàOF DPNP
p(x)q(x) := a0 b0 + (a0 b1 + a1 b0 )x + (a0 b2 + a1 b1 + a2 b0 )x2
+ · · · + ck xk + · · · + an bm xn+m ,

k
EPOEF ck = aj bk−j .
j=0
%BEP RVF FO HFOFSBM m = n TJO FNCBSHP QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF
m = n ZB RVF MPT DPFàDJFOUFT GBMUBOUFT FO BMHVOP EF MPT QPMJOPNJPT TF
UPNBO JHVBMFT B DFSP

7ÊBTF QPS FKFNQMP <+#> QÃH P <),>

"QÊOEJDF
&O MP RVF SFTUB EF FTUB TFDDJÓO USBCBKBSFNPT TPMP DPO MPT DBNQPT
K = R, K = Q P K = C, B NFOPT RVF TF FTQFDJàRVF PUSP
-B SB[ÓO UÊDOJDB JOUSPEVDJEB FO MB BOUFSJPS EFàOJDJÓO MB DPNQMFNFO
UBNPT DPO MBT DPOWFODJPOFT
−∞ + (−∞) = −∞; −∞ + k = −∞ Z − ∞ < k, ∀ k ∈ N.
"TÎ TJO FYDFQDJPOFT UJFOFO WBMJEF[ MPT TJHVJFOUFT SFTVMUBEPT
&KFSDJDJP " 4FBO p Z q QPMJOPNJPT %FNVFTUSF RVF
;`/ (p + q) ≤ NÃY{;`/ (p), ;`/ (q)}.
5FPSFNB " 4FBO p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 Z
q(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b0
QPMJOPNJPT &OUPODFT ;`/ (pq) = ;`/ (p) + ;`/ (q).
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4J BMHVOP EF MPT QPMJOPNJPT FT DFSP QPS MBT DPOWFODJP

OFT FTUBCMFDJEBT MB DPODMVTJÓO TF UJFOF JONFEJBUBNFOUF 4VQPOHBNPT
FOUPODFT RVF BNCPT QPMJOPNJPT TPO OP OVMPT Z TPO UBMFT RVF ;`/ (p) = n
Z ;`/ (q) = m &TUP JNQMJDB RVF an = 0 Z bm = 0. -VFHP EF MB EFàOJ
DJÓO EF QSPEVDUP EF QPMJOPNJPT TF UJFOF RVF
;`/ (pq) = n + m = ;`/ (p) + ;`/ (q),
DPO MP DVBM TF DPNQMFUB MB QSVFCB

0CTFSWBDJÓO 4J MPT DPFàDJFOUFT OP QFSUFOFDFO B VO DBNQP TJOP B VO

BOJMMP FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS OP FT DJFSUP 1PS FKFNQMP DPOTJEFSFNPT MPT
DPFàDJFOUFT FO FM BOJMMP Z6 Z MPT QPMJOPNJPT
p(x) = 2x2 − 1, q(x) = 3x + 2.
&OUPODFT ;`/ (p) + ;`/ (q) = 3 NJFOUSBT RVF FM QPMJOPNJP
pq = 6x3 + 4x2 − 3x − 2 = 4x2 + 3x + 4
UJFOF HSBEP 2
6O QBS EF DPOTFDVFODJBT TF EFTQSFOEFO EF FTUF UFPSFNB
$PSPMBSJP " 4J p Z q TPO QPMJOPNJPT UBMFT RVF pq = 0 FOUPODFT

BMHVOP EF FMMPT EFCF TFS FM QPMJOPNJP DFSP

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4J BNCPT GVFSBO EJGFSFOUFT EF DFSP Z DPNP ;`/ (pq) =

;`/ (p) + ;`/ (q) FOUPODFT FM MBEP J[RVJFSEP EF FTUB JHVBMEBE TFSÎB −∞
NJFOUSBT RVF FM MBEP EFSFDIP TFSÎB VO OBUVSBM &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJÓO EF
NVFTUSB FM DPSPMBSJP

&O DBTP EF RVF FM QSPEVDUP TFB VO QPMJOPNJP DPOTUBOUF EJGFSFOUF EF

DFSP UFOFNPT RVF 0 = ;`/ (pq) = ;`/ (p) + ;`/ (q) MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF
0 = ;`/ (p) = ;`/ (q) Z BTÎ BNCPT QPMJOPNJPT p Z q TPO DPOTUBOUFT
$PO FTUP RVFEB QSPCBEP MP TJHVJFOUF
$PSPMBSJP " 4J p Z q TPO QPMJOPNJPT UBMFT RVF TV QSPEVDUP pq FT VO

QPMJOPNJP DPOTUBOUF OP OVMP FOUPODFT BNCPT QPMJOPNJPT TPO DPOTUBOUFT
%FàOJDJÓO " 4FBO α ∈ K Z
p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 ∈ K[x].
4F EFàOF p(α) DPNP p(α) = an αn + an−1 αn−1 + · · · + a0 . %FDJNPT RVF

α FT VOB SBÎ[ P VO DFSP EF p(x) TJ p(α) = 0.
&KFNQMP " 4FB p(x) = ax2 + bx + c ∈ K[x] UBM RVF p(α) = 0

QBSB UPEP α ∈ K. 7FBNPT RVF p = 0. &O FGFDUP IBDJFOEP α = 0, 1, −1
PCUFOFNPT RVF c = 0, a + b = 0 Z a = b SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF %F FTUP TF
EFEVDF RVF a = b = c = 0 Z QPS UBOUP p = 0.
&KFNQMP " &M $PSPMBSJP " OP TF DVNQMF TJ FM DBNQP FT àOJUP 1BSB

JMVTUSBS FTUP DPOTJEFSFNPT K = Z2 := {0, 1}, p(x) = x + 1 Z q(x) = x.
&O FTUB JMVTUSBDJÓO UFOFNPT RVF p(x)q(x) = x2 + x DPO p(x)q(x) = 0
QBSB UPEP x ∈ Z2 &TUP JNQMJDB TFHÙO FM FKFNQMP BOUFSJPS RVF p q = 0
TJO FNCBSHP p = 0 Z q = 0.
&M DPOKVOUP K[x] DPO MBT PQFSBDJPOFT EF TVNB Z QSPEVDUP FO ÊM EF

àOJEPT OP FT VO DBNQP QVFT MB QSPQJFEBE JOWFSUJWB OP TF TBUJTGBDF TJO
FNCBSHP SFTVMUB TFS VO EPNJOJP FOUFSP FM DVBM FT TJNJMBS BM EPNJOJP
FOUFSP Z Z FO FTUF IBZ VOB UFPSÎB EF EJWJTJCJMJEBE QPS UBOUP UFOFNPT
TV BOÃMPHB FO K[x] &NQF[BNPT FOVODJBOEP FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJ
TJÓO QBSB QPMJOPNJPT DVZB QSVFCB QVFEF DPOTVMUBSTF QPS FKFNQMP FO
MB SFGFSFODJB <-> QÃH
5FPSFNB " "MHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO

4FBO p, q ∈ K[x] DPO q = 0
&OUPODFT FYJTUFO ÙOJDPT QPMJOPNJPT c(x) FM DPDJFOUF
Z r(x) FM SFTUP

FO K[x] UBMFT RVF p(x) = c(x)q(x) + r(x) DPO r = 0 P CJFO
;`/ (r) < ;`/ (q).

"QÊOEJDF
'JKFNPT a ∈ K. $PNP VOB BQMJDBDJÓO JONFEJBUB EFM BMHPSJUNP EF MB

EJWJTJÓO DPO q(x) = x − a FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP QPMJOPNJP c(x) Z VO ÙOJDP
FMFNFOUP r ∈ K UBMFT RVF p(x) = c(x)(x − a) + r. 0CTFSWFNPT RVF
r = p(a). $PO FTUP QPEFNPT FOVODJBS FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB " 5FPSFNB EFM SFTJEVP

&M SFTUP BM EJWJEJS VO QPMJOPNJP
p(x) QPS x − a FT p(a).
%F MP BOUFSJPS TF EFTQSFOEF FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP CJFO DPOPDJEP
5FPSFNB " 5FPSFNB EFM GBDUPS

4J a FT VO DFSP EF VO QPMJOPNJP
p(x) FOUPODFT FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP QPMJOPNJP c(x) UBM RVF p(x) = c(x)(x−a).
&KFNQMP " )BMMFNPT FM WBMPS EF MB DPOTUBOUF k ∈ R EF NBOFSB RVF

x − 4 TFB GBDUPS EFM QPMJOPNJP p(x) = 9x4 − 35x3 + kx2 + kx − 4. 1BSB
FTUP CBTUB IBMMBS k UBM RVF p(4) = 0, FT EFDJS 9 · 44 − 35 · 43 + 20k = 4,
MP DVBM TF TBUJTGBDF QBSB k = −3.
4J FO FM ÙMUJNP FKFNQMP RVJTJÊSBNPT FODPOUSBS FM QPMJOPNJP DPDJFOUF

c(x) yDÓNP QPEFNPT QSPDFEFS #JFO BEFNÃT EF MB NBOFSB FTUÃOEBS QB
SB EJWJEJS QPMJOPNJPT FYJTUFO PUSBT UÊDOJDBT QBSB IBMMBS EJDIP DPDJFOUF
1SFTFOUBNPT B DPOUJOVBDJÓO VOB EF FMMBT MMBNBEB MB SFHMB EF 3VGàOJ
"OUFT EF QSFTFOUBS EJDIB SFHMB FO BDDJÓO WFBNPT VO SB[POBNJFOUP RVF
MB FYQMJDB TFBO a ∈ R Z
p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 ∈ R[x]
VO QPMJOPNJP EF HSBEP n > 0 4BCFNPT RVF FYJTUFO ÙOJDPT c(x) ∈ R[x] Z

r ∈ R UBMFT RVF p(x) = c(x)(x−a)+r. $PNP FT DMBSP RVF ;`/ (c) = n−1
TVQPOHBNPT RVF
c(x) = qn−1 xn−1 + qn−2 xn−2 + · · · + q1 x + q0
Z IBMMFNPT MPT DPFàDJFOUFT EF FTUF QPMJOPNJP %F MB JHVBMEBE
an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 = (x − a)(qn−1 xn−1 + qn−2 xn−2

+ · · · + q1 x + q0 ) + r
= qn−1 xn + (qn−2 − aqn−1 )xn−1
+ (qn−3 − aqn−2 )xn−2 + · · ·
+ (q0 − aq1 )x + r − aq0 ,

PCUFOFNPT RVF
an = qn−1 ⇐⇒ qn−1 = an
an−1 = qn−2 − aqn−1 ⇐⇒ qn−2 = aqn−1 + an−1
an−2 = qn−3 − aqn−2 ⇐⇒ qn−3 = aqn−2 + an−2

a1 = q0 − aq1 ⇐⇒ q0 = aq1 + a1
a0 = r − aq0 . ⇐⇒ r = aq0 + a0 .
&TUB ÙMUJNB DBEFOB EF JHVBMEBEFT OPT QFSNJUFO SFTVNJS MB 3FHMB EF 3VG

àOJ FO FM TJHVJFOUF FTRVFNB
$PFàDJFOUFT EF p(x) an an−1 an−2 ··· a1 a0

aqn−1 aqn−2 ··· aq1 aq0
$PFG EF c(x) Z FM SFTUP qn−1 qn−2 qn−3 ··· q0 r
0CTFSWFNPT EPT DPTBT FO FM FTRVFNB BOUFSJPS QSJNFSP MPT UÊSNJOPT

EF MB TFHVOEB àMB TF PCUJFOFO NVMUJQMJDBOEP FM OÙNFSP a QPS FM DPFà
DJFOUF EF c(x) QSFWJBNFOUF DPOPDJEP FO MB ÙMUJNB àMB
Z TFHVOEP QPS
MBT JHVBMEBEFT EF BSSJCB B MB EFSFDIB DBEB DPFàDJFOUF EF c(x) TF PCUJFOF
TVNBOEP MB SFTQFDUJWB DPMVNOB
&KFNQMP " 1BSB JMVTUSBS MB NFDÃOJDB DPO MB SFHMB EF 3VGàOJ IBMMF
NPT FM DPDJFOUF Z FM SFTJEVP BM EJWJEJS FM QPMJOPNJP
p(x) = 3x7 + 31x4 − x6 + 21x + 5
QPS x + 2. &O FTUF DBTP a = −2. &TDSJCBNPT FTRVFNÃUJDBNFOUF MB JO

GPSNBDJÓO MB QSJNFSB àMB DPOUJFOF MPT DPFàDJFOUFT EFM QPMJOPNJP EBEP
UFOJFOEP FM DVJEBEP EF FTDSJCJS MPT DPFàDJFOUFT EF MPT UÊSNJOPT EF NBZPS
B NFOPS HSBEP &M QSJNFS UÊSNJOP EF MB TFHVOEB àMB RVF BQBSFDF FO
MB TFHVOEB DPMVNOB
TF PCUJFOF NVMUJQMJDBOEP a = −2 QPS 3 Z BTÎ MB
QSJNFSB DPMVNOB FTUÃ DPOGPSNBEB QPS −1 Z −6 MP DVBM TVNB −7 &TUB
TVNB TF NVMUJQMJDB QPS a = −2 Z FM SFTVMUBEP FT FM UÊSNJOP TJHVJFOUF FO
MB TFHVOEB àMB &TUF QSPDFTP TF SFQJUF IBTUB UFSNJOBS &O MB UFSDFSB àMB
RVFEBO MPT DPFàDJFOUFT EFM QPMJOPNJP DPDJFOUF CVTDBEP FYDFQUP QPS FM
ÙMUJNP OÙNFSP RVF SFQSFTFOUB FM SFTUP EF MB EJWJTJÓO
$PFàDJFOUFT EF p(x) −1
−6 −28 −6 −24
$PFG CVTDBEPT Z FM SFTUP 3 −7 −6 12 −3

"QÊOEJDF
%F FTUB NBOFSB FM QPMJOPNJP DPDJFOUF CVTDBEP FT
3x6 − 7x5 + 14x4 + 3x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 3
Z FM SFTUP EF MB EJWJTJÓO FT 11.
&M TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP QSPQPSDJPOB DPOEJDJPOFT OFDFTBSJBT QBSB RVF

VO SBDJPOBM TFB DFSP EF VO QPMJOPNJP DPO DPFàDJFOUFT SBDJPOBMFT
5FPSFNB " 4FB p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 ∈ R[x] EPOEF

DBEB ai ∈ Z Z TFB r/s ∈ Q DPO (r, s) = 1 VO DFSP EF p(x). &OUPODFT
r | a0 Z s | a n .
%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP
0 = p(r/s) = an (r/s)n + an−1 (r/s)n−1 + an−2 (r/s)n−2 + · · · + a0 ,
NVMUJQMJDBOEP QPS sn PCUFOFNPT
an rn + an−1 rn−1 s + an−2 rn−2 s2 · · · + a0 sn = 0;
EF FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF
(an−1 rn−1 + an−2 rn−2 s + · · · + a0 sn−1 )s = −an rn .
&TUP JNQMJDB RVF s | an rn Z DPNP (r, sn ) = 1 FOUPODFT s | an . %F NBOFSB

TJNJMBS TF EFNVFTUSB RVF r | a0 .

&KFNQMP " 'BDUPSJDFNPT FO FM DBNQP Q TJ FT QPTJCMF FM QPMJOPNJP

p(x) = 4x3 − 24x2 + 23x + 18 1BSB FTUP CBTUB RVF FODPOUSFNPT MPT
FWFOUVBMFT DFSPT SBDJPOBMFT 4FHÙO FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS TJ r/s ∈ Q FT VO
DFSP EF p(x) FOUPODFT MBT SBÎDFT DBOEJEBUBT EFCFO TBUJTGBDFS RVF r | 18
Z s | 4. 1PS UBOUP FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT QPTJCMFT DFSPT EF FTUF QPMJOPNJP FT
1 1 3 3 9 9
{±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ±9, ±18, ± , ± , ± , ± , ± , ± }.
2 4 2 4 2 4
"M FWBMVBS FODPOUSBNPT RVF MPT DFSPT SBDJPOBMFT EF p(x) TPO −1/2, 2 Z
9/2. 4F UJFOF FOUPODFT RVF FM QPMJOPNJP RVFEB GBDUPSJ[BEP DPNP
(x + 1/2)(x − 2)(x − 9/2).
&KFSDJDJP " )BMMF MPT DFSPT SBDJPOBMFT TJ FYJTUFO EFM QPMJOPNJP
p(x) = x6 − x5 − 8x4 − 2x3 + 17x2 + 19x + 6.

&KFNQMP " %FNPTUSFNPT RVF OP FYJTUF VO OÙNFSP SBDJPOBM x UBM RVF

x2 = 3/5. 3B[POFNPT QPS DPOUSBEJDDJÓO Z TVQPOHBNPT RVF TÎ FYJTUF &O
UPODFT EJDIP OÙNFSP FT VO DFSP SBDJPOBM EFM QPMJOPNJP p(x) = 5x2 − 3.
1FSP MPT ÙOJDPT DFSPT SBDJPOBMFT EF FTUF QPMJOPNJP TPO ±1, ±3, ±1/5 Z
±3/5 6O DIFRVFP EJSFDUP NVFTUSB RVF OJOHVOP EF FMMPT BOVMB FM QPMJ
OPNJP Z QPS UBOUP OP FYJTUF VO SBDJPOBM DPO FTB QSPQJFEBE
√ √
&KFSDJDJP " 1SVFCF RVF 2 + 3 FT VO OÙNFSP JSSBDJPOBM
.VZ JNQPSUBOUF FM SFTVMUBEP RVF QSFTFOUBNPT B DPOUJOVBDJÓO DVZB
EFNPTUSBDJÓO QVFEF TFS DPOTVMUBEB FO MB SFGFSFODJB <-> QÃH
5FPSFNB " 5FPSFNB GVOEBNFOUBM EFM ÃMHFCSB
4FB p(x) VO QPMJ
OPNJP FO C[x] EF HSBEP n ≥ 1 &OUPODFT p(x) UJFOF VOB SBÎ[ FO MPT
DPNQMFKPT
$PSPMBSJP " 5PEP QPMJOPNJP FO C[x] EF HSBEP n ≥ 1 UJFOF FYBDUB
NFOUF n SBÎDFT DPNQMFKBT
%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 ∈ C[x] 1PS FM
UFPSFNB GVOEBNFOUBM EFM ÃMHFCSB FYJTUF VOB SBÎ[ r1 ∈ C Z QPS FM UFPSFNB
EFM GBDUPS FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP QPMJOPNJP c1 (x) EF HSBEP n−1 EF NBOFSB RVF
p(x) = c1 (x)(x−r1 ). "QMJDBOEP OVFWBNFOUF FM UFPSFNB GVOEBNFOUBM EFM
ÃMHFCSB BM QPMJOPNJP c1 (x) FODPOUSBNPT r2 ∈ C Z VO ÙOJDP QPMJOPNJP
c2 (x) ∈ C[x] EF HSBEP n − 2 UBM RVF p(x) = c2 (x)(x − r1 )(x − r2 ). &M
SB[POBNJFOUP TF SFQJUF FO VO OÙNFSP àOJUP EF QBTPT ZB RVF ;`/ (p) =
n
IBTUB DPODMVJS RVF
p(x) = an (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) · · · (x − rn ).
'JOBMNFOUF OP QVFEFO FYJTUJS NÃT EF n SBÎDFT ZB RVF TJ α ∈ C DPO
α = ri QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , n FOUPODFT p(α) = 0.

%F MB QSVFCB BOUFSJPS OP RVFEB DMBSP TJ MBT SBÎDFT TPO EJGFSFOUFT EF
IFDIP QVFEFO TFS UPEBT JHVBMFT DPNP MP FWJEFODJBO NVDIPT FKFNQMPT
p(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1 = (x − 1)3 UJFOF DPNP SBÎDFT r1 = r2 = r3 = 1
&TUB TJUVBDJÓO NPUJWB FM TJHVJFOUF DPODFQUP
%FàOJDJÓO " 4FBO K VO DBNQP Z p ∈ K[x] VO QPMJOPNJP OP DPOT
UBOUF %FDJNPT RVF VO FMFNFOUP a ∈ K FT VO DFSP EF NVMUJQMJDJEBE m ≥ 1
TJ (x − a)m | p(x) Z (x − a)m+1 p(x)
4J m = 1 TF BDPTUVNCSB EFDJS RVF a FT VOB SBÎ[ TJNQMF

&M UFPSFNB GVOEBNFOUBM EFM ÃMHFCSB GVF EFNPTUSBEP QPS $BSM 'SJFESJDI (BVTT

B MB FEBE EF WFJOUJEÓT BÒPT (BVTT IJ[P BQPSUFT TJHOJàDBUJWPT FO WBSJBT EJTDJ
QMJOBT UFPSÎB EF OÙNFSPT HFPNFUSÎB BOÃMJTJT BTUSPOPNÎB Z GÎTJDB 5PEPT TVT USBCBKPT
EBO QBSB EPDF WPMÙNFOFT

"QÊOEJDF
5FOJFOEP FO DVFOUB FTUB EFàOJDJÓO FOUSF MBT n SBÎDFT EF VO QPMJOP

NJP EF HSBEP n TF DPOUFNQMB MB NVMUJQMJDJEBE EF DBEB SBÎ[ Z BTÎ EJDIP
QPMJOPNJP QVFEF FTDSJCJSTF FO MB GPSNB
an (x − r1 )n1 (x − r2 )n2 · · · (x − rk )nk ,
EPOEF n1 + n2 + · · · + nk = n.
&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB NVFTUSB RVF MBT SBÎDFT DPNQMFKBT EF VO QPMJOP
NJP DPO DPFàDJFOUFT SFBMFT WJFOFO QPS QBSFT
5FPSFNB " 4J a + ib FT VO DFSP EF VO QPMJOPNJP p(x) ∈ R[x]
FOUPODFT TV DPOKVHBEP a − ib UBNCJÊO FT VO DFSP EF EJDIP QPMJOPNJP
%FNPTUSBDJÓO &T DMBSP RVF TJ b = 0 FM UFPSFNB FT JONFEJBUP QPS UBOUP
QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF b = 0. 1SPCFNPT RVF
(x − a − ib)(x − a + ib) = (x − a)2 + b2
FT GBDUPS EF p(x) EF MP DVBM TF DPODMVZF RVF p(a − ib) = 0 1PS FM
BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO FYJTUFO ÙOJDPT QPMJOPNJPT FM DPDJFOUF q(x) Z FM
SFTJEVP EF MB GPSNB rx + R UBMFT RVF
p(x) = q(x)[(x − a)2 + b2 ] + rx + R.
$PNP p(a + ib) = 0 FOUPODFT r(a + ib) + R = 0 Z QPS UBOUP ra +
R = 0 = rb. $PNP b = 0 FOUPODFT r = 0 = R MP DVBM QSVFCB RVF
p(x) = q(x)[(x − a)2 + b2 ].
0CTFSWBDJÓO &M ÙMUJNP UFPSFNB JNQMJDB RVF UPEP QPMJOPNJP EF HSBEP

JNQBS DPO DPFàDJFOUFT FO R UJFOF QPS MP NFOPT VOB SBÎ[ SFBM
√
&KFNQMP " 4J 12 (1 + i 3) FT VO DFSP EFM QPMJOPNJP
p(x) = 3x4 − 10x3 + 4x2 − x − 6,
FODPOUSFNPT
√ MBT PUSBT SBÎDFT 1PS FM UFPSFNB QSFWJP UFOFNPT RVF
1
2 (1 − i 3) UBNCJÊO FT SBÎ[ EF p(x). 1BSB IBMMBS MBT PUSBT EPT SBÎDFT
CBTUB FODPOUSBS MPT DFSPT EF q(x) EPOEF
√ √
p(x) = q(x)(x − 1/2 − i 3/2)(x − 1/2 + i 3/2)
= q(x)(x2 − x + 1).
1PS EJWJTJÓO PSEJOBSJB EF QPMJOPNJPT FODPOUSBNPT RVF
q(x) = 3x2 − 7x − 6,
DVZBT TPMVDJPOFT
√ TPO 3 Z −2/3 1PS UBOUP MPT DFSPT EF p(x) TPO
1
2 (1 ± i 3), 3 Z −2/3 &T JNQPSUBOUF BOPUBS RVF UBNCJÊO QVEP VTBS
TF FM 5FPSFNB " QBSB IBMMBS FTUPT ÙMUJNPT DFSPT

&KFSDJDJP " &ODVFOUSF VO QPMJOPNJP EF HSBEP 3 Z DPO DPFàDJFOUFT

SFBMFT UBM RVF 1 − i FT VOP EF TVT DFSPT y&T ÙOJDP EJDIP QPMJOPNJP
6O IFDIP NVZ QBSFDJEP BM 5FPSFNB " FT QSFTFOUBEP B DPOUJOVB
DJÓO 4V EFNPTUSBDJÓO VTB JEFBT TJNJMBSFT B MB QSVFCB EF EJDIP UFPSFNB
Z FT EFKBEB DPNP FKFSDJDJP
5FPSFNB " 4FBO p(x) ∈ Q[x]√ VO QPMJOPNJP √DPO DPFàDJFOUFT SBDJP
OBMFT Z a, b ∈√Q UBMFT RVF a + b ∈
/ Q 4J a + b FT VO DFSP EF p(x)
FOUPODFT a − b UBNCJÊO FT VO DFSP EF EJDIP QPMJOPNJP
-B DPOEJDJÓO SFTQFDUP B MPT DPFàDJFOUFT FO FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS OP TF
QVFEF FMJNJOBS DPNP TF FWJEFODJB FO MB TJHVJFOUF JMVTUSBDJÓO TFB
√
p(x) = 2 x2 − 3x − 1.
√
$ÃMDVMPT
√ EJSFDUPT Z TJNQMFT NVFTUSBO RVF p(1 + 2) = 0 QFSP
p(1 − 2) = 0.
&KFSDJDJP " 4FBO a1 , a2 , . . . , an OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT $ÃMDVMPT EJSFDUPT
BSSPKBO RVF
(x + a1 )(x + a2 ) = x2 + (a1 + a2 ) x + a1 a2
(x + a1 )(x + a2 )(x + a3 ) = x3 + (a1 + a2 + a3 ) x2
+ (a1 a2 + a1 a3 + a2 a3 ) x + a1 a2 a3
(x + a1 )(x + a2 )(x + a3 )(x + a4 ) = x4 + (a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 ) x3
+ (a1 a2 + a1 a3 + a1 a4 + a2 a3
+ a2 a4 + a3 a4 ) x2
+ (a1 a2 a3 + a1 a2 a4 + a2 a3 a4
+ a1 a3 a4 ) x + a 1 a 2 a 3 a 4 .
y%FTDVCSJÓ FM QBUSÓO /PUF RVF MB ÙMUJNB JHVBMEBE FT FRVJWBMFOUF B MB
JHVBMEBE
(x + a1 )(x + a2 )(x + a3 )(x + a4 ) = x4 + S1 x3 + S2 x2 + S3 x + S4 ,
EPOEF S1 FT MB TVNB EF MPT OÙNFSPT a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ; S2 FT MB TVNB EF MPT
QSPEVDUPT EF FTUPT DVBUSP OÙNFSPT UPNBEPT EF EPT FO EPT S3 FT MB TVNB
EF MPT QSPEVDUPT EF FTUPT DVBUSP OÙNFSPT UPNBEPT EF USFT FO USFT Z S4
FT MB TVNB EF MPT QSPEVDUPT EF FTUPT DVBUSP OÙNFSPT UPNBEPT UPEPT FTUB
TVNB DPOUJFOF VO TPMP UÊSNJOP QVFT 4 C4 = 1
-B JEFB EF FTUF FKFSDJDJP
FT EFNPTUSBS QPS JOEVDDJÓO QPS FKFNQMP RVF
(x + a1 )(x + a2 ) · · · (x + an ) = xn + S1 xn−1 + S2 xn−2 +

S3 xn−3 + · · · + Sn−1 x + Sn , "

"QÊOEJDF
EPOEF Sr EFOPUB MB TVNB EF MPT QSPEVDUPT EF MPT n OÙNFSPT a1 , . . . , an

UPNBEPT EF r FO r, DPO 1 ≤ r ≤ n.
" DPOUJOVBDJÓO WBNPT B VTBS FM FKFSDJDJP QSFWJP QBSB EFEVDJS VO
JNQPSUBOUF IFDIP RVF QFSNJUF EFTBSSPMMBS VOB QPUFODJB OBUVSBM EF VO
CJOPNJP 1BSB FTUP OPUFNPT JOJDJBMNFOUF RVF MB TVNB Sr FTUÃ DPNQVFTUB
QPS n Cr UÊSNJOPT Z QPS UBOUP TJ IBDFNPT a1 = a2 = · · · = an = a
FOUPODFT Sr = n Cr ar DPO MP DVBM QPEFNPT DPODMVJS RVF
(x + a)n = xn + n C1 axn−1 + n C2 a2 xn−2 + n C3 a3 xn−3
+ · · · + n Cn−1 an−1 x + an
n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3
= xn + nxn−1 a + x a + x a
2! 3!
+ · · · + an
n
n n−k k
= x a . "
k
k=0
&TUB GÓSNVMB SFDJCF SFDJCF FM OPNCSF EF UFPSFNB EFM CJOPNJP

n 0CTFSWF
NPT RVF DPO k = 0 TF UJFOF FM QSJNFS UÊSNJOP x QVFT
n
0 = 1 Z DPO
k = n TF UJFOF FM (n + 1)ÊTJNP UÊSNJOP an ZB RVF nn = 1.
&KFSDJDJP " %FNVFTUSF MBT TJHVJFOUFT JHVBMEBEFT
n
n
n k n
=2 n
Z (−1) = 0.
k k
k=0 k=0
&O FM UFPSFNB EFM CJOPNJP DBNCJBNPT a QPS −a Z PCUFOFNPT FM NJT

NP EFTBSSPMMP QFSP DPO MPT TJHOPT BMUFSOBEPT FNQF[BOEP DPO UÊSNJOP
xn QSFDFEJEP EF TJHOP + Z UFSNJOBOEP DPO an QSFDFEJEP EF (−1)n .ÃT
QSFDJTBNFOUF

n n−1 n n−2 2
(x − a) = x −
n n
x a+ x a + · · · + (−1)n an .
1 2
$PO FTUBT JEFBT FO NFOUF WBNPT B PDVQBSOPT BIPSB EF NPTUSBS MB SF
MBDJÓO FOUSF MPT DPFàDJFOUFT Z MBT SBÎDFT EF VO QPMJOPNJP EF HSBEP n
&TUB SFMBDJÓO FT EF NVDIB BZVEB DVBOEP TF DPOPDF EF NBOFSB QSFWJB
JOGPSNBDJÓO EF MBT SBÎDFT EF VO QPMJOPNJP 4FB p(x) VO QPMJOPNJP FM
DVBM TJO QÊSEJEB EF HFOFSBMJEBE QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF FT EF MB GPSNB
p(x) = xn + An−1 xn−1 + An−2 xn−2 + · · · + A1 x + A0 .
4FBO r1 , r2 , · · · , rn MPT DFSPT EF FTUF QPMJOPNJP &OUPODFT
(x − r1 )(x − r2 ) · · · (x − rn ) = 0.

6TBOEP MB SFMBDJÓO "

Z MB JHVBMEBE FOUSF QPMJOPNJPT DPODMVJNPT RVF
−A1 = r1 + r2 + · · · + rn
A2 = -B TVNB EF MPT QSPEVDUPT EF MBT n SBÎDFT UPNBEBT EF EPT FO EPT
−A3 = -B TVNB EF MPT QSPEVDUPT EF MBT n SBÎDFT UPNBEBT EF USFT FO USFT

(−1)n A0 = r1 r2 · · · rn .
&KFNQMP " 3FTPMWBNPT MB FDVBDJÓO 4x3 − 24x2 + 23x + 18 = 0

TBCJFOEP RVF MBT SBÎDFT FTUÃO FO QSPHSFTJÓO BSJUNÊUJDB %FOPUFNPT QPS
a − d, a Z a + d MBT SBÎDFT EF MB FDVBDJÓO FRVJWBMFOUF
23 9
x3 − 6x2 + x + = 0.
4 2
1PS MB SFMBDJÓO FOUSF MPT DPFàDJFOUFT Z MPT DFSPT EF VO QPMJOPNJP FODPO
USBNPT RVF
3a = 6
a(a − d) + a(a + d) + (a − d2 ) = 23/4
2
a(a2 − d2 ) = −9/2.
%F MB QSJNFSB Z DVBMRVJFSB EF MBT PUSBT EPT FDVBDJPOFT TF PCUJFOF RVF

a = 2 Z d2 = 25/4 "OBMJ[BOEP MBT EPT QPTJCJMJEBEFT QBSB d MMFHBNPT B
RVF MBT SBÎDFT CVTDBEBT TPO −1/2, 2 Z 9/2.
&KFSDJDJP " &ODVFOUSF MPT DFSPT EFM QPMJOPNJP
18x3 + 81x2 + 121x + 60,
TBCJFOEP RVF VOB EF MBT SBÎDFT FT MB TFNJTVNB EF MBT PUSBT EPT
&KFSDJDJP " 4FBO a, b Z c MBT SBÎDFT DPNQMFKBT EF 2x3 − 3x2 + 4x + 1.

)BMMBS
J
a + b + c, ab + ac + bc Z abc.
JJ
a2 + b2 + c2 , a 3 + b3 + c 3 Z a 4 + b 4 + c 4 .
1 1 1 1 1 1
JJJ
a2 b2 + a2 c2 + b2 c2 , + + Z 2 + 2 + 2.
a b c a b c
&KFSDJDJP " )BMMF MB TVNB EF MBT DVBSUBT QPUFODJBT EF MBT SBÎDFT EF
x3 + qx + r FO UÊSNJOPT EF q P r

"QÊOEJDF
&KFSDJDJP " )BMMBS MB DPOEJDJÓO QBSB RVF FM QPMJOPNJP
x3 − px2 + qx − r
UFOHB TVT SBÎDFT FO QSPHSFTJÓO HFPNÊUSJDB

&KFSDJDJP " JBMBT`Qv2+iQ R
"WFSJHVF TPCSF MB SFHMB EF MPT TJHOPT
EF %FTDBSUFT Z BQMÎRVFMB QBSB EFUFSNJOBS FM OÙNFSP EF QPTJCMFT SBÎDFT
QPTJUJWBT OFHBUJWBT Z DPNQMFKBT EF MPT TJHVJFOUFT QPMJOPNJPT
J
2x6 + 3x4 + 2x2 + 9
JJ
x5 − 2x3 + 5x − 7
JJJ
3x4 + 12x2 + 5x − 4
&KFSDJDJP " 1SVFCF RVF FM QPMJOPNJP 2x7 − x4 + 4x3 − 5 UJFOF BM
NFOPT SBÎDFT DPNQMFKBT
&KFSDJDJP " JBMBT`Qv2+iQ k
*OEBHVF TPCSF MB EFTDPNQPTJDJÓO FO
GSBDDJPOFT QBSDJBMFT P TJNQMFT Z BQMÎRVFMB FO MBT TJHVJFOUFT GSBDDJPOFT
QBSB IBMMBS TV EFTDPNQPTJDJÓO FO TVNB EF GSBDDJPOFT TJNQMFT SFBMFT
5x − 11 x3 − 6x2 + 10x − 5
2x2 + x − 6 x4 − 7x3 + 17x2 − 21x + 18
3x2 + x − 2 4x2 − 5x − 15
(x − 2)2 (1 − 2x) x3 − 4x2 − 5x
42 − 19x x2 + x − 1
2
(x + 1)(x − 4) (x2 + 1)2 (x − 2)
6x3 + 5x2 − 7 2x4 − 2x3 + 6x2 − 5x + 1
.
3x2 − 2x − 1 x3 − x2 + x − 1
" 3FQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM EF VO

OÙNFSP SFBM
&O FTUB TFDDJÓO OPT WBNPT B PDVQBS EFM EFTBSSPMMP EFDJNBM Z FO PUSBT
CBTFT
EF VO OÙNFSP SFBM QSJNFSP FO FM DBTP EF VO FOUFSP N Z MVFHP QBSB
DVBMRVJFS SFBM x 4JO QFSEFS HFOFSBMJEBE TVQPOHBNPT RVF N > 0 1PS
FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO FYJTUFO ÙOJDPT FOUFSPT q ≥ 0 Z 0 ≤ r < 10
UBMFT RVF N = 10 · q + r. 4J q < 10 FM EFTBSSPMMP EFDJNBM EFM OBUVSBM N
FTUÃ EBEP QPS N = 10 · q + r · 100 F JEFOUJàDBNPT 10 · q + r · 100 DPO MB
FTDSJUVSB q r OP FT FM QSPEVDUP FOUSF q Z r
Z BTÎ
N = q r = 10 · q + r · 100 .

-MBNBNPT BM OBUVSBM q FM EÎHJUP EF MBT EFDFOBT Z BM OBUVSBM r MP MMBNBNPT

FM EÎHJUP EF MBT VOJEBEFT "IPSB CJFO TJ q > 10 FOUPODFT QPEFNPT BQMJDBS
OVFWBNFOUF FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO QBSB PCUFOFS q = 10 · q1 + r1
QBSB ÙOJDPT OBUVSBMFT q1 Z 0 ≤ r1 < 10. 3FFNQMB[BOEP FTUP MMFHBNPT B
N = 102 · q1 + 10 · r1 + r · 100 . "
4J q1 < 10 FOUPODFT "

FT MB SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM QBSB N Z MMBNB
NPT B q1 FM EÎHJUP EF MBT DFOUFOBT B r1 FM EÎHJUP EF MBT EFDFOBT Z B r FM
EÎHJUP EF MBT VOJEBEFT $PNP BOUFT JEFOUJàDBNPT MB JHVBMEBE FO "
DPO MB FTDSJUVSB N = q1 r1 r. 4J QPS FM DPOUSBSJP q1 > 10 FM QSPDFTP TF

SFQJUF VO OÙNFSP àOJUP EF WFDFT IBTUB DPOTFHVJS VOB FYQSFTJÓO EF MB
GPSNB
N = 10j · qj−1 + 10j−1 · rj−1 + · · · + 10 · r1 + r · 100 . "
-B FYQSFTJÓO "
FT MB SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM QBSB N Z TF JEFOUJàDB
FTUB JHVBMEBE DPO MB FTDSJUVSB N = qj−1 rj−1 · · · r1 r 1PS FKFNQMP
7289 = 7 · 103 + 2 · 102 + 8 · 101 + 9 · 100 .
'JKFNPT BIPSB VO OÙNFSP SFBM x 7FBNPT RVF FYJTUF VOB ÙOJDB SFQSF
TFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM EF x FO VO TFOUJEP RVF QSFDJTBSFNPT NÃT BEFMBOUF
#BTUB TVQPOFS RVF 1 > x ≥ 0 QVFT QBSB x < 0 UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB
RVF x = [[ x ]] + ((x)) EPOEF ((x)) ∈ [0, 1) FT MB QBSUF GSBDDJPOBSJB EF
x IBMMBNPT MB SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM EF ((x)) Z DPO MP FYQVFTUP QSF
WJBNFOUF QBSB [[ x ]] TF PCUJFOF MB FYQBOTJÓO EFDJNBM DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF B
x < 0.
4FB n1 FM NBZPS FOUFSP OP OFHBUJWP UBM RVF n1 /10 ≤ x 5BM FOUFSP
FT n1 = [[ 10 x ]] RVF FWJEFOUFNFOUF BSSPKB MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT
n1 /10 ≤ x < (n1 + 1)/10.
$PNP x ∈ [0, 1) FOUPODFT 0 ≤ 10 x < 10 Z QPS UBOUP 0 ≤ n1 < 10 FTUP

FT 0 ≤ n1 ≤ 9.
4FB r1 := n1 /10 &T DMBSP RVF 0 ≤ r1 Z QPS MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT QSFWJBT
TF UJFOF RVF
r1 ≤ x < r1 + 1/10. "
4FB n2 FM NBZPS FOUFSP OP OFHBUJWP UBM RVF r1 + n2 /102 ≤ x 5BM FOUFSP

FTUÃ EBEP QPS n2 = [[ 102 (x − r1 ) ]] RVF TJHOJàDB MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT
r1 + n2 /102 ≤ x < r1 + (n2 + 1)/102 .

"QÊOEJDF
%FàOJNPT r2 := r1 + n2 /102 = n1 /10 + n2 /102 &T DMBSP RVF r1 ≤ r2 Z

QPS MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT QSFWJBT TF UJFOF RVF
r2 ≤ x < r2 + 1/102 .
%F "
TF UJFOF RVF 0 ≤ x − r1 < 1/10 Z QPS UBOUP
0 ≤ 102 (x − r1 ) < 10
Z BTÎ 0 ≤ n2 ≤ 9 1SPDFEFNPT QPS JOEVDDJÓO TVQPOHBNPT RVF IFNPT

FTDPHJEP n1 , n2 , . . . , nk DPO 0 ≤ nj ≤ 9 QBSB j = 1, 2, . . . , k Z UBNCJÊO
RVF IFNPT FODPOUSBEP 0 := r0 ≤ r1 ≤ r2 ≤ · · · ≤ rk UBMFT RVF
rk = rk−1 + nk /10k Z nk = [[ 10k (x − rk−1 ) ]].
%F MB FYQSFTJÓO QBSB nk TF EFTQSFOEF RVF
rk−1 + nk /10k ≤ x < rk−1 + (nk + 1)/10k ,
MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF

rk ≤ x < rk + 1/10k . "
%FàOBNPT nk+1 := [[ 10k+1 (x − rk ) ]] &OUPODFT
nk+1 ≤ 10k+1 (x − rk ) < nk+1 + 1,
FT EFDJS
rk + nk+1 /10k+1 ≤ x < rk + (nk+1 + 1)/10k+1 .
-VFHP TJ EFàOJNPT rk+1 := rk + nk+1 /10k+1 FOUPODFT
rk+1 ≤ x < rk+1 + 1/10k+1 .
/PUFNPT RVF "

JNQMJDB RVF nk+1 ≥ 0 Z UBNCJÊO TF EFTQSFOEF RVF
0 ≤ nk+1 ≤ 9. &O DPOTFDVFODJB rk ≤ rk+1 .
%F FTUB NBOFSB IFNPT DPOTUSVJEP TVDFTJPOFT {nk } ⊂ N Z {rk } ⊂ R
UBMFT RVF 0 ≤ nk ≤ 9, rk ≤ rk+1 Z BEFNÃT
rk = n1 /10 + n2 /102 + · · · + nk /10k , rk ≤ x < rk + 1/10k
Z
nk = [[ 10k (x − rk−1 ) ]].
%F FTUP TF UJFOF FOUPODFT RVF rk −→ x DVBOEP k → ∞.
3FTVNJNPT MP BOUFSJPS FO FM TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB

5FPSFNB " 4FB 0 ≤ x < 1 &YJTUF VOB TVDFTJÓO EF OBUVSBMFT {nk } UBM
RVF QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM k ≥ 1, 0 ≤ nk ≤ 9 &YJTUF UBNCJÊO VOB TVDFTJÓO
EF SFBMFT {rk } UBM RVF r0 = 0 Z QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM k ≥ 1
rk = n1 /10 + n2 /102 + · · · + nk /10k .
"EFNÃT nk = [[ 10k (x − rk−1 ) ]] Z rk −→ x DVBOEP k → ∞.

4F BDPTUVNCSB VTBS MB FTDSJUVSB x = 0, n1 n2 · · · nk · · · Z MB MMBNBNPT
SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM EFM SFBM x ∈ [0, 1) &TUB FTDSJUVSB TF JEFOUJàDB
DPO n1 /10 + n2 /102 + · · · + nk /10k + · · · .
&O FM DBTP HFOFSBM QBSB x ≥ 0 EBEP VOB FYQBOTJÓO EFDJNBM FTUÃ
EBEB QPS
x = [[ x ]], n1 n2 · · · nk · · · = [[ x ]] + n1 /10 + n2 /102 + · · · + nk /10k + · · · .
&KFNQMP " y2VÊ OÙNFSP SFBM EFOPUB MB SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM

0, 111111 · · ·
%FOPUFNPT EJDIP OÙNFSP QPS x /PUFNPT RVF nk = 1 QBSB UPEP
k ≥ 1 -VFHP
x = MÎN rk = MÎN (1/10 + 1/102 + · · · + 1/10k )

k→∞ k→∞
= (1/10) MÎN (1 + 1/10 + 1/102 + · · · + 1/10k−1 )
k→∞
1 − 1/10k
= (1/10) MÎN = (1/9) MÎN (1 − 1/10k )
k→∞ 9/10 k→∞
= 1/9.
&KFNQMP " )BMMFNPT MB SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM EF x = −17/9.

0CTFSWFNPT RVF x = −17/9 = [[ x ]] + ((x)) = −2 + 1/9 Z QPS UBOUP
CBTUB IBMMBS MB SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM EF MB QBSUF GSBDDJPOBSJB ((x)) =
1/9 RVF QPS FM FKFNQMP QSFWJP FT 0, 11111111 · · · . &O DPODMVTJÓO MB
SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM EF −17/9 FT
[[ x ]] + 0, 111111 · · · = −1, 8888888 · · ·
0CTFSWBDJPOFT
4FBO x ∈ [0, 1) Z k ∈ N &OUPODFT
J
[[ 10k x ]] = 10k rk . &TUP FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT
10k rk ≤ 10k x < 10k rk + 1
RVF TF PCUJFOFO EF "
Z EF MB JHVBMEBE
10k rk = 10k (n1 /10 + n2 /102 + · · · + nk /10k ) ∈ N.

"QÊOEJDF
JJ
%FM MJUFSBM QSFWJP TF EFTQSFOEF PUSB GPSNB EF PCUFOFS nk .ÃT QSF
DJTBNFOUF
[[ 10k x ]] − 10[[ 10k−1 x ]] = nk
QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM k ≥ 1, ZB RVF
[[ 10k x ]] − 10[[ 10k−1 x ]] =

10k rk − 10 · 10k−1 rk−1 = 10k (rk − rk−1 ) = nk .

%BEP VO OÙNFSP SFBM x ≥ 0 1PS MB NBOFSB DPNP IFNPT PCUFOJEP
VO EFTBSSPMMP EFDJNBM TF UJFOF RVF EJDIP OÙNFSP OP QPTFF SFQSFTFOUB
DJÓO EFDJNBM DPO VOB DPMB GPSNBEB TPMBNFOUF QPS FM EÎHJUP &O FGFDUP
TVQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUJFSBO x ∈ R Z p ∈ N∗ UBMFT RVF VO EFTBSSPMMP
EFDJNBM EF x GVFTF EF MB GPSNB
x = n0 , n1 n2 · · · np 99999 · · ·
= n0 + n1 /10 + n2 /102 + · · · + np /10p + 9/10p+1 + 9/10p+2 + · · · ,
DPO n0 = [[ x ]]. &M TJHVJFOUF BSHVNFOUP NPTUSBSÎB RVF 10p x ∈ N QBSB

UPEP m > p
n0 + rm = n0 + n1 /10 + n2 /102 + · · · + np /10p + 9/10p+1

+ 9/10p+2 + · · · + 9/10m

p
ni
= + 9/10p+1 (1 + 1/10 + 1/102 + · · · + 1/10m−p−1 )
10i
i=0

p
p+1 1 − (1/10)
ni m−p
= + 9/10
10i 9/10
i=0

p
ni
= + 1/10p − 1/10m .
10i
i=0

p
ni
)BDJFOEP RVF m → ∞ DPODMVJSÎBNPT RVF x = + 1/10p Z BTÎ
10i
i=0
10p x = 10p (n0 + n1 /10 + n2 /102 + · · · + np /10p ) + 1 ∈ N.
6TBOEP FTUP Z MB QBSUF JJ

EFM OVNFSBM BOUFSJPS MMFHBSÎBNPT B MB DPOUSB
EJDDJÓO
9 = np+2 = [[ 10p+2 x ]] − 10[[ 10p+1 x ]] = 10p+2 x − 10p+2 x = 0.

-VFHP OP FYJTUF x ∈ R DVZB SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM UFOHB DPMB GPSNBEB

QPS FM EÎHJUP

1PS MP BOUFSJPS Z DPNP [[ 10k x ]] − 10[[ 10k−1 x ]] = nk CBKP FTUB
DPOTUSVDDJÓO FM EFTBSSPMMP EFDJNBM EF VO OÙNFSP SFBM x EBEP FT ÙOJDP
TJ OP BENJUJNPT BRVFMMPT RVF UJFOFO DPMB GPSNBEB QPS FM EÎHJUP 4JO
FNCBSHP FT QPTJCMF FODPOUSBS EPT FYQBOTJPOFT EFDJNBMFT EJGFSFOUFT RVF
EFOPUFO FM NJTNP SFBM x 1PS FKFNQMP
1
0, 500000 · · · = 0, 499999 · · · = ·
2

0CTFSWFNPT àOBMNFOUF RVF FO MB DPOTUSVDDJÓO EFM EFTBSSPMMP EF
DJNBM EF VO OÙNFSP SFBM x FM EÎHJUP 10 QVFEF TFS TVTUJUVJEP QPS DVBMRVJFS
OBUVSBM b > 1 4J b > 10 TF VTBO MFUSBT NBZÙTDVMBT A, B, C, D, E, F FO
MVHBS EF b. %FDJNPT FOUPODFT RVF
x = n0 + n1 /b + n2 /b2 + n3 /b3 + · · ·
FT MB SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO FO CBTF b EFM OÙNFSP SFBM x $PNP TF NFODJPOÓ

DPO FTUB DPOTUSVDDJÓO OP TF QSFTFOUB FM DBTP EF OÙNFSPT DPO EFTBSSPMMP
RVF BENJUBO DPMB GPSNBEB QPS FM EÎHJUP b − 1 6TBNPT MB OPUBDJÓO
(x)b = n0 + n1 /b + n2 /b2 + n3 /b3 + · · · Z (x)10 ≡ x.
&KFNQMP " "M BQMJDBS FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO FODPOUSBNPT RVF

(15)2 = 1111. /PUFNPT RVF 1 · 23 + 1 · 22 + 1 · 21 + 1 · 20 = 15.
&KFNQMP " )BMMFNPT FM EFTBSSPMMP UFSOBSJP EF 1/2 FT EFDJS (1/2)3
&O FTUF DBTP nk ∈ {0, 1, 2}, n0 = [[ 1/2 ]] = 0 Z QBSB k ≥ 1,
nk = [[ 3k (1/2 − rk−1 ) ]] Z rk = n1 /3 + n2 /32 + · · · + nk /3k .
-VFHP n1 = 1 Z r1 = 1/3 JNQMJDBO RVF n2 = [[ 32 (1/2 − 1/3) ]] = 1

7FBNPT QPS JOEVDDJÓO RVF nk = 1 QBSB UPEP k ≥ 1. 4VQPOHBNPT RVF
n1 = n2 = · · · = nk = 1 Z WFBNPT RVF nk+1 = 1. &O FGFDUP

2 1 1 − 1/3k
rk = 1/3 + 1/3 + · · · + 1/3 =
k
= 1/2 − 1/(2 · 3k )
3 2/3
HBSBOUJ[B RVF rk+1 = [[ 3k+1 (1/2 − rk ) ]] = [[ 3/2 ]] = 1 &O DPOTFDVFODJB
(1/2)3 = 0, 111111 · · ·
&KFSDJDJP " &ODVFOUSF MBT TJHVJFOUFT SFQSFTFOUBDJPOFT 1/8, (2/5)2 .
&KFSDJDJP " &ODVFOUSF FM OÙNFSP SFBM DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF B
(0, 122222 · · · )4 .

±OEJDF BMGBCÊUJDP
A DPNQMFUP
BDPUBEP PSEFOBEP
JOGFSJPSNFOUF TVCDBNQP
TVQFSJPSNFOUF DBSEJOBM
BMHPSJUNP EF &VDMJEFT DFSP EF VO QPMJOPNJP
BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB
BSHVNFOUP QSJODJQBM DMBTFT SFTJEVBMFT
BSRVJNFEJBOB DMBVTVSB
BTPDJBUJWB DMBVTVSBUJWB
BYJPNB DPMB EF VOB TVDFTJÓO
EF DBNQP
DPNCJOBDJÓO
EF DFSSBEVSB
DPNQBDUP
EF DPNQMFUF[
DPOHSVFODJB
EF DPOUJOVJEBE
DPOKVHBEP
EF FMFDDJÓO
DPOKVOUP
EF PSEFO
EF USJDPUPNÎB JOEVDUJWP
BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP
BYJPNBT DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP
EF 1FBOP DPOKVOUP EF $BOUPS
DPOKVOUP EF PQVFTUPT
DPOKVOUP àOJUP
B DPOKVOUP JOàOJUP
CBTF C DPONVUBUJWB
CPMB DPOUJOVJEBE EFM NÓEVMP
DPQSJNPT
C DPSUBEVSB
DBNQP DPUB JOGFSJPS
BSRVJNFEJBOP DPUB TVQFSJPS
DBSBDUFSÎTUJDB EF DVBESBEP QFSGFDUP

DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP H

DVFSQP IPNPNPSàTNP
D I
EÎHJUP EF MBT DFOUFOBT JEFOUJEBE EFM QBSBMFMPHSBNP
EÎHJUP EF MBT EFDFOBT JNBHJOBSJP QVSP
EÎHJUP EF MBT VOJEBEFT ÎOàNP
EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ JOUFSJPS EF VO DPOKVOUP
EFTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS JOUFSWBMP
EJBHSBNB EF "SHBOE BCJFSUP
EJGFSFODJB BDPUBEP
EJWJTPS DFSSBEP
EJWJTPSFT EF DFSP FODBKBEPT
5FPSFNB EFM
OP BDPUBEP
E JOWFSTP BEJUJWP
FKF JNBHJOBSJP JOWFSTP CJMBUFSBM
FKF SFBM JOWFSTP MBUFSBM B EFSFDIB
FMFNFOUP OFVUSP JOWFSTP MBUFSBM B J[RVJFSEB
FOUFSP JNQBS JOWFSTP NVMUJQMJDBUJWP
FOUFSP QBS JTPNPSàTNP
FOUPSOP
FRVJQPUFOUFT
L
MÎNJUF EF VOB GVODJÓO
F MFZ EF DPNQPTJDJÓO JOUFSOB
GÓSNVMB %F .PJWSF MFZ EF TJHOPT
GBDUPSJBM MFZ EF USJDPUPNÎB
GSPOUFSB MPHBSJUNP
GVODJÓO
BDPUBEB N
GVODJÓO EF %JSJDIMFU OBUVSBM
GVODJÓO FYQPOFODJBM
GVODJÓO 4VDFTPS
M
NÃYJNP
G NÃYJNP DPNÙO EJWJTPS
HSBEP EF VO QPMJOPNJP NÎOJNP
HSVQP NÎOJNP DPNÙO NÙMUJQMP
BCFMJBOP NÙMUJQMP
HSVQPJEF NPEVMBUJWB

±OEJDF BMGBCÊUJDP
NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO QSPEVDUP EF

NVMUJQMJDJEBE EF VO DFSP TVNB EF
QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT
QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO
N DPNQMFUB
OÙNFSP
NBUFNÃUJDB
DPNQMFKP
QSJODJQJP EFM CVFO PSEFO
GPSNB USJHPOPNÊUSJDB
QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP
NÓEVMP

DPNQVFTUP
QSPQJFEBE
QSJNP
DBODFMBUJWB
SFBM
EJTUSJCVUJWB
QPTJUJWP
VOJGPSNF
OÙNFSP e
QVOUP BJTMBEP
OÙNFSPT
QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJÓO
DPNQMFKPT
QVOUP àKP
EF 'FSNBU
QVOUP GSPOUFSB
FOUFSPT
QVOUP JOUFSJPS
OFHBUJWPT
QPTJUJWPT
JSSBDJPOBMFT R
OBUVSBMFT SBÎ[ OÊTJNB
SBDJPOBMFT SBÎ[ OÊTJNB EF VO OÙNFSP DPN
QPTJUJWPT QMFKP
SFBMFT SBÎ[ EF VO QPMJOPNJP
OPUBDJÓO σ SBÎ[ TJNQMF
SFHMB EF 3VGàOJ
O SFMBDJÓO DPNQBUJCMF DPO VOB PQF
PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB SBDJÓO
PSEFO SFMBDJÓO EF FRVJWBMFODJB
UPUBM SFMBDJÓO EF PSEFO UPUBM
SFQSFTFOUBDJÓO EFDJNBM
P
QBSUF FOUFSB S
QBSUF GSBDDJPOBSJB TFHNFOUP EF OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT
QBSUF JNBHJOBSJB TFNJHSVQP
QBSUF SFBM TVCDVCSJNJFOUP
QFSNVUBDJPOFT àOJUP
QMBOP DBSUFTJBOP TVCTVDFTJÓO
QPMJOPNJP TVDFTJÓO
QPMJOPNJPT BDPUBEB

JOGFSJPSNFOUF U
TVQFSJPSNFOUF VOJEBE JNBHJOBSJB
DPOTUBOUF
DPOUSBDUJWB
V
DSFDJFOUF
WBMPS BCTPMVUP
FTUSJDUB
QSPQJFEBEFT
EF $BVDIZ
WBSJBDJÓO
EF 'JCPOBDDJ
WFDJOEBE
EF SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF
EFDSFDJFOUF
FTUSJDUB
MÎNJUF JOGFSJPS EF
MÎNJUF TVQFSJPS EF
NPOÓUPOB
FTUSJDUB
OVMB
TVDFTJÓO EF $BVDIZ
TVDFTPS
TVNB UFMFTDÓQJDB
TVQSFNP
T
UFPSFNB
EFM GBDUPS
BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJÓO
DBSBDUFSJ[BDJÓO EFM TVQSFNP F
ÎOàNP
EF JOUFSWBMPT FODBKBEPT
UFPSFNB EF )FJOF#PSFM
UFPSFNB EFM CJOPNJP
UFPSFNB EFM SFTJEVP
UFPSFNB EFM TBOEXJDI
UFPSFNB EFM WBMPS FYUSFNP
UFPSFNB EFM WBMPS JOUFSNFEJP
UFPSFNB GVOEBNFOUBM EFM ÃMHFCSB

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DDD

4JHJGSFEP %F +FTÙT )FSSÓO 0TPSJP

#PHPUÃ %$ NBS[P EF 

1SJNFSB FEJDJÓO 

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1SPIJCJEB MB SFQSPEVDDJÓO UPUBM P QBSDJBM

$BUBMPHBDJÓO FO MB QVCMJDBDJÓO 6OJWFSTJEBE /BDJPOBM EF $PMPNCJB

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*4#/   QBQFM

 *4#/   EJHJUBM

 .BUFNÃUJDBT  4JTUFNB CJOBSJP .BUFNÃUJDBT

$%%   

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$BQÎUVMP  -PT OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT 

$BQÎUVMP  -PT OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT 

$BQÎUVMP  -PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT 

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"QÊOEJDF 5FNBT PQDJPOBMFT 

±OEJDF BMGBCÊUJDP 

N $POKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT 

f |A 'VODJÓO f SFTUSJOHJEB BM DPOKVOUP A 

&M QSFTFOUF UFYUP GVF NPUJWBEP QSJODJQBMNFOUF QPS MB BVTFODJB EF VO

/FDFTJUBNPT DPOUBS DPO BMHVOPT FMFNFOUPT RVF TFHVSBNFOUF FM MFD

NJOJQSPZFDUPT TPCSF UFNBT RVF BVORVF JNQPSUBOUFT TPO EF GÃDJM BTJNJ

4JHJGSFEP %F +FTÙT )FSSÓO 0TPSJP

 0QFSBDJPOFT CJOBSJBT

%FàOJDJÓO  4FB A VO DPOKVOUP OP WBDÎP 6OB GVODJÓO EF MB GPSNB

6OB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB UBNCJÊO TF MMBNB DMBVTVSBUJWB P MFZ EF DPN

&KFNQMP  'JKFNPT VO DPOKVOUP A Z TFB A = P(A), FM DPOKVOUP

&KFNQMP  4FBO A = {a, b, c} Z ∗ : A × A → A EFàOJEB QPS MB

-B GVODJÓO ∗ BTÎ EFàOJEB FT VOB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB FO A.

FMFNFOUP RVF QPTFF JOWFSTP FT FM DPOKVOUP àKP A Z FT FM NJTNP ZB RVF

0CTFSWBDJÓO &O ÃMHFCSB TF BDPTUVNCSB VTBS QBSB FM JOWFSTP CJMBUFSBM

%FàOJDJÓO  6OB SFMBDJÓO R Z VOB PQFSBDJÓO ∗ EFàOJEBT FO VO DPO

&KFNQMP  &O FM &KFNQMP  MB PQFSBDJÓO i ∪ u Z MB SFMBDJÓO EF JHVBM

0CTFSWBDJÓO $PO FM ÃOJNP EF JS JOUSPEVDJFOEP BM MFDUPS B DVSTPT QPT

 4FB (A, ∗) VO TFNJHSVQP DPO FMFNFOUP OFVUSP e 1SVFCF RVF TJ

 4FBO a, b Z c USFT FMFNFOUPT FO VO TFNJHSVQP (A, ∗) MPT DVBMFT

(c−1 ∗ b−1 ) ∗ a−1 .

 4FB ∗ VOB PQFSBDJÓO DPONVUBUJWB EFàOJEB FO VO DPOKVOUP A.

 4FB (G, ·) VO HSVQP Z TFB a ∈ G VO FMFNFOUP àKP %FàOB VOB

 4FB (G, ∗) VO HSVQP UBM RVF QBSB UPEP QBS EF FMFNFOUPT a Z b

 4FBO (G, ◦) Z (H, ∗) HSVQPT 4J FO G × H TF EFàOF

(g1 , h1 ) (g2 , h2 ) = (g1 ◦ g2 , h1 ∗ h2 ),

QSVFCF RVF (G×H, ) FT VO HSVQP &TUF HSVQP TF MMBNB FM QSPEVDUP

 4FBO (G, ∗) VO HSVQP Z g ∈ G VO FMFNFOUP àKP 4J TF EFàOF f :

 4FBO (G, ∗) VO HSVQP BCFMJBOP Z f : G → G EBEB QPS f (x) = x−1 

 4FB (G, ∗) VO HSVQP Z TVQPOHB RVF f : G → G EFàOJEB QPS

φ(g1 ∗ g2 ) = φ(g1 ) ◦ φ(g2 )

 4FB (G, ∗) VO HSVQP UBM QBSB UPEP a ∈ G TF DVNQMF RVF a ∗ a = e

&YJTUFO WBSJBT NBOFSBT EF QSFTFOUBS MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT QPS FKFNQMP

 $POTUSVDDJÓO BYJPNÃUJDB EF N

0CTFSWBDJÓO &M QSJNFS BYJPNB EJDF FO QBSUJDVMBS RVF FM DPOKVOUP N

EJTUJOUPT 0USB NBOFSB EF FOUFOEFS FM BYJPNB "1

1SPQPTJDJÓO  5PEP OÙNFSP OBUVSBM EJGFSFOUF EF DFSP FT VO

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 6TBNPT FM RVJOUP BYJPNB EFàOJFOEP VO DPOKVOUP EF OB

S = {n ∈ N : (∃ m ∈ N) (S(m) = n)} ∪ {0}.

1SPCFNPT RVF S = N, MP DVBM QSVFCB MB QSPQPTJDJÓO /PUFNPT RVF FO

MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF n+ ∈ S. 2VFEB BTÎ QSPCBEB MB DPOEJDJÓO JJ

#PHPUÃ %$ NBS[P EF

1SJNFSB FEJDJÓO

*4#/ QBQFM

4#/ 1%

*4#/ EJHJUBM

*4#/ QBQFM

*4#/ EJHJUBM

.BUFNÃUJDBT 4JTUFNB CJOBSJP .BUFNÃUJDBT

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$BQÎUVMP 0QFSBDJPOFT CJOBSJBT

$BQÎUVMP -PT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT

$BQÎUVMP -PT OÙNFSPT FOUFSPT

$BQÎUVMP -PT OÙNFSPT SBDJPOBMFT

$BQÎUVMP -PT OÙNFSPT SFBMFT

$BQÎUVMP -PT OÙNFSPT DPNQMFKPT

"QÊOEJDF 5FNBT PQDJPOBMFT

±OEJDF BMGBCÊUJDP

N $POKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT

f |A 'VODJÓO f SFTUSJOHJEB BM DPOKVOUP A

/FDFTJUBNPT DPOUBS DPO BMHVOPT FMFNFOUPT RVF TFHVSBNFOUF FM MFD

NJOJQSPZFDUPT TPCSF UFNBT RVF BVORVF JNQPSUBOUFT TPO EF GÃDJM BTJNJ

0QFSBDJPOFT CJOBSJBT

%FàOJDJÓO 4FB A VO DPOKVOUP OP WBDÎP 6OB GVODJÓO EF MB GPSNB

6OB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB UBNCJÊO TF MMBNB DMBVTVSBUJWB P MFZ EF DPN

&KFNQMP 'JKFNPT VO DPOKVOUP A Z TFB A = P(A), FM DPOKVOUP

&KFNQMP 4FBO A = {a, b, c} Z ∗ : A × A → A EFàOJEB QPS MB

%FàOJDJÓO 6OB SFMBDJÓO R Z VOB PQFSBDJÓO ∗ EFàOJEBT FO VO DPO

&KFNQMP &O FM &KFNQMP MB PQFSBDJÓO i ∪ u Z MB SFMBDJÓO EF JHVBM

0CTFSWBDJÓO $PO FM ÃOJNP EF JS JOUSPEVDJFOEP BM MFDUPS B DVSTPT QPT

4FB (A, ∗) VO TFNJHSVQP DPO FMFNFOUP OFVUSP e 1SVFCF RVF TJ

4FBO a, b Z c USFT FMFNFOUPT FO VO TFNJHSVQP (A, ∗) MPT DVBMFT

4FB ∗ VOB PQFSBDJÓO DPONVUBUJWB EFàOJEB FO VO DPOKVOUP A.

4FB (G, ·) VO HSVQP Z TFB a ∈ G VO FMFNFOUP àKP %FàOB VOB

4FB (G, ∗) VO HSVQP UBM RVF QBSB UPEP QBS EF FMFNFOUPT a Z b

4FBO (G, ◦) Z (H, ∗) HSVQPT 4J FO G × H TF EFàOF

QSVFCF RVF (G×H, ) FT VO HSVQP &TUF HSVQP TF MMBNB FM QSPEVDUP

4FBO (G, ∗) VO HSVQP Z g ∈ G VO FMFNFOUP àKP 4J TF EFàOF f :

4FBO (G, ∗) VO HSVQP BCFMJBOP Z f : G → G EBEB QPS f (x) = x−1

4FB (G, ∗) VO HSVQP Z TVQPOHB RVF f : G → G EFàOJEB QPS

4FB (G, ∗) VO HSVQP UBM QBSB UPEP a ∈ G TF DVNQMF RVF a ∗ a = e

$POTUSVDDJÓO BYJPNÃUJDB EF N

EJTUJOUPT 0USB NBOFSB EF FOUFOEFS FM BYJPNB "1

1SPQPTJDJÓO 5PEP OÙNFSP OBUVSBM EJGFSFOUF EF DFSP FT VO

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 6TBNPT FM RVJOUP BYJPNB EFàOJFOEP VO DPOKVOUP EF OB

1SPCFNPT RVF S = N, MP DVBM QSVFCB MB QSPQPTJDJÓO /PUFNPT RVF FO

4F EFTQSFOEF EFM "YJPNB "1

%FàOJDJÓO &O FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT N EFàOJNPT

5FPSFNB -B TVNB EF EPT OÙNFSPT OBUVSBMFT FT PUSP OÙNFSP OBUVSBM

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB S = {n ∈ N : (∀ m ∈ N) (m+n ∈ N)} $PNP IFNPT

5FPSFNB -B TVNB EF OBUVSBMFT FT BTPDJBUJWB FTUP FT ∀ m, n, k ∈ N

/VFWBNFOUF MB FTUSBUFHJB FT QSPCBS RVF S = N. 1PS MB EFàOJDJÓO EF TV

"OUFT EF QSPCBS MB QSPQJFEBE DPONVUBUJWB EFNPTUSBNPT MPT TJHVJFO

-FNB 1BSB DBEB m ∈ N, 0 + m = m.

%FNPTUSBDJÓO $PNP BOUFT VTBNPT FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJÓO

-FNB 1BSB UPEP QBS EF OBUVSBMFT m, n TF UJFOF RVF

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB S = {n ∈ N : (∀ m ∈ N)((m + n)+ = m+ + n)}.

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF TJ m Z n TPO OBUVSBMFT FOUPODFT m + n = 0 TJ

5FPSFNB -B TVNB FO N FT DPONVUBUJWB

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB S = {n ∈ N : (∀ m ∈ N) (m + n = n + m)}.

-B TVNB FO MPT OBUVSBMFT HP[B EF MB QSPQJFEBE DBODFMBUJWB Z MB QSP

5FPSFNB 4FBO m, n, k ∈ N. &OUPODFT m + k = n + k ⇐⇒ m = n.

%FNPTUSBDJÓO &T JONFEJBUP RVF TJ m = n FOUPODFT m + k = n + k FTUB

1SPQPTJDJÓO 1BSB UPEP OBUVSBM n TF UJFOF RVF n+ = n + 0+ .

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 6OB QSVFCB TJNQMF FT

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n TF UJFOF RVF

&M FUDÊUFSB TF KVTUJàDB HSBDJBT BM BYJPNB "1

OP MMFWB OVODB BM OÙNFSP 0 Z QPS MPT BYJPNBT "1

%F GPSNB SFDVSTJWB TF WF RVF Jn = {1, 2, . . . , n} 3B[POFNPT QPS DPO

%FàOJDJÓO 4F EFàOF MB NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO P FM QSPEVDUP

5FPSFNB -B NVMUJQMJDBDJÓO EFàOJEB FO N FT VOB PQFSBDJÓO CJOBSJB

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF FM 5FPSFNB

&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m Z n OBUVSBMFT UBMFT RVF m · n = 0. 1SVFCF RVF

&KFSDJDJP 4FB p ∈ N àKP %FNVFTUSF RVF TJ m · p = 0 QBSB UPEP

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF FYJTUF VO ÙOJDP OBUVSBM p UBM RVF m · p = m

&KFSDJDJP 1BSB UPEP m ∈ N, 0 · m = 0.

-FNB 1BSB UPEP m, n ∈ N, m+ n = mn + n.

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB S = {n ∈ N : (∀ m ∈ N) (m+ n = mn + n)}. 1VFTUP

%F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB QSPCBEP FM MFNB

5FPSFNB &M QSPEVDUP FO N FT DPONVUBUJWP

%FNPTUSBDJÓO 4FB S = {n ∈ N : (∀ m ∈ N) (mn = nm)}. 1BSB WFS RVF