A MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR THE PREDICTION OF LARGE DIAMETER BALL

CONSUMPTION RATES IN SEMIAUTOGENOUS GRINDING APPLICATIONS

*R. Morrow1 and J.E. Sepulveda2

1
Moly-Cop Canada
250 Andover Crescent
PO Box 3040, Kamloops BC V2C 6B7
2
Moly-Cop Group
Avda. Pedro de Valdivia 0168
Santiago, Chile
(*Corresponding author: jsepulveda@molycop.cl)

ABSTRACT

In full scale mineral grinding operations, the steel balls normally utilized as auxiliary grinding
media get to be consumed at different specific rates, as determined by 3 basic mechanisms:
abrasion/corrosion (wear), impact ball breakage and impact surface spalling, the latter relating to the
removal of rather small pieces of steel coming off the exposed surface of the balls due to repetitive impact
with other balls in the charge or the surrounding mill liners. In conventional ball milling applications, the
clearly predominant mechanism is gradual wear by abrasion/corrosion. In the case of SAG mills, where the
make-up balls may be as large as 6”φ diameter, breakage and spalling mechanisms are significant
contributors to total ball consumption, although not to the extent of overriding wear mechanisms.

Ball wear has been well characterized by the Linear Wear Theory, as presented at the last CMP
2014. Impact breakage has been customarily monitored, at the ball manufacturing site, via Drop Ball Tests
(DBT) consisting of repeatedly dropping balls from a standard height and accounting for the number of
broken balls and the weight loss (spalling) of the remaining unbroken balls. When properly conducted,
DBT’s should provide meaningful indications of the breakage and spalling resistance of large diameter
balls. The current publication is focused on the interpretation and projection of DBT results to full
industrial scale, taking into account all 3 mechanisms of grinding media consumption in SAG mills.

KEYWORDS

Grinding media, ball consumption, linear wear theory, wear rate constant, Drop Ball Tester (DBT),
ball breakage, surface spalling, semiautogenous (SAG) grinding, mill power, volumetric ball/charge
ratio, Moly-Cop Tools.

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INTRODUCTION

A thorough, quantitative understanding of the independent contribution of all active grinding

media consumption mechanisms is of the highest practical relevance, particularly in semiautogenous
(SAG) milling operations where ball breakage and spalling can not be ignored or neglected, as it has been
normally acceptable for conventional ball milling processes. The high severity impact conditions currently
imposed in typical SAG mill environments create serious challenges to the manufacturers and suppliers of
large diameter (5”–6”) SAG balls, whose products must be capable of surviving such harsh operational
conditions with minimum breakage or spalling.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Three different concurrent mechanisms have been identified as the primary causes of grinding
media consumption in SAG mills: Abrasion/Corrosion Wear, Breakage and Surface Spalling.

Abrasion/Corrosion Wear

The gradual wear mechanism was discussed in depth in a previous publication of these same
authors (Sepulveda & Morrow, 2014).

The most widely accepted approach to mathematically characterize the slow, sustained
consumption (wear) kinetics of grinding bodies in rotary tumbling mills is known as the Linear Wear
Theory (Prentice, 1943; Norquist, 1950; Sepulveda, 2004) according to which – at every instant ‘t’ after
the grinding body was thrown into the mill charge – its rate of weight loss will be directly proportional to
its surface area being exposed to gradual abrasion and/or corrosion wear mechanisms (mostly abrasion in
the case of SAG mills):

Ωt = ∂(m) / ∂(t) = - km Ab (1)

where:

Ωt = media consumption rate, kg/hr

m = ball weight, kg; after t hours in the mill charge
Ab = surface area of the ball exposed to wear, m2
km = mass wear rate constant, kg/hr/m2.

Equivalently, taking into account the geometry of the grinding body (normally a sphere), Equation
2 converts to :

∂(d) / ∂(t) = - 2 km / ρb = - kd (2)

where:

d = size (diameter) of the grinding body, after t hours in the mill charge, mm
ρb = density of the grinding body, gr/cm3 or ton/m3
kd = linear wear rate constant, mm/hr.

Equation 2 above can be simply integrated for the most common case when kd remains constant as
the ball wears off; that is, the ball is homogeneous from surface to center and kd is not a function of time
(the condition required for Linear Wear Kinetics):

d = dR - kd t (3)

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where:

dR = make-up ball size of the new grinding bodies periodically recharged to the mill, mm

Alternatively, for the time interval ‘∆t’, between times ‘t’ and ‘t+∆t’, Equation 3 may be rewritten
as:

d(t) = d(t-∆t) - kd ∆t (4)

Ball Breakage

As originally proposed by the US Bureau of Mines

(Blickensderfer & Tylczak, 1985; Blickensderfer, Tylczak & Madsen,
1985) Drop Ball Testing (DBT) has been the experimental
methodology customarily selected for the characterization of
alternative grinding media product attributes.

As implemented around the Moly-Cop organization – world

leading manufacturer of the full range of grinding media sizes – such
DBT methodology consists of repetitively dropping an ensemble of N
balls (one at a time) from a standard height of 10 m for a cumulative
minimum of 1000 drops of each ball (or until more than 10 balls get
broken). The dropped balls are continuously collected by a bucket
elevator and lifted to be dropped again. The impact severity conditions
so created in the DBT apparatus are intended to be representative of the
harshest impact environments to be encountered by large diameter
SAG balls in large scale SAG mills (ball-to-ball or ball-to-liner
impacts). The target of 1000 drops per ball has been specified to
represent approximately half of the life of a ball in the mill charge.
DBT J-tube
(Taken from Blickensderfer et al.)

The primary outcome of a properly conducted Drop Ball Test is the DBT Breakage Index
defined as:

DBT Breakage Index = (# Broken Balls)/(Total # Drops) * 1000 (5)

Surface Spalling

An equally important outcome of a DBT is the assessment of the rate of weight loss experienced
by the balls due to surface spalling after repetitive impacts.

Since spalling has been observed to be accelerated as the ball accumulates impacts (surface
fatigue phenomenon), it is required to divide the test into multiple sequential stages stopping at 20,000,
40,000 and even 60,000 total drops, determining the average weight of the remaining unbroken balls after
each test interruption.

The contribution of surface spalling to the weight loss of the balls may then be characterized by
the DBT Spalling Rate, kdS defined as:

kdS = (Incr. Diameter Loss, mm)/(Incr. # Drops/N) * 1000 (6)

where the ‘Incremental Diameter Loss’ between two consecutive test stops (k and k-1) may be simply
determined from the measured variation in average ball weight by the expression:

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(dk-1 – dk) = (6wk-1/π)1/3 - (6wk/π)1/3 (7)

with wk representing the average weight of the remaining balls after the kth test interruption.

The DBT Spalling Rate, kdS, after DOSB (drops of the same ball) has been experimentally found
to satisfactorily conform to the power relationship:

kdS = k0S * (DOSB/1000)φ (8)

where k0S corresponds to the surface spalling rate after accumulating exactly 1000 DOSB’s and φ is an
exponent accounting for the surface ‘fatigue’ effect; that is, the continuous increment in kdS as the balls
accumulate repetitive impacts.

10.00
Moly-Cop NG
Spalling Rate, kdS, mm/1000 drops

Competitor

1.00

φ = 2.38
0.10

kdS = k0S * (DOSB)φ

0.01
100 1000 10000
Drops of Same Ball (DOSB)

Figure 1 - Experimental DBT results illustrating the significant increment in surface spalling rate
as the balls accumulate repetitive drops through the DBT J-tube.

The chart above presents the optimal comparative spalling performance of the new generation of
high-toughness Moly-Cop SAG balls: the Moly-Cop NG series. The observed surface ‘fatigue’ effect is
reflected by fairly high values of the slope φ. All types of different ball qualities tested so far appear to
conform to similarly high magnitudes of the exponent φ, such as the 2.38 value shown in Figure 1 above.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL FORMULATION

The theoretical considerations presented in the previous section provide the basis for the
formulation of a mathematical model, claimed to be applicable to any actual industrial SAG milling
operation, which includes and combines the independent effects of each of the three identified media
consumption mechanisms: Wear, Ball Breakage and Surface Spalling.

Lifting Capacity of the Mill Liner Design

As shown in the schematic representation of a cross section of the lifting cavity created between
two neighboring lifter bars, the geometry of the liner design allows for the estimation of the Lifter Cavity
Capacity (LCC); i. e. the volume of mill charge being lifted per each lifter bar in every revolution:

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If hx < hL,

LLC = 0.5 hL2 (tanφ2 – tanφ1F) L (9)

If hx > hL,

LLC = 0.5 [(L1 + L2) hL – L2hx] L (10)

with

hx = L2 / [tanφ2 – (L1 – L2)/hL - tanφ1F] (11)

where L corresponds to the mill length.

Then, the mill rotational speed (N, rpm) and the number of lifter bars (nL) around the whole cross
perimeter of the mill allow for the calculation of the total Liner Lifting Capacity (LLC, ton/hr); i. e. the
quantity of balls being lifted per hour of operation:

LLC = (1-fv) ρb (Jb/J) (N*60) nL LCC (12)

where:

fv = volumetric fraction of interstitial voids; typically 0.35-0.40 °/1.

ρb = density of the grinding ball, gr/cm3 or ton/m3
J = apparent total charge level, °/1
Jb = apparent ball filling level, °/1

And so the average number of times the same ball is lifted in every hour (LOSB) may be
estimated as:

LSOB = DOSB = LLC / Wb (13)

with:
Wb = total weight of balls in the mill charge, ton

As per this formula, for a typical SAG mill operation, the average number of times the same ball
is lifted in every hour (LOSB = DOSB) ranges between 50 – 100 times per hour.

Critical Impacts

Clearly, not all the balls being lifted by the action of the
rotating mill will suffer hi-energy drop impacts, somewhat comparable
to those created in the DBT device every time a ball is dropped and
performs a whole cycle through the J-tube. These type of severe
impacts are here defined as ‘Critical Impacts’.

The vast majority of the balls being lifted will cascade down
the charge kidney without considerable damage and only a small
proportion of them will cataract with high-energy against other balls by
the kidney’s toe (ball-to-ball impacts) and even against the exposed
liner bars and plates (ball-to-liner impacts). This condition may be
mathematically characterized by introducing a ‘cushioning factor’ γ, Discrete Element Method (DEM)
such that: Simulation
(Taken from Latchireddi)

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Critical DOSB = γ (Jb/J) DOSB (14)

where the (Jb/J) factor accounts for the probability of falling and hitting on top of another ball.

At the current stage of model development, the parameter γ is an adjustable calibration (tuning)
parameter which appears to be as low as 0.1 (or 10%).

Scale-up Criteria

Assuming the defined Critical DSOB impacts are directly comparable to standard DBT impacts
(drops), the influence of the various media consumption mechanisms may be quantified as follows:

- Diameter (mass) loss by WEAR:

d(t) = d(t-∆t) – kd∆t ; with kd constant over time t

- Diameter (mass) loss by SPALLING:

d(t) = d(t-∆t) – kdS∆t ; with kdS = k0S * (DOSB/1000)φ

- # of Ball Failures by BREAKAGE:

# Broken∆t = (DBT Breakage Index)*(DOSB∆t/1000) * (d(t)/d(0))4

where the [d(t)/d(0)]4 factor accounts for the age of the ball in the mill, making it less prone to
breakage as the ball gets older and smaller.

Model Calculation Algorithm

With the aid of a relatively simple EXCEL Moly-Cop Tools 3.0 spreadsheet (Sepulveda, 2012),
the various model equations are orderly and repeatedly evaluated by numerical integration using small time
increments of ∆t = 8 hours, keeping track of the cumulative DOSB’s and recalculating the continuously
increasing Spalling Rate, kdS, and assuming the exact same amount of new balls is charged to the mill
every ∆t hours. For simplicity of calculations – within every ∆t time increment – the balls are assumed to
be first submitted to wear, then to surface spalling and then exposed to ball breakage.

The calculation algorithm so allows for the evaluation of the rate at which every independent ball
size in the mill charge string is being consumed by each of the 3 identified mechanisms plus the amount of
steel rejected off the mill as ball scats (cores); that is, those balls that gradually lose diameter down to the
size of the mill grate discharge slots without suffering massive ball breakage.

The calculation algorithm also permits the evaluation of the total ball area exposed and the purge
time; that is, the lapse of time between the charging of a new ball to the mill and the elimination of the
corresponding core (if unbroken) through the mill discharge grate.

DEFINITION OF NOMINAL REFERENCE CASES FOR MODEL CALIBRATION

For the purposes of calibration (tuning) of the mathematical model to past and current SAG
milling practices, the following 5 nominal reference operational conditions were defined, covering various
levels of mill charge impact severity (volumetric ball/charge ratio, Jb/J) and ball type DBT performance
parameters (Breakage and Spalling):

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Ball Quality Ball

Case Impact Environment F80 Ball DBT Breakage Spalling Rate Parameters Consumption
S
# Severity J Jb Jb /J mm Toughness Index k0 φ gr/kWh

1 Low 28 12 0.43 120 Low 0.50 2.00 2.38 65

2 Medium 28 14 0.50 80 Low 0.50 2.00 2.38 80

3 High 26 16 0.62 60 Medium 0.20 2.00 2.38 85

4 High 26 18 0.69 60 High 0.05 0.20 2.38 65

5 High 26 18 0.69 60 Very High 0.00 0.07 2.38 60

These nominal reference conditions do not correspond to any specific SAG milling facility. They
are rather intended to represent the historical evolution in operational practice trends, mostly around South
American sites. Such trends have been notoriously characterized by a continuous increase in the ball/rock
(Jb/(J-Jb)) and volumetric ball/charge (Jb/J) ratios; that is, significantly increased impact severity conditions
in the SAG mill charge, forcing ball manufacturers to develop much tougher products, such as the new
Moly-Cop NG SAG balls.

The table below shows excellent agreement between the assumed nominal conditions and the
model fitted projections:

Ball Quality Ball Model Predictions, gr/kWh

Case Impact Environment F80 Ball DBT Breakage Spalling Rate Parameters Consumption OVERALL by by by Scat
# Severity J Jb Jb /J mm Toughness Index k0S φ gr/kWh Wear Spalling Breakage Rejects

1 Low 28 12 0.43 120 Low 0.50 2.00 2.38 65 65.58 37.50 4.96 17.73 5.39
% 57.2 7.6 27.0 8.2

2 Medium 28 14 0.50 80 Low 0.50 2.00 2.38 80 78.55 38.47 8.92 25.33 5.83
% 49.0 11.4 32.2 7.4

3 High 26 16 0.62 60 Medium 0.20 2.00 2.38 85 85.51 41.49 19.85 15.56 8.61
% 48.5 23.2 18.2 10.1

4 High 26 18 0.69 60 High 0.05 0.20 2.38 65 66.78 45.76 8.48 4.47 8.07
% 68.5 12.7 6.7 12.1

5 High 26 18 0.69 60 Very High 0.00 0.07 2.38 60 58.55 46.56 4.14 0.00 7.85
% 79.5 7.1 0.0 13.4

The model fitted projections were obtained by adjusting only 2 critical calibration parameters, the
same for all 5 cases: the cushioning factor γ = 0.1 and the Benavente’s Wear Rate Constant, kdB = 1.69
µm/(kWh/ton). Worth noting that the resulting estimate of kdB is roughly 30% higher than its default value
normally assumed for conventional ball milling (Benavente, 2005).

As shown in Figure 2, for each of the selected reference cases, the model provides a breakdown of
the independent contribution of each the identified ball consumption mechanisms to the total overall
consumption estimate. While Wear is in all cases projected to be the primary contributing mechanism, it is
also noticeable the contribution of Breakage and Spalling, particularly Case #3 corresponding to a high
impact SAG charge environment with low toughness balls.

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100 Ball Toughness Scats

90 Medium

Ball Consumption, gr/kWh

Breakage
Low
80
Low Very Spalling
High
70
High Wear
60
50
40
30
20
10
Low Medium High High High
0
0.43 0.50 0.62 0.69 0.69
Impact Conditions, Jb/J

Figure 2 - Cumulative contribution of the various ball consumption mechanisms for each of the 5
nominal reference cases.

Further, as shown in Figure 3, the model is also capable of providing a very detailed description
of media consumption rates broken down by ball size and consumption mechanism:

16.0
Wear
14.0 Spalling
Breakage
12.0
Ball Consumption, kg/hr

Total (excl. Scats)

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Ball Size, mm

Figure 3 - Detailed description of media consumption rates broken down by ball size and
consumption mechanism.

EXPLORATORY SIMULATIONS

DBT Breakage Index Effect

Figure 4 illustrates the expected effect of variations in the DBT Breakage Index of the balls, as
determined with the standard DBT methodology previously described. A couple of the decades ago, when
SAG mills were operated with much lower Jb/J ratios, it was considered ‘commercially’ acceptable to
supply balls with DBT Breakage Index in the range of 0.25 to 0.5. Today, there has been a notorious shift
in operators’ quality expectations down in the range of 0.1 or less in view of the potential grinding media
savings to be so achieved.

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Low Impact Conditions High Impact Conditions

90 90
Total Total
80 80
Wear Wear
52%
Ball Consumption, gr/kWh

Ball Consumption, gr/kWh

70 Spalling 70 Spalling
60 Breakage 60 Breakage
Scats Scats
50 50

40 40

30 30
24%
20 20

10 10

0 0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
DBT Breakage Index DBT Breakage Index

Figure 4 - Projected influence of the DBT Breakage Index of the balls on total media consumption,
at two different levels of impact severity in the SAG mill charge.

Surface Spalling Rate Effect

The influence of DBT Spalling Rate on the projected full scale ball consumption in a given SAG
mill is illustrated in Figure 5. As expected, same as for the case of the impact breakage mechanism, the
contribution of spalling to the overall ball consumption rate is much more significant in higher impact mill
charge environments.

Low Impact Conditions High Impact Conditions

90 90
Total Total
80 80
Wear Wear
Ball Consumption, gr/kWh

Ball Consumption, gr/kWh

70 Spalling 70 Spalling
60 Breakage 27% 60 Breakage
Scats Scats
50 50

40 40

30 30
7%
20 20

10 10

0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
DBT Spalling Rate, k0S, mm/kDOSB DBT Spalling Rate, k0S, mm/kDOSB

Figure 5 - Projected influence of the DBT Spalling Rate of the balls on total media consumption, at
two different levels of impact severity in the SAG mill charge.

Assessment of Full Scale Potential Improvements

Clearly, harsh impact environment conditions – as represented by the volumetric ball/charge ratio,
Jb/J – are the main cause of abnormal grinding media consumption rates in SAG mills. Therefore the need
to develop new tougher large diameter balls capable of sustaining these challenging environments, not only
by reducing ball breakage but also minimizing surface spalling of the balls, even after several hundred
hours in the mill charge.

Figure 6 below illustrates that – as a function of the volumetric ball/rock ratio – the potential
reduction in grinding media consumption associated to the use of much tougher balls (improved breakage
and spalling performance) would range from the low 10-15% at mild impact conditions (Jb/J < 0.4) to the
upper 30-35% at much harsher impact conditions (Jb/J > 0.6), quite similar to what is being observed as
general practice in SAG milling operations today.

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Medium Toughness Ball High Toughness Ball

100 100
Total Total
90 90
Wear Wear
80 80
34%
Ball Consumption, gr/kWh

Ball Consumption, gr/kWh

Spalling Spalling
70 Breakage 70 Breakage
60 Scats 60 Scats
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 13% 20
10 10
0 0
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70
Volumetric Ball/Charge Ratio, Jb/J Volumetric Ball/Charge Ratio, Jb/J

Figure 6 - Assessment of the potential benefits of increasing ball toughness at various impact
severity levels in the SAG mill charge.

FINAL REMARKS

A detailed model for the projection of DBT results to full scale SAG milling operations is here
proposed for the very first time. By explicitly incorporating all 3 primary ball consumption mechanisms
(wear, breakage and spalling), the model highlights the significant contribution of the last 2 mechanisms,
which could no longer be ignored in view of the current SAG milling operational trends that call for much
aggressive impact environments in the mill charge.

The model contains a considerable number of assumptions whose validity is yet to be better
demonstrated with a broader base of experimental data. Nevertheless, at the current stage of model
development, the data analysis exercises and simulated projections arising from the model appear to be
fairly reasonable and certainly encouraging to continue enhancing this first scale-up mathematical model
formulation for the prediction of large diameter ball consumption rates in semiautogenous grinding
applications.

REFERENCES

Benavente, H. (2005). Correlación empírica para la evaluación de consumos de bolas en aplicaciones de

molienda. Moly-Cop 2005: X Simposio sobre Procesamiento de Minerales, Termas de Chillán, Chile
Blickensderfer, R. & Tylczak, J. H. (1985). Laboratory Tests of Spalling, Breaking, and Abrasion of Wear-
Resistant Alloys used in Mining and Mineral Processing. US Bureau of Mines, RI 8968
Blickensderfer, R. & Tylczak, J. H. & Madsen, B. W. (1985). Laboratory Wear Testing Capabilities of the
Bureau of Mines. US Bureau of Mines, IC 9001
Latchireddi, S. (2014). Operational Optimization of AG/SAG Milling Circuits Shortcourse. IMEC 2014,
San Luis Potosí, Mexico.
Sepulveda, J. E. & Morrow, R. (2014). Moly-Cop Tools Applications for the Assessment of Grinding
Media Performance at Full Industrial Scale. 46th Annual Canadian Mineral Processors Operators
Conference, Ottawa, Canada.
Sepulveda, J. E. (2004). Methodologies for the evaluation of grinding media consumption rates at full plant
scale. Minerals Engineering, vol 17, pp 1269–1279
Sepulveda, J. E. (2012). Moly-Cop Tools, Version 3.0: Software for the assessment and optimization of
grinding circuit performance. Available upon request at jsepulveda@molycop.cl

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