W1 Lec 3 Ring homomorphism Ideals

Last time

A ring homomorphism φ : R → R ' is a map which preserves addition φ ( a+ b )=φ ( a ) +φ ( b ) and

preserves multiplication φ ( ab )=φ ( a ) φ ( b ) and preserves the multiplicative identity φ ( 1 )=1.

Exercise: φ (−a )=−φ ( a )

Lemma: φ ( 0 R ) =0 R '

φ ( 0 R ) =φ ( a 0 R ) =φ ( a ) φ ( 0R ) =φ ( a ) [ φ ( a )−φ ( a ) ]=φ ( a )2 −φ ( a )2=0R '

Thus

0 R =φ ( 0R ) =φ ( a+ (−a ) ) =φ ( a ) + φ (−a ) ⇒−φ ( a )=φ (−a )

'

Examples:

1) φ : Z → F p , n ↦n mod p
Exercise: Check that this is a ring homomorphism
 φ ( 1 Z )=[ 1 ] p=1F p

 φ ( a+ b )= [ a+ b ] p= [ a ] p + [ b ] p =φ ( a ) + φ ( b )
 φ ( ab )=[ ab ] p =[ a ] p [ b ] p =φ ( a ) φ ( b )

2) For any a ∈ R , the map φ a : R [ x ] → R , f ( x ) ↦ f ( a )

Exercise: Check that this is a ring homomorphism
 φ a ( 1 R [ x ] )=1 ( a )=1
 φ a ( f ( x ) g ( x )) =f ( a ) g ( a )=φa ( f ( x ) ) φ a ( g ( x ) )
 φ a ( f ( x )+ g ( x ) )=f ( a ) + g ( a )=φa ( f ( x ) ) +φ a ( g ( x ) )

Proposition: Let R be a ring. There is exactly one homomorphism φ : Z → R.

Proof:

∀ n ∈ N , φ ( n )=φ 1+…+1
⏟ =1⏟ R +…+ 1R
It must be the case that φ ( 1 )=1. Thus, ( n
) n
. Moreover,

φ (−n )=−φ ( n ). Thus, there is no other choices for this ring homomorphism.
Idea of the proof: homomorphisms are more restrictive than functions and so sometimes, a
homomorphism is forced to be a certain way due to its properties. Now the reason why
homomorphisms out of Z are even more restrictive (there is only 1) is because Z is a highly
structured ring. Just like how R is a highly structured topological space.

Idea of the proposition: given any ring, some of its elements can be thought of as being created
by adding the identity elements enough times. Thus, we can number those elements by the
minimum number of one’s needed to be added to form that element. Not all elements can be
created this way though, since φ does not have to be surjective.

Definition: Let φ : R → R ' be a ring homomorphism. The kernel of φ is defined as

ker ( φ )={ s ∈ R∨φ ( s )=0 }

Definition: An ideal I of a ring R is a nonempty subset of R with properties

1) I is closed under addition

2) I is closed under element-shifting. That is, ∀ r ∈ R , s ∈ I we have rs∈ I .

Definition: If R is a ring (we already assume our rings to be commutative), a ∈ R then

aR=Ra=( a ) ≔ {ra|r ∈ R } is an ideal, called the principal ideal generated by a .
Example:

 ( 1 )=R is the unit ideal.

 ( 0 ) =¿ zero ideal.

Definition: An ideal I is proper if it is neither ( 1 ) nor ( 0 ) .

Definition: More generally, given a 1 , … , an ∈ R , we define the ideal generated by {a1 ,… , a n } as

( a 1 , … , an ) ≔ {r 1 a1 +…+ r n an∨r i ∈ R , ∀ i≤ n }
Examples:

1) Let φ : R → R ' be a ring homomorphism. Then ker ( φ ) is an ideal of R .

Proof:
Closed under addition: If a , b ∈ ker ( φ ) then φ ( a+ b )=φ ( a ) +φ ( b )=0
Closed under element-shifting: If a ∈ R ,b ∈ ker ( φ ) then φ ( ab )=φ ( a ) φ ( b )=φ ( a ) 0=0
2) φ : R [ x ] → R , f ( x ) ↦f ( 2 )
ker ( φ )={ f ( x ) ∈ R [ x ]|f ( 2 )=0 }=( x−2 )The principal ideal generated by the element x−2

Lemma: A homomorphism φ : R → R ' is injective ⇔ ker ( φ )= ( 0 )= {0 }

Proof:

Forward: 0 ∈ ker ( φ ) always. Since φ is injective, it follows that ker ( φ )={ 0 }.

Alternate proof: Let a ∈ ker ( φ ) . Then φ ( a )=0=φ ( 0 ) . Thus, a=0 since φ is injective.

Backward: If φ ( a )=φ ( b ) then φ ( a−b )=0 and thus a−b=0 or a=b.

Proposition:

1) The only ideals of a field are ( 0 ) and ( 1 ).

2) A ring R that has exactly two ideals is a field.

Proof:

1) Let F be a field. Now ( 0 ) is always an ideal of F . Suppose that I ⊂ F is a nonzero ideal.

Then there exists a ∈ I , a ≠ 0. Since F is a field, a−1 exists and thus, a−1 a ∈ I . That is,
1 ∈ I and thus b ∈ I , ∀ b ∈ F . Therefore, I =( 1 ).
Idea: all rings will have the zero ideal and ( 1 ).
2) If R has two ideals, one of them must be nonzero and thus R ≠ { 0 }. Thus, 1 ≠0 . Let
a ∈ R ∖ {0 }. Since ( a ) ≠ ( 0 ) and R has only two ideals ( 1 ) must be the other ideal and thus,
it must be the case that ( a )=( 1 )=R . Therefore, ∃b ∈ R: ba=1. Thus, a is a unit and so R
is a field.
Idea: Now ( 0 ) , ( 1 ) are always possible ideals.

Corollary: Every homomorphism φ : F → R from a field F to a nonzero ring R is injective.

Proof: There are only two ideals of F . If we can show that ker ( φ ) ≠ ( 1 ) then we’re done. Suppose
that ker ( φ )=( 1 ). Then that means φ maps all of F to 0 , i.e. φ ≡ 0 which is a contradiction as φ
must map 1 ∈ F to 1 ∈ R and 1 ∈ R is not 0 ∈ R as R is nonzero.

Alternative proof: let a ∈ ker ( φ ) . Then φ ( a )=0. Suppose otherwise that a ≠ 0. Then

φ ( a )=0 Rφ ( a ) φ ( a−1 )=0R φ ( 1 F ) =0 R

But φ ( 1 F ) =1R . Thus 1R =0 R and so R is the zero ring which is a contradiction. Therefore, a=0.

Idea: It is better to think about injectivity as ker ( φ )={ 0 } instead of its usual definition. When
working with rings and groups, we work with homomorphisms as oppose to regular functions.
Thus, ker ( φ )={ 0 }, although is an equivalent condition to injectivity, is an implicitly more
powerful condition because it captures the structure of the concept of a homomorphism.
Meaning, ker ( φ )={ 0 } ⇔ φ is injective is thanks to the fact that φ is a homomorphism. Without it,
this equivalence won’t hold.

Thus, the idea here is that homomorphisms preserve the structure of the ring. Meaning, if
φ ( a )=b then φ ( a−1 )=b−1. Thus, inverses of R has to match with inverses of F . Say the
homomorphism is not injective, ker ( φ ) ≠ { 0 }, meaning there is some nonzero a ∈ F such that
φ ( a )=0. Then what’s φ ( a−1 )=0−1?? 0−1=0 ? Then we have a zero ring R , which is a
contradiction.

Proposition: The ideals in the ring of integers are subgroups of ¿. They are the principal ideals
( n ) =n Z .
Proof: Let I ⊆ Z be an ideal. Suppose that I ≠ { 0 } and let a be the smallest positive integer in I
(must exists from the well ordering principle). We want to show that I =( a ). Now, we know that
( a ) ⊆ I as I contains a and is closed under element-shifting. Next, let n ∈ I . Then ∃ k ,r ∈ Z s.t.
n=ka+r , 0 ≤ r <a. Then n−ka=r ∈ I as . But a is the smallest positive integer in I so if r < a
then r =¿. Thus, n and therefore I ⊆ ( a ).

Idea: The fact that all ideals are principal in Z is thanks to its division with remainder property.
Pick the smallest positive integer a in the ideal I . They key here is that everything in it can be
written as ka+ r with k , r ∈ Z ∧ 0≤ r < a. Thus r =0 and we’re done.

Definition: The characteristic of a ring R is the non-negative integer n that generates ker ( φ )
where φ : Z → R. If n=0 then the characteristic is 0 and the map is injective. Otherwise n is the
1+…+1
⏟ =0
smallest integer s.t. .
n