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CHAPTER 3: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
 
Activities/Assignments
 
Qualitative Research Activities. Fontes and Piercy (2000)
describe several exercises that they utilize in their qualitative
research methods courses. For example, they introduce focus
groups by having several class members engage in a
“minifocus” group on the topic of effective teaching
techniques. They also discuss techniques for discussing ethics
in qualitative research as well as ways to “defend” qualitative
research against people who may be biased toward
quantitative research.
 
Fontes, L. A., & Piercy, F. P. (2000). Engaging students in
qualitative research through experiential class
activities. Teaching of Psychology, 27, 174-179.
 
Article Review. The Article Review for Chapter 4 is by
Rosenhan (1973). In this study, Rosenhan and other
confederates went to a mental hospital and claimed to be
hearing voices. After being admitted to the hospital, they
ceased to pretend to hear voices and acted normally.
Rosenhan reported that none of the pseudopatients were
discovered by the hospital staff, although some fellow patients
seemed to doubt their legitimacy. In the article, Rosenhan
discussed the experiences of being in a psychiatric institution,
including feelings of powerlessness and depersonalization.
You might also consider having students read a criticism of
this article (e.g., Spitzer, 1975) and debate the merits of the
criticisms.
 
Rosenhan, D. L. (1973). On being sane in insane
places. Science, 179, 250-258.
Spitzer, R.L. (1975) On pseudoscience in science, logic in
remission, and psychiatric diagnosis: A critique of Rosenhan’s
“On being sane in insane places.” Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 84, 442-452.
 
Chapter 3: Qualitative Research Methods
 
Article Review
 
Read the following article and answer the questions that
follow:
 
Rosenhan, D. L. (1973). On being sane in insane
places. Science, 179, 250-258.
 
 

1. Which method is used in this study (e.g., case study,

naturalistic observation, participant observation with
“participant as observer,” participant observation with
“observer as participant”)? How do you know?

 
ANSWER: Participant observation. The pseudopatients
(including the author) infiltrated a psychiatric hospital and
played the part of a patient. The observers became part of the
group being studied, which makes it participant observation.
 
In addition, the research is best characterized as “participant
as observer” instead of “observer as participant” because the
pseudopatients actually became a part of the mental hospital
culture (as opposed to simply observing and taking notes).
 

1. Describe any deception in this study.

 
ANSWERS: The pseudopatients claimed to be hearing voices,
which was not true. The pseudopatients did not tell their
doctors or other patients the truth while in the hospital.
 

1. Do you think the deception was necessary? Why or why

not?

 
Answers by students will vary.
 

1. If you were a member of an IRB, would you have approved

this study? Why or why not?

 
Answers by students will vary.
 

1. What weaknesses do you see in this study?

 
Answers by students will vary. Some criticisms of this study,
however, include the following: (1) It may not be fair to fault
the doctors for diagnosing these individuals with
schizophrenia; they were, in fact, claiming to hear voices and
it is not normal for people to fake auditory hallucinations. (2)
The psuedopatients could not be blind to the purpose of the
study – perhaps there was some bias.
 
 
 
 

Test Bank
 
Multiple Choice
 

1. Historically, psychology has been a discipline of

___________ research.

1.
1. qualitative
2. experimental
3. non-experimental
4. survey

 
ANSWER: b (p. 51)
 

1. Qualitative research is classified as ___________ research.

1. survey
2. experimental
3. non-experimental
4. ex post facto

 
ANSWER: c (p. 51)
 

1. Qualitative research began in which of the following

disciplines?
1. psychology
2. sociology
3. anthropology
4. Both (b) and (c) are correct.
5. All of the above.
 
ANSWER: d (p. 52)
 

1. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of

qualitative research?
1. It examines the basic parts or elements of a social
situation instead of the whole situation.
2. It uses words instead of statistics.
3. It is conducted in a natural setting.
4. All of the above are characteristics of qualitative
research.

 
ANSWER: a (p. 52)
 

1. Which of the following is a characteristic of qualitative

research?
1. It is more likely to examine animal interactions than
human interactions.
2. It is uses statistics to summarize findings.
3. It begins with an experimental hypothesis and tests
that hypothesis.
4. It develops a holistic portrayal of the problem.

 
ANSWER: d (p. 52)
 

1. Qualitative research is most likely to be conducted in a

___________ setting.
1. controlled
2. laboratory
 3. natural
4. Both (a) and (b) are correct.

 
ANSWER: c (p. 52)
 

1. How do qualitative researchers attempt to understand

behavior?
1. They isolate one or more variables of interest and
examine those variables in depth.
2. They examine two variables of interest to determine
how those variables are related to each other.
3. They utilize advanced statistical techniques to
determine how several independent variables affect
several dependent variables.
4. They develop a complete narrative description of
behavior.

 
ANSWER: d (p. 52)
 

1. Qualitative reports differ from the traditional experimental

reports in that qualitative reports are more likely to
____________________ than experimental reports.
1. use statistics
2. use scientific jargon
3. have a traditional Results section
4. be personal

 
ANSWER: d (p. 52)
 
 1. Clara has written a research report that contains little
scientific jargon but several emotional words. Clara has
most likely engaged in

1.
1. a reliability analysis.
2. correlational research.
3. quantitative research.
4. qualitative research.

 
ANSWER: d (p. 52)
 

1. Qualitative researchers are likely to ask about the

___________ of their data.
1. trustworthiness
2. validity
3. reliability
4. Both (b) and (c) are correct.

 
ANSWER: a (p. 53)
 

1. Reliability refers to the extent to which

1. the data measure what they are supposed to
measure.
2. repeated measurements yield consistent results.
3. the qualitative research has created a complete
description of the behavior.
4. the research report can be confirmed by others.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 53)
 

1. If a researcher wishes to examine the extent to which the

data measure what they are supposed to measure, the
researcher is interested in
1. validity.
2. reliability.
3. confirmability.
4. credibility.

 
ANSWER: a (p. 53)
 

1. Which of the following is NOT a way that trustworthiness

is measured?
1. confirmability
2. reliability
3. dependability
4. credibility

 
ANSWER: b (p. 53)
 

1. ____________ refers to the extent to which a qualitative

research report is accurate and unbiased.
1. Credibility
2. Dependability
3. Confirmability
4. Transferability

 
ANSWER: c (p. 53)
 
 1. Dr. Martin, a qualitative researcher, had one of his
colleagues carefully read a draft of his research report to
point out any inconsistencies or contradictions. Dr. Martin
is examining the __________ of his research.
1. confirmability
2. credibility
3. dependability
4. transferability

 
ANSWER: a (p. 53)
 

1. If a qualitative researcher is concerned about whether her

subjective bias has entered into the research process,
she is concerned about the _________ of her data.
1. dependability
2. transferability
3. credibility
4. confirmability

 
ANSWER: d (p. 53)
 

1. ___________ refers to the extent to which a qualitative

researcher believes that the same results would be
produced if the study were replicated.
1. Credibility
2. Dependability
3. Confirmability
4. Transferability

 
ANSWER: b (p. 53)
 

1. Dependability in qualitative research is analogous to

___________ in quantitative research.
1. external validity
2. internal validity
3. construct validity
4. reliability

 
ANSWER: d (p. 53)
 

1. Marianne wishes to determine if her qualitative research

project would produce the same results if it was
conducted in a different context. Marianne is most
concerned about
1. dependability.
2. transferability.
3. credibility.
4. confirmability.

 
ANSWER: a (p. 53)
 

1. The accuracy of the identification and description of the

subject of study in a qualitative research project is known
as
1. transferability.
2. dependability.
3. credibility.
4. confirmability.

 
ANSWER: c (p. 53)
 

1. Rebecca is concerned with knowing if she is actually

studying the topic that she intends to study in her
qualitative research project. Rebecca is most concerned
with
1. dependability.
2. transferability.
3. confirmability.
4. credibility.

 
ANSWER: d (p. 53)
 

1. The best way to assess a qualitative research study’s

credibility would be to
1. conduct a reliability analysis using advanced
statistical techniques.
2. conduct a validity analysis using advanced
statistical techniques.
3. have other researchers read a draft of your report.
4. have the participants read a draft of your report.

 
ANSWER: d (p. 53)
 

1. ___________ refers to the extent to which the results of a

qualitative research project can be generalized to other
settings and groups.
1. Confirmability
2. Transferability
3. Dependability
 4. Credibility

 
ANSWER: b (p. 54)
 

1. Researchers make a judgment regarding the

transferability of results based on
1. the results of a statistical analysis.
2. the extent to which the research report is thorough
and clear.
3. the results of open coding.
4. a dependability analysis.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 54)
 

1. If researchers are neutrally observing behavior in the real

world, they are engaging in
1. participant observation.
2. naturalistic observation.
3. ethnography.
4. an experiment.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 54)
 

1. ___________ refers to research in which the observer

becomes part of the group being studied.
1. Naturalistic observation
2. Participant observation
3. Archival research
4. Correlational research
 
ANSWER: b (p. 55)
 

1. When a researcher becomes immersed in an entire

culture for a lengthy period of time, it is called a(n)
1. experiment.
2. naturalistic observation.
3. ethnographic inquiry.
4. archival study.

 
ANSWER: c (p. 55)
 

1. Dr. Jones spends two years immersed in the Yoruba tribe

in Nigeria in order to better understand cross-cultural
differences in child-rearing. Dr. Jones is engaged in what
kind of research?
1. Naturalistic observation
2. Ethnographic inquiry
3. Archival research
4. Case study

 
ANSWER: b (p. 55)
 

1. Jessica wishes to understand the motivations of people

who join the Hare Krishna group, so she joins and
immerses herself in the group. Jessica has conducted
what kind of research?
1. Naturalistic observation
2. Archival research
 3. Correlational research
4. Participant observation

 
ANSWER: d (p. 55)
 

1. Which of the following is a drawback to the participant

observation method?
1. It may take a long time for the researcher to become
accepted in the group.
2. It is not possible to make causal statements.
3. The researcher may lose his/her objectivity.
4. All of the above.

 
ANSWER: d (pp. 55-56)
 

1. A researcher who becomes part of a group by working and

interacting extensively with others is called a(n)
1. observer as participant.
2. participant as observer.
3. clinical researcher.
4. naturalistic observer.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 55)
 

1. In one study, researchers studied a Christian school by

sitting in the back of the classroom and taking notes
without interacting much with anyone. The researcher
would be referred to as a(n)
1. observer as participant.
 2. participant as observer.
3. clinical researcher.
4. naturalistic observer.

 
ANSWER: a (p. 55)
 

1. Which of the following is an advantage of participant

observation?
1. The researcher is able to make cause-and-effect
statements.
2. The researcher is able to gather more in-depth
information than is usually the case with other
methods.
3. The researcher is able to control many extraneous
variables.
4. All of the above.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 55)
 

1. Amanda conducts a study with 8 teenagers who meet for

about an hour to discuss bullying in high schools. Amanda
is using which type of research method?
1. Case study
2. Naturalistic observation
3. Focus group
4. Participatory action research

 
ANSWER: c (p. 56)
 
 1. Which of the following is FALSE regarding focus groups?
1. The group consists of 7-10 participants.
2. The group members typically know each other
beforehand.
3. The moderator prepares 6-10 key questions to guide
the conversation.
4. The group typically meets for about 1 to 1 ½ hours.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 56)
 

1. Which of the following is FALSE regarding interviews?

1. Interviews can be structured or unstructured.
2. Interviews can be recorded in any number of ways,
such as written notes, audio recordings, or video
recording.
3. Interviews must follow a predetermined script in
order to be considered scientifically valid.
4. Interviews can be either the primary or secondary
research method.

 
ANSWER: c (p. 56)

1. Joanna is conducting interviews with students who have

various disabilities. She allows each student to discuss
whatever he or she wants in these interviews; she doesn’t
have a preset list of questions. Joanna is doing a(n)
1. structured interview.
2. unstructured interview.
3. historiography.
4. artifact analysis.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 56)
 

1. James is conducting interviews with students who have

dropped out of school. He asks each student the same set
of questions in an effort to determine what factors are
important in terms of why students drop out. James is
doing a(n)
1. symbolic interaction study.
2. naturalistic observation.
3. unstructured interview.
4. structured interview.

 
ANSWER: d (p. 56)
 

1. Which of the following is a disadvantage of an

unstructured interview?
1. It can be difficult to analyze across multiple
respondents.
2. So many respondents are required in unstructured
interviews that it is very time consuming and costly.
3. Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) are typically
opposed to unstructured interviews.
4. All of the above are disadvantages of unstructured
interviews.

 
ANSWER: a (p. 56)
 

1. Researchers who use the narrative approach use which of

the following sources to conduct their studies?
1. biographies
 2. personal experiences
3. oral histories
4. All of the above.

 
ANSWER: d (p. 56)
 

1. If a researcher is gathering and interpreting stories that

individuals use to describe their lives, that researcher is
using which approach?
1. artifact analysis
2. historiography
3. narrative study
4. symbolic interaction

 
ANSWER: c (p. 56)
 

1. When a researcher examines respondents’ speech

patterns, he or she is using which approach?
1. narrative analysis
2. symbolic interaction
3. artifact analysis
4. participant observation

 
ANSWER: a (p. 56)
 

1. Pete conducts numerous interviews and engages in

several observations of a gifted third-grader in order to
better understand the adjustment of gifted children to
public schools. Pete has conducted a(n)
 1. case study.
2. experiment.
3. participant observation.
4. ethnographic inquiry.

 
ANSWER: a (p. 56)
 

1. One strength of the case study method is that

1. researchers can understand the causes of behavior.
2. the results exhibit high generalizability.
3. the research often leads to ideas for future research.
4. All of the above are strengths of the case study
method.

 
ANSWER: c (p. 57)
 

1. All of the following are weaknesses of the case study

method EXCEPT:
1. It is difficult to generalize the results to other people.
2. The researcher cannot establish cause-and-effect
relationships.
3. The individual under investigation may not be
representative of others within the same population.
4. Too many extraneous variables are controlled.

 
ANSWER: d (p. 57)
 

1. Researchers learned a great deal about memory by

studying a man named H.M., who had part of his
 hippocampus removed in order to alleviate seizures. This
research is best characterized as a(n)
1. experiment.
2. participant observation.
3. case study.
4. grounded theory research study.

 
ANSWER: c (p. 57)
 

1. Most artifact analyses involve which types of artifacts?

1. text-based materials
2. audio recordings
3. art work
4. All of the above.

 
ANSWER: a (p. 57)
 

1. Rick does a study on newspaper headlines after the last

presidential election. Rick is most likely using which
qualitative research approach?
1. case study
2. experiment
3. naturalistic observation
4. artifact analysis

 
ANSWER: d (p. 57)
 

1. In a historiography, a researcher analyzes

1. individuals’ behavior in a natural setting.
 2. extant artifacts.
3. data in order to reconstruct past events.
4. common symbols that give meaning to human
interaction.

 
ANSWER: c (p. 57)
 

1. Which of the following is FALSE regarding

historiographies?
1. Historiographies are primarily concerned with
reconstructing past events.
2. Historiographies use information from diaries,
photographs, written accounts, etc.
3. Historiographies consist almost exclusively of
information derived from secondary sources.
4. All of the above are false statements about
historiographies.

 
ANSWER: c (p. 57)
 

1. If a researcher is studying the common symbols that are

meaningful within a particular social group, he or she is
using which approach?
1. participant observation
2. case study
3. experiment
4. symbolic interaction

 
ANSWER: d (p. 57)
 

1. What is the first step in the symbolic interaction method?

1. determine the relationships among the symbols
2. identify the symbols used by the particular social
group
3. write a narrative about the symbolic interactions
4. None of the above.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 58)
 

1. An approach to qualitative research that focuses on

building theories is known as
1. the correlational approach.
2. grounded theory.
3. archival research.
4. situation sampling.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 58)
 

1. What is the ultimate goal of grounded theory research?

1. test existing theories
2. develop new theories
3. Both (a) and (b) are correct.
4. None of the above.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 58)
 

1. The grounded theory approach is most likely to use

 1. complicated statistical techniques.
2. interviews and observations.
3. independent and dependent variables.
4. All of the above.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 58)
 

1. Which of the following is FALSE regarding grounded

theory research?
1. The researcher should not be too familiar with
existing research on the topic before conducting the
study.
2. The researcher will likely use non-technical
literature such as letters, diaries, and newspapers.
3. Grounded theory research is adaptable to all
research questions.
4. Grounded theory research uses three different types
of coding.

 
ANSWER: c (p. 58)
 

1. Which of the following best describes the order in which

coding occurs in the grounded-theory approach?
1. Open coding®selective coding®axial coding
2. Axial coding®selective coding®open coding
3. Selective coding®axial coding®open coding
4. Open coding®axial coding®selective coding

 
ANSWER: d (p. 58)
 

1. During ______ coding, the researcher labels and categories

the phenomenon being studied.
1. axial
2. selective
3. open
4. closed

 
ANSWER: c (p. 58)
 

1. During ______ coding, the researcher finds links between

categories and subcategories.
1. axial
2. selective
3. open
4. closed

 
ANSWER: a (p. 58)
 

1. During _____ coding, the researcher identifies a core

category and relates all other categories to this core.
1. axial
2. selective
3. open
4. closed

 
ANSWER: b (p. 58)
 
 1. An analysis of how actions and interactions relate to their
conditions and consequences is known as a(n)
1. case study.
2. transactional system.
3. naturalistic observation.
4. ethnographic inquiry.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 59)
 

1. ___________ refers to a linking of actions and interactions

that result in some outcome.
1. Process
2. Open coding
3. Transferability
4. Confirmability

 
ANSWER: a (p. 59)
 

1. A transactional system is diagrammed in a _______ matrix.

1. coding
2. process
3. conditional
4. correlational

 
ANSWER: c (p. 59)
 

1. A qualitative research approach that usually attempts to

understand the impact of a social program on the
community is known as _____________ research.
 1. case study
2. participatory action
3. naturalistic observation
4. experimental

 
ANSWER: b (p. 59)
 

1. Dr. Perry conducts a study in which she evaluates the

effectiveness of an adult literacy program. The study is
both quantitative and qualitative in nature, and the 30
participants are treated as equal researchers in the study.
What research method is Dr. Perry MOST likely to use?
1. case study
2. naturalistic observation
3. participatory action research
4. focus group

 
ANSWER: c (p. 59)
 

1. In participatory action research, the participants are

1. not given a true debriefing.
2. considered equal researchers.
3. part of a focus group.
4. studied using only qualitative research methods.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 59)
 
Short Answer/Essay
 
 1. Briefly describe the historical evolution of qualitative
research.

1. Explain why researchers had to develop non-experimental

methods to complement the experimental method.

1. In what ways are qualitative research studies different

from the more traditional, quantitative research studies?

1. Briefly describe the five characteristics of qualitative

research.

1. Briefly describe the four criteria for judging

trustworthiness in qualitative research.

1. What is participant observation? Give an example and

describe the strengths and weaknesses of this method.

1. What is a focus group? Describe the important

characteristics of a focus group.

1. Distinguish between the structured and unstructured

interview approach.

 
 1. What is a narrative study? Describe an example.

1. What is a case study? Give an example and describe the

strengths and weaknesses of this method.

1. What is an artifact analysis? Describe an example.

1. What is a historiography? Describe an example.

1. What is the symbolic interaction method? Describe an

example.

1. Explain the grounded-theory approach to qualitative

research, including when it is and is not appropriate to
use.

1. Briefly describe the three types of coding used in

grounded theory research.

1. What is participatory action research? Describe an

example.

CHAPTER 4: NONEXPERIMENTAL METHODS: DESCRIPTIVE

METHODS, CORRELATIONAL STUDIES, EX POST FACTO
STUDIES, SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES, SAMPLING, AND
BASIC RESEARCH STRATEGIES
 
Activities/Assignments
 
Naturalistic Observation.  Beins (1999) describes an activity to
show students how difficult naturalistic observation can be.
Two students are taken into the hallway during class and told
to count the number of fidgets they observe in their
classmates (their classmates will be imagining themselves
covered with insects in order to increase fidgeting). Beins
reports that the student observers typically come up with
radically different numbers, which illustrates the importance of
operational definitions, training of observers, etc.
 
Beins, B. C. (1999). Counting fidgets: Teaching the complexity
of naturalistic observation. In L. T. Benjamin, B. F. Nodine, R.
M. Ernst, & C. B. Broeker (Eds.), Activities handbook for the
teaching of psychology, Vol. 4 (pp. 53-56). Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.
 
Observational and Archival Research. Kerber (1983) describes
four different research projects designed to engage students in
the research process. Two of those projects could be used in
this chapter. One is an observational study involving pairs of
students observing student drinking behavior in a bar
environment. The other is an archival study in which student
pairs view commercials and code the sex of the main
characters as well as characteristics related to sex
stereotypes. According to Kerber, these projects help students
learn about ethics, operational definitions, coding,
interobserver reliability, experimenter bias, and sampling.
 
Kerber, K. W. (1983). Beyond experimentation: Research
projects for a laboratory course in psychology. Teaching of
Psychology, 10, 236-239.
 
Observational Methods. Zeren and Makosky (1986) report an
activity designed to help students understand time sampling,
event sampling, and trait ratings. The instructor tapes a half-
hour of a television show. Small groups of students get
together to decide what variables they are interested in
examining (e.g., attraction, aggression, prejudice) as well as
how to operationally define those variables and how to
successfully use time sampling, event sampling, or trait
ratings. Class discussion afterward centers on interobserver
reliability, operational definitions, and strengths and
weaknesses of the three sampling techniques.
 
Zeren, A. S., & Makosky, V. P. (1986). Teaching observational
methods: Time sampling, event sampling, and trait rating
techniques. Teaching of Psychology, 13, 80-82.
 
Observational Methods. Herringer (2000) describes an
observational activity in which students contrast behaviors by
Captain Kirk from Star Trek and Captain Picard from Star
Trek: The Next Generation. Pairs of students initially view an
episode of each show and take notes on the captains’
personality differences (e.g., Kirk is more talkative than
Picard). The students then generate a testable hypothesis and
discuss ways to operationally define their variable of interest
(e.g., number of words spoken). They then view a new episode
of each show and code the behavior. Students calculate
interobserver reliability, analyze their data, and write a report.
According to Herringer, students evaluate the exercise very
positively, often stating that it was their favorite part of the
course.
 
Herringer, L. G. (2000). The two captains: A research exercise
using Star Trek. Teaching of Psychology, 27, 50-51.
 
Interobserver Reliability.  Becker (1999) describes an activity
in which students view a 10-minute videotape (animal or
human behavior) and record the occurrence of six behaviors.
Students engage in time sampling, observing for 15-second
intervals. Students then calculate interobserver reliability and
discuss ways to increase reliability (e.g., training, clear
operational definitions).
 
Becker, A. H. (1999). Discovering the relationship between
operational definitions and interobserver reliability. In L. T.
Benjamin, B. F. Nodine, R. M. Ernst, & C. B. Broeker
(Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology,
Vol. 4 (pp. 57-63). Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
 
Correlational Research. The following link from Jonathan
Mueller’s Resources for Teaching Social Psychology website
contains an exercise developed by Julie Wright. It helps
students to better understand why it is a mistake to draw
causal conclusions from correlational data. Students also get
practice thinking of experimental alternatives to correlational
research as well as considering the ethics of experimentally
manipulating certain variables.
 
http://jonathan.mueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/crow/Causalityexerci
ses.doc
 
Questionnaire Wording. Madson (2005) describes an activity in
which students administer two versions of a questionnaire,
each with slightly different wordings of the questions (the
questions are provided in the article). Students are able to see
how question wording can change the meaning of a question
and thus how people respond to it. Madson reports that
students enjoyed the exercise and learned a great deal about
the difficulty of writing good survey items.
 
Madson, L. (2005). Demonstrating the importance of question
wording on surveys. Teaching of Psychology, 32, 40-43.
 
Questionnaire Instructions. Gordon (1987) describes an
activity designed to show students that modifying instructions
on surveys can alter peoples’ responses. Students are
randomly assigned to fill out one of two surveys entitled
“Dental Hygiene Behaviors.” The questions are identical, but
the instructions are worded differently. One version contains
standard instructions, and the other elaborates on the
instructions to emphasize the importance of answering
honestly and accurately. Gordon found that students who read
the longer instructions exhibited less socially desirable
responding regarding dental hygiene than students who read
the shorter instructions.
 
Gordon, R. A. (1987). Social desirability bias: A demonstration
and technique for its reduction. Teaching of Psychology, 14,
40-42.
 
Article Review. The Article Review for Chapter 5 is by Herek
and Capitanio (1996). The researchers were interested in
determining if contact with gay men and lesbians was
associated with more favorable attitudes toward them. They
conducted a longitudinal national telephone survey and found
that more contact and closer contact were related to favorable
attitudes.
 
Herek, G. M., & Capitanio, J. P. (1996). “Some of my best
friends”: Intergroup contact, concealable stigma, and
heterosexuals’ attitudes toward gay men and
lesbians. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 412-
424.
 
 
Chapter 4: Nonexperimental Methods: Descriptive Methods,
Correlational Studies, Ex Post Facto Studies, Surveys and
Questionnaires, Sampling, and Basic Research Strategies
 
Article Review
 
Read the following article and answer the questions that
follow:
 
Herek, G. M., & Capitanio, J. P. (1996). “Some of my best
friends”: Intergroup contact, concealable stigma, and
heterosexuals’ attitudes toward gay men and
lesbians. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 412-
424.
 
 
 1. According to your text, “You find a research idea when
you identify a gap in the current knowledge base…” (p.
14). What was the gap in the knowledge base, according
to the authors?

 
ANSWER: Past research on this topic has used primarily
convenience sampling. Some studies used probability
sampling; however, some of the questions lacked validity and
reliability. Furthermore, past researchers failed to assess
whether any respondents were gay men, lesbians, or
bisexuals. Finally, attitudes toward lesbians have not been
assessed using probability samples.
 

1. The criteria for being included as a participant in the

study was as follows: (a) have a telephone, (b) be 18
years of age or older, (c) live in the contiguous 48 states,
and (d) speak English. Do you think the authors obtained a
random sample of such individuals? Why or why not?

 
ANSWER: The response rate was 70.1%, which means that
there might’ve been some bias in the sampling (e.g., perhaps
people with weak opinions on the topic were less likely to
complete the survey). However, a 70% response rate is
considered pretty good.
 

1. What kind of survey is used in this study: descriptive or

analytic? How do you know?

 
ANSWER: This is an analytic survey. The researchers
measured several variables and determined how those
variables were related to each other (e.g., how does contact
with gay men and lesbians affect attitudes toward gay men
and lesbians?).
 

1. The overarching purpose of this research was to assess

whether having contact with gay men and lesbians
affected attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. Why is
this an ex post facto study?

 
ANSWER: The researcher cannot manipulate this particular IV
(contact versus no contact), which makes it an ex post facto
study.
 

1. The researchers chose to do telephone surveys for this

research. Describe some advantages to this approach.

 
ANSWER: (1) relatively good response rate, (2) easy to get
participants from across the country, (3) safer for interviewers
than personal interviews
 

1. What are some disadvantages to doing telephone

interviewing?

 
ANSWER: (1) potentially biased sample (e.g., if people are not
home or screen their calls), (2) researcher is unable to
evaluate nonverbal behavior of participants
 
 1. Would this research be classified as single-strata, cross-
sectional, or longitudinal? How do you know?

 
ANSWER: This research is longitudinal; the researchers
assessed respondents at two time periods.
 
 

Test Bank
 
Multiple Choice
 

1. How does qualitative research differ from other

nonexperimental research, such as descriptive research
methods, correlational studies, and surveys?
1. Qualitative research is more likely to involve
statistics.
2. Qualitative research is less narrow.
3. Qualitative research is more well regarded by
scientists in general.
4. All of the above.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 63)
 

1. Descriptive research methods

1. involve manipulation of one independent variable.
2. involve manipulation of two independent variables.
 3. do not involve manipulation of an independent
variable.
4. are used to assess causality.

 
ANSWER: c (p. 63)
 

1. Research methods that do not involve the manipulation of

any variables are called
1. inferential research methods.
2. descriptive research methods.
3. one-factor analysis of variance.
4. two-factor analysis of variance.

 
ANSWER: b (p. 63)
 

1. Dana conducts a study in which she compares the graffiti

on the walls of male and female restrooms. Dana has
conducted an
1. archival study.
2. experiment.
3. ex post facto study.
4. ethnography.

 
ANSWER: a (p. 63)