Prediction and Entropy of Printed English By CE. SHARON (Monit Ri Sept 15, 109) ee Se Bear Soepethine Naroombpswt alpen A previous pape" the entropy and ruin of lnguage have een dein. The entopy i 9 statistical parameter which measure, in certain sets, how much inlamation i radaced on the average fo ach letter of text inthe ngage I the language trate int binary digs (oF 1) athe mos ecient nay, the entropy Hi the averse number of binary digs require per leterof he gil langage The elundaney, an the other han, meres the amount of constr posed ona tex the language do to its statisti sruture, ein English te high fe. quency ofthe letter B, the strong tendeney of Ht fallow Toro € to fale (1 was estate that when statisti eet extending ove not mote than eight eters are conslered the entropy i toghly 24 bis pet letter, the redundancy aout 50 po cent Sice then 3 new met has en found for extnatng thee quantities, ‘hich more sensitive and takes aceont of lng range statistics, inaenes xtealing over phrases, sentences et, This meth i base on sty a the preditabilty of English; how wel can the net lete fa text be pe ited when the preceding W letter ate Known, The resus of ame exper ment in prion will be given, ad theoretic analysis of sme of the Dopertis of ideal preictio. Hy combining the experimental and thor fal results itis possible to estimate upper and lower bound for the entropy tnd redundancy. From this analyse spears that, in oninay ere English the long range statistical elects (op to 100 eters) rece the ‘ntopy to something ofthe order of ne bit pe ter, with s exesponding redundancy of roughly 75%. The redundancy maybe tl higher when ¥rvcture extending ove paragrap chapters, te. incaed However a ‘the lengths involved are incensed, the parameters in question become one Mul Therl Commun” Bal Syn etd trrtic and uncertain, and they depend moe tly om the yp ket involved 2, Esreore Catcoxnos mow ue Sratisics oF Est ‘One method af aeuating the entropy I isby a sees of positions Fu Fas Fay which sucesvely take more and mote ofthe statistics ‘ofthe language into account and approach H7 asim. Fy nay be cal the X gram entry it menses the atouit of information entropy de to satis extending over adjacent eters of text. Fi given Dy" Fy = EHH loge © HE pb tows 9.) +E 006) toe 08) In whieh 864 Wek of letters (Xt) 4am ariteary ltr fllowing , ‘lb, the probability af the gram Bj ‘s(j) the conditional probability of eter j alter the black 6, and given by 9, /. ‘The equation (1) can be interpret as messing the average uncertainty (contin entropy) ofthe nex letter j when the prveing 1 lees ae Known. ss inten, Fs inddes longer and longer rage statics ts the entopy, given by the iting vale of Pas = 1H = Lin Fr @ The X-gram entropies Fy for srl Yales of canbe caestd frm standard tables of letter, digram and tigram frequencies? It spaces and Punctuation ae ignored we have a twenty eter alhabet ard Ps may he taken hy destin) te logs 25, or bts pr eter. F involves eter Frequencies and sven by. = Epo mw 90 = sts ie perie, 0) “The diam aproination Fe the en f= Eni ew 00 HZ pi.d e069 +E ww 210 — 410 = 556 bits pr lteshe wig enoy isn by pee iene) == Ei meri + TAG oe Gd no =n =33 In this calultion the wgtam table used di ot take into account te rams bridiag tro words sch as WOW and OWO ia TWO WORDS. To mente patil for this omission, corete tiram protabitis 6, {A} were oboe fo the probable 9) the lable bythe follow ing ough orl: wind FB Feel 9G. B+ Ee Ate) ee ate ntein omnes ottaaes occulta te anal aru cryin aa tata Tec thence ar a Wan ie teats tpn al ask te Ea te ey ned 6 cer a nny aed agate he PE Ke aman Bean andthe Psa Adon Wesky ) ‘micros asp nisrROPY OF FREETED ENGL s formula (6) clearly canna bold indefiitly since the total probity 29. unt be unity, while $5.1 is innit. I we assume (inthe absence of any ‘eter estimate) that the formula fy = 1/n lds otto the wat which the total probability is unity, and Gat py = 0 for larger a, we Gnd that the tcl is the word of rank 8727, The estoy i then: EE potog ay = 1182 bt per nord, o or 182/48 = 26 is per eter sine the average word length in Engh SEAS Teter One might te tempted to Wnty thi ae with Fa, bat say tote a he yest = 43 lb be the vale thereon tht yt Fives rou a fst eters gels oi wont diva, A nord a clesie gop of ters with og tealSt rm am overew car jou, JASTARY 1951 statistical nBuencs, nd consequently the Ngrams within words ae ore esr than tho which ge word. The elect ofthis i ht we Dave ‘hun, in 262 bits pr letter, an etinate which eomesponds more neatly to, say, Foor Fee “x Gia tet of calculations was carried out including the space a8 an suiunal letter, giving 27 letter alphabet. The results of bth 25- and Brktter calealtins ate summarized belo Te ctimate of 23 or Fy allded to above, was fund by sever methods, tne of whith isthe extrapolation a the Dotter series above out to Cat fine, Sine the spoee sya i almost completely redandant when se Rene of oreo ore words ar involve, the wales of Fy lathe 27etter Crevice Pr rhe lek when seb lane. 4. Pesotonos oF vous “The new meth of estimating entropy exploits the fact tbat anyone speaking » language poses, plc, an enormous Knowledge of the ‘atte ofthe language. Familiarity wit the words, idioms, ces and [Damar enables im to il in issng or icarvet eters in proo-eaing, ‘Sr ocompletean ibe pias conversation. An experinental dem ‘ration af the estet to whieh Engh sprite can be given as ols Sekt short prsage unaiar tothe person who ito do the preditng Hits then ashe topes theft eter in the passage If the gus scoret fe so informed, a proces toes the sod leer. Int, he ft the comet fiat letter ane proces to his next guess. This continued through the text. As the experiment progeesss, the subject writes down the tet teat up tothe crrent poi or wei ewig future ters. The esl of typical experiment of ths type is gven below. Spaces were i> ‘Hodson iin eter, taking a 27 leter ape. The is ne i the eign! text; the scond line contains a dash foreach Iter correctly sues, In the case of incorrect guess the comet iter i op ia the seen ne. (0) Tm pow ws nee eH TOR 4 a oO (2) Tetoecesncereten anette (0) mote tae oF Eat a a oF (3) ater tent (2) pros wea ot Las on HR SAE 20 cP (a) Regge dtedetedeee eben oy aanicrion AX REROPY OF PRINTED ASKS ss (total of 129 eters, 89 oF 6% were guess corey. The eons as would be expected, oar most fequentiy at Ue begining of worls and ‘Slates where the Ke of thooght hae mare possibilty of branehing out I ‘Sint be thought thatthe second linen (Sy ich we wl eal the refuel Ton contains mc es nfermation han the Hirst Actually, bth Hie com {S58 the same floration inthe serge that it is posible, atleast n rin ‘Spe to tener the fist ne fom the second To acpi this we nes seme twin ofthe vidual who produced the sequence. The twin ‘ke must be matters, no use biaiogcally Senta wil eu in ‘he ame way when faced wih the same problem. Suppose, aon, we have Uiiy tera text af (8), We sk the brn to ges the pasa. At each ‘ine we wl know whether bis guess omet, since ef guessing the same tee at win sad the presence af dash nthe rece text eorespons toacoretguese The ler he guesses wrong are also available so that at Sch nage he canbe supplied with pce the sme lformaton the fist vin had aval “le te ‘The need for an identi twin in tis eonceptual experiment ean be ‘cninatel as follows Tn gene, ga prditon does not requie knowl {fge of more han precing terol text, wth fil mall. There are ny a Gite mame of pose sequences of eters, We could ask the “injec tn goes the nex letter for each of these pose grams. The pis lat of these predtions could then be used bath for obtaining the ‘ced text fom the original ad forthe inverse reonstruton process To put this another way, the reduced text can be conser tobe an ocal form of theo, the result of passing the origin text through {reverse transducer, Infact, a communiation system could be con- ‘heute in which only the reduced ters easter one pint to the othe This oa beset up a8 sbown in Fg 2, wih two ental pre Aiton devin. ‘an extension of the above experiment yi farther infomation on- cerning the preictaityof English As elre, the sbject knows the text ‘ptm the crtent point sas asked to guess the next eter, 1 he is wrong, SE atl ao and sed to gues agin, Thi continued wat he finds the et liter Atypical result with thi experiment shown below. The6 THE BELL SYGrEM THCHMIAL JOURNAL, SANUARY 1951 fat ine the orignal text and the bers in the second ln indict the ‘puss at which the cost eter was obtained (ytiean 1s so aevaase ox @)iiteivaiaqistatai an say ‘Out of 102 symbols he subject gues ight on the fist ess 7 times, om the Second ues 8 ine, on the thi gues 3 ines, the fourth and fess each an only et times required more than five pueses: Ress ff this onderare typical of prediction by a god subject wth odin teary Enlith. Newopaper writing ackentie work nd poetry genealy lead to somenhat poorer sores “The reed text in this case alo contains the same information a the original Again ulin the Mental twin weak hi at enh stage to gues ttemany times asthe number ive in the reduced text and roover i thi vray the orginal To eminte the human element hee we must ak our Iubjet for each posible N-gram of tet, to gues the mot probable next leur, the second mast probable next let, ee Ths set of data can then serve both for prdition and recovery. ust as before, the reduced tet can be considered an enanded versio of the original, The orginal Ingsage, with an alphabet of 27 symbols 4, Bos" 2, spice, has bee trusted nto a new lnguage with he alpabet 112,22 2 The tanlating ha been sack tnt the symbol 1 ow hs a ‘extrenely igh frequency. The symbols 2, 3,4 have sucesively smaller Frequencies and the ial symbols 2021, +", 27 occur very rarely. Ts the ‘eatlting has simplied to conser extent the nature ofthe statist cal structure involved. The rendaey which ergnally appeared in com- Pleated ocstrlns among groups oft, as, by the tanlatig roces, teen mud explicit ole estet in the very unequal probabilities of the er symbol Is i, a8 ll pear Iater, which enables one to eatinate {he entropy from these experiments "In order to determine how preicablity depends on the number N’ of preceding Ietes known to the subject, a more involv experiment was ‘arom out. One hundred samples of English text wee selected at random noma book, ech ite letters in length The sbjec was equed to guess the tx, ete by letter, lor each sample atin the proeling experiment ‘Thus one hundred samples were obtained ia which the subject had avaiable 0,1,2,3, +++ I preceding letere To ain prediction the subject made elas he wished of various satiate tbl, etter, digra and tegen, PREDICTION ax ENTROPY OF PARED ISGLBH eT tables, table of the frequencies of intl eters in word, st ofthe fe ‘uence of canon words anda dictionary. The sarple in hi experiment were fom "Jetson the Virginian” by Dumas Malone, These reals, t= ether with sare in which 10D ters were nwa othe subject, ae ‘Summarized in Table. The column eoeespads tothe number of preceding leters known tothe subject plus one: the row isthe numberof the guess “The ery in column 1 at row Sis the number of times the subject gues sheright eter at the Sth gues when (V1) ltes were known, For example, ‘he entry 19 incur 6, rw 2, means that with ive eters Known the coe test letter ws obtain onthe econ pew nineteen tines out of the hun ‘ro. he frst tv columns of this able were aot obtained by the expei= mental procedure cutie above but were calelsted diet frm the oo etter ad digas requencen. Thus with no known eters the most Drbable symbol is the space (probability 182); the ext gues, if this trong, should be E (probably 107), ete, Thee probabilities are the Frequencies with which the right gest would acer a the ft seond ec, ‘tals with test prediction, Simi, simple efeulation fom the digram table gives he ents in column I when the subjot wes the tablet bet58mm ants sverex moment JousNAL, yorwany 1951 svantage, Since the frequency ables ae detemsino from long samples of Fla hee two columns are sujet to lst simpling err tha the others Tt wl be scen that the prediction gradually improves apart from some statistical Buctation, with inerevsing knowledge of the part as inated iy the anger numbers of correct ist gutses andthe smaller numbers of igh rank gueses. "One experiment was caida with “reverse” predieton, a which the subject queso the letter proeling those are known. Although the task sabjetively mach more dealt, the stores were ony lightly poorer. "Thus, wth two 101 letter samples fram the same source, the subject ob tained the following results Incidentally, the -gram entropy for s revered language is oq to that fr the forward language a8 may be sen fom the second frm in tion (1). Both es have the tame ale inthe foreard and vevered ass, 4 Tora N-Gasne Pusnienos “The data of Table I canbe used to obtsn pper and lower bounds to the gram entropies Fy. In onder to do thi, its ecesry ist to develop ome general results concerning the best poble prdieton ofa anguage ‘nen the precling letters aze known, There willbe forthe lnguage set ‘eondibelpabebites passes sages). Tina thepebabity when the (VA) graf yy fo ces thatthe next eter wil be j. The ‘est gues forthe next ete, when this (V1) pram i kaw to hve 0 ‘ure rl be tat letter having the highest conatinal probability. The “cond guess shoud be tht withthe second highest protubilty, ete A racine or person guesng i he best way’ would gues letters inthe order (Gf decresingcoaional probability, Ths the process of redacng a text With sich an Seal predictor consists of mapping of the ltrs into the Fhmbers fom 1 o.27 in auch a way thatthe most probeble ext letter [ondtoal on the known preceding (V-1) grim] it mapped ito 1, ee ‘Te fequeney a's inthe reduced text wil then be gives by Em Biagio sina) ao) vehere the sim is taken overall (V1 rams >> i the eing the ne whi uses for that patel (9-1) gram. Sie the fe ‘quency of 2's given by the same formula wth j chosen tobe chat Teter having the second highest wale ff ete ‘nthe bass of N-gram, a diferent st of probabilities for the symbols vnrpicriow avo reaory OF panTHD AxCIBE 2 Inthe reduced text, gf, 92, gf, would nally rest, Since his prediction ion the basi of «greater ohedge af the past, one would x. est the probe of low numbers toe grater, and i fact one ca prove the fowng inequalities Hate de song a “This means that the probability of Being right in the fist S guesses when the prolig WV letters ar known i greater than or eq to tt when nly (1) ate known, fr all S: To prove this, imagine the probabilities (eas bny) aang in ate with jtenning horetally and all the Yegrams vertically The table wil therfore have 27 cokmins and 27" rons The term onthe of (41 i he am of the get ene in each ‘ow, sumo overal the ows. The Fight hand menber of (11) sali a sum ‘ents fron this ale a which enti ae tken rom crow bt ot tecesaily the S Ingest. This follows fom the fact thatthe righthand member would be calalte frm anlar table wit (9-1) grams rher ‘han grams sted vertically. Fach row inthe N-1 gram tables the sum £27 rows of the gram table, sae Phy DAE avis vind. 2) ‘Thesum ofthe laget entries in a row of the N-gram tale wll equal te au ofthe 27 sletd entre fran the coesponding 27 rows of the gram table oly the later all nto $ column For the equality in (11) tw hold for partiuarS, this must be ee of every row of the -1 gram table In ths ase, thet eter ofthe Ayam doce st aflect the set of the 5 most probable choices forthe net lter, although the ordering within the at may’ be affected. However, he equality in (1) hol fo all, folows thatthe ordering a8 well wil be unalecte by the fist ete ofthe "gram. There text obtain ma deal V-1 gram preictoei hes identi with tha obtained from an Wel N-gram predictor. Since the parts sims a-fe s sre monotonic increasing factions of, roach Tints a N-»e Ti fos ierences mst there apo limites N=» =, the gf appeoch nt, Te maybe terete asthe relive egeny of comes it sean, guess with Know Sige of the ent sit) patty the tex 2, as)(rue nex svete spcoeat joomeAL, pNEARY 1981 “The ea ram predictor can be considered, as has been pointed aut, to ‘bea transducer whic operates the language tasting intoa sequence ‘of numbers runing fom {to 27. Ax sich t asthe following Seo properties 1 The ontpat syle a function ofthe present input (the predicted nex ete when we think oft as predicting device) and he pce Ing (V1 eters 2, Is inant eversibe, Te ii inpat can bereaved by ‘tale operation on the reduced txt without Ls of time fat, the verse operation alo operates on only the (N-1)precaling ym. thls ofthe reed tet togeter with tbe preset output ‘The above proof thatthe frequencies of outpet symbole with an ram proctor stay the inequalities: Seeker can be appa to any tranaducer having the two proper listed above Infact we can imagine agin am array withthe varios (N-) grams listed ‘etal and the preset pt Iter horizontal. Since the present oxtpat Ei tantion of only theve quantities there wil bea defaite output symbol ich may be entered tthe conresponing Intrecton of rom an ol, Furthermore, the instantaneoae reversity reques tat no two enti in the same row beth sme. Otherwise there would be ambiguity between the two or more posse present ipa letters when reversing the tans tio, The total probability of the S most probable symbols in the output, Sah year ao say Er wile the sum ofthe probit fr etyesineachor, summed. ‘ver the ows, and consequently x certainly not grater than the sum ofthe S lange entries in ea ow. Thus we wl have Edekn senyenm cc) Inher words ea preiction a defined above enjoys a prefer poston ‘mong all translating operations that may be apie to Lnguage and hich satisfy the two properties above. Roughly speaking, idea! prediction Collages the probbities of wrious symbols to 2 small group more thas fny other trusting operation involving the sume numbe of Fetes which i stantanaualy reverse Sets of numbers tiing the inequalities (15) have ben studied by Maithead in connection with the theory of algebraic inegualitin® 11 (15) hols when the gf snd. are arranged in decreasing ner of magoitue, and Came Vey Ps, 108 cas 1, th the tet et majorite eo et Ti cw thi the ajrting pop eet oer ote falowing over thers can be bane fm th gf by it re of ows” By a fon nunnery fom a egos mae tn st Bs rn ter ocr bot xt te vee Siectin 2. Ther, cn be obtain fom the ff by geen “avenging” eqeoin Tere a eo ogi eal mabey ah SPo0S Diy = tant tat rem Baul 9 Ss. Estiory Rousos row Paanicnow Penquencies we know the frequencies of symbols inthe reued text with the Hea Yam predictor, fy ts possible to at both epper and lower boands the ram entropy, Fe, o€ the orginal lnguage These bounds areas fallow Eel ~ tad gi s Pe -Zamd a9 The upper bound follows immesintly fom the fac thatthe masirun| psi entopy in a language wth etter frequencies gf is ~ 55g log Thos the entopy per symbol ofthe reduced tet isnot greater than hi, The N-gram entopy of the reduce text sequal to that forthe original language, as may’ e seen by an inspection ofthe dentin () of Pe The suns vole wil antainpreiely the ame tems slough, perhaps i Aierent oer. Ths upper bound I clealy va, whether oe ot the pee: ‘tion ia He “The lower bound is more dificult to estab, Tes necessary to show that wi any slection of pram probbiien PU fe, vn a), we wl have boris Ee ‘The lnfthand member of the inequality cn be interpreted as fllvs Imagine the gf arrange 8 2 Sequence of ines of decreasing heght (Fi) “Theacteal ¢ can he consere a the sum ofa set of rectangular distrib tions as shown The eft member of (1) ithe entropy of thi set of itu ‘ns. Thus, the 4 rectangular ition har 8 total probability of Eat i) og is > aio) 18)2 me ae pyrex recoeAL oom, pTeARE 1951 Aig ~ dh) To enteoy of he dtbution sg Te tal ent it then Eat ~ tad mes. ‘The probe, then sto show that any system of probate Pi, 4s), wid best prediction requnces gas an entropy Py gener Dah at ul to that of this ectangular system, devved from the sume et of es pee teow ty 1 eae ig 3 Reng decompo aa ete dat ‘The gc we have sid azeobtine from the ly «= dy by arranging cach tow ofthe table in decreasing order of magnitude and adding vertealy. ‘Thus the qa the sum of set of monotone decreasing dstrbations, Re kc ech of thse ditions by ie rectangular decanpesitin, Each one SS replaced then Gi general) by 27 rectangular distributions the gy ae the sum of 27x 27 eeetangular distribution, of fom 1 27 ements, sad ll Staring athe left column. The entony for this sti es than or equal to that ofthe orginal set of distrbatians since a terms adiion of to ot ‘more distributions always increases entropy. This actually en appiation ‘axpIcHON 2m ENIROPY OF PREEEED EAGLE o of the general theorem that Hy(e) < HC) for any chance variables «and ‘The equality holds only ifthe dstrbutions ting added ate proportional [Now we may add the diferent components of the sme width withoat hanging the entropy (ince in this eae the dirtbtions ore proportional) ‘The reilt fe that we have ative atthe rectangular deconponin of the gc, by a sere of process which decrease or lave constant the entropy, ating wih the original gram probabilities, Consequnty the entropy ff the aiginal syste Fyn greater than o eal otha ofthe rectangle ‘kecompesition of te gy. This proves the deed result Tel be noted thatthe lmer bound i deiitly les than Ps unless ech row ofthe table hata retangular istebtion, This vues that french posse (1 gram hee ints of pone nest ter ech wth ea Potty, wheal ote settles hve sr potty. Tell ni be shown tat he ope wer oun for Fe by (1) aremomponie decreasing Wnt 8. Tailor aed since the gi** majorize the gf and any equalizing Gow in a set of probabilities inom te egy To ve Ua one fend ln oto reign wl ow thatthe att U = Die aad oi ) ‘sincrensel by an equalising How among the Suppose «How our frm et ga the fist decreased by 3g and the Inter increased by the same “mount Thence lens the um change and the change igen by AU = [-G— Dog @— 1) + Bogs — + 1) og G+ Diag CH)6 na arty sora reemicn: ounsay, posoany 1951 “The term in brackets asthe form =f(e 1) + 3/2) ~ f+ 0 where fe) = slags Now (ea fonction whick &copeve ua far postive x, Since (a) = 1/2 0. The bracketed ter is twice the dfeencebeeween the tnate ofthe curve st # = 4and the ornate ofthe point ofthe chord Joining} 1 aod #-+ J, and consquentlytengatve. Sine also neg tiv the change in U brought aboot by the Ao Is postive. An even simpler Calcltion sows that this alo te fra fae fom 9.0 go rom gO te (bre only to terms ofthe ar are affect) Tt flo thatthe wer ound bused on the Aegean prediction frequencies qf is greater Un oF cul to that elle from the N-¢ 1 gram Frequencies gf". 6, Exeranarstat, ousos vow Esoust Working rom the data of Table the upper and wer bounds were cle lated relations (17) The data were fs smote somewhat to over. ome the wort sampling Actuation. The lw numbers a Ui able ae the last elble and these were averaged together in groups Thus, in fon 4 the 7, 18 and 14 were not changed bat the remaining group totaling 21 wos vided uniformly ver the rows om 4 to 20. The upper and lamer bounds given by (1) were then cated freak eam giving the following results: I ie evident that there etl considerable sampling ero in these gues Ae to Henlyng the observed sample frequencies wih the prediction probabilities Tt mist alo be remembered that the lower bound vas proved Uy for the tel prdito, whe the fequenies uo here are fom human Dreiction, Some rough cleans, boweve, indzate that the discrepancy Eetween the actual Fy and the lover bound with Sea predition (ue 10 the fare to have rectangular dstebutions of conditional probability) tore than compensates forthe faire of human abject to relic he ‘lal manner Thus we fel reasonably conan of both bounds part fom Smpling errors The values given above are pated agaist Vin Fig. Acwsownsno.et ‘The writer isindebted to Mrs. Mary. Shannon and to Dr. B. ME. Olver for belp with the experimental work and for numberof sagpstion and cits concerning the theoretical aspects of this pape. os ‘A Submarine Telephone Cable with Submerged Repeaters By J. OmnERT (tris Rein it, 1089) «bee rng th rental Key West aan cn eae var an we kia pa ec we none nthe 'N APRIL of lat year there was ital between Key West, Florida, Triton lindane chance en ings cal degartre fom the conventional art of lng distance submarine teh ‘ony. This departure conte ofthe incision within the amor af he sab Imarine cable of electron tue repeaters which are dvigned to pat through the cable lying machinery and sink to the oon beter ke length a ‘able and which, over an extended period of perhaps teaty years, should sot requ servicing forthe prose of changing electron tes or defective Ciesit elements, The repeater has the appearance ofa bulge inthe cable shout thee inches in diameter and tapering af ia both detions to the Cable diameter of itl over a ine. The ota lngth ofthe blinding ‘he taper a each end ie shout 35 fen The bulge exible enough s that ivean conform tothe cuvatareo the brake drm and ofthe varus sheaves in the laying ger on the able ship. A repeater With stub cables, is shown in Fig. Hisroncst ‘The new cable system, comprising cables Nos. and 6 of the Coban- American Telepone and‘Tlegraph Company, represents snr step in the development of telephonic communication between the United States and Cuba which has presented many inteeting problems, Natural con. Adoas make it dealt, $f not impossible, to employ some of the usual ‘methods of communication. One suck eonition ie the absence of high ground In Fora that would permit the us of economic radio systems. Another is the tech of water between Farida and Cat, shih in places, i se much 28 (0 feet in depth and which restricts the type of eable that can be ‘ed The practical solution hasbeen to go frm the point of contact nth {he Bel System tol lines at Miami, over the Keys to Key Wert by land Tine (with sme water rssng) thence to Havann an at ie distance of shout 100 nam, by submarine cable of the deep 2 type of construction, having singe caaialreul, smulated wth water eetant mater, There