10/09/2019

Neo-Piagetian Theories of Cognitive Development

 Piaget’s theory  lots of ideas used until now
o Criticize: description of process itself of what allows
o Focus: learning through own personal experiences; didn’t
take into account what we learn from society, how other
people shape
 Neo-Piagetian Theories
o Cognitive development is constrained by the maturation of
information processing mechanisms in the brain
o Children acquire new knowledge through both unintentional
and intentional learning process
 Unintentional example: tsismis, need no conscious
effort or awareness
o Children acquire cognitive structures that affect their thinking
in particular content domains
o Development in specific content domains can sometimes be
characterized as a series of stages
o Formal schooling has a greater influence on cognitive
development than Piaget believed
 Implications of Piagetian
o Children and adolescents can learn a great deal through
hands-on experiences
 Discovery Learning – child initiated, child directed,
independent, initiate own learning,
 Occasionally learn more without adult intervention
 Problem: studies have shown carefully
constructed is better (maybe you lack the
interpretations needed; esp. if initiated by you 
you have no knowledge of that field)
 Inquiry Learning
 More structured
 More effective reasoning processes  what they
need / supplement what they need
 Balance: own time to experience things + times
to assist (esp if they don’t know what to do)
 Weakness of discovery and inquiry learning
 An activity can create a heavy cognitive load for
students
 Balance how much the student is taking in
to make it more effective
 Confirmation bias
 Tend to ignore facts that contradict what we
know (since independent learning)
 Hold on to misconceptions, even if
disproven
 Look for things that will only prove what we
believe in (find what proves own theory,
ignore others that contradict)
 Ex. 115 and 118 researches, don’t be afraid
to get non-significant results
 Puzzling phenomena can create disequilibrium and spur
children to acquire new understanding
 Get rid of discomfort
 Interactions with peers can also promote more advance
understanding
 Adults  esp. if raised that way 
 see them as authoritative figures rather
than partners in learning
 Accept what they’re saying without question
 limited perspective
 Peers  more tendency to argue with one
another, can adopt new perspectives, more
encouragement to create better understanding of
topics and discussions
 Children are more likely to reason in sophisticated ways
when they work with familiar tasks
 Piaget’s clinical method can offer many insights into
children’s reasoning processes
 Interview child with task, ask questions to explain
what he/she was doing
  Show thought processing/reasoning while doing
task
 Piaget’s stages can provide some guidance about what
certain abilities are likely to emerge
 School curriculums
 Prior to Grade 3: teaching methods + topics
 “Ito ang kaya ng bata”
 Not end all be all, guide (developmental
milestones)
 Might need to address something if di pa kaya at
a stage
 Children can succeed in a particular domain only if they
have mastered basic concepts and skills central to that
domain
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
10/09/2019
Society and culture provide innumerable concepts and strategies that
children gradually begin to use in thinking about and dealing with everyday
tasks and problems

[Reference: Chapter 13]

 Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
o Lev Vygotsky’s Theory
 Influenced by Karl =Marx’s Proposal
 Changes in society can have significant impact on
how people think and behave
 Saw value in the use of tools for moving a society
forward
 Cognitive
o mental techniques
o ways how to interpret info from
environment
o partly symbolic in nature
 Physical
o mechanic passing down equipment to
next mechanic
o pass down or create tools as deemed
necessary
 Key Ideas
 Some processes are seen in a variety of species
 Others are unique to human beings
(reflexes, unconscious behaviors, language)
 Informal conversations and formal schooling can
assist adults convey to children how to interpret
and respond to the world
 Biological
 Piaget = you interact with environment;
Vygotsky = schooling + informal
conversations with adults (person who is
competent)
  In schooling and even informal conversation
 pass down knowledge of cultures
(culturally accepted ways to interpret things
 survive better)
 Culture passes along physical and cognitive tools
that make daily living more effective and efficient
 Evolutionary tool – how to pass on tools and
knowledge to allow species to survive
 Thought and language become increasingly
interdependent in the first few years of life
 Adult: thought + language
 Children: Self-talk 
o talk out loud, explain what to do and
how to do it
o Eventually becomes inner speech
 Complex mental processes emerge out of social
activities (external)
 As children develop, they internalize processes
used in social contexts and begin to use them
independently (internalize)
 Children appropriate their culture’s tools in their
own idiosyncratic manner (unique personal
interpretations)
 Children can accomplish more difficult tasks when
they have some assistance of people more
advanced and competent than themselves
 Challenging tasks promote cognitive growth
 Zone of Proximal Development
o Can’t do independently but with
assistance of someone more
competent than them
o Too easy  won’t learn
o Too hard  discourage  won’t
accomplish
o Will eventually go back to easy 
need to find more challenging tasks
  Play allows children to cognitively “stretch”
themselves
 “In play a child always behaves beyond his
average age, above his daily behavior; in
play it is as thought he were a head taller
than himself” –Vygotsky
 Pretend to be a doctor/teacher
o Practice rules/standards they have to
live by
o Opportunity to experience certain
things (future roles they may
encounter, familiarity)  Cognitive
preparation
 Comparing Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories
o Common Themes
 Qualitative Changes in the Nature of thought
 Both theories propose that children acquire more
complex reasoning processes
 Piaget
 Vygotsky: internalize (with more people)
 Challenge
 Piaget: Equilibriation
 Learned have discomfort/disequilibrium 
learn through that process
 Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development
 Maximize learning potential
 Readiness
 Any child is likely to be cognitively ready for some
experiences but not ready for others
 Grow older  easier to process
 Importance of Social Interaction
 Piaget: people in a child’s life can present info and
arguments that create disequilibrium and foster
greater perspective taking
 people
  Vygotsky: social interactions provide the very
foundation for thought processes
 Society/environment
 How to survive, how to live in this society
(basic  complex)
o Key differences
 Language
 Piaget
 Language provides verbal labels for
concepts and schemes
 Cognitive development occurs
independently of language
 Vygotsky
 Language is critical for learning and
development
o At some point, learning and language
become intertwined
o How we convey information from one
person to another  how will we learn
without language
 Self-talk and inner speech
 Experiences:
 Piaget
 Children’s independent, self-motivated
exploration of the physical world as basis of
scheme development
 Self-exploration
 Children benefit from manipulating and
experimenting
 Children need some experience
 Vygotsky
 Activities facilitated and interpreted by
competent individual
 Guided exploration
 Better to balance the 2
 Help kids with what they don’t understand
  Opportunity to explore
 Social Interactions
 Piaget
 Interaction with peers
 Argue more, especially Asia
o Authoritative figures = teachers, truth
 Depends on how you were raised
o Raised: question things  may not
apply
 Encounter new perspectives
o Strengthen
o Change
 Vygotsky
 Interactions with adults/more advanced
individuals
 Effective when learning new skills
 Culture
 Piaget
 Did not address the role of culture
 Vygotsky
 Culture is important in determining specific
thinking skills children acquire
 Some studies: In certain cultures, there are
certain reasoning processes that emerge
later on / do not emerge at all
o Depends on what activities were
available to you + how you were
raised
  Neither theory is completely wrong or right
 The two theories compliment each other [complement]
 Balance = assist (esp. if don’t understand) +
eventually experience on own
 Contemporary perspectives
o Some of Vygotsky’s concepts are vague and speculative
 Vygotsky’s ideas have been found to be insightful and
helpful
o Social Construction of Meaning
 Example in book: using the number line; asking more
questions
o Scaffolding
 Supportive Techniques that can help a learner of any
age accomplish challenging tasks in instructional
contexts
 Examples in the book:
 Model the correct performance of a task.
 Divide a complex task into several smaller,
simpler activities.
 Provide a structure or set of guidelines for
accomplishing the task.
 Provide a calculator, computer software
(word processing program, spreadsheet,
etc.), or other technology that makes some
aspects of the task easier.
 Keep the learner’s attention focused on the
relevant aspects of the task.
 Ask questions that get the learner thinking
about the task in productive ways.
 Give frequent feedback about how the
learner is progressing. (A. Collins, 2006;
Gallimore & Tharp, 1990; Rogoff, 1990; D.
Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976)
o Participation in Adult Activities
 Almost all cultures allow/require children to be involved
in adult activities to some degree
 Entry into adult activity increases the probability that
children will engage in behaviors and thinking skills
within their ZPD
o Apprenticeships
 A novice works with an expert mentor for a lengthy
period to learn how to perform complex tasks within a
particular domain
 shown and explained how to apply
 internships – observe what happens, let them try,
participation in adult activities; apprenticeship – learn
under a mentor who is an expert  you will really be
taught
 Can coach  different from modeling (showing what is
to be done) vs this  suggest how to do it properly
 Articulation
 Explain what they’re doing and why they did it in
that way
 Force learner that they give info + mentor
corrects
 Can also be asked to reflect  how to judge your
own performance relative to set standards / ideal
model / mentor
 Exploration
 Expand and refine acquired skills
 Guided but have more freedom to ask questions
 Not spoonfed  opportunity to look for what you
need
 In the book:
 Modeling: The mentor carries out the task,
simultaneously thinking aloud about the pro-
cess, while the learner observes and listens.
 Coaching: As the learner performs the task, the
mentor gives frequent suggestions, hints, and
feedback.
  Scaffolding: The mentor provides various forms of
support for the learner, perhaps by simplifying
the task, breaking it into smaller and more
manageable components, or pro- viding less
complicated equipment.
 Articulation: The learner explains what he or she
is doing and why, allowing the mentor to examine
the student’s knowledge, reasoning, and problem-
solving strategies.
 Reflection: The mentor asks the learner to
compare his or her performance with that of
experts, or perhaps with an ideal model of how
the task should be done.
 Increasing complexity and diversity of tasks: As
the learner gains greater proficiency, the mentor
presents more complex, challenging, and varied
tasks to complete.
 Exploration: The mentor encourages the learner
to frame questions and problems on his or her
own, and in doing so to expand and refine
acquired skills.
o Acquisition of Teaching Skills
With age and experience, learners become increasingly
adept at teaching others what they’ve learned
 Still depends: are you open to change? Do you expect
learners to learn as quickly as you (since you’re
intelligent)?
o Dynamic Assessment
 Vygotsky suggested to assess both actual development
levels (the upper limit of tasks they can successfully
accomplish on their own) and levels of potential
development of children (the upper limit of tasks they
can accomplish when the
 ‘y have the assistance of more competent individuals).
 Not just what you learn now, also what you learn
eventually
  What if faster learner? – potential;
 What if slower learner? – might not be able to
keep up
 Testing a child’s level of potential development:
 Identify tasks that children cannot initially do
independently
 Provide in-depth instruction and practice in
behaviors and cognitive processes related to the
task
 Determine the extent to which each child has
benefited from the instruction
 Adjust your teaching depending on speed of
learning  increase / decrease level?
 Monitor to adjust
Activity:
 What did you consider when you chose the profession/role?
 What were the things you had to take into account when planning
out your scene?
 Did you learn anything from what you pretended to be?

[extra]
Scaffolding
 Techniques used to help learners get to zone of proximal
development
 Push-ups  put feet up
 Plank  plank with one foot

Adding a Sociocultural Element to Information Processing

Theory
 Information Processing Theory: What changes over time
 Sociocultural Views: explain how changes occur

 Intersubjectivity:
o For two people to interact, they must have shared
understandings on which to build
o Information Processing Theory: attention is critical to learning
 o With sociocultural element: Awareness of others’ attention is
critical
 Social Construction of Memories
o Adults can help children reconstruct events that they have
previously experienced and stored in long term memory
o Conversations about past events have benefits
o Children talk about their experiences with adults  help them
to remember the experience better  processed, elaboration,
meaningful learning, associations
o Interpretations of adult can be passed on to child make his
or her own eventually
 Collaborative Use of Cognitive Strategies
o In some cases, children can develop cognitive strategies on
their own
 They can also learn effective strategies through
modeling
 Give learners leeway  don’t just spoonfeed
o Adults can engage children in activities that require
collaborative use of particular strategies
Expanding the Contextualist Framework
 Theories of Embodiment
o Processes in the human brain are intimately and inextricably
intertwined with our immediate physical context and bodily
reactions to it
o Gestures: movement of feet  trying to remember
 Situated and Distributed Learning and Cognition
o A good deal of learning and thinking occurs primarily in
certain contexts
o Example: trying to study: where are you more effective:
school, table, coffee shop, not at home
o Thinking and learning more effectively when cognitive load is
offloaded onto something or someone else
o Example: group works
 Distributed knowledge / intelligence
o A group’s collective knowledge base is spread out
o can specialize in certain fields
 Ecological Systems Theory
o Society is made of several layers of environment that affect
people’s learning and development
 Microsystem – school, family, group of friends
 Mesosystem – combination of different microsystems
 Exosystem – institutions that can indirectly affect your
microsystems, ex. workplace of parents, social media,
government
 Macrosystem – cultural beliefs/culture, ideologies
 Chronosystem
 Contextual Theories
o The contexts in which human beings live and learn have an
enormous effect on their thinking and on their short- and
long-term productivities
 ______
o General Implications
 Learners can think more effectively when they acquire
the basic cognitive tools of various activities and
academic disciplines
 Dream journals?
 Children learn and remember more when they talk
about their experiences
 Children often acquire better strategies when they
collaborate with adults on complex tasks
 Collaborate with more advanced individuals
 Children should have opportunities to engage in
activities that closely resemble those they will
encounter in the adult world
 Authentic Activities
 Authentic, real-life
 Field trips (good if with hands-on activities)
 Cons: set appointments, expensive
 Problem-based learning/Project-based learning
 Simulations
 Something that can be related, not
necessarily the actual thing
  Service learning
 Give them projects, aim is to serve the
community
 Important that we guide them through it, may
not be ready cognitively and physically
 Challenging tasks, especially when sufficiently
scaffolded, tend to foster maximum cognitive
development
 Children’s abilities should be assessed under a variety
of work conditions
 Technology-based software and applications can
effectively scaffold many challenging tasks, and
occasionally they offer good alternatives to real-world
activities and problems
 Group learning activities can help children internalize
cognitive strategies

 10/09/2019
Metacognition, Self-Regulated Learning and Study Strategies
Metacognition
 “Thinking about thinking.”
 Self-regulation is part
 Knowledge and skills:
o Knowing one’s own capability for learning
o Knowing which learning strategies are effective
o Planning viable approaches to new tasks
o Monitoring the present knowledge state
o Knowing effective strategies for retrieval
Self-Regulated Learning
 Goal when it comes to metacognition
 Process of setting goals
 Choosing learning strategies to achieve these goals
 Evaluating the final outcome
 Also includes control of motivation and emotions
 Probably develops from
o Opportunities to engage in independent, self-directed age-
appropriate learning activities
o Regular exposure to self-regulated models
o Socially regulated learning
 Co-regulated learning
 o Help each other, keep each other accountable, help each
other better understand (esp if one is behind)
Development of Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills
 Effective Learning and Study Strategies
o Children become increasingly aware of:
 Theory theory – looks into personal theories of
children (world itself + internal)
 Social worlds
 Human beings, physical worlds, psychological
worlds
 Nature of thinking and use of effective learning and
memory strategies
 Not necessarily true all the time  some force the use
of things that aren’t appropriate, got used to it and
think it’s effective for them
o Children become increasingly realistic about their memory
capabilities and limitations
 Children are overly optimistic
o Children engage in more comprehension monitoring as they
get older
 Except in social media wherein older individuals don’t
use their comprehension  overly emotional
o Some learning processes may be used unconsciously and
automatically

Metacognition and affect

 Development of Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills
o Nature of thinking and use of effective learning and memory
strategies ___*
o Children become increasingly realistic about their memory
capabilities and limitations
o Children engage in more comprehension monitoring as they
get older
o Some learning processes may be used unconsciously and
automatically
 Epistemic Beliefs
o Beliefs include:
 The certainty of knowledge
 The simplicity and structure of knowledge
 The source of knowledge
 The criteria for determining truth
 The speed of learning
 The nature of learning ability  fixed from birth / over
time?
o Rather than a dichotomy, maybe continuum
o Epistemic beliefs seem to be partly situation- and context-
specific
o Developmental and Cultural Differences
 Realist: same as what people say or do
 Absolutist: not necessarily same as people’s thoughts;
but that is the only truth, certain
 Multiplist: knowledge can be uncertain, all of different
ways/methods can be legitimate (but there are still
wrong opinions)
 Evaluatist: there is judgement based on evidence,
merits based on opinions; supposed to be open to
debate and open to change, MORE CRITICAL - which
are right and wrong opinions
 start as realists  become evaluatists
o Cultural Differences
 1: Authority Figures
 United States – Beginning in middle school,
students are more likely to question the validity of
an authority figure’s claims
 Asia – students are apt to believe that knowledge
is cut-and-dried and can be effectively granted
from authority figures
 2: Speed of process
  Asia – college students are more likely to believe
that mastering complex academic topics is often a
slow, effortful process requiring diligence,
persistence and a combination of rote and
meaningful learning
 America and Europe – College students are ---
expect to learn quickly
 3: Process of learning
 Ireland – college students are more likely to view
learning as a complex and constructive process
that results in somewhat tentative understandings
of a topic; interrelated topics
 America – college students are more likely to view
learning as a process of attending carefully to
presented information and memorizing it as a set
of isolated facts
o Effects of epistemic beliefs
1. Certainty of knowledge
 Fixed, certain entity
 Jump too quick and potential inaccurate
conclusions
 Trouble understanding people’s lines of
reasoning
 Tentative, evolves
 Enjoy cognitively challenging tasks
 Engage in meaningful and elaborative
learning
 Read materials with a critical eye
 Undergo conceptual change when needed
 Recognize some issues are controversial
and not easily resolved
2. Simplicity and structure of knowledge
 Discrete facts
 Use rote learning processes
 Reject arguments/evidence that contradicts
current beliefs
  Tend to hold on to misconceptions
 Tend to think they know the material if they
can recall basics and definitions
 Interrelated Ideas
 a
 Likely to engage in meaningful and
elaborative learning
 Attempt to integrate 2 or more competing
theories
 Evaluate success of efforts in terms of
understanding and ability to apply what was
learned
3. Source of knowledge
 External Origins
 Fairly passive learners
 Self-Constructed
 ---
 ---
4. Criteria for determining truth
 True if from “expert”
 Accept new ideas from authority figures
without question
 Ideas should be judged
 Critically evaluate new info on the basis of
available evidence
 With age and higher levels of education
o Increasing ability to distinguish
between weak and strong evidences
for ideas or points of view
5. Speed of learning
 Quick or all-or-none
  Apt to believe that something has been
learned before actually learning it
 Apt to give up quickly and express
discouragement/dislike regarding the topic
 Slow, gradual process
 Likely to use a wide variety of learning
strategies
 Persist until you learn the material *
6. Nature of learning ability
a. Fixed from birth
i. Quickly give up on challenging tasks
b. Under learner’s control
i. Pursue a variety of supportive learning
activities
ii. Persist in their efforts to master a topic
 Students with developmentally more advanced
epistemic beliefs achieve at higher levels in classrooms
 Some teachers can also have naïve epistemic beliefs
 Intentional Learning
 Truly effective learning requires intentional learning
 Involves both automatic and controlled processes
 Intentional learning is critical for conceptual change
 Competence and Self-Worth
 Robert White
o People have basic need for competence
 Martine Covington
 o Protecting one’s sense of competence is one of
people’s highest priorities
o Constant success can enhance self-worth
 People seem to be more comfortable maintaining
consistent self-perceptions
o Even negative ones
 On average, competence, self-worth and general beliefs
about the self become more stable with age
 Competence and Self-Worth vs Self Efficacy
o Competence and Self-Worth
 May be a basic human need
 Fairly general, overarching perceptions
o Self-Efficacy
 May not be an essential driving force of
human nature
 Task specific
 Actual success are the most powerful in terms of
helping learners believe that they can succeed
o Sports  do you win? Is the measurement
 Ineffective
 Small improvements can still be counted
 Autonomy
 A basic need to have some sense of control regarding
activity choices and the direction of one’s life
 Choices
o Greater sense of autonomy when people can
choose
 What they’ll do
  Which outcomes they’ll work for
o Likely to enhance sense of autonomy if choices
are “real”
 Threats and Deadlines
o Typically experienced as controlling one’s
behavior
 Controlling Statements
o Messages that convey that others control our fate
can undermine sense of autonomy
 Extrinsic Rewards
o Adverse effects if seen as controlling/manipulating
behavior
o No adverse effects if interpreted as
communicating a sign of competence
 Surveillance and Evaluation
o Can result in a lower sense of autonomy
 Secondary control
o Change oneself (rather than environment) to
better suit the current context
o Example: changing behavior with different friends
 No amount of autonomy can make one feel intrinsically
motivated without a sense of competence
 Relatedness and Belonging
 Need for relatedness
o Need to feel socially connected
o Need to feel secure love and respect from others
 Need for belonging
o Need to belong to one or more social groups
  Important from an evolutionary standpoint
 Can conflict with the need for autonomy
o For people to gain approval of others, they may
need to conform to others’ expectations of them
o Individual differences for motivation
 Need for Approval
 A desire to gain the acceptance and positive judgement
of others
o Sports, exercise, school tasks, “pumayat ka”
 People with a high need for approval are often those
with low self-esteem
 For adolescents, give in to peer pressure
 Need for Achievement
 Need for excellence for its own sake
 Motive for success  better; put more effort
 Motive to avoid failure
 Need may be somewhat specific to particular tasks and
environments
o Conducive environment/ task we’re good at or
think we’re good at  more motivating
o Sense of identity
 Sense of who one is, what things one finds important and
what goals one wants to accomplish in life
 Apt to encompass membership in one or more ethnic, cultural
or social groups
 People’s self-constructed identities influence their behaviors
and priorities
o Dispositions
 A general, relatively stable inclination to approach learning
and problem-solving situations in a particular way
  Researchers have yet to systematically address the origins of
various dispositions
 Duwag  watch horror movies; more cognitively challenging
tasks; some more adaptable to others (social butterflies 
can relate with other people) / others cannot
VIDEO
Why are things that are more novel and weird easier to remember?
 Another way of memorizing
 Important: location is familiar to you
 10/09/2019

Metacognition, Self-Regulated Learning, and Study

Strategies
c. Metacognition
i. People’s awareness […]
d. Metacognition includes knowledge and skills such
as the following;
i. Knowing one’s own learning and memory
capabilities
ii. Knowing which learning strategies are
effective and which are not
iii. Planning a viable approach to a new
learning task
iv. Tailoring learning strategies to the
circumstances
v. Monitoring one’s present knowledge state
vi. Knowing effective strategies for retrieval of
previously stored information
e. Gaining information from Internet websites and
other computer-based sources requires not only
the good reading strategies but many emotional
metacognitive […]
7.
8. Senators – relate to objects  what
they’re going to say in their speech 
path they take
 10/09/2019
General Effects of Motivation
 Motivation
o An internal state that arouses one to action and keeps one
engaged in activity
 People are not always aware of their motives
o Motivation can reveal itself through its effects on behavior
o What is motivating:
 ---
 difficulty (can’t be too easy or too hard)
 Social interactions
 Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation
o Extrinsic:
 Can create interest in a new activity
 Learners may exert minimal effort
o Intrinsic:
 Has numerous advantageous effects on learners
o Flow
 State of complete absorption, focus and concentration
in a challenging activity
o Motivation should not be assumed as an either-or situation
Basic Human Needs
 Drive Reduction
o Based on the notion that:
  People and other animals try to maintain physiological
homeostasis
o Drive
 Internal state of need
 Organisms behave in ways to reduce needs
o According to Clark Hull:
 Drive is based on physiological needs
 Strength of a behavior is a function of both habit
strength and drive
o Revision of his theory
 Acquired drives
 The concept of incentive
 Reinforcement results from reduction of one’s drive
rather than reduction of specific physiological needs
 Strength of behavior is function of habit strength, drive
and incentive
o Drive Reduction
 Incentive motivation
 ----
 Basic Human Needs
o Arousal:
 Organism’s current level of internal energy
 Researches indicate a basic need for stimulation
 Strive for a certain optimal level of arousal
 Reflect: what were your good and bad performances
before  think of how you were feeling at the time
 o Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Central feature of humanism
 Fulfillment of basic needs before moving on to higher
needs
 Deficiency needs – bottom 4 (physiological needs,
safety needs, love and belonging, esteem)
 Growth needs – self actualization  independent,
spontaneous, comfortable with who they are…
 Abraham Lincoln
 Eleanor Roosevelt
 Mahatma Gandhi
 Martin Luther King
 Criticisms:
 Little hard evidence to substantiate the
hierarchical nature of human motivation
 People’s various motives are probably too diverse
to be boiled down into a such a short list of basic
needs
 Self-actualization is so rare that the hierarchy
might not provide an accurate description of
people in general
 No regard for environmental contexts
 Competence and Self-Worth
o Robert White
 People have basic need for competence
o Martine Covington
 Protecting one’s sense of competence is one of people’s
highest priorities
 Constant success can enhance self-worth
o People seem to be more comfortable maintaining consistent
self-perceptions
  Even negative ones
o On average, competence, self-worth and general beliefs about
the self become more stable with age
o Competence and Self-Worth vs Self Efficacy
 Competence and Self-Worth
 May be a basic human need
 Fairly general, overarching perceptions
 Self-Efficacy
 May not be an essential driving force of human
nature
 Task specific
o Actual success are the most powerful in terms of helping
learners believe that they can succeed
 Sports  do you win? Is the measurement
 Ineffective
 Small improvements can still be counted
 Autonomy
o A basic need to have some sense of control regarding activity
choices and the direction of one’s life
o Choices
Greater sense of autonomy when people can choose
 What they’ll do
 Which outcomes they’ll work for
 Likely to enhance sense of autonomy if choices are
“real”
o Threats and Deadlines
  Typically experienced as controlling one’s behavior
o Controlling Statements
 Messages that convey that others control our fate can
undermine sense of autonomy
o Extrinsic Rewards
Adverse effects if seen as controlling/manipulating
behavior
 No adverse effects if interpreted as communicating a
sign of competence
o Surveillance and Evaluation
 Can result in a lower sense of autonomy
o Secondary control
Change oneself (rather than environment) to better suit
the current context
 Example: changing behavior with different friends
o No amount of autonomy can make one feel intrinsically
motivated without a sense of competence
 Relatedness and Belonging
o Need for relatedness
 Need to feel socially connected
 Need to feel secure love and respect from others
o Need for belonging
 Need to belong to one or more social groups
o Important from an evolutionary standpoint
o Can conflict with the need for autonomy
 For people to gain approval of others, they may need to
conform to others’ expectations of them
  Individual differences for motivation
 Need for Approval
 A desire to gain the acceptance and positive
judgement of others
 Sports, exercise, school tasks, “pumayat
ka”
 People with a high need for approval are
often those with low self-esteem
 For adolescents, give in to peer pressure
 Need for Achievement
 Need for excellence for its own sake
 Motive for success  better; put more effort
 Motive to avoid failure
 Need may be somewhat specific to
particular tasks and environments
 Conducive environment/ task we’re good at
or think we’re good at  more motivating
 Sense of identity
 Sense of who one is, what things one finds
important and what goals one wants to
accomplish in life
 Apt to encompass membership in one or more
ethnic, cultural or social groups
 People’s self-constructed identities influence their
behaviors and priorities
 Dispositions
 A general, relatively stable inclination to approach
learning and problem-solving situations in a
particular way
 Researchers have yet to systematically address
the origins of various dispositions
 Duwag  watch horror movies; more cognitively
challenging tasks; some more adaptable to others
(social butterflies  can relate with other
people) / others cannot
Affect
 Feelings, emotions and general moods that a learner brings to bear
on a task
o Emotion: short-term states
o Affect: includes both short-term states and longer-term
moods and predispositions
 Affect and Motivation
o Boredom
Bored people seek to escape the environment or create
their own stimulation
o Unpleasant emotions can sometimes help
 Shame
 Anger about injustice
o When in a good mood:
 Learners are more likely to be cognitively engaged
o Cognitive dissonance
 Can motivate learners to try to resolve discrepancies
o General Rule: People act in ways that help them feel happy
and comfortably aroused
 Affect and Cognition and Learning
o We learn whether we like a task or not while we are learning
how to perform the task
o Information that is emotionally charged is more likely to be
given attention
 Emotionally charged information is easier to retrieve
 General mood states can affect learning and memory
 10/09/2019
Defining Anxiety
 A feeling of uneasiness and apprehension about a situation (e.g.,
one with a uncertain outcome)
 Related to fear in a way that ---
 Higher than normal activation of the amygdala (emotional part) and
less than optimal activation or functioning of the prefrontal cortex
(logical part)
 Stimulates our “fight or flight” response, releasing adrenaline into
the bloodstream, and usually has a negative effect on performance
 APA: “the emotion characterized by feelings …”
 Two components:
o Worry
Cognitive aspect
Troubling thoughts and beliefs about one’s ability to
deal with a situation
o Emotionality
 Affective aspect
 Physiological responses such as muscular tension
(butterflies), increased heart rate, perspiration;
behavioural responses such as restlessness and pacing
 Two types:
o State anxiety
 Temporary condition elicited by a particular stimulus
(objet, action, situation or event)
 Anxiety experienced specific to a particular situation
o Trait anxiety
 Relatively stable state of affairs, such that an individual
is chronically anxious in certain situations
 Dependent on the person, his characteristics, and his
level of anxiety
 Differs in intensity and duration for every individual
 Effects on Learning and Performance
o Low degree of arousal (moderate anxiety) may facilitate
learning and performance
o High degree of arousal (extreme anxiety) may facilitate
learning and performance when task is easy but may interfere
when task is difficult
o The Yerkes and Dodson Experiment
 The goal: to provide a concrete illustration of how
arousal level and task difficulty interact
 Setup: mice were placed in chambers they are forced to
escape via 1 of 2 doors where they either get shocked
or are led to safety
 Control:
 Varied arousal level (amount of shocks)
 Varied task difficulty (similarity between
doorways)
 Implication: anxiety (up to a point) improves
performance
 Facilitating Anxiety
 High level of anxiety enhances performance of
well-learned automatic behaviors
 Motivates the learner to ‘fight’ or approach the
task or situation
 Debilitating anxiety
 Same high level is apt to interfere with
performance on a challenging new task
 Motivates the learner to ‘flee’ or to avoid the task
or situation
 Threat vs. Challenge
o Threat – situation which learners see a little chance of
success
o Challenge – situations where learners think they can succeed
through the right amount of effort
o Stress appraisal
 How anxiety affects cognition
o Anxiety
 Interferes with an individual’s attention to a task
 Interferes with effective cognitive processing
 Is common when the task is a cognitive one; involving
solving problems and retrieval of information from long-
term memory
o Test anxiety
 Concerned about the evaluative aspect of tests
 Test poorly and ….
 Test anxiety interferes test performance
 Especially when taking high-stakes tests
 Common in students from ethnic minority groups and
students with disabilities
o Stereotype threat
Individuals from stereotypically low-achieving groups
perform more poorly on tests than usual because
they’re aware that their group traditionally does poorly
 When people are aware of their …
o Mathematics anxiety
 Math-anxious people firmly believe they’re incapable of
succeeding at mathematical tasks
 They have negative emotional reactions to math, often
with fear and dislike
 Reasons:
 School curricula often introduce mathematical
concepts and procedures before students are
cognitively ready to handle them
 Many teachers and textbooks begin new lessons
with abstract ideas while placing real-world
context on later parts
  Due to this:
 Students with high math anxiety do more poorly
in math than students with low math anxiety
 …
 Common sources of anxiety
o People might be concerned about their personal appearance
o People are likely to feel insecure when entering a new,
unknown and unsettling situation
o People may feel uncomfortable when they encounter ideas
that conflict with what they currently believe
o People are likely to become anxious whenever their sense of
self-worth and self-efficacy is threatened
 10/09/2019
Cognitive Factors of Motivation
Interests
 When on is interested in a particular topic
o One finds that topic intriguing or enticing
 Interest is therefore a form of intrinsic motivation
 Personal Interest
 Situational Interest – something in environment catches your
attention,
Effects of Interest
 Promote more effective information processing
 More likely to undergo conceptual change
 Situational Interests
o Catch Variety – short term, looks interesting then look then
forget
o Hold Variety – longer, holds your attention more, possible
that you have personal interest afterwards
Factors Promoting Interest
 Some topics are inherently interesting  taboo, interesting, death,
danger, sex, romance, destruction
 Novelty or unexpectedness
 High activity level or intense emotions
 Prior experiences
 Social/cultural environments that nurture knowledge in skill in an
area of interest
 Interest and Knowledge
 Gaining knowledge/skill in a particular area
Expectanncies and Values
 Motivation for performing a task
o Expectancy for Success
o Value
 Effects of Expectancies and Values
o For children (preschool/early elementary school)  basta
interested sila (kahit failing), still interested
o For older children and adults  when older, they have more
intrinsically motivated behavior when there’s expected
success
o Values affect choices
 Factor Influencing Expectancies and Values
o Prior successes and failures in a domain
o Other factors
 Perceived difficulty of a task
 Quality of instruction
 Availability of resources and support
 Amount of effort needed
 Gender stereotypes
 10/09/2019
Expectancies and Values
 Factors Influencing Expectancies and Values
o Four key factors of value
 Importance
 Utility
 Interest
 Cost
o Additional factors
 Social and cultural
o Expectancies and values affect each other
 Goals
o Motivation revolves around accomplishing certain goals
o Goals are only beneficial to the extent they’re accomplishable
o Achievement Goals
 Achievement motivation: somewhat situation-specific
 Types
 Mastery
 Performance
 Effects
 Mastery goals are the optimal situation
 Performance-avoidance goals
  Performance-approach goals
 Can be positive  still want to perform well;
just depends on others to evaluate own
performance
 Motivation to learn
 Origins
 Mastery goals may come from within
 Environment
 Performance goals are more prevalent
 Primarily concerned about getting good
grades/winning
 Can also be a means to avoid failure and to
protect one’s self worth
 Sometimes miss the point of it; look for
easy uno/terror profs
 Weaknesses of researchers on achievement goals
 Actual effects depend on nature of particular task
and context
 Use of self-report measures
 Relationships between students’ achievement
goals and classroom achievement tend to be weak
o Work Avoidance goal
Avoid having to do tasks at all or at least to exert as
little effort as possible
 Freeloaders, low self-efficacy for learning, don’t see
point, not interested, peer pressure
o Doing-Just-Enough-Goal
 Get reasonable results through the easiest route
possible
 DIFFERENT from ^: kailangan pa rin pag-isipan
o Social goals
  High priority on making social relationships
 Nature of students’ social goals clearly affects behavior
an academic performance
 some are to obtain power through bullying
o Career goals
 By late adolescence, tentative and relatively stable
decision about career paths
 In fairly traditional cultures: tendency to limit to
gender-stereotypical careers
o Coordinating Multiple Goals
 People apt to work toward several goals
 People are most successful and experience better
emotional well-being when multiple goals lead in the
same direction
 10/09/2019
ATTRIBUTIONS
 Explanations for success and failure
 An example of knowledge construction
 3 key dimensions:
o Locus – internal vs external
o Stability – stable vs unstable / will it change over time?
o Controllability – controllable vs uncontrollable / can we
control the factor or not?
 Views of Intelligence
o Entity View – intelligence is relatively permanent and
unchangeable, boomers
o Incremental View – whether you’re dumb or smart can still
improve
 Attributions influence learners
o Emotional Responses
 Self-conscious emotions are experienced only if
performance is attributed to things you have done
yourself
o Reactions to reinforcement and punishment
 Reinforcement/punishment is effective if it the person
knows that the behavior is the cause of the
consequence
o Self-Efficacy and Expectancies
 Stereotype Threat
o Effort and persistence
 More likely to exert effort and persist after failure if:
 Attributed to internal, unstable and controllable
variables
o Learning Strategies
  More likely to apply if learners:
 Expect to succeed
 Believe that success is that result of own doing
o Future Choices and goals
 Achievement goals
 Entity vs incremental view
 Entity – paggalingan
 Incremental – evaluate: how well have I
mastered/progressed?
 Factors Influencing the Nature of Attributions
o Age
 Young children become increasingly able to distinguish
among various possible causes of success and failures
 Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
o Situational Cues
 Features of task being performed
 Performance of peers
o Patterns of Successes and Failures
 Consistent vs Inconsistent Patterns of Success
 Illusion of Knowing
o Verbal and Nonverbal Messages from Others
 People can form attributions for others’ performances
 People communicate attributions through
  Praises/criticisms
 Praise = connotes we did a good job OR can
negatively affect (praised for what you
could easily do: unexpected – something so
easy)
 Emotional reactions
 Amount and type of help provided
 Make sure they actually want help
 Unwanted help: signal that they cannot do
what he or she is doing
 Temper emotions, how to help, let them
explore, help only if needed, balance
o Culture
 Can influence attribution, particularly controllability
o Gender
 Stereotypes
o Self-Protective Bias
Tend to form attributions that maintain/enhance own
sense of self-worth
 Change is unlikely if attributions of failure are
inaccurate
o Image Management
 Social desirability  just say thank you
 Attributions don’t always reflect true beliefs about
sources of success and failures
 10/09/2019
Explanatory Styles
 Mastery Orientation
o Attribute accomplishments to own abilities and efforts
o Tend to perform better in classroom tasks than predicted test
scores/previous GA
o Good mental health
o Behavior leads to higher achievement
 Learned Helplessness
o Attribute success to outside and uncontrollable factors
o Underestimate ability
o Set low performance goals
o Avoid challenges
o Counterproductive response to failure
o Hampered by anxiety-related thoughts
 Age
o Children
o Adolescence
o Adulthood
 Roots of Learned Helplessness
o Study on dogs
o Observations of others having little control on their lives
o Consistent history of control can help inoculate people against
learned helplessness
 o What’s important  need history that they succeed (?)
 Outcome of Mastery orientation
o Increased tendency to self-regulate one’s own learning
o Also regulate motivation and affect

Motivation, Affect, and Self-Regulation

 Motivation and affect are interrelated with each other and with
learning and cognition
 Motivation and affect influence and are influenced by self-regulation
 Development of self-regulation often includes internalizing motives,
values and goals of others
 Motivation and Affect are intertwined with Self-regulation
o Motivation sets the stage for self-regulation
o Higher likelihood for self-regulation if a person ahs both a
sense of competence and autonomy
o Help-seeking behavior
 Students are less likely to seek help under certain
conditions
 Internalized Motivation
o Situations in which, over time, people gradually adopt
behaviors that other individuals value
o Deci and Ryan’s internalized motivation:
 External regulation
 Introjection
 Identification
 Integration
o Intrinsic vs Integrated Motivation
 Intrinsic Motivation – comes from within individuals,
inherent in task being performed
 Integrated Motivation – roots in social and […]
o Conditions that seem to promote development or internalized
motivation:
 Learner perceives activity to be important
o Fostering development of internalized motivation involves
balancing between:
 Giving learners sufficient opportunities for experiencing
autonomy
 Providing some guidance about how one should behave
 10/09/2019
REVIEW for last exam:
1. how did piaget view children?
 Active and motivated learners
 Adapt to their environment
 Organize what they learn from experience
2. assimilation and accommodation?
 Assimilation - adjust info
 Accommodation – modify own schema / create your own schema
3. what does piaget want us to experience?
 Disequilibriation
 Positive effect even if negative emotional response
 Discomfort 
4. primary sensory modality in first (sensorimotor)
 senses
5. symbolic thinking
 thinking and representing objects through internal entities
 sign of development of working memory, aside from object
permanence
6. what allows children in second stage  lumawak yung way of
thinking
 language (don’t always need to see the image)
7. third stage: what are children able to do
 logical operations  specific: conservation (properties of substances
remain the same)
  CHECK THIS PART MAY MGA TERMS (class inclusion *** of third
ba?)
8. adolescent idealism?
 Formal operation stage:
9. why is culture important for vygotsky?
 Provides cognitive tools and strategies for children
 Passes along generations
10. zone of proximal development
 helps improve
11. why is play important for vygotsky?
 Have imaginary situation, rules
 Competent, they act beyond their age
 Certain skills learned ***
12. what are common with piaget and vygotsky?
 Put in certain situations 
o Either discomfort, something they need to make sense of
o Situation where they can be challenged *
 Social interactions  related to our culture (we learn through our
families)
13. how do you apply both vygotsky and piaget in your current
situations? Or anak/pamangkin
 when do u let them explore / when do u give them assistance
 Interest:
o explore  at the start to gauge interest
o pamangkin when they show interest in something  can
guide since more specific na
metacognition?
explain: ecological system theory
 1st system that affects you  microsystem – immediate
environment – family, friends, school
 different microsystems interacting  mesosystem
 exosystem - – media, workplace of parents
 macrosystem – culture, commonalities of exosystem, beliefs