ASSIGNMENT-2

 NAME : Akhand Tomar SUBMITTED TO : Dr.MONIS KHAN

 ENROLLMENT : 0103CE181015 DEPARTMENT : LNCT, CIVIL ENGG.

 SUBJECT : ENGG. GEOLOGY

 SUBJECT CODE : CE-405

 YEAR : 2nd SEM : 4th CIVIL

Q1 Write the following topics in detailed manner :

Ans :
Dip : The dip gives the steepest angle of descent of a tilted bed or feature relative to a horizontal plane,
and is given by the number (0°-90°) as well as a letter (N,S,E,W) with rough direction in which the bed is
dipping downwards. One technique is to always take the strike so the dip is 90° to the right of the strike, in
which case the redundant letter following the dip angle is omitted (right hand rule, or RHR).

The angle of dip is generally included on a geologic map without the degree sign. Beds that are dipping
vertically are shown with the dip symbol on both sides of the strike, and beds that are level are shown like
the vertical beds, but with a circle around them. Both vertical and level beds do not have a number written
with them.

Strike : In geology, direction of the line formed by the intersection of a fault, bed, or other planar feature
and a horizontal plane. Strike indicates the attitude or position of linear structural features such as faults,
beds, joints, and folds. Trend is the direction of the line formed by the intersection of the planar feature
with the ground surface; trend is the same as strike only if the ground surface is parallel to the horizontal
plane.

Strike and dip are determined in the field with a compass and clinometer or a combination of the two, such
as a Brunton compass named after D.W. Brunton, a Colorado miner. Compass-clinometers which measure
dip and dip direction in a single operation are often called "stratum" or "Klar" compasses after a German
professor. Smartphone apps are also now available, that make use of the internal accelerometer to provide
orientation measurements. Combined with the GPS functionality of such devices, this allows readings to be
recorded and later downloaded onto a map.

Outcrope : An outcrop or rocky outcrop is a visible exposure of bedrock or ancient superficial deposits on

the surface of the Earth. Outcrops do not cover the majority of the Earth's land surface because in most
places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a mantle of soil and vegetation and cannot be
seen or examined closely. However, in places where the overlying cover is removed
through erosion or tectonic uplift, the rock may be exposed, or crop out.
Such exposure will happen most frequently in areas where erosion is rapid and exceeds
the weathering rate such as on steep hillsides, mountain ridges and tops, river banks, and tectonically
active areas. In Finland, glacial erosion during the last glacial maximum (ca. 11000 BC), followed by scouring
by sea waves, followed by isostatic uplift has produced many smooth coastal and littoral outcrops.
 Bedrock and superficial deposits may also be exposed at the Earth's surface due to human excavations such
as quarrying and building of transport routes.
When weathering and erosion expose part of a rock layer or formation, an outcrop appears

Q2 .What is Fold. Explain their element and their classification.

Ans : Fold, in geology, undulation or waves in the stratified rocks of Earth’s crust. Stratified rocks were
originally formed from sediments that were deposited in flat horizontal sheets, but in a number of places
the strata are no longer horizontal but have been warped. Sometimes the warping is so gentle that the
inclination of the strata is barely perceptible, or the warping may be so pronounced that the strata of the
two flanks may be essentially parallel or lie nearly flat (as in the case of a recumbent fold). Folds vary
widely in size; some are several kilometers or even hundreds of kilometers across, and others measure just
a few centimeters or less. The tops of large folds are commonly eroded away on Earth’s surface, exposing
the cross sections of the inclined strata 

Folds are generally classified according to the attitude of their axes and their appearance in cross sections
perpendicular to the trend of the fold. The axial plane of a fold is the plane or surface that divides the fold
as symmetrically as possible. The axial plane may be vertical, horizontal, or inclined at any intermediate
angle. An axis of a fold is the intersection of the axial plane with one of the strata of which the fold is
composed. Although in the simpler types of folds the axis is horizontal or gently inclined, it may be steeply
inclined or even vertical. The angle of inclination of the axis, as measured from the horizontal, is called
the plunge. The portions of the fold between adjacent axes form the flanks, limbs, or slopes of a fold.

Classification of Folds :

 Anticline : Anticline is a fold that is convex up and has its oldest beds at its core. The term is not to be
confused with antiform, which is a purely descriptive term for any fold that is convex up. Therefore if age
relationships between various strata are unknown, the term antiform should be used.
 Syncline : A syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to the center of the structure. Synclines are
typically a downward fold, termed a synformal syncline (i.e. a trough); but synclines that point upwards, or
perched, can be found when strata have been overturned and folded (an antiformal syncline).
 Monocline : local warping in horizontal strata. Rock beds lying at two level separated by steep
inclined limbs. It is form by vertical movement and generally found fault below monocline. a step-like fold
in rock strata consisting of a zone of steeper dip within an otherwise horizontal or gently-dipping sequence.

Elements :

1. Axis : This is the median line about which the strata has folded. The axis of a fold may be horizontal,
inclined or vertical. If the axis of the fold is horizontal then it is parallel to the strike of the fold.
2. Axial Plane : This is a plane dividing the fold into two somewhat symmetrical parts. The axial plane
may be vertical, inclined or horizontal. The line of intersection of the axial plane with any bedding plane
is called the fold axis or the axial line.
3. Limbs : Two sides of a fold (on either side of the axial plane) are called the limbs of the fold. In the
usual cases the limbs are inclined. However in particular cases they may be vertical or horizontal. The
 limbs may dip either way from each other or towards each other. The angle between the limbs is called
the inter-limb angle.
4. Crest : This the upper portion of an up-fold.
5. Trough : This is the lower portion of a down-fold.

Q3 What is Fault. Explain their element and their classification.

Ans : Fault, in geology, a planar or gently curved fracture in the rocks of the Earth’s crust, where
compressional or tensional forces cause relative displacement of the rocks on the opposite sides of the
fracture. Faults range in length from a few centimeters to many hundreds of kilometers, and displacement
likewise may range from less than a centimeter to several hundred kilometers along the fracture surface
(the fault plane). In some instances, the movement is distributed over a fault zone composed of many
individual faults that occupy a belt hundreds of meters wide. The geographic distribution of faults varies;
some large areas have almost none, others are cut by innumerable faults.

The major types of faults are the following:

1. Normal Fault : A normal fault is a dip slip fault in which the hanging wall slips downward relative to
the footwall. This fault occurs along a steep fault plane with a hade of 10° to 20°. The throw i.e. The
vertical component of the movement is large. This fault occurs due to stretching of rocks.

2. Reverse Fault : A reverse fault is the result of severe compressive stresses, where the hanging wall
moves up the fault plane relative to the footwall. The two sides of the fault move closer together. This
fault is also called a thrust fault. The fault plane is low angled resulting in a large horizontal movement.

3. Strike-Slip Fault : In this type of fault, the separated blocks on either sides of the fault plane move
shearing off in the direction of the strike. This fault is also called lateral fault, trans-current fault,
wrench fault or tear fault.

4. Step Fault : This is a fault system consisting of a number of faults with parallel fault planes, the
separated blocks slipping in the same direction along parallel planes giving a step-like feature. This fault
is also called a fault terrace.

5. Trough Fault : This is a fault system in which two normal faults occur whose fault planes are inclined
providing a common down throw side between them. The downthrown block between the two fault
planes forms a long trench called a graben or a rift valley. Some grabens are very long and also deep
and may be filled with water to become a water stream.