Sedimentation 9.1 Introduction Sedimentation is a physical treatment process that utilizes gravity to separate suspended solids from water. This process is widely used as the first stage in surface water treatment to remove turbidity-causing particles after coagulation and flocculation. Sedimentation is also used (1) to recover water in filter backwash water recovery systems and (2) to increase sludge solids concentration in sludge thickening. Presedimentation is also used in some cases to remove set- tleable solids such as gravel, grit, and sand from river water before it is pumped to the treatment plant. In this chapter, the theory and design procedures for sedimentation basins are discussed. Example design calculations, operation and maintenance practices, and equipment specifica- tions for sedimentation facilities are provided in the Design Example. 9.2 Theory of Sedimentation The design of a sedimentation basin is dependent upon the concentration, size, and behav- ior of the solid suspension. In general, there are four types or classes of sedimentation. Type J sedimentation, known as discrete settling, describes the sedimentation of low concentrations of Particles that settle as individual entities. Examples of Type / settling in water treatment plants are the settling of silt from river water before coagulation, the settling of water softening precip- itates, and the settling of sand in filters after backwash. Type I sedimentation, known as floccu- lant settling, describes sedimentation of larger concentrations of solids that agglomerate as they Settle. Sedimentation of coagulated surface waters is an example of flocculant settling. Type III sedimentation, known as hindered settling or zone settling, describes sedimentation of a suspen- Sion with solids concentration sufficiently high to cause the particles to settle as a mass. Anexample of hindered settling is the upper portion of the sludge blanket in sludge thickeners. Type IV sedimentation, known as compression settling, describes sedimentation of suspensions with solids concentration so high that the particles are in contact with one another and further sedi- mentation can occur only by compression of the mass. The lower portion of a gravity sludge thickener is an example of compression settling. The theories used in the design of a sedimentation basin depend upon the type of settling encountered in the basin. The design equations and procedures used to develop design parame- ters in each type of settling are therefore also different from those in the others. 9.2.1 Discrete Settling, Type | Settling Behavior The theory of Type / settling is based on the physics that applies to a particle settling unhindered at a constant velocity through water. The forces acting on sucha particle are limited to the gravitational and drag forces.” In such suspensions, a particle will begin to settle and will accelerate until a constant velocity is reached. At this time the drag force and the gravitational force are equal and cancel each other. This terminal settling velocity is cal- culated from Eq. (9.1), which is known as Newton's Law.> _ Ayag PsP) dg % = BX GEXA on ve Bx Gex(s,-D (9.1) v,= settling velocity, m/s (ft/s) d= particle diameter, m (ft) g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s” (ft/s) Cp = drag coefficient, dependent on Reynolds number S,, = specific gravity of the particle P= density of solids, kg/m? (Ib/ft?) p= density of water, kg/m? (Ib/ft3) This equation was originally developed for a spherical particle falling through a fluid. Ifa particle has a non-spherical shape, Cp will increase. Consequently, the settling velocity will ls decrease. A simple method of correcting Eq. (9.1) for a non-spherical particle is to utilize # shape factor as given by Eq. (9.2).3 Cp = 92) = shape factor ‘Na= Reynolds number, which can be calculated from (Eq. (9.3))‘Theory of Sedimentation a vd _ v,pd Np = a iL (9.3) where v= kinematic viscosity, m/s (ft/s) = dynamic viscosity of water, N-s/m? (Ib-s/ft2) Typical values of are 2.0 for sand and 2.25 for coal. Other values are documented in various textbooks.* The value of Cp is dependent on the Reynolds number (Eq. (9.2)). In the laminar-flow range (Reynolds number below 1), the value of Cp for a spherical particle is obtained from Eq. (94). The value of Cp in the transition flow range (Reynolds number 1 to 104) is given by Eq. (9.5). The value of Cp remains constant around 0.4 for spherical particles in the turbulent flow range (Reynolds numbers greater than 10°). 24 Co (Laminar range) (94) Cy = 2443.40.34 (Transition range) 5) Nr Np Settling of very small spherical particles in the laminar range is obtained by substituting the value of Crp from Eq. (9.4) in Eq. (9.1). A simplified equation (Eq, (9.6)) is obtained and is known as Stokes Law.>4 2 2 — 84(Ps-P) _ gd (S.-1) ve Tg = Tay ey Ideal Sedimentation Basin An ideal horizontal-flow sedimentation basin exhibits the following characteristics, which are commonly used to describe the settling behavior of dis- ctete particles: (1) the flow through the basin is evenly distributed across the cross section of the basin; (2) the particles are evenly dispersed in water; and (3) the settling of the particles is pre- dominantly Type I. An ideal sedimentation basin is divided into four distinct zones: the inlet, settling, sludge, and outlet zones (Figure 9-1).! Inlet Zone, In this zone, the flow is uniformly distributed across the basin cross section; flow ‘eaving the inlet zone is strictly horizontal and in the direction toward the basin outlet. Settling Zone. In this zone, water is quiescent and gradually flows horizontally toward the basin outlet. In this zone, sedimentation occurs. Sludge Zone. In this zone, the settled sludge accumulates. Once the sludge enters this zone, it Temains there.Outlet Zone. _In this zone, the clarified water is collected evenly across the cross section of the basin. Fraction of Particles Removed In the design of a settling basin, the settling veloc- ity v, (also called the terminal velocity) of the smallest particle is selected from Eq. (9.7) or Eq, (9.8). The basin is designed so that all particles having a settling velocity greater than the termi- nal velocity are fully removed. Particles having a settling velocity (v,) smaller than the terminal velocity are partially removed (Figure 9-1); the velocity v; is expressed by Eq. (9.9). o0 = Tit 0.) A wee 08) (99) where v, = settling velocity of smallest particle that is fully removed, mvs (f/s) Q = flow rate through the basin, m°/day (ft?/day) W= width of the basin, m (ft) Ho= side water depth in the basin, m (ft) tp = theoretical detention time, (/,= V/Q (Eq. (8.22))), s v;= settling velocity of particles, (v; less than v, means they are not fully removed), mis (fps) H; = falling depth of particles with v; in time fo, m (ft) In a typical river water suspension sample, a large gradation of particle size occurs. To determine the removal efficiency at a given settling time, it is necessary to consider the entire range of particle settling velocities and the fractions that are removed. Therefore, the total removal efficiency of a settling basin can be determined by (1) a batch settling test or (2) a sieve analysis. The batch settling test employs a settling column similar to that shown in Figure 9-2. The test sample is placed in the column, and samples are taken at timed intervals, usually each 300 60 seconds for 5 minutes and then every 1 to 2 minutes for the remainder of the test. The test is continued for from 30 minutes to 2 hours, depending on the size of particles in the sample’ The weight of suspended solids is measured for each sample and expressed as a fraction of solids remaining. The sieve analysis technique requires a sample of dry solids that constitute the suspensi® to be removed in the basin. Standard sieve analysis is performed on dried samples to determin? the fraction of particles in different diameter ranges. The settling velocity of each fraction is cat culated from Eqs. (9-1) or (9-6).~ X Particle 3 Feely i Side Sludge Zone ‘eph + Figure 9-1 Setting behavior of discrete particles. D> 10 em H> 2m 1H. Design Side Water Depth Lyon ‘Mure 8-2 Standard settling column used for a discrete settling test. i is , as shown in method, a settling velocity analysis curve is developed, ine is then determined by graphically integrating the y is 7 a 9-3. The total solids removal efficienc: “under the curve, ' : : : fraction of icles removed in a settling basin having a terminal velocity ion of partic! en by Ea. (10) . (0.10) Yi F = (1-Xe)+ fae 0306 Chapter 9 + Sedimentaion where F = fraction removed, dimensionless fraction of particles with velocity v; less than v,, dimensionless fraction of particles removed with settling velocity greater than v,, dimensionless Fraction of particles with velocity less than terminal Settling velocity Figure 9-3 Discrete particles settling curve and fraction removal. Overflow Rate The terminal velocity has great significance in the design of setting basins. It is also called design overflow rate, surface loading rate, or hydraulic loading (m*/m?-d). It is expressed numerically by Eq. (9.11). = g (@.11) A= surface or plan area of setting basin, m? (ft?) In sedimentation basin design, the principal parameter affecting particle removal effi- ciency is the surface loading rate. When the surface loading rate is selected for an acceptable set- tled water quality, the required side water depth is often considered as a proxy for the detention time, which is another important design parameter. In fact, in an ideal basin, a shallower depth yields higher removal efficiencies at a given detention time, because the particles have a shorterJeory of Sedimentation a distance to travel to reach the sludge zone, and the surface loading rate is typically lower. Unfor- tunately, the particle settling behaviors in an actual sedimentation basin are far from those achieved under ideal conditions. Factors such as density currents, thermal currents, wind action, and uneven flow distribution may cause a sedimentation basin to perform at an efficiency less than that under ideal conditions. The most common use for discrete settling in water treatment is presedimentation basins. These basins are used to remove sand, gravel, and other discrete particles from raw water sources that have high solids loadings, such as river supplies. In the absence of any other design data, a surface loading rate of 200 to 400 m°/m?.d and water depths of 3 to 5 m are typically used for presedimentation basin design.® 9.2.2 Flocculant Settling, Type II Flocculant settling differs from discrete settling in that agglomeration (flocculation) of particles occurs.’ The solid particles in the suspension begin to settle as discrete particles, but their concentration is sufficiently high to ensure particle collisions. The physical properties of the particles cause them to coalesce when collisions occur. The resulting combined particle is heavier, and so settles more rapidly, than the individual particles. As a result, particles have an increasing settling velocity that yields a settling path somewhat like that shown in Figure 9-4(a).>7 Due to such changes in particle size and settling behavior, flocculant settling is much complicated than discrete settling. No simple mathematical basis for flocculant settling has yet been developed for design purposes. Also, unlike in discrete settling, the side water depth is the most important parameter affecting the particles removal efficiency in flocculant settling. For a selected side water depth, other design parameters, including both overflow rate and detention time, must then be determined, either by batch settling tests or from experience with existing plants treating similar water. Typical design values for Type II sedimentation basins are discussed in Section 9.3. Batch settling tests are performed in laboratory settling columns similar to that shown in Figure 9-4(b).”-° The suspension is thoroughly mixed and then placed in the column to a desired depth. At timed intervals (usually every 5 to 10 min), samples are withdrawn simultaneously from different ports. The suspended solids concentration is measured for each sample, A test duration of 1 to 3 hours should yield sufficient data for developing design parameters. Usually, the test should be repeated one or two times to ensure repeatability of the results. For illustration Purposes, an example of a sedimentation basin follows. This example provides the procedure for obtaining the design overflow rate and detention time. Example A sedimentation basin is designed to settle the flocculant suspension from a surface Water source. It is desired to remove 80% TSS at a side water depth of 3.5 m. A batch column ‘est analysis was performed in the laboratory. Determine the design values of overflow rate and detention time.me Chapter 9 » Sedimentation pr hit J i Setting Zone i - yy pontine ALA LI on ‘Sage Tate (a) Loesme Pent Ltn ron 2 Losin rats Laciene Pot + (b) Figure 9-4 Flocculant settling. (a) Settling trajectories of flocculant particles in settling basin. (b) Siandard setting column used for flocculant settling test. Solution The following procedure is utilized in the batch column test analysis: 1. Fill the settling column with the flocculant suspension. 2. Draw samples from each port at timed intervals. 3, Determine TSS in each sample. 4, Reduce the results for each port, as illustrated in Table 9-1. 5. Prepare a summary table with reduced results for each port (Table 9-2).‘moor toble 9-1 Example Batch Settii No. 1 (Figure 9-4(b)) " On Analysis for Sample Port jeas a a TSs, TSS Removed, nae i, Removar Efficiency, . = Percent 7 134 3 20 75 se 33> 30 Si Bs 62 40 20 14 180 90 > app * 100% = 33% Table 9-2 Reduced Batch Settling Test Results for Various Ports Port No. Depth, m Sampling Time, min 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0.5 SStaees 02 228847458889 90. 1 2) 1.0 ieee Lite OSec ra 7 Lats AO ee tgO aa dog 3 15 ik, eae ede age ee aaa Cy 4 20 17 33° 56 647178 5 2.9 14 3200 540647078 82S 6 3.0 4 © 52-. 6B ©. 7 8 83;. 85 u 3.5 12 30 51 60 «669 74 80 8384 * 33 percent of initial TSS is removed at sampling time of 10 minutes since start (Table 9-1) 6-Plot a grid showing percent TSS removal at each port at different time intervals (Figure 9-5), ; 7. Draw lines of equal percentage removal (isoremoval). These lines are drawn similarly to contour lines (Figure 9-5). io * Praw a vertical line at each point an isoremoval line intersects the x-axis 5 m enh For example, the R = 60% isoremoval curve intercepts the x-axis at 38 minutes. : s can also be Percent Settling time + is therefore 38 minutes. The following observation’ made: 8. 90% of the Particles have settled 0.51 m or more. 6. 80% of the Particles have settled 0.72 m or more. “Likewise, 70% and 60% of the particles have settled 1.01 m. Tespectively, and 3.50 m or mote,Chapter 9 + Sedimentation ‘310 Port 1 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4 Port Port 6 Port 7 90 Ose ee taO ta essOse CeO ceo TEaeOrera TO caete0) Figure 9-5 Plotting and reducing batch settling test data. The total percent of TSS removal at a given detention time and at a given water depth hig is calculated from Eq. (9.12). a by 9.12) Percent removal = *(100- &,) +7(R,-R) +... Ta, (Rat Ra) + Ba 0 0 where : en tO ‘hy hay» hg, = vertical distance from the top of the settling column to the midpoint fa 5, Consecutive lines of iso-removal at desired detention time (Figt (ft) oo li ‘hg= desired design side water depth that is less than or ‘equal to the depth of set umn (Figure 9-5), m (ft) Ri, Roy» Ry consecutive iso-temoval curves, percent removal i watt {SS removal efficiency of 71.3 percent at detention time t = 38 minutes and depth Ag= 3.5 mis obtained as shown in Table 9-3,Theory of Sedimentation att Table 9-3 Calculation of Total Percent Removal at hp = 3.5 m and t= 38 minutes hn i nto te Rn-1 Rn Rn-1- Fp Fon 1- Bn) Het O26 Cet O.OT Hl TOO He Hoe In elu MOm Here Esti Tene an 2 0.61 0.17 90 80 10 17 3 0.85 0.24 80 70 10 24 4 2.26 0.65 70 60 10 65 5 : : : 60 : 60 Total Percent Removal 713 90 percent TSS isoremoval contour. 9. Determine total percent of TSS removal at several detention times. Also, calculate the set- ting velocity of this suspension and overflow rate. The results are summarized in Table 9-4. Table 9-4 Total Percent Removals at Percent Settling Time Detention Time, Velocity, m/min ents” Percent Removal 7 0.50 720 20.9 15 0.23 336 349 21 0.17 240 45.8 26 0.13 194 55.3 30 0.12 168 62.5 38 0.092" 133 13 52 0.067 96.9 80.4 7 0.049 71.0 88.6 3.5 m/38 min = 0.092 m/min. 0.095 m/min o» m?/m? o 1440 min/d = 133 m°/m?-d. See Table 9-3 for calculation of percent TSS removed at fig = 3.5 m and 1 = 38 minutes. 10. Draw curves representing TSS removal with respect to overflow rate and detention time. These curves are shown in Figure 9-6. 11. Read theoretical values of overflow rate and detention time for a desired TSS removal efficiency from Figure 9-6. __ Inorder to achieve a total TSS removal efficiency of eighty percent (80%) in a sedimenta- ‘ion basin with a side water depth of 3.5 m, it is required (1) that the overflow rate should not bemi ma t | te { | 26 180 Z00 50-300 380 400 450 G00 550 600 ESD 700 750 00 B50 200 Overton Rate, m!/m* day (a) 158 Remove 0 5 10 15 2 25 30 35 40 a5 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 O50 (b) Figure 9-6 Percent TSS removal efficiency curves. (a) With respect to overflow rate. (b) With re- ‘spect to settling time. higher than 97 m/m?-day (Figures 9-6(a)), and (2) that the detention time should be at least 55 minutes (Figures 9-6(b)). The batch settling test represents ideal settling conditions, which are rarely present in a full-scale continuous flow sedimentation basin. To account for such effects as density currents, temperature currents, and uneven flow distributions, correction factors can be applied to the experimental results. The test results are multiplied by the factors listed in Table 9-5 to yield the design parameters.” Using the factors of 0.7 and 1.6, the following design values are obtained: Overflow rate = 68 m3/m?-d Detention time = 88 minsedimentation Basin Design 313 Table 9-5 Correction Factors for Flocculant Settling Design Parameters in Full Scale Sedimentation Basin Design Parameter Correction Factor ‘Overflow rate 0.60 10 0.80 Detention time 1.25 to 1.75 9.2.3 Hindered Settling, Type Ill, and Compression Settling, Type IV Hindered settling (Type I/) and Compression settling, (Type IV) apply to gravity sludge thickeners in water treatment. The upper portion of the sludge blanket behaves like Type IIT set- ting; the lower portion behaves like Type IV. As with flocculant settling, no simple mathemati- cal models of these settling conditions have been developed for design purposes. Design parameters need, therefore, to be developed from laboratory tests or from experience with exist- ing plants handling similar sludges. Zone settling analysis or solids flux analysis are the typical methods used to develop these parameters. References 1, 3, 7 and 9 offer an excellent discussion of the procedures for these methods. Design of gravity thickeners is presented in Chapter 14. 9.3 Sedimentation Basin Design The important considerations in sedimentation basin design are basin geometry, surface loading rate, detention time, inlet and outlet zone, weir loading rates, and the sludge collection and removal system. Table 9-6 lists typical values of such design parameters as overflow rate, detention time, and effluent weir loading rates. Other important design considerations are pre- sented in later sections. Table 9-6 Typical Water Treatment Sedimentation Design Parameters Surface Loading Detention Time, Rate, Weir Loading Rate, h m%/m?.d (gpd/tt?) m°/m-d (gpd/tt) Rectangular basins Coagulation 48 20-40 (50-1000) 250 (20,000) Softening 2-6 40-60 (1000-1500) 250 (20,000) Solids contact units Coagulation 2 40-60 (1000-1500) 170 (14,000) Softening 1 60-100 (1500-2500) 350 (28,000) Upflow basins Coagulation 2 40-60 (1000-1500) 170 (14,000) Softening 1 60-1000 (1500-2500) 350 (28,000) "Adapted in part from References 3, 6, 7 and 9.