The Sanctions of Ifa Divination

Author(s): William R. Bascom

Source: The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 71
, No. 1/2 (1941), pp. 43-54
Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
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 43

THE SANCTIONS OF IFA DIVINATION

By WVILLIAM R. BASCOM,M.A., Ph.D.
Northwestern
University

I is confrontedby a similar problem and should make

a similar sacrifice. Before beginning to practice, a
In spite of the importancethat divinationis gener- divinermust have memorizeda minimumof well over
ally admitted to have in many cultures,there have a thousand such verses, the involved rituals of the
been few attempts to show how this institutioncan sacrifices,and the " medicines" or charms which are
hold any intellectual satisfactionfor the individuals associated with each of them.
who rely upon it. There have been numerous testi- The operations of the diviner-either with a set of
monies to the extent of the confidencethat people in sixteen palm-nuts or with a chain of eight halves of
many parts of the world have in the predictions of seeds-serve to determine which group of verses
their diviners, but seldom more than summary ex- applies to the client. Sixteen palm-nuts are held in
planations of this fact.1 If a diviner's accurate pre- the right hand, and " beaten " or clapped several
dictionsof the futureare only a matterof coincidence, times against the left hand; then, grasping them
how can a people fail-to be disillusionedby his mis- tightly with his right hand, the diviner lifts up as
takes, and why does one generationafteranothercon- many nuts as he can. When none are left, or when
tinue to make the sacrificeshe demands'? How, in morethan two remain,or when the graspis not secure,
this sense, does divination work ? the trial is not counted. But when one is left, the
As a basis for a discussion of these points with diviner draws two lines on his tray, and when two
referenceto the Yoruba tribe of West Africa,2a brief nuts remain he makes a single line. This process is
summaryof the Ifa method of divinationis necessary. repeated eight times, the eight single or double lines
Since the followingis only a bare outline of the prin- forminga figureof two parallel columns of four sets
ciples governing the operations of the diviner, it of marks each. When the chain of eight seeds is
should not be taken as an accurate picture of Ifa used, it is grasped in the middle and thrownso that
divination, which is extremelycomplex. the seeds fall in two parallel columns of four seeds
The predictionsgiven by the Yoruba diviner are each. Either methodgives one of 25.6possible figures,
not improvised to suit the particular occasion, but in which the double lines drawn on the tray are equi-
are in the form of fixed " verses " which are com- valent to half a seed with the convex side up, and a
mitted to memory,and recited to the client when an single line is equivalent to a half with the concave
appropriate figure mainifestsitself. These verses, side uppermost.
which may be of considerablelength,generallyfollow By beating the palm-nuts or casting the chain of
the pattern of describing a previous divination, for seeds, the divinerdeterminesthe figurewhichpertains
an animal or legendary character,which is to serve to the client and then begins to recite the group of
as a precedentfor the client; they begin by naming verses that are specificallyassociated with it. Any
the divinerwho made the predictionand usually tell figuremay include verses coveringa number of con-
the problem that confrontedthe character and the tingencies, such as death, sickness, gaining wealth,
sacrificethat was prescribedforhim. They tell how taking a wife, becoming a chief,and so on, and will
that character either sacrifi6ed and prospered, or thus serve to answer a number of differentproblems
failed to sacrificeand met with misfortune,and con- which may confrontthe client. The client listens
clude by stating or implyingthat the present client quietly through irrelevant verses until the diviner
recites one that deals with his particular problem;
1 The outstanding exception to these remarks is E. E.
Evans-Pritchard's Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the
this he accepts as the answer to his question. He
Azande (1937). While there are some significantdifferences indicates the appropriate verse to the diviner, and
between the Yoruba and Azande systems of divination, then proceeds to make the sacrificeprescribedin it.
oarticularlyin the degree of reliance upon local gossip and At times these sacrificesnecessitate an outlay of
upon free and unconsciousassociation, this article confirms propertythat may be considerablein terms of native
ancLsupplementsEvans-Pritchard'smaterial.
standards of living. It is entirelyreasonable, there-
2
Field work in the town of Ife, Nigeria, during 1937--38, fore,to ask why the Yoruba are willingto
was made possible by a Fellowship of the Social Science make these
Research Council of New York City, under the sponsorship sacrifices,and to consult the diyiners whenever an
oftheDepartmentofAnthropology, Northwestern University. important decision is to be made.

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44 WILLIAM R. BASCOM
II
The belief of the Yoruba in this system of divina-
tion cannot be explained simply in terms of their
" superstitious" nature or their " uncritical" minds
certainlytheirattitudes toward the divinercannot be
described as uncritical. Nor can it be satisfactorily
explained in termsonly of the psychologicaltendency
of some individuals to rememberthe times when pre-
dictions are confirmedby subsequent events, and to
forgetthosewhen theyare inaccurate. Some observers
have relied almost exclusively on this factor,which
affects all forms of divination, in explainlingwhy
magic and why divination work, and why people
continueto believe in themin spite of obvious failures.
While the Yoruba diviner of course benefitsfromthe
selective characterof memory,it is impossible to ex-
plain the faith of the Yoruba in divination entirely
in termsofit, forsuch an explanation quite disregards
the importantsanctions which lie behind Ifa.
One of these sanctions,shared by many other sys-
tems of divination,arises fromthe Yoruba beliefthat
Ifa was taught to human beings by the gods them-
selves. Furthermore,it is believed that Ifa himself,
the god from whom the system of divination takes
its name, controls those elements of the procedure
which we ascribe to chance: how many palm-nuts
remain in the left hand of the diviner, and which
seeds in the chain fall "heads " and which fall
"tails." Because it thus derives from the gods and
is controlled by the gods, Ifa divination shares the
sanctity of the gods, and is reinforcedby the sanc-
tions whichlie behindthe faithdirectedtowardreligion
n general.
The cult of Ifa has a particularlyfavourable status
in this respect,since the wishes of any deity may be
made known to human beings by its patron. It is
the diviner in many cases, speaking for Ifa, who
directsnew worshippersto the priestsof otherdeities,
or who instructsregular worshippersto make special
sacrificesapart fromthose made at annual ceremonies
or on certain days of the week. Since the priests of
all deitiesrelypartiallyupon the divinersforsacrifices
and worshippers,it is to theireconomic advantage to
direct the sanctions of religious faith toward the
divinersand theirwork more than to any other deity
or cult, aside fromtheir own.
Furthermore,while other cults are more or less
exclusive, in that an individual does not usually
appeal to a deity other than the one he worships,
unless a diviner should direct him to do so, he con-
sults Ifa throughthe divinerwheneveran emergency
arises or a decisionis to be made. In this respectIfa
is similar to Eshu, the messengerof the gods, from
whom anyone may seek assistance. As, then, a deity
to whom all individuals turn for advice. regardlessof questions of this nature.
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the deity they regularlyworship,Ifa and his system
of divination have a particular sanctity.
A second factor,probably operative in many other
systemsof divination,but which is of special import-
ance for the Yoruba Ifa, is that in spite of the nu-
merousoccasions when divinersare consulted,obvious
decisions are made by the, individuals themselves.
It is only when there seems to be about as much to
be said in favour of one course of action as another
that the Yoruba leave the decision to the diviners.
This is especially importantin the case of the Yoruba
because of the mannerin which questions concerning
the futureare phrased. Thus a group of kindredwho
are planning to establish a new compound do not
ask Ifa, " Where shall we build our compound ? "
They listen to the verses recitedby the diviner,which
may tell them only whetherthe proposed venturewill
benefitor harm them. If advice about a locality in
which to build is desired, they suggest specificpieces
of land to Ifa and ask Ifa to choose between them.
There are two ways in which this may be done,
both of which are based upon the fact that the 256
figuresin the system are ranked in order of their
power or importance. If the client has five pieces
of land in mind, he may take five small objects-
usually a stone, a bone, a potsherd,a cowry, and a
piece of snail shell-and let each of these represent
one of the possible sites. The diviner then casts his
chain of seeds' once for each object; the cast in
which the most important figure appears indicates
the object, and thus the piece of land, which is most
desirable. Alternativelytwo objects may be selected,
and as the divinercasts twice foreach site, the client
formulatesthe questions, " Will it be good to build
the compound at this place ? " and " Will it be bad
to build the compound at this place ? " The im-
portant figureagain indicates Ifa's answer. In this
way the client suggests the various possibilitiesone
afteranother,until one is indicated as satisfactory.
The point is that since questions concerningthe
futureare always phrased in termsof specificalterna-
tives, the predictions of the diviner are not blind
stabs in the dark. Since no client would seriously
suggest sites which were notably undesirable, but
limits the choice to a few places which seem to him
of about equal merit,it is impossible for the god Ifa
to make an obvious mistake, such as recommending
a location which is already occupied, or to give very
bad advice. While chance determineswhich of the
suggested alternativesis selected, an accurate predic-
tion is not simplya matterof coincidence,because the
questions themselvesare loaded; and since the alter-
natives proposed are neitherwholly good nor wholly
I Palm-nuts are not usually used to answer specific
 The Sanctions of Ifa Divination 45

bad, it frequentlymakes littledifference which answer recomimendedby the diviner, is aware that he is
is given. But it is important to realize that this skimping, and taking the chance that the sacrifice
does not mean that nothingis gained by consulting may not bring the desired results.
the diviner. As Herskovits has indicated in discuss-
ing the same system among the neighbouringDaho-
mealls, a conviction that the choice is in the hands
of deities who have much greaterknowledgeand fore-
III
sight than human beings gives the individual greater
confidencein the decision: In addition to the sanctions already mentioned,
" Thus the advice which a bokono(diviner) gives is not which may be regardedas transcendingany particular.
only followed by his client, but affords a psychological divinatory system, there are a number of sanctions
release that comes from the conviction that subsequent deriving specifically from the details of Ifa itself
action is in tune with the wishes of supernatural forces." which operate to foster and maintain
(Herskovits1938, Vol. 2, p. 217.) confidencein
the predictions of the diviner. Many of the verses
Certainly,the elimination of fruitlesshesitation and recited to clients contain portions of the Yoruba
indecision would seem to enable the individual to mythology, which is regarded as historically true.
concentrate his entire energy, without distraction, Some of the faithin the verses thus derives fromthe
upon the task in hand. faith in the mythologyas such; thus, the verses of
A third factor,in all probabilitylikewise operative Ifa are accepted as an authoritywhich can be cited
in most formsof divination, but which has been in- to settle a theological argument. This attitude lends
sufficiently stressedwhere it has not been completely authenticityto the verses as a whole, including the
overlooked,is that there is much less chance than is predictions and the sacrifices contained in them.
generallyrealized for a client to test the accuracy of This is, of course, another way in which the general
any prediction. It should be emphasized that the sanctions behind Yoruba religionoperate to maintain
actual course of events rarely demonstrates conclu- faith in the Ifa system,but it is a way which cannot
sively that a given predictionis false. Even if thiuigs be utilized by methods of divination-such as crystal-
do not go smoothlyforthosewho build theircompound gazing, or possession by the gods-which do not cite
at the spot designatedby Ifa, moreseriousmisfortunes verses based on the accepted mythology.
might have befallen them had they disregardedIfa's One of the most importantof the sanctionsderiving
advice. And when a client who is told to sacrifice fromthe systemitselfare the morals which are to be
beforegoing on a journey to avoid illness makes the drawn fromthe verses. The point is made in nearly
sacrificeand still becomes ill, he cannot be sure that every verse, as mentioned above, that the legendary
the advice given him was wrong; in the absence of character whose divination serves as a precedent
controlledconditionshe cannot be certain that if he either sacrificedand prospered,or refusedto sacrifice
had refusedto sacrifice,things would not have been and sufferedin consequence. The followingexamples
even worse. are paraphrased fromspecificverses:
Finally, as in all other systems of divination and (a) Stout Foreignerwas told to sacrificeso as to findgood
magic, and in our own medical professionand in the fortune; he sacrificed,and everythingto whichhe turnedhis
natural sciences as well, explanations or 'alibis' are hand became good.
provided to cover unmistakable failures. In the case (b) A man named 'Sash which sounds titiwhen it fights
of Ifa these alibis are phrased,not in termsof stronger on the side of the sky' was told to sacrificeso that he might
forcesworkingagainst the client and diviner, but in marry; he sacrificedand took two wives in marriage,who
bore him many children.
terms of departures fromthe correctmethod of pro-
cedure. This may result from an attempt on the (c) Sewomo refusedto sacrificeto avert death; he and his
wifewere killed by the gods.
part of the diviner to cover up his incompetence,or
from the actual unwillingnessof the client to make This point is made more clearly in those verses
the prescribedsacrificein fill or to carry out all the which do not referto some unfamiliarincident con-
instructionsof the diviner.' The client who makes cerning a character of whom the client may never
only a part of a sacrificein order to save monev for have heard, but which explain the well-knowncharac-
other purposes, or gives an old and almost useless teristicsof some familiaranimal, or object, or deity
cloth instead of a new one, or sacrificesa brown hen in terms of whether or not this character sacrificed
that he already has instead of buying the white one as he was instructedto do. Since it is possible for
anyone to verifyat least a part of the verse in terms
1 See Section III, cases (h)-(m) and comment following of his knowledge about the characteristics of the
below. animal, object, or individual mentioned,thereis more

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46 WILLIAM- R. BASCOM

reason to accept the verse as a whole, includingthe (i) When Qrunmila's own childrenwere sacrificinggoats,
prediction and the instructionto sacrifice. In other all but the last-borninsisted that these be killed, although
theyshould have been kept by the diviner. (The implication
words. the explanatory element, which is founidso is that the childrensuspectedthe divinerof wishingto falsify
widely in folklore,is employed here as a device to the sacrificein orderto increasehis own herds.) The diviner
fosterconfidencein the validity of divination: complied with their wishes, but evil spirits,angered by the
flieswhich gathered about the blood of the sacrifices,killed
(d) It is because Maizebeer, Bamboo-wine,and Palm-wine all but the last-born,who had had faithin the diviner.
refusedto sacrificethat a personwho has been intoxicated
recoversfromhis stupefiedconditionaftersleeping. (j) When the wife of the king of Ara was told she must
carrya large he-goat on her back to the image of Eshu as
(e) It is because the shell which the Yoruba use as a top a part of the sacrificedesigned to bring her a child, she
did not sacrificethat it suddenlystops spinning. refused, because she felt this was beneath her dignity.
Instead she provided a slave to carryher goat. Eshu gave
(f) Lizard was told to make a sacrifice,part of which was the child to the slave. (In concluding,the verse specifically
to enable him to marry,and part of which was to ensure instructsthe clientto cast aside all doubt about the validity
that his wifewould continueto love hixn. Lizard sacrificed of Ifa, if she wishes to bear a child.)
only the firstpart, and after he had married,his wife left
him. It is because he is lookingforhis wifein the tree-tops (k) When Brass, Lead, and Iron were told to sacrifice,
that he raises himselfon his forelegsand peers fromside to Iron said that the divinerswere just lying,that events had
side. been predestinedby Qlyrunand that their course could not
be altered by sacrificing. Only Brass and Lead sacrified,
(g) The Qdantreewas told to make a sacrifice,part ofwhich and because of this they can be buried for many years
was to enable him to finda large enough place to dwell in, withoutrotting,while Iron rusts away in a shorttime.
and part to enable him to stay there a long time. Because
the 9dan tree made only the firstpart of the sacrifice,it had (1) When the 165 kinds of trees in the forestwere told to
no soonersettleddown than people came and cut offits roots sacrifice, only three did as they were told. The others
and limbs. (It is because of this that people pass time in replied that they didn't have enough money. When Eshu
the marketby hackingat the 9dan trees.) reported this to the gods, a storm was sent to the forest.
It pulled up the larger trees by the roots, or broke them
As in the last case, the importof these explanatory down; but the atori bush and the ariran and esun grasses,
elementsis sometimesleftunstated; but the implica- who had sacrificed,simplybent down while the stormpassed
tion is clear to the Yoruba. Thus, when Yanm9oti over them.
sacrificedso that she might bear children,it is not (n) The kingofthe whiteants was told to make a sacrifice,
necessary to state that she bore them, for yanmpti Dart of which was to cause him to become a chief,and part
is a plant which has many seeds, which are spoken of of which was to ward offdeath when he was in his glory.
He made the firstpart of the sacrificeand was crownedking
idiomatically as her " children." When a woman of the white ants. But he decided to rely upon his own
known as 'Chief who has descendants ' sacrificedto precautionsto ward offthe death which had been predicted
bear a child whose fame would spread the whole for him. When Eshu saw that the sacrificehad not been
world round and gave birth to the Sun, it is not completed, he and his followers tore down the ant-hill
and roasted and ate the king of the white ants. Since that
necessaryto add that the sun is known in every part time humans have always roasted and eaten the king of the
of the world. white ants.
An even more effectivetype of this sort of ' pro-
paganda' for the Ifa system is to be found in other The theme of success gained by sacrificingand of
verses,where the legendarycharacterrefusesto sacri- failureas a resultof refusingto do so, whetherimplicit
fice and states his reasons for so doing. The reasons or explicitand whetherstated conciselyor documented
offeredcover most of the objections that might be at some length,runs throughoutthe verses. There is
raised against followinga diviner's instructions,and no verse in which a person is said to have prospered
since the character meets with misfortunein every without making a sacrifice. Whenever an individual
case, they are specificallyrefutedone by one. consults a diviner or witnesses a divination for an-
(h) When Qrunmila (i.e., Ifa) told Dove and Pigeon to
other,he hears several verses which make this point.
sacrificethe very things they had heard his wife say she In addition, because of the fact that many folktales
needed forhousekeeping,Dove suspected that Qrunmilawas are identical to the Ifa verses, the same moral is
not naming the correctsacrificeto bring them children,but heard from childhood whenever folktales are told
simplythingshe needed personally. Dove's suspicionswere (Herskovits 1938, Vol. 2, p. 317; Bascom 1943).
furtheraroused at hearing Qrunmila (the patron of the
diviners) learning how to divine from a woman. Dove The constantrepetitionofthis moral reinforceswhat-
refused to sacrifice. She bore just as many children as ever belief-and tends to remove whatever doubts-
Pigeon, who had sacrificedconscientiously. Dove insisted an individual may have.
that this was proofthat the sacrificehad made no difference The fate of the person who makes only a part of
whatsoever,and that the same resultswould have occurred the sacrificeis not as certain. In cases (f), (g) and (in),
whetherthey had sacrificedor not. But Eshu, who over-
heard her, sent a storm which destroyed Dove's nest and above, a person who makes only a part of the sacrifice
killed her children. gains only momentarysuccess. In cases (i) and (j),

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 The Sanctions of Ifa Divination
where all the necessary things were purchased, the
entire expenditure was wasted because of the peti-
tioner'sfailureto complywith the details of the ritual
in makingthe sacrifice. On the otherhand in case (1),
concerningthe 165 trees of the forest,the ariran and
esun grasses gave only 400 cowriesinstead of the 2000
asked of them,but were as completelyexempted from
punishmentas the atori bush, who made the sacrifice
in full. The conclusionto be drawn fromthese inst-
ances is that, while it is better to sacrificea part of
what is required than nothing at all, to do so does
not guarantee permanent success.
IV
Beside the fact that the verses recited by the di-
vinersleave only one conclusionto be drawn as to the
advisability of making a sacrifice,the logic under-
lying the choice of the articles to be sacrificedmay in
itself be convincing. Frazer has pointed out two
principlesas those upon which magic and ritual in a
great many primitivesocieties seem to be based:
". . . first,that like produces like, or that an effect
resembles its cause; and second that things which have
once been in contact with each othercontinueto act on each
other at a distance afterphysical contact has been severed.
. . . From the firstof these principles,namely the Law of
Similarity, the magician infers that he can produce any
effectthat he desiresmerelyby imitatingit ; fromthe second
(the Law of Contact or Contagion) he infersthat whatever
he does to a material object will affectequally the person
with whom the object was once in contact, whether it
formed part of his body or not." (Frazer 1911, Pt. I,
Vol. I, p. 52.)
Important as these two principles are in many
cases, they are evidenced only to a slight degree in
the sacrifices required of the clients or legendary
characters. In a few verses, it is true, women who
desire children are asked to sacrifice,among other
things, a cloth or undergarmentthey are wearing.
The bird dogidogiis told to offer" the trousersof his
waist " to protect the " penis of his waist." A client
is told to sacrificea garmentof the woman he desires,
so that he may be able to marryher. But instances
such as these, which would be classed as " contagious
magic," are not readily encountered,and convincing
cases of " imitative magic " are even harder to find.
In one verse, however, a man named Odogbo is told
to include in his sacrificefour beads, of any kind, to
gain wealth; having done so, he becomes rich by
discovering a cache of very valuable beads.
Other principles,no less convincingthan those ad-
vanced by Frazer, lie behind the sacrificesprescribed
by the diviners. In the firstplace the client infers
that since the sacrificehelped the legendarycharacter
it will also help him, regardlessof its content. While
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47
in some verses differentsacrificesare prescribed for
the characterand the client,most sacrificesare based
on this assumption. It is the task of the divinerto cite
a case which is similar to that of the client. so that
the client may follow the example set in it by the
legendarycharacter.,This is not the Law of Similarity
as Frazer definesit; it is much more comparable to
followingthe treatment of an ailment described for
a classical case in medical literature. Many of the
predictions,also, are based on the same assumption,
being derived from the details of the adventures of
the legendarycharacter. The clientinfersin this case
that the fate which befellthe characteris in store for
him also.
A second principle,which mightalso be interpreted
as related to Frazer's Law of Similarity,is however
not based on similarityto the form,behaviour,or any
other characteristicof the object itself,but rather on
the similaritybetween the sound of the name of the
object and the sound of the words expressingthe de-
sired result. It is in short based on the pun, a
favouriteliterarydevice of the Yoruba. Thus, to keep
her childrenfromdying,Pigeon is instructedto touch
their heads against the pot which she sacrifices,say-
ing: " My child touches the pot with its head; it will
not die." The efficacyof a pot in this instance rests
on the similaritybetween the sound of ikoko (pot)
and ko ku (it will not die).
In the same way the sounds of the names of the
objects sacrificedby one of the Ifa figuresall referto
his desire to finda place in which to live. This comes
out most clearlyin a formulawhich he recites: " The
mortar (odo) will testifythat I see room in which to
settle (do); the teteleaf will testifythat I see room
in whichto stretchout (te); the gbegbeleaf will testify
that I see room in which to dwell (gbe)." In another
verse, a woman who desires to conceive is instructed
to sacrificecooked beans (p1t); the pun here alludes
to embryo (plf). A man named Bilqpv, who is told
that he must not go to the farm(oko),is told to sacri-
fice, in addition to a shilling,twenty cowries (oko).
Yanm9ti is told to sacrifice twenty cowries (oko),
again plus one shilling,when she is about to move
to the farm(oko). In makingthe charmor ' medicine '
associated with a verse fromthe figurenamed irosun
,p, the dust of the irosuntree and soap (9p) are used
as ingredients.
In the third place, in a number of verses, objects
sacrificedby the legendary character are actually in-
strumentalin his achieving success or averting dis-
aster. In such cases the client can see for himself
that the sacrificesare logically chosen, and he is led
to conclude that the sacrificewhich he is required to
make is equally logical. In one verse a pot of palm-oil
is required of Fire as a part of a sacrificeto cause his
affairsto prosper. The verse explains: " When a
48 WILLIAM R. BASCOM

firehas almost died out, if a little palm-oil is poured This same logic is brought out in the cases where
on it, it begins to dance again." In anotherverse, Cat that part of the sacrificewhich the character refuses
is told to sacrifice200 needles, with other things,to to make is instrumentalin bringingabout his downfall.
prevent everything from slipping from his grasp. Thus in case (g), the cutlass which the pdan tree had
While it is not stated, every Yoruba understandsthe refused to sacrificewas used by humans to chop off
implication that the needles became the cat's claws, its roots aild branches. But there is one instance
fromwhich nothingescapes. worth citing where this point could have been made
more effectivelythan it has been. The king of the
(n) Qrunmila was told to include a knife as a part of a white ants met with death because he made only a
sacrifice,lest he be taken as a thief on a journey he was
considering. He postponed the sacrifice,and when he stole part of the required sacrifice; but the diggingsticks
some kola-nuts on the way, he escaped capture only after and the hoe which were instrumental in bringing
having been cut on the palm of his hand. The owner of about his death were actually included in the sacrifice.
the nuts asked the king to gather everyonetogetherso that Only two cocks were omitted.
he mightidentifythe thiefby this cut. Frightened,Qrun- A finalexample of the reasoningbehind the instruc-
mila went to the diviners,who doubled the sacrifice. While
everyone slept, Eshu took one of the knives and cut the tions of the divineris based on assumptionswhich are
palms of everyone, including the unborn children. (It is convincingeven to individuals trained in our tradi-
because of this that people have lines on their palms.) tion of reasoning:
When the owner of the nuts demanded that Qrunmila open
his hand, Qrunmila showed that everyone, including the (s) Ore was Agb9nniregun'sonly wife, but she did not
king himself,had the same scars; and because he had been love him at all. She refusedto prepare food for him and
falselyaccused, he was given a great deal of wealth. in his absence she would insult him. When Agb,nniregun
saw the characterof his wife,he prepared a charm to cause
(o) Qrunmila was told to include a basket of peanuts in death, sickness, loss, poverty, and punishment for her.
the sacrificehe made to be able to finda wife; some of these That night Ore had a dream; and when dawn came she
he was instructedto plant. When they were ripe he noticed visited the diviners. They said that her dream had been
that his peanuts were being stolen. Watching the field he bad because her husband had made magic against her.
caught two young women, who begged him not to brand They said she must stop insultingher husband, and try to
them publicly as thieves. He asked them how he could show him every consideration. They told her to wash her
ever pay dowryon a wifeif they stole the peanuts whichthe husband's clothes and rub the walls and floorof his room;
divinershad told him to plant ? They agreed to marryhim they told her to prepare six loaves of pounded yams and
withoutthe usual paymentif he would spare them. a pot of palm-wineforhim. When Agb,onniregun foundthat
he removedthe charm against her.
(p) Qrunmila was told to sacrificetwo cocks, one hen, she had reformed,
a rat, a fish, two large bags, and three shillingsto make
certain that he would be able to marrythe child of the Sea
Goddess. All the other deities were jealous of his success
and plotted revenge. They dug three deep pits in his path, V
but Eshu put the cocks into two of them and the hen into
the third,causing them to fillup. To the Yoruba, one of the most convincingreasons
forbelievingin Ifa is that there appears to be no way
The deitiesthentold the ferrymanat a riverthat Qrunmila forthe divinerto controlits results,eitherwith a view
had to cross on his way home, to refusepassage to a diviner
travelling with a woman. Qrunrila, however, had taken to making only such predictionsas have a likelihood
the two bags withhim when he went to bringhome his bride, of coming true, or to choosing large sacrificesfor his
and he put her inside of one, and put the otherover her head. own economic benefit. The client may sit through
Thus the ferrymandid not recognizethem,and they reached an entire performanceof a diviner, while the verses
home safely. are recited and specificquestions are answered,with-
(q) A razor was requiredof Ajaolele as a part of a sacrifice out revealing what he has come to learn; it is not
beforehe took a tripto Oro. When he arrived at Oro, Eshu until he had heard the prediction and the required
caused him to fightwith a daughter of the king and to cut sacrificethat he need indicate the verse that fits his
her with the razor he had sacrificed. In the trial, Ajaolele
was told to care for the girl until she recovered,and during case, so that the diviner may make the appropriate
thisperiodhe slept withher. While she was alreadymarried, offeringfor him.
she had never conceived; and when she became pregnant This critical point has been ignored by those who
by Ajaolele, the king gave her to him in marriage. have previouslydiscussed this problem. Accordingto
(r) The sacrificewhich Cock made so as to be able to win Southon, the client states his question to the diviner,
the child of the Sea Goddess included three pots and three who answersin fullknowledgeof the client's personal
hoes. The Sea Goddess announced that her daughterwould affairs:
be given in marriageto the one who hoed yam heaps most
efficiently.Eshu buried the three pots, filled with queen " Fatosin (the diviner) greeted her in a cold, level voice,
ants, in the fieldwhich was to be hoed, and when he broke which somehowmade the difference between them seem still
them, all except Cock stopped to eat ants. In this contest vaster, and asked her what she desired that she sought him
also, Cock's hoes were broken magically, so that he had to at this hour. . Adebiyi came at last to her tale of the
use the threehe had sacrificed. sick Abiodun, and her belief that 'a worm was eating into

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 The Sanctions of Ifa Divination 49

his head,' put thereby the magic employedby an unknown they could not say. Perhaps the Dahomean diviners
enemy. Then, in a voice tremulouswith hope and fear,she did not know as much Ifa as those in Ife (they sug-
begged the priest to consult Ifa for her, and to reveal if
possible who was the enemy, and what must be done to gested), and thus could not make predictionswithout
secure the recovery of Abiodun. . . . knowing the question involved. But such an ap-
A few questions about
the beginning and history of Abiodun's sickness told the proach they held definitelyundesirable, for under
astute priest that Abiodun was sufferingfromnothingmore such conditions who could trust a divinerto proceed
serious than a bad attack of fever,which his herbs could objectively ? The diviner might be tempted to fake
swiftlyrelieve. . . . Presentlyhe looked up at her and said
solemnly: 'Ifa says that Abiodun has been bewitched,but a verse to answer the question, and thus make an
the man who is his enemy has gone on a far journey. If inaccurate prediction and recommend an incorrect
Abiodun is not to die of this worm which is in his head, sacrifice,with unfortunateresults. They were not
this is what you must do at once. '" (Southon surprised,therefore,to hear that when on important
c. 1931, pp. 24-6.)
occasions conflictinginterestsare to be resolved by
In several other descriptionsof Ifa, the diviner's divinationin Dahomey,
manipulations with the palm-nuts and the chain of ". . . each group will be carefulto have its own diviner
seeds are interpretedas just so much hocus-pocus to present as an expert to supervise the manipulationsof the
confusethe client. Only J. D. Clarke has recognised kernelsby the third'neutral' bokono,who actually casts the
lots." (Herskovits 1938, p. 215.)
that, " If they are honest,we must exclude the hypo-
thesis that, throughtheirassociates, they inquire into The Yoruba themselvesdo not considerit necessary
the affairsof theirclientsand thus know the probable to check the diviner in this way, since he does not
subject of an enquiry and are enabled to prescribe know what question he is called upon to answer.
the measures which should be taken." (Clarke 1939, The client's question must be stated to the god Ifa,
p. 251.) Other writers,however, maintain that the but this is done by whisperingit to a coin or cowry
diviner's predictionsare based on informationwhich shell, to which the divinertouches the chain of seeds.
the diviner has beforehand,or which he draws from Clarke was convinced that the diviner could not
the client during the divination: understand his own questions, whispered in English
(1939, p. 251). The Yoruba make equally certainthat
" The preliminariesbeing thus arranged, he enters into
his business,all the time holdinga freeand easy conversation the diviner does not overhear their questions; and
with the applicant, throughwhich he is sure to ascertainthe while lip-readingwould seem to be extremelydifficult
kind of responses most welcome." (Campbell c. 1860, in a tonal language, yet to make sure that it cannot
p. 76.) occur, the hands are usually cupped over the mouth
"The priestin the meantimetalks to the person consulting to conceal what littlemovementthereis in the lips.
the oracle and findsout prettywell what kind of an answer The Yoruba diviner can even be made to choose
is desired. . . . Priests of Ifa are very numerous and they
rob the people of much of their income." (Stone 1899, between specificalternatives without knowing what
p. 89.) these may be. The client whispers the propositions
" These figuresare very similar to playing-cardsused by to the objects which representthem, and the diviner
fortune-tellers.The fetich priests use them in almost the is told to choose between the objects. To make
same way, bringingout at will good or bad fortune,according doubly certain that the diviner does not know what
as they deem it expedientto betterdupe the fool who comes
to consultthem." (Baudin 1885, p. 35.) is involved in the choice, the client shakes up two
objects representingthe two alternatives, and puts
Clients and diviners alike insist that these descrip- one in each hand. These operations can be concealed
tions are false. They correctlymaintain that they fromthe diviner,-whois then asked to choose between
need not give any informationwhatsoever to the the right and left hand, as we do in some guessing
diviner; they need not even let him know what games. Since the diviner knows neither the hand
problem has prompted them to consult Ifa. They that containsthe object, nor the propositionforwhich
were told that in Dahomey, the object stands, he cannot be influenced in his
the position of the bokonois one in which complete decision.
franknessbetween him and his questioner is demanded, so Certain specificquestions have an established sym-
that he is able to get at the factsin a given case to an extent bolism which the divinerknows, but even this know-
which an ordinaryadviser would find impossible. Hence,
having this great store of practical experienceto draw upon, ledge gives him verylittleaid if he is intenton falsify-
any innate intelligence and inborn shrewdness he may ing predictions. At a certain point in the procedure
possess is deepened by his background and he is able to his clientmay wish to findout more about the nature
evaluate a situation realistically and thus often arrive at of the predictionthan is contained in the verse. He
a correctsolution." (Herskovits 1938, p. 216.)
will ask whetherthe outcome,if the sacrificeis made,
But they insisted that this was the wrong way to will be good or bad. In this case a cowry shell is
approach a diviner. Such a procedure might be always used to representa good outcome, and a stone
followedin Dahomey (they commented); as to that to representevil. Having obtained this information,
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50 WILLIAM R. BASCOM

the client may then ask in what way it will be mark is made on the tray, the divinerbeats the nuts
good or bad. There are established symbols, which together in his hands several times, ostensibly to
cannot be discussed here, for the five kinds of obtain a ' try '-in whicheitherone or two nuts remain
good-long life, money, marriage, children,and the in the left hanid,and also in order to obtain a firm
defeat of enemies-and the fivekinds of evil-death, grasp of whatever number of nuts he holds in the
illness, fighting,the want of money, and losses- right hand. Since the operator alone can judge the
whichtheYoruba recognize. But sincethese questions firmnessof his grasp, he could continue in this same
may be asked before the client indicates which way, not until eitherone or two nuts remained in his
verse is applicable to his case, knowledgeof the alter- left hand, but until whicheverof these two possibili-
natives involved does not reveal the client's actual ties he desiredappeared. Because of the rapiditywith
problem, which the palm-nuts are manipulated, it would thus
Aside fromthese fewinstances,the client may com- be possible foran adept divinerto produce any figure
pletely disregardthe usual symbolismwhen he states he wished without the procedure being detected by
his questions to the objects. Many Yoruba resortto the client.
the same dodge as that employed by Clarke (1939, p. The point in the procedure at which the diviner
243), whisperingthe desirablealternativeto the symbol has the greatest opportunity to distort the results
of evil (stone), and the undesirable alternativeto the withoutfear of detectionis when he recitesthe verses.
symbol of good (cowry), so that the diviner cannot Much of the procedureby which the figuresare deter-
know which answer they would like to hear. mined is understoodby the clients,but very few have
had enough trainingin Ifa to enable them to check
the diviner in the verses he recites. While a scru-
VI pulous diviner recites only the verses he has learned
forthe figurewhichappears, it is possible fora diviner
That there are unscrupulousdivinerswho attempt who so desires, either to quote a verse fromanother
to falsifypredictionsto theirown advantage, and that figure,or to improviseone to suit his purpose. Here
even the predictions of honest diviners,who do not the average client can rely only on the diviner's
depart from the proper procedure, may be at least reputation for honesty, and on the fact that he can
subconsciouslyinfluencedby knowledgeofthe problem entirely conceal his problem from the diviner. The
involved,is demonstratedby the precautionswhichthe unscrupulous diviner, if he wishes to quote a verse
clienttakes to concealhis question,and by theYoruba's which he feels is an answer to the client's problem,
reaction to the Dahomean method of procedure. It can estimate what that problem is only in terms of
is, therefore,worthanalysing the extent to which it is informationhe has beforehand; but he mightsimply
possible fora diviner to falsifythe predictions that recite verse after verse until he gives a satisactory
should be made if the correct procedure of di>vining one by accident.
were followedout scrupulouslyand objectively. A client who suspects such practices may distrust
It can be asserted with some confidencethat there the diviner in question, but seldom the system as at
is little chance of influencingthe fall of the chain of whole. Thus if the first verse recited to a client
seeds. In some chains, the seeds are joined by rather engaged in house-buildingpertained to a legendary
inflexiblecords or strands of leather, with the result character who built a new house, the client would
that they produce certain figures more frequently suspect the diviner of using informationwhich was
than would be expected in terms of probability. But common knowledge to conceal the fact-that he didc
cord and leather are used, in the town of Ife at least, not know enough about divining (i.e., that he did
primarilyfor the chains of seeds with which the ap- not know enough verses) to answer the question with-
prenticeslearn how to divine. When a divinerbegins out departingfromsystematicprocedure. The client
to engage actively in his profession,he makes a point would thereforerefuse to make the sacrificerecom-
of obtaining a chain of seeds in which the units are mended, not because he doubted the Ifa system,but
actually joined by links of chain; these are loose and because he suspected the authenticityof the verse, or
flexible,so that the seeds fall ' heads ' or ' tails ' with because he feltthat a genuine verse had been quoted
equal ease. to him out of context (i.e., for a figureto which it
There is considerably more leeway in controlling did not belong). Ifa is thus conceived by the Yoruba,
the figuresderived by beating palm-nuts. Even if the as a deity who attempts to speak the truth; but
diviner could not (as the diviners themselves main- what he intends to say may be twisted and falsified
tain) intentionallycause a desired number of nuts to by the diviner.
remain in his left hand, he could pick up a 'try ' This attitude of skepticism toward individual
which gave the wrongnumber,and repeat the process diviners and of faith in the system as a whole is to
unltil the desired number appeared. Before each be found in some of the verses recorded,so that it

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 The Sanctionsof Ifa Divination 51

can be regardedas having officialapproval. In order can be applied to almost any client,regardlessof his
to test the skill of various diviners,for example, the problem. Quite understandably,these are the verses
Sea Goddess laid out her dead cow like a human corpse that are most highlyprized by the diviners.
and told her familyto say that she herselfhad died. The verses recorded for the figureIwori Meji, for
They called in several diviners,all of whom, in deter- example, contain the followingpredictions:
miningwhat kind of " bad " was involved, indicated (t) " Ifa says that the person for whom this figurewas
that it was death. The familycalled another diviner, cast wants to go out of town, or on a journey; he should
is going."
who said that the Sea Goddess had not died, but that sacrificethat his eyes should not see evil wherehe
she had only suffered a loss. The Sea Goddess then (u) " Ifa says this is a person whose relatives are causing
him trouble and won't let him findpeace, eitherat home or
came out fromhidingand selected him as her diviner, at the farm; but if he sacrifices,he will findpeace of heart
because he had not been influencedby the appearances and will overcomeall his enemies."
of the situation. (v) " Ifa says that these are three children of the same
It is to be noted that the client's anticipation of mother; they should sacrifice that the last-born among
such falsificationcannot entirelyguard him against them may not die, and that the other two may not have
it. For an unscrupulousdivinerof any subtletycould to weep at the death of this small child in theirmidst.knife, The
the one he had tongue of the last-bornis sharperthan the edge of a
recite several verses before quoting and he argues a great deal. Thereforethey should sacrifice
improvisedor taken froma different figure.It is in- a lump of shea-butter,one he-goat, one pigeon, and three
terestingalso that, paradoxically, a diviner's reputa- shillings."
tion forskill depends not only on being able to recite (w) " Ifa says that this personhas lost something,but that
a verse which answers the client's question, but also it is about to return. And that if someone,or if the personi
upon his ability to reciteit almost immediately,with- forwhomthis figurewas cast, should become chief,he should
sacrificethat he will not encountera slandererwho will cause
out going through very many verses which do not him to be removedfromhis position."
apply. Thus wherea diviner'sreputationforhonesty Tears and weeping enter the houses of a
(x) "Ho!
is doubted, the fact that he answersthe client's ques- compouid. Ifa says thereis a groupofsix people who should
tion immediately is held against him, whereas if his sacrificeso that they will not die one afteranotheruntil only
reputationforhonestyis beyond reproach,it is taken the last-bornamong them remains; and so that when their
as evidence of his skill. It seems likely that diviners family is mourningand does not promptlyheed the pleas
who are letter-perfectin observingthe rules of pro- to stop weeping, Eshu and the 400 deities will not add to
theirtears by causing the one remainingchild to die also."
cedure, and who deplore any attemptto falsifythe
results, may neverthelessbe influencedin the order These five verses of Iwori Meji have very specific
in which they recite the verses of the figurewhich applications. They answer the questions of an indi-
vidual who contemplates a journey; who is having
appears, by a desire to answer a question as quickly
as possible and thus increase their reputation. This trouble with his relatives; of three children of the
can be done without fear of reproach if, in reciting same mother who fear for the health of the youngest
firstthe verses which seem most likely to fitthe per- among them, or the youngest of whom is causing them
sonal situationof the clientas he knows it, the diviner trouble because he is quarrelsome; of a person who
limits himselfto the verses associated with the figure wants to find something he has lost; of someone who
may become a chief; of any one of a group of six
whichwas cast forthe client.
relatives, or of a familywhich is mourningthe death
of fiveout of a group of six closelyrelated individuals.
Nothing, however, is said about bearing children,or
VII
building a house, or a number of other problems
Whether or not a diviner can answer his client's which may confrontthe client. One of the two other
question clearly depends upon whether or not the verses for this figure,however, applies to a person
verses he knows for the figurewhich is cast include desiring children,a title, or money, or who expects
the problem confrontingthe client,and thus depends visitors:
indirectlyupon the number of verses he has learned. (y) " Ifa says that he sees the blessing of visitors, the
The best diviners know only about eight verses for blessing of money, the blessing of children,the blessing of
each of most figures,with many more for certain a title forthe client."
important figures. Therefore,even though a verse And the last verse recorded would refer to any in-
may contain more than one prediction,thereare some dividual who felt his case was not correctlystated in
figuresfor which the diviner does not know verses any of the other verses:
which specificallycover every possible contingency. (z) " Ifa says he will not allow us to seo evil in the matter
Even the best divinerswould frequentlybe unable to forwhichwe have divined."
answer a question if it were not forsome verses whose The client selects the verse which seems most
predictionsare stated in such general termsthat they specificallyto fit his case. If a diviner knows only
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52 WILLIAM R. BASCOM
a few verses for a particularfigure,and these do not
contain any general predictions,the client may be
forcedto select a verse which differsfromhis case in
specificdetails. Some individuals are satisfiedto do
this; others, who are more skeptical or who know
more about Ifa and what can be expected from it,
may conclude that the divinerdoes not know enough
about his profession,and seek advice from another
diviner. The workingassumptionof the clientis that
thereis a verse in answer to every question, but that
not all divinersare equally skilled.1 It is significant
that the desireto conceal an inadequate knowledgeof
Ifa is regarded as the primary motivation for a
deliberatedeparturefromthe procedureof divination.
The diviners themselves admit that some of their
number may not be able to answer all questions, and
it is to be noted that in placing the blame on the
individual's lack of knowledge of Ifa, they shift it
fromthe systemitself.
VIII
The sacrificementionedforthe clientin the verse is
not always the same as that which the client actually
offers; it is a suggestion,to be modifiedto fit each
particular case. Afterthe client has indicated which
verse answers his question, the diviner repeats the
sacrificehe has already quoted and asks Ifa: " Is
this sacrificeacceptable ? " and " Is it not accept-
able? " The symbols for these alternatives are
standardized; but by shaking up the objects, con-
cealing one in each hand, and allowing the divinerto
choose between right and left hands, the client can
keep the divinerfromknowingwhich resultwill be to
his economic advantage. To this extent, therefore.
-thediviners cannot deliberately cheat their clients;
but there are two ways in which they approximate
to the practice of " charging what the trafficwill
bear."
In the firstplace, if Ifa indicates that he is not
satisfiedwith the sacrificeas it stands, the diviner is
the one who suggestshow it should be modified. In
terms of his estimate of the client's ability to pay, he
may suggestslightmodifications,or make substantial
increases or reductions in the sacrificementioned in
the verse. It should be explained that it may be to
the diviner'seconomic advantage to decrease the cost
1 Two revealing statementsby Delano (1937, p. 178) are
characteristicof the native's attitude: " Every sphere of
life has an ' Odu ' (figure)applicable to it." " In-as-much
as human ailments,human difficulties, human anxieties and
human goodness vary, and are numberless,so there has not
been a single' Babalawo ' (diviner)who could coverthe whole
sphere of ' Ifa '."
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of a sacrificefora poor client. There is no charge for
divination aside fromthe small coin-a halfpennyis
ample-or the fewcowriest6 whichthe clientwhispers
his question,and thereis no sanctionto forcethe client
to make a sacrificeprescribedforhim, save his fear of
displeasing the gods. If, therefore,the sacrificeis so
expensive that the client cannot affordto make it,
the divinerwill get nothingforhis pains. If Ifa does
not accept the sacrificeas stated in the verse, the
diviner can determine how valuable a sacrifice the
client will have to make by the simple expedient of
continuingto suggest sacrificeswithin a certain price
range until one is accepted. Since the probabilityof
any suggestionbeing refusedis one out of two, there
is less than one chance in a hundredthat Ifa will refuse
seven consecutive suggestions. The clients accept a
diviner'ssuggestionsforslightincreases,but consider-
able increases must be made grad-ally in order to
avoid suspicion.
If the diviner is not willing to take the fifty-fifty
chance that Ifa may accept the sacrificeas it stands,
it is possible for him to resort to other means. He
may watch his client's expression closely for an
indication of which verse touches on his problem,and
then modifythe sacrificeof that verse as he recitesit
Or he may increase or decrease the sacrificesof all the
verses he recites,to suit the means of his client. The
attitudes toward such practices are contradictory.
Some clients brand them as dishonest, since the
divineris not recitingthe verses as they were taught
to the ancestorsby the god and thus is not prescribing
the sacrifice appropriate to the situation; others
advance the argumentthat, afterall, Ifa must indicate
his approval of the diviner's suggestions before the
sacrificeis made.
Ix
Apart fromthe ability to conceal a problem from
the diviner,the best assurance a client has that the
predictionmade forhim is not falsifiedis the fact that
most diviners share with their clients the conviction
that the surestway to predict accurately is to follow
the accepted procedure objectively and scrupulously.
They, too, believe that Ifa, as a deity, knows more
about the futureevents of their client than they can
guess themselves,so that the safestthingforthem to
do is to concentrateon an accurate interpretationof
Ifa's desires,rather than on what they may happen
to know about the client's personal affairs. Like
those of their professionin many other societies, the
typical Yoruba diviner believes in the system of
divination which he practices; he himselfturns to
otherdivinersforadvice and makes the sacrificesthey
prescribe for him. Evidence that this attitude is
 The Sanctionsof Ifa Divination 53

characteristicof most Yoruba divinersis the consist- diviners " on faith,"or withoutstopping to question
ency with which the chains of seeds regardedby them them.
as most desirable are those in which the seeds are There are, on the other hand, a number of factors
joined by very flexible chains, and which therefore which combine to foster and maintain the belief of
leave the fall of the seeds entirelyto chance, or, as the Yoruba in the Ifa systemof divination. To some
they would say, to the wishes of Ifa. individuals the internalconsistencyof the verses and
The reason this system of divination works, then, the logic evidenced in the predictionsand the choice
cannot be explained in terms of conscious manipula- of sacrificesare in themselves convincing. It is not
tions by the diviner. The diviner is able to give an necessary for a skilled diviner either to rely upon
answer to the client because the verses associated chance or to depart from the rules of divination in
with any figurecover several possible contingencies; order to provide a satisfyinganswer to a client's
and the client himselfselects the one which fits his question. Because the questions asked of Ifa are
case. The prediction made, depends on the con- " loaded," an accurate prediction is not simply a
temporary condition of the personal affairs of the matter of coincidence,as has so oftenbeen assumed;
client as much as upon the figurewhich may appear. and in many cases the success of a venture depends
Chance determines which group of verses is to be less upon the choice between the alternative courses
recited,but the client himselfchooses the verse to be of action that are suggested than upon the greater
selected from this group in terms of the question conviction with which a client, sure of his ground,
which he has in mind. The diviner does not have to follows the advice of a diviner. In the absence of
guess the client's question, nor need he be able to controlledconditions,a diviner'spredictionscan very
" read the minds of those who (come) to him as clearly rarely be demonstrated conclusively to be false;
as one could read a printedpage " (Southon c. 1931, and despite the few instances which cannot be
p. 24). It is not necessary for the diviner to have explained in terms of incompletesacrificesor slighted
powers of "telepathy " or " hyperaesthesia,"through instructionson the part of the client,the stereotypeof
which he "may know consciously or unconsciously the accuracy of divination may persistbecause of the
what the enquirerhas whispered."' He can rely upon selective characterof memory.
the client himselfto select the most appropriate and When doubts are raised, they run counter to the
satisfyingprediction, and meanwhile he can remain moral of all the verses and of many of the folktales
manifestlydisinterestedin the client's affairs. The which the Yoruba have heard repeated from child-
client, however, does not seem to realize the signifi- hood, as well as to the sanctions underlyingthe entire
cance of his own participationin the divination,and he religioussystem. It is not surprising,therefore,that
is led to conclude that the procedureis " objective " when suspicion arises it is easily shifted from the
and entirelyindependent of his own situation. This systemof divinationitselfto the integrityand ability
does not indicate credulityor simplicity,since none of of a particular diviner. There is no logical incon-
the Europeans who have described Ifa have noted sistency in the fact that the Yoruba both recognize
the significanceof this circumstance. In view of the that some diviners are frauds and that others lack
concern shown about the honesty of the diviners sufficient knowledgeto predictaccurately,and do not
consulted, and of the methods employed to ensure doubt that many diviners speak the mind of Ifa, or
that the diviner does not learn what informationis question the religious system of which Ifa is a part.
sought, it cannot possibly be maintained that the In the same way we recognize the existence of
Yoruba uncritically accept the utterances of the " quacks " and the mistakesand incompetenceof some
doctors,without the entiremedical profession,or the
1 Clarke continues: "I am inclined to favour telepathy methodology of the science in which it is grounded,
O" (1939, p. 251). becoming discreditedin our eyes.

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54 WILLIAM R. BASCOM

References
Bascom, William R. ... ... ... 1943 "The Relationship of Yoruiba Folklore to Divining," Journal of
AmericanFolklore,Vol. 56, No. 220, April-June,pp. 127-131.
Baudin, P. ... ... ... ... ... 1885 Fetichism and Fetich Worshippers. New York: Benziger.
Campbell, R. ...... ... ... c. 1860 A Pilgrimage to My Motherland. London: Johnson (n.d.).
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