R .V.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BENGALURU- 560 059

(Autonomous Institution Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)

TITLE: Energy Resources

Seminar/Assignment Report

Submitted by

Name: ROHITH M
SAGARA G N
Roll No:1RV17TE043
Roll No:18UG3LAT1290

Section: H (Telecommunication Engineering)

Submitted to,
Name of teacher in-charge : Trilok C
 Department of Biotechnology
R V College of Engineering, Bengaluru-59

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the Assignment topic “Energy Resources” is carried out by

ROHITH M (1RV17TE043) and SAGARA G N (18UG3LAT1290) who
are bonafide students of R V College of Engineering, Bengaluru in
partial fulfilment of the award of seminar/assignment marks for the IIIrd
semester academic year 2018-19 in Environmental Technology Course.
It is certified that all corrections/ suggestions indicated for the internal
assessment have been incorporated in the report, and a soft copy is
deposited in the department library. The seminar/assignment report has
been approved as it satisfies the academic requirement in respect of the
work prescribed by the institution for the said course.

Marks awarded:
INTRODUCTION:

Energy resource development are the activities focused on obtaining sources of energy from
natural resources. These activities include production of
conventional, alternative and renewable sources of energy, and for the recovery and reuse of
energy , that would otherwise be wasted. Energy conservation and efficiency measures reduce
the demand for energy development, and can have benefits to society with improvements
to environmental issues.
Societies use energy for transportation, manufacturing, illumination, heating and air
conditioning, and communication, for industrial, commercial, and domestic purposes. Energy
resources may be classified as primary resources, where the resource can be used in substantially
its original form, or as secondary resources, where the energy source must be converted into a
more conveniently usable form. Non-renewable resources are significantly depleted by human
use, whereas renewable resources are produced by ongoing processes that can sustain indefinite
human exploitation.
Thousands of people are employed in the energy industry. The conventional industry comprises
of the petroleum industry , the natural gas industry, the electrical power industry, and the nuclear
industry. New energy industries include the renewable energy industry, comprising alternative
and sustainable manufacture, distribution, and sale of alternative fuels.

Energy resources can be classified as:

 Renewable energy resources.
 Non-renewable energy resources.

Renewable energy resources:

These are the resources which does not exhaust on continuous usage and can be naturally
replenished.

Types of renewable natural resources:

 Solar Energy
 Wind Energy
 Hydroelectricity
 Biomass
 Hydrogen and Fuel cell
Types of Non-renewable energy resources:
1. Petroleum Products.
 Coal.
 Natural gases.
2. Uranium.

What role does renewable energy play in the United States?

Until the mid-1800s, wood was the source of nearly all of the nation's energy needs for heating,
cooking, and light. From the late 1800’s until today, fossil fuels—coal, petroleum, and natural
gas—have been the major sources of energy. Hydropower and solid biomass were the most used
renewable energy resources until the 1990s. Since then, the shares of U.S. energy consumption
from biofuels, solar, and wind energy have increased.

In 2017, renewable energy provided about 11 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) 11
quadrillion British thermal units (Btu)—1 quadrillion is the number 1 followed by 15 zeros—
equal to 11% of total U.S. energy consumption. About 57% of U.S. renewable energy
consumption was by the electric power sector, and about 17% of U.S. electricity generation was
from renewable energy sources.

Renewable energy plays an important role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Using
renewable energy can reduce the use of fossil fuels, which are major sources of U.S. carbon
dioxide emissions.

The consumption of biofuels and other nonhydroelectric renewable energy sources more than
doubled from 2000 to 2017, mainly because of state and federal government requirements and
incentives to use renewable energy. The U.S. Energy Information Administration projects that
U.S. renewable energy consumption will continue to increase through 2050.
Solar Energy:

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-
evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar
architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis.
It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as
either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or
convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic
systems, concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar
techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal
mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity.
The United Nations Development Program in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the
annual potential of solar energy was 1,575–49,837 exajoules(EJ). This is several times larger
than the total world energy consumption, which was 559.8 EJ in 2012.
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible
and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase
countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-
independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of
mitigating global warming, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages
are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be
considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared".
Advantages of Solar Energy

1. Renewable Energy Source

Among all the benefits of solar panels, the most important thing is that solar energy is a truly

renewable energy source. It can be harnessed in all areas of the world and is available every day.

We cannot run out of solar energy, unlike some of the other sources of energy. Solar energy will

be accessible as long as we have the sun, therefore sunlight will be available to us for at least 5

billion years when according to scientists the sun is going to die.

2. Reduces Electricity Bills

Since you will be meeting some of your energy needs with the electricity your solar system has

generated, your energy bills will drop. How much you save on your bill will be dependent on the

size of the solar system and your electricity or heat usage. Moreover, not only will you be saving

on the electricity bill, but if you generate more electricity than you use, the surplus will be

exported back to the grid and you will receive bonus payments for that amount (considering that

your solar panel system is connected to the grid). Savings can further grow if you sell excess

electricity at high rates during the day and then buy electricity from the grid during the evening

when the rates are lower.

3. Diverse Applications
Solar energy can be used for diverse purposes. You can generate electricity (photovoltaics) or

heat (solar thermal). Solar energy can be used to produce electricity in areas without access to

the energy grid, to distill water in regions with limited clean water supplies and to power

satellites in space. Solar energy can also be integrated into the materials used for buildings. Not

long ago Sharp introduced transparent solar energy windows.

4. Low Maintenance Costs

Solar energy systems generally don’t require a lot of maintenance. You only need to keep them

relatively clean, so cleaning them a couple of times per year will do the job. If in doubt, you can

always rely on specialized cleaning companies, which offer this service from around £25-£35.

Most reliable solar panel manufacturers offer 20-25 years warranty. Also, as there are no moving

parts, there is no wear and tear. The inverter is usually the only part that needs to change after 5-

10 years because it is continuously working to convert solar energy into electricity (solar PV)

and heat (solar thermal). Apart from the inverter, the cables also need maintenance to ensure

your solar power system runs at maximum efficiency. So, after covering the initial cost of the

solar system, you can expect very little spending on maintenance and repair work.

5. Technology Development

Technology in the solar power industry is constantly advancing and improvements will intensify

in the future. Innovations in quantum physics and nanotechnology can potentially increase the

effectiveness of solar panels and double, or even triple, the electrical input of the solar power

systems.

Disadvantages of Solar Energy

1. Cost
The initial cost of purchasing a solar system is fairly high. Although the UK government has
introduced some schemes for encouraging the adoption of renewable energy sources, for
example, the Feed-in Tariff, you still have to cover the upfront costs. This includes paying for
solar panels, inverter, batteries, wiring, and for the installation. Nevertheless, solar technologies
are constantly developing, so it is safe to assume that prices will go down in the future.
2. Weather Dependent
Although solar energy can still be collected during cloudy and rainy days, the efficiency of the
solar system drops. Solar panels are dependent on sunlight to effectively gather solar energy.
Therefore, a few cloudy, rainy days can have a noticeable effect on the energy system. You
should also take into account that solar energy cannot be collected during the night. On the other
hand, if you also require your water heating solution to work at night or during
wintertime, thermodynamic panels are an alternative to consider.
3. Solar Energy Storage Is Expensive
Solar energy has to be used right away, or it can be stored in large batteries. These batteries, used
in off-the-grid solar systems, can be charged during the day so that the energy is used at night.
This is a good solution for using solar energy all day long but it is also quite expensive. In most
cases, it is smarter to just use solar energy during the day and take energy from the grid during
the night (you can only do this if your system is connected to the grid). Luckily your energy
demand is usually higher during the day so you can meet most of it with solar energy.
4. Uses a Lot of Space
The more electricity you want to produce, the more solar panels you will need, as you want to
collect as much sunlight as possible. Solar panels require a lot of space and some roofs are not
big enough to fit the number of solar panels that you would like to have. An alternative is to
install some of the panels in your yard but they need to have access to sunlight. If you don’t have
the space for all the panels that you wanted, you can opt for installing fewer to still satisfy some
of your energy needs.
5. Associated with Pollution
Although pollution related to solar energy systems is far less compared to other sources of
energy, solar energy can be associated with pollution. Transportation and installation of solar
systems have been associated with the emission of greenhouse gases. There are also some toxic
materials and hazardous products used during the manufacturing process of solar photovoltaics,
which can indirectly affect the environment. Nevertheless, solar energy pollutes far less than
other alternative energy sources.
Applications of solar energy:
Some of the major application of solar energy are as follows: (a) Solar water heating (b) Solar
heating of buildings (c) Solar distillation (d) Solar pumping (e) Solar drying of agricultural and
animal products (f) Solar furnaces (g) Solar cooking (h) Solar electric power generation (i) Solar
thermal power production (j) Solar green houses.
(a) Solar Water Heating:
A solar water heating unit comprises a blackened flat plate metal collector with an associated
metal tubing facing the general direction of the sun. The plate collector has a transparent glass
cover above and a layer of thermal insulation beneath it.
The metal tubing of the collector is connected by a pipe to an insulated tank that stores hot water
during cloudy days. The collector absorbs solar radiations and transfers the heat to the water
circulating through the tubing either by gravity or by a pump.
This hot water is supplied to the storage tank via the associated metal tubing. This system of
water heating is commonly used in hotels, guest houses, tourist bungalows, hospitals, canteens as
well as domestic and industrial units.
(b) Solar Heating of Buildings:
Solar energy can be used for space heating of buildings in many ways namely:
(a) Collecting the solar radiation by some element of the building itself i.e. solar energy is
admitted directly into the building through large South-facing windows.
(b) Using separate solar collectors which may heat either water or air or storage devices which
can accumulate the collected solar energy for use at night and during inclement days.
When the building requires heat then from these collectors or storage devices, the heat is
transferred by conventional equipment such as fan, ducts, air outlets, radiators and hot air
registers etc. to warm up the living spaces of a building.
When the building does not require heat, the heated air or water from the collector can be moved
to the heat storage device such as well insulated water tank or other heat holding material. For
inclement days, an auxiliary heating system using gas, oil or electricity is required as a backup
system.
(c) Solar-distillation:
In arid semi and or coastal areas there is scarcity of potable water. The abundant sunlight in these
areas can be used for converting saline water into potable distilled water by the method of solar
distillation. In this method, solar radiation is admitted through a transparent air tight glass cover
into a shallow blackened basin containing saline water.
Solar radiation passes through the covers and is absorbed and converted into heat in the
blackened surface causing the water to evaporate from the brine (impure saline water). The
vapors produced get condensed to form purified water in the cool interior of the roof.
The condensed water flows down the sloping roof and is collected in the troughs placed at the
bottom and from there into a water storage tank to supply potable distilled water in areas of
scarcity, in colleges, school science laboratories, defense labs, petrol pumps, hospitals and
pharmaceutical industries. Per liter distilled water cost obtained by this system is cheaper than
distilled water obtained by other electrical energy-based processes.
(d) Solar-pumping:
In solar pumping, the power generated by solar-energy is utilized for pumping water for
irrigation purposes. The requirement for water pumping is greatest in the hot summer months
which coincide with the increased solar radiations during this period and so this method is most
appropriate for irrigation purpose. During periods of inclement weather when solar radiations are
low then the requirement for water pumping is also relatively less as the transpiration losses from
the crops are also low.
(e) Solar Drying of Agricultural and Animal Products:
This is a traditional method of utilising solar energy for drying of agricultural and animal
products. Agricultural products are dried in a simple cabinet dryer which consists of a box
insulated at the base, painted black on the inner side and covered with an inclined transparent
sheet of glass.
At the base and top of the sides ventilation holes are provided to facilitate the flow of air over the
drying material which is placed on perforated trays inside the cabinet. These perforated trays or
racks are carefully designed to provide controlled exposure to solar radiations.
Solar drying, especially of fruits improves fruit quality as the sugar concentration increases on
drying. Normally soft fruits are particularly vulnerable to insect attack as the sugar content
increases on drying but in a fruit dryer considerable time is saved by quicker drying —
minimizing gap the chances of insect attack.
The present practice of drying chilies by spreading them on the floor not only requires a lot of
open space and manual labour for material handling but it becomes difficult to maintain its
quality and taste unless drying is done in a controlled atmosphere. Moreover, the products being
sun dried very often get spoiled due to sudden rains, dust storms or by birds. Besides, reports
reveal that it is not possible to attain very low moisture content in the sun-dried chilies.
As a result, the chilies become prone to attack by fungi and bacteria. In sun-drying sometimes,
the produce is over dried and its quality is lost. Solar energy operated dryer helps to overcome
most of these disadvantages.
Other agricultural products commonly solar-dried are potato-chips, berseem, grains of maize and
paddy, ginger, peas, pepper, cashew-nuts, timber and veneer drying and tobacco curing. Spray
drying of milk and fish drying are examples of solar dried animal products.
(f) Solar Furnaces:
In a Solar furnace, high temperature is obtained by concentrating the solar radiations onto a
specimen using a number of heliostats (turn-able mirrors) arranged on a sloping surface. The
solar furnace is used for studying the properties of ceramics at extremely high temperatures
above the range measurable in laboratories with flames and electric currents.
Heating can be accomplished without any contamination and temperature can be easily
controlled by changing the position of the material in focus. This is especially useful for
metallurgical and chemical operations. Various property measurements are possible on an open
specimen. An important future application of solar furnaces is the production of nitric acid and
fertilizers from air.
(g) Solar Cooking:
A variety of fuel like coal, kerosene, cooking gas, firewood, dung cakes and agricultural wastes
are used for cooking purposes. Due to the energy crisis, supply of these fuels are either
deteriorating (wood, coal, kerosene, cooking gas) or are too precious to be wasted for cooking
purposes (cow dung can be better used as manure for improving soil fertility). This necessitated
the use of solar energy for cooking purposes and the development of solar cookers. A simple
solar cooker is the flat plate box type solar cooker.
It consists of a well insulated metal or wooden box which is blackened from the inner side. The
solar radiations entering the box are of short wavelength. As higher wavelength radiations are
unable to pass through the glass covers, the re-radiation from the blackened interior to outside
the box through the two glass covers is minimised, thereby minimising the heat loss.
The heat loss due to convection is minimised by making the box airtight. This is achieved by
providing a rubber strip between the upper lid and the box for minimising the heat loss due to
conduction, the space between the blackened tray and outer cover of the box is filled with an
insulting material like glass wool, saw-dust, paddy husk etc.
When placed in sunlight, the solar rays penetrate the glass covers and are absorbed by the
blackened surface thereby resulting in an increase in temperature inside the box. Cooking pots
blackened from outside are placed in the solar box.
The uncooked food gets cooked with the heat energy produced due to increased temperature of
the solar box. Collector area of such a solar cooker can be increased by providing a plane
reflector mirror. When this reflector is adjusted to reflect the sun rays into the box, then a 15°C
to 25°C rise in temperature is achieved inside the cooker box.
The solar cooker requires neither fuel nor attention while cooking food and there is no pollution,
no charring or overflowing of food and the most important advantage is that nutritional value of
the cooked food is very high as the vitamins and natural tastes of the food are not destroyed.
Maintenance cost of the solar cooker is negligible. The main disadvantage of the solar cooker is
that the food cannot be cooked at night, during cloudy days or at short notice. Cooking takes
comparatively more time and chapattis cannot be cooked in a solar cooker.
(h) Solar Electric Power Generation:
Electric energy or electricity can be produced directly from solar energy by means of
photovoltaic cells. The photovoltaic cell is an energy conversion device which is used to convert
photons of sunlight directly into electricity. It is made of semi conductors which absorb the
photons received from the sun, creating free electrons with high energies.
These high energy free electrons are induced by an electric field, to flow out of the
semiconductor to do useful work. This electric field in photovoltaic cells is usually provided by a
p-n junction of materials which have different electrical properties. There are different
fabrication techniques to enable these cells to achieve maximum efficiency.
These cells are arranged in parallel or series combination to form cell modules. Some of the
special features of these modules are high reliability, no expenditure on fuel, minimum cost of
maintenance, long life, portability, modularity, pollution free working etc.
Photovoltaic cells have been used to operate irrigation pumps, rail road crossing warnings,
navigational signals, highway emergency call systems, automatic meteorological stations etc. in
areas where it is difficult to lay power lines.
They are also used for weather monitoring and as portable power sources for televisions,
calculators, watches, computer card readers, battery charging and in satellites etc. Besides these,
photovoltaic cells are used for the energisation of pump sets for irrigation, drinking water supply
and for providing electricity in rural areas i.e. street lights etc.
(i) Solar Thermal Power Production:
Solar thermal power production means the conversion of solar energy into electricity through
thermal energy. In this procedure, solar energy is first utilised to heat up a working fluid, gas,
water or any other volatile liquid. This heat energy is then converted into mechanical energy m a
turbine. Finally, a conventional generator coupled to a turbine converts this mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
Production of Power through Solar Ponds:
A solar pond is a natural or artificial body of water utilised for collecting and absorbing solar
radiation and storing it as heat. It is very shallow (5-10 cm deep) and has a radiation absorbing
(black plastic) bottom. It has a curved fibre glass cover over it to permit the entry of solar
radiation but reduces losses by radiation and convection (air movement). Loss of heat to the
ground is minimised by providing a bed of insulating material under the pond.
Solar ponds utilize water for collecting and storing the solar energy which is used for many
applications such as space heating, industrial process heating and to generate electricity by
driving a turbine powered by evaporating an organic fluid with a low boiling point.
(j) Solar Green Houses:
A green house is a structure covered with transparent material (glass or plastic) that acts as a
solar collector and utilizes solar radiant energy to grow plants. It has heating, cooling and
ventilating devices for controlling the temperature inside the green house.
Solar radiations can pass through the green house glazing but the thermal radiations emitted by
the objects within the green house cannot escape through the glazed surface. As a result, the
radiations get trapped within the green house and result in an increase in temperature.
As the green house structure has a closed boundary, the air inside the greenhouse gets enriched
with CO2 as there is no mixing of the greenhouse air with the ambient air. Further, there is
reduced moisture loss due to restricted transpiration. All these features help to sustain plant
growth throughout the day as well as during the night and all year round.
Wind Energy:
Wind energy offers many advantages, which explains why it's one of the fastest-growing energy
sources in the world. Research efforts are aimed at addressing the challenges to greater use of
wind energy.
Advantages of Wind Power:
 Wind power is cost-effective. Land-based utility-scale wind is one of the lowest-priced
energy sources available today, costing between two and six cents per kilowatt-hour,
depending on the wind resource and the particular project’s financing. Because the
electricity from wind farms is sold at a fixed price over a long period of time (e.g. 20+
years) and its fuel is free, wind energy mitigates the price uncertainty that fuel costs add
to traditional sources of energy.
  Wind creates jobs. The U.S. wind sector employed more than 100,000 workers in 2016,
and wind turbine technician is one of the fastest-growing American jobs of the decade.
According to the Wind Vision Report, wind has the potential to support more than
600,000 jobs in manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and supporting services by
2050.
 Wind enables U.S. industry growth and U.S. competitiveness. Wind has an annual
economic impact of about $20 billion on the U.S. economy, The United States has a vast
domestic resources and a highly-skilled workforce, and can compete globally in the clean
energy economy.
 It's a clean fuel source. Wind energy doesn't pollute the air like power plants that rely on
combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas, which emit particulate matter,
nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide—causing human health problems and economic
damages. Wind turbines don't produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid rain, smog,
or greenhouse gases.
 Wind is a domestic source of energy. The nation's wind supply is abundant and
inexhaustible. Over the past 10 years, cumulative wind power capacity in the United
States increased an average of 30% per year, and wind now has the largest renewable
generation capacity of all renewables in the United States.
 It's sustainable. Wind is actually a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the heating
of the atmosphere by the sun, the rotation of the Earth, and the Earth's surface
irregularities. For as long as the sun shines and the wind blows, the energy produced can
be harnessed to send power across the grid.
 Wind turbines can be built on existing farms or ranches. This greatly benefits the
economy in rural areas, where most of the best wind sites are found. Farmers and
ranchers can continue to work the land because the wind turbines use only a fraction of
the land. Wind power plant owners make rent payments to the farmer or rancher for the
use of the land, providing landowners with additional income.
DISADVANTAGES OF WIND POWER:
 Wind power must still compete with conventional generation sources on a cost
basis. Depending on how energetic a wind site is, the wind farm might not be cost
competitive. Even though the cost of wind power has decreased dramatically in the past
10 years, the technology requires a higher initial investment than fossil-fueled generators.
 Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far from cities where the electricity
is needed. Transmission lines must be built to bring the electricity from the wind farm to
the city. However, building just a few already-proposed transmission lines could
significantly reduce the costs of expanding wind energy.
 Wind resource development might not be the most profitable use of the land. Land
suitable for wind-turbine installation must compete with alternative uses for the land,
which might be more highly valued than electricity generation.
 Turbines might cause noise and aesthetic pollution. Although wind power plants have
relatively little impact on the environment compared to conventional power plants,
 concern exists over the noise produced by the turbine blades and visual impacts to the
landscape.
 Turbine blades could damage local wildlife. Birds have been killed by flying into
spinning turbine blades. Most of these problems have been resolved or greatly reduced
through technological development or by properly siting wind plants.
 

This aerial view of a wind turbine plant shows how a group of wind turbines can make electricity
for the utility grid. The electricity is sent through transmission and distribution lines to homes,
businesses, schools, and so on. View the wind turbine animation to see how a wind turbine
works or take a look inside.
The Wind Energy Technology Office's Wind Vision Report quantifies the costs and benefits of a
robust wind energy future across all 50 states. 
Applications of wind energy:
 Generation of Electricity - Windmills harness wind energy to create electricity. Its
a clean & green form of energy.

 Transportation - The power of the wind is used for propulsion in sailing vessels
and sail boats.

 Pumping water - Similar to windmills the energy from the wind is used to drive a
pump.

 Milling Grain - Grain milling is certain locations are done using wind energy.

 Sports - A number of sports use wind energy as their source like Wind Surfing,
Land Surfing, Kite boarding.
Hydroelectricity:
Hydroelectric energy is a renewable form of energy produced by the moving water. It comes
from the Greek word” hydro” which means water. During the ancient times, water had been used
to turn the turbines for grinding flours and bread. Many years passed, the water mills had become
a common way in producing hydroelectric energy. The first hydroelectric power plant was built
in 1882 in the Appleton, Wisconsin, U.S.A. At present, hydropower is the largest energy used in
supplying about 96 percent of other renewable energies in the United States. It is produced in the
150 countries including the Asia-pacific and China has the largest production of hydroelectric
energy representing 16.9 percent of the household electricity use.

Advantages of Hydroelectric Energy:

  A Renewable form of Energy

Hydroelectric power is run by water that is recycled back to the earth through the process of the
water cycle. Though it is evident that water is gradually depleting to some other place due
to environmental and weather conditions, countries with an enormous source of water make the
hydropower a reliable source of energy. The China, for instance, has its highest source of energy
through the hydroelectric power plant.

 Clean and safe energy

Unlike the use of fossil fuel, biomass, and nuclear as a source of energy, hydroelectric energy
does not have waste products. No emission and radiation are harmful to the environment and
people, making it a clean and a green source.

 A Reliable source of energy

Hydroelectric power is a reliable source of energy. In fact, it has been the greatest source of
energy to many countries such as China, India, Columbia, United States, and Canada.
Hydroelectric energy has a little instability with regards to the supply of electricity as long as
there is water available on earth. Moreover, the construction of dams is long-lasting, therefore,
there will be a reliable source of hydroelectric energy.

 Flexible energy

The use of hydroelectric energy can be controlled according to the requirements of energy. If the
energy required is less, the flow of water from the dam is also reduced, otherwise, it will be
maximized by uncovering the water tunnels when the required energy is huge. The adjustment,
therefore, is necessary in order to save more energy for the future use.

 Low Operating Cost.

The hydroelectric energy requires a low cost of maintenance and operation. Since hydroelectric
power has few parts, replacement may be in less necessary. Moreover, the dams are for long
term use, therefore, the supply of energy is also for long time durations, and a long term for the
saving.

Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy:

 Environmental intervention

The creation of big reservoirs of water or dams intervenes not only in reshaping and changing the
condition of the bodies of water but also to the condition of the fish species. The fish in the river
can be affected by the draining of the water from the dam as well as the fish that is in the dam. It
should be noted that fish habitat depends on the physical and biological components such as the
water current, the water level, and its access to food. Creating dams would, therefore, affects the
fish habitats.

 Destroying wetlands/lands

The water that flows from the dam creates a flood on the rivers or in the wetland bodies affecting
the organisms living on it. Animals such as birds, cranes, and other aquatic birds mostly thrive in
marshy habitats. Aside from that, some plant species grow in the wetlands. However, because of
the Hydroelectric operation, these habitats are destroyed as well as the organisms in it. The
addition of water somehow increases the water temperature; thus, many organisms will have to
adapt to the new environment, otherwise, organisms will die.

However, not only that hydroelectric energy affects wetlands but the residences who live near
the dam will also be displaced. Many residences will be forced to relocate and find another new
way of living. In China, more than one million people were relocated when the Three Gorges
Dam was created.
  Expensive construction

Creating hydroelectric power plants and dams need a sufficient budget in order to create a high
standard hydroelectric power. Though hydroelectric energy produces a cheap cost, the
construction of one dam costs approximately $20 billion and takes 18 years to finish. The Three
Gorges Dam in the Yangtze River, China is considered to be the most expensive hydroelectric
power plant ever built with an estimated cost of $28 billion.

 Dependency

The hydroelectric power is dependent on the availability of water. However, when drought
comes, the amount of water supply will be limited. When water flow is delayed, high prices of
electric consumption will be the common effect. Hydroelectric power is therefore not truly a
reliable source of energy.

 Transformation of the upstream

The construction of dams results in the transformation of the upstream from free-flowing system
to a slack-water reservoir. This leads to the temperature to change as well as the physical and
chemical characteristics of the river or water bodies, making it not suitable for the plants and
aquatic animals that belong in the river. Moreover, dams welcome the invasive species that
destabilized the life of the plants and animals.

 Decreasing effectiveness

The reservoirs’ bed is deposited with silts, sediments, and even mud. When the water is stilled,
more sediments are deposited at the bottom and continue to accumulate affecting the ability of
the dam to hold water. Aside from that, the accumulation of many silts and deposits prevent or
slows down the flow of water to the mouth of the dam. The reducing flow, however, affects the
generation of hydroelectric energy. The sedimentation in dams is technically the most serious
problem occurring in the industry.
  Hydroelectric power failures

A sub-standard construction of dams, geological instability, and the extreme influx of water are
just among of the many causes of dams’ failures. Up to date, about 92 dam failures have already
been recorded that led to the death and flooding. In addition, hydroelectric failures also occur
due to the damage from hydropower stations. From 1943 to 2014, 14 hydroelectric power
stations were recorded. These catastrophic failures did not only affect the supply of energy but
also affecting greatly the lives of the plants, animals, and humans.

Applications of Hydroelectricity:

Some of the uses of Hydropower Energy are:

1) Electricity – Hydroelectricity is one of the most important sources of energy in the world.
Hydroelectricity is one of the cheapest and non-polluting sources of power. Though it can cause
ecological damage initially it has better climate compatibility than other major forms of energy
like nuclear, coal, gas and others. Many countries in the Nordic region and South America are
almost completely dependent on hydro power for their energy needs. For some countries like
China and India with massive energy needs, Hydroelectricity is the only option currently
amongst non-global warming energy choices to build in large capacities.
2) Energy Storage – There is 90 GW of Global Pumped Hydro Storage already existing in the
world and with increasing Solar and Wind Energy  this Capacity is only going to grow. The main
use of Pumped Hydro Storage is for Grid Energy Storage. Electric Utilities are the main
customers of this Technology using Pumped Hydro Storage for:
a) Load Balancing – Storing Power during Low Usage Periods and Generating Power at High
Usage Periods
b) Accommodation of Intermittent Sources of Energy – Solar Energy and Wind Energy
are growing at a scorching fast rate of 50% and 30% CAGR over the last several years. Larger
share of these forms of renewable energy in the Electricity Mix is driving the growth Grid
Storage.
c) Reducing Capital Investments as Peak Power plants like Natural Gas Combined Cycle
Plants are much more expensive to run than normal Thermal and Nuclear Energy Plants
3) Agriculture – Hydropower was used in ancient times for producing flour from grain and was
also used for sawing timber and stone, raised water into irrigation canals.
4) Industry – Hydropower was used earlier for some industrial applications such as driving the
bellows in small blast furnaces and for extraction of metal ores in a method known as hushing.
Hydroelectric Plants and Dams
Hydroelectricity power plants are the biggest power stations in the world dwarfing the biggest
nuclear and coal power projects. The world’s biggest power plant is the Three Gorge Dam in
China which at 22.5 GW is more than 50% larger than the 2nd biggest power station in the
world.
Hydroelectricity power plants are the biggest power stations in the world dwarfing the biggest
nuclear and coal power projects. The world’s biggest power plant is the Three Gorge Dam in
China which at 22.5 GW is more than 50% larger than the 2nd biggest power station in the
world. Most of the world’s largest hydroelectricity plants in the world are situation in China and
South America. North America also has some of the larger hydro power plants. China is the by
far the world leader in hydro power plant capacity with around 200 GW which it aims to double
to around 400 GW  by 2020.Other major hydroelectricity countries are Canada, USA, Brazil and
India. Note Hydroelectricity is responsible for producing around 20% of the world’s electricity.
Here are some of the major world hydroelectricity power plants:

1) The Three Gorges Dam world’s largest capacity hydroelectric dam in the world with a

capacity of around 22.5 GW.  The 3 Gorge Dam

has an astounding 26 Turbines of 700 MW totaling 18.2 GW which were completed in 2008. The
plant is expanding further to 22.5 by 2012. The Dam has been very controversial with both
opponents and proponents. The Dam displaces a lot of people and resulted in flooding of
historical sites. However its pluses are that it has increasing flood control and increased the
shipping capacity of the Yangtze river.
2) The Itaipu Hydroelectricity Power Plant on the Brazil  is the second largest power plant
in the world. With 20 generator units and 14,000 MW of installed capacity, the Dam was
completed in 2003 making it the biggest in that time.
3) The Guri Dam in Venezuela is the 3rd biggest hydroelectricity power plant in the
world with a capacity of 10.2 GW. The Hydroelectric Power station Guri was constructed in the
Necuima Canyon, 100 kilometers upstream from the mouth of the Caroní River in the Orinoco.
The Guri dam alone supplies 73% of Venezuela’s electricity.

Biomass:
Biomass is organic material that comes from plants and animals, and it is a renewable source
of energy. Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's energy in a
process called photosynthesis. When biomass is burned, the chemical energy in biomass is
released as heat.

ADVANTAGES
1) Biomass used as a fuel reduces need for fossil fuels for the production of heat, steam, and
electricity for residential, industrial and agricultural use.
 
2)Biomass is always available and can be produced as a renewable resource.
 
3)Biomass fuel from agriculture wastes maybe a secondary product that adds value to
agricultural crop.
 
4)Growing Biomass crops produce oxygen and use up carbon dioxide.
 
5)The use of waste materials reduce landfill disposal and makes more space for everything else.
 
6)Carbon Dioxide which is released when Biomass fuel is burned, is taken in by plants.
 
7)Less money spent on foreign oil.
 
DISADVANTAGES
 
1)Agricultural wastes will not be available if the basic crop is no longer grown.
 
2)Additional work is needed in areas such as harvesting methods.
 
3)Land used for energy crops maybe in demand for other purposes, such as faming,
conservation, housing, resort or agricultural use.
 
4)Some Biomass conversion projects are from animal wastes and are relatively small and
therefore are limited.
 
5)Research is needed to reduce the costs of production of Biomass based fuels.
 
6)Is in some cases is a major cause of pollution.

How is the UK using biomass energy?

The Drax Power Station in North Yorkshire – the largest producer of carbon dioxide in the
UK – has been converting its coal-fired boilers to use biomass instead. Up to now, half the plant
is co-fired and burns wood pellets imported from the US and Canada.
The Blackburn Meadows Cogeneration Plant in South Yorkshire is a great example of a biomass
plant harnessing excess heat from combustion to provide heating to nearby businesses via a
district heating system.

The Templeborough Biomass Plant, which opened in August 2017, provides enough energy for
78,000 homes, saving up to 150,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide every year.

And as the UK moves away from coal dependence, there’s more biomass energy plants on the
way:

The Kent Biomass power station, coming online in Summer 2018, will meet the energy demands
of up to 50,000 homes.

Tees Renewable Energy Plant, costing £650m and due to be finished in 2020, will be the largest
biomass plant in the world. The finished plant will save 1.2 million ton’s of CO2 emissions per
year, while producing enough electricity for 600,000 homes.

NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES OF ENERGY:

 COAL

 NATURAL GAS

 URENIUM

COAL

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock

strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal,
can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature
and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with variable quantities of other
elements, chiefly hydrogen, Sulphur , oxygen, and nitrogen. Coal is a fossil fuel that forms when
dead plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-
bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal, and lastly anthracite. This involves biological and
geological processes. The geological processes take place over millions of years

When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually pulverized and then burned in
a furnace with a boiler The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to
spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity. The thermodynamic efficiency of this
process has been improved over time; some older coal-fired power stations have thermal
efficiencies in the vicinity of 25%.whereas the newest supercritical and "ultra-supercritical"
steam cycle turbines, operating at temperatures over 600 °C and pressures over 27 mpa (over
3900 psi), can achieve thermal efficiencies in excess of 45% (LHV basis) using anthracite
fuel] or around 43% (LHV basis) even when using lower-grade lignite fuel. Further thermal
efficiency improvements are also achievable by improved pre-drying.
An alternative approach of using coal for electricity generation with improved efficiency is
the integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plant. Instead of pulverizing the coal
and burning it directly as fuel in the steam-generating boiler, the coal is gasified (see coal
gasification) to create syngas, which is burned in a gas turbine to produce electricity (just like
natural gas is burned in a turbine). Hot exhaust gases from the turbine are used to raise steam in
a heat recovery steam generator which powers a supplemental steam turbine. Thermal
efficiencies of current IGCC power plants range from 39% to 42%[39] (HHV basis) or ≈42–45%
(LHV basis) for bituminous coal and assuming utilization of mainstream gasification
technologies (Shell, GE Gasifier, CB&I). IGCC power plants outperform conventional
pulverized coal-fueled plants in terms of pollutant emissions, and allow for relatively easy
carbon capture`
Advantages of using coal to produce electricity:
·         Coal energy is an affordable energy source because of the coal’s stable price compared to
other fuel sources
·         Coal is easy to burn
·         Coal produces high energy upon combustion
·         Coal energy is inexpensive
·         Coal is abundant
·         Coal energy is a reliable energy source
Disadvantages of using coal to produce electricity:
Coal energy produces large amount of carbon dioxide which leads to global warming and climate
change
The burning of coal is not environmentally friendly because it produces harmful byproducts and
gas emissions such as sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide that causes pollution to
the environment including acid rain
Coal energy is nonrenewable energy source
Coal is fast depleting because we consume too much of it
Coal mining ruins the environment and puts the lives of people specially the coal miners in
danger

Uranium

it is a chemical element with symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-grey metal in

the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of
which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weakly radioactive because all isotopes of uranium are
unstable, with half-lives varying between 159,200 years and 4.5 billion years. The most common
isotopes in natural uranium are uranium-238 (which has 146 neutrons and accounts for over
99%) and uranium-235 (which has 143 neutrons). Uranium has the highest atomic weight of
the primordially occurring elements. Its density is about 70% higher than that of lead, and
slightly lower than that of gold or tungsten. It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a
few parts per million in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium-
bearing minerals such as uraninite.
In nature, uranium is found as uranium-238 (99.2739–99.2752%), uranium-235 (0.7198–
0.7202%), and a very small amount of uranium-234 (0.0050–0.0059%).[4] Uranium decays
slowly by emitting an alpha particle. The half-life of uranium-238 is about 4.47 billion years and
that of uranium-235 is 704 million years, making them useful in dating the age of the Earth.

.
Characteristics:

When refined, uranium is a silvery white, weakly radioactive metal. It has a Mohs hardness of 6,

sufficient to scratch glass and approximately equal to that
of titanium, rhodium, man ganese and niobium. It
is malleable, ductile, slightly paramagnetic,
strongly electropositive an d a poor electrical conductor. Uranium
metal has a very high density of 19.1 g/cm  denser
3 [11]
than lead(11.3 g/cm ),  but slightly less dense
than tungsten and gold (19 .3 g/cm3).
Uranium metal reacts with almost all non-metal elements (with the
exception of the noble gases) and their compounds, with
reactivity increasing with temperature. Hydrochloric and nitric
acids dissolve uranium, but non-oxidizing acids other than hydrochloric acid attack the element
very slowly.[8] When finely divided, it can react with cold water; in air, uranium metal becomes
coated with a dark layer of uranium oxide.[9] Uranium in ores is extracted chemically and
converted into uranium dioxide or other chemical forms usable in industry.
Uranium-235 was the first isotope that was found to be fissile. Other naturally occurring isotopes
are fissionable, but not fissile. On bombardment with slow neutrons, its uranium-235 isotope will
most of the time divide into two smaller nuclei, releasing nuclear binding energy and more
neutrons. If too many of these neutrons are absorbed by other uranium-235 nuclei, a nuclear
chain reaction occurs that results in a burst of heat or (in special circumstances) an explosion. In
a nuclear reactor, such a chain reaction is slowed and controlled by a neutron poison, absorbing
some of the free neutrons. Such neutron absorbent materials are often part of reactor control
rods (see nuclear reactor physics for a description of this process of reactor control)
Advantages 

 It does not require a centrifuge which is very hard to manufacture.

 It gives an enriched stream as well as a depleted stream of Uranium. 

Disadvantages

 Permeable barriers needed are hard to manufacturing

 barriers need to be highly durable. 

 The barriers need to be able to maintain a consistent pore diameter for several years.

 A large amount of energy is required in this process.

 The compressors generate a great deal of heat that require dissipation.

 The gas diffusion plants are very difficult to hide given their size, electricity needs and
high heat signature. 

The limitations to Uranium enrichment in general are:

1. A huge plant is needed for the enrichment to occur.

2. In order to get an effect, the centrifuge will have to spin extremely fast, so it has to be
made out of extremely special metal so that the can doesn't fly apart in the process. 

3. It is hard to execute since the Uranium is a radioactive substance.

4. It will use a large amount of electricity and is hard to power. 

NATURAL GAS

Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane,

but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes, and sometimes a small
percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, or helium  It is formed when layers of
decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface
of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is
stored in the form of chemical bonds in the gas.
Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking, and electricity
generation. It is also used as a fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture
of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals. Fossil fuel based natural gas is
a non-renewable resource.
Natural gas is found in deep underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon
reservoirs in coal beds and as methane clathrates. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel
found in close proximity to and with natural gas. Most natural gas was created over time by two
mechanisms: biogenic and thermogenic. Biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms
in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at greater temperature
Natural gas processing:

The image below is a schematic block flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant. It
shows the various unit processes used to convert raw natural gas into sales gas pipelined to the
end user markets.
The block flow diagram also shows how processing of the raw natural gas yields byproduct
sulfur, byproduct ethane, and natural gas liquids (NGL) propane, butanes and natural gasoline
(denoted as pentanes 
Schematic flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant.
Depletion:
As of 2018, natural gas production in the US has peaked twice, with current levels exceeding
both previous peaks. It reached 24.1 million cubic feet in 1973, followed by a decline, and
reached 24.5 million cubic feet in 2001. After a brief drop, withdrawals have been increasing
nearly every year since 2006, with 2017 production at 33.4 million cubic feet.
Storage and transport:
Because of its low density, it is not easy to store natural gas or to transport it by vehicle. Natural
gas pipelines are impractical across oceans, since the gas needs to be cooled down and
compressed, as the friction in the pipeline causes the gas to heat up. Many existing pipelines in
America are close to reaching their capacity, prompting some politicians representing northern
states to speak of potential shortages. The large trade cost implies that natural gas markets are
globally much less integrated, causing significant price differences across countries. In Western
Europe, the gas pipeline network is already dense.] New pipelines are planned or under
construction in Eastern Europe and between gas fields in Russia, Near East and Northern
Africa and Western Europe. See also List of natural gas pipelines.
Whenever gas is bought or sold at custody transfer points, rules and agreements are made
regarding the gas quality. These may include the maximum allowable concentration
of CO2, H2S and H2O. Usually sales quality gas that has been treated to remove contamination is
traded on a "dry gas" basis and is required to be commercially free from objectionable odor,
materials, and dust or other solid or liquid matter, waxes, gums and gum forming constituents,
which might damage or adversely affect operation of equipment downstream of the custody
transfer point.
LNG carriers transport liquefied natural gas (LNG) across oceans, while tank trucks can carry
liquefied or compressed natural gas (CNG) over shorter distances Sea transport using CNG
carrier ships that are now under development may be competitive with LNG transport in specific
conditions.
Gas is turned into liquid at a liquefaction plant, and is returned to gas form at regasification plant
at the terminal. Shipborne regasification equipment is also used. LNG is the preferred form for
long distance.
Uses:
Natural gas is primarily used in the northern hemisphere. North America and Europe are major
consumers.
Mid-stream natural gas:
Often well head gases require removal of various hydrocarbon molecules contained within the
gas. Some of these gases include heptane, pentane, propane and other hydrocarbons with
molecular weights above methane (CH
The natural gas transmission lines extend to the natural gas processing plant or unit which
removes the higher molecular weighted hydrocarbons to produce natural gas with energy content
between 950–1,050 British thermal units per cubic foot (35–39 MJ/m3). The processed natural
gas may then be used for residential, commercial and industrial uses.
Natural gas flowing in the distribution lines is called mid-stream natural gas and is often used to
power engines which rotate compressors. These compressors are required in the transmission
line to pressurize and re-pressurize the mid-stream natural gas as the gas travels. Typically,
natural gas powered engines require 950–1,050 BTU/cu ft (35–39 MJ/m3) natural gas to operate
at the rotational name plate specifications. Several methods are used to remove these higher
molecular weighted gases for use by the natural gas engine. A few technologies are as follows:
 Joule–Thomson skid

 Cryogenic or chiller system

 Chemical enzymology system

Power generation:
Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of cogeneration, gas
turbines and steam turbines. Natural gas is also well suited for a combined use in association
with renewable energy sources such as wind or solar and for alimenting peak-load power stations
functioning in tandem with hydroelectric plants. Most grid peaking power plants and some off-
grid engine-generators use natural gas. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through
combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in combined cycle mode. Natural gas burns more
cleanly than other fuels, such as oil and coal. Because burning natural gas produces both water
and carbon dioxide, it produces less carbon dioxide per unit of energy released than coal, which
produces mostly carbon dioxide. Burning natural gas produces only about half the carbon
dioxide per kilowatt-hour (kWh) that coal does. For transportation, burning natural gas produces
about 30% less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum. The US Energy Information
Administration reports the following emissions in million metric tons of carbon dioxide in the
world for 2012
 Natural gas: 6,799

 Petroleum: 11,695

 Coal: 13,787

Coal-fired electric power generation emits around 2,000 pounds (900 kg) of carbon dioxide for
every megawatt-hour ) generated, which is almost double the carbon dioxide released by natural
gas-fired generation.  Because of this higher carbon efficiency of natural gas generation, as the
fuel mix in the United States has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas generation,
carbon dioxide emissions have unexpectedly fallen. Those measured in the first quarter of 2012
were the lowest of any recorded for the first quarter of any year since 1992.
Combined cycle power generation using natural gas is currently the cleanest available source of
power using hydrocarbon fuels, and this technology is widely and increasingly used as natural
gas can be obtained at increasingly reasonable costs. Fuel cell technology may eventually
provide cleaner options for converting natural gas into electricity, but as yet it is not price-
competitive. Locally produced electricity and heat using natural gas powered Combined Heat
and Power plant (CHP or Cogeneration plant) is considered energy efficient and a rapid way to
cut carbon emissions.
Natural gas generated power has increased from 740 TWh in 1973 to 5140 TWh in 2014,
generating 22% of the worlds total electricity. Approximately half as much as generated with
coal. Efforts around the world to reduce the use of coal has led some regions to switch to natural
gas.
Domestic use:
Natural gas dispensed in a residential setting can generate temperatures in excess of 1,100 °C
(2,000 °F) making it a powerful domestic cooking and heating fuel.In much of the developed
world it is supplied through pipes to homes, where it is used for many purposes including ranges
and ovens, gas-heated clothes dryers, heating/cooling, and central heating. Heaters in homes and
other buildings may include boilers, furnaces, and water heaters. Both North America and
Europe are major consumers of natural gas.
Domestic appliances, furnaces, and boilers use low pressure, usually 6 to 7 inches of water (6" to
7" WC), which is about 0.25 psig. The pressures in the supply lines vary, either utilization
pressure (UP, the aforementioned 6" to 7" WC) or elevated pressure (EP), which may be
anywhere from 1 psig to 120 psig. Systems using EP have a regulator at the service entrance to
step down the pressure to up
In the US compressed natural gas (CNG) is used in rural homes without connections to piped-
in public utility services, or with portable grills. Natural gas is also supplied by independent
natural gas suppliers through Natural Gas Choice programs throughout the United States.
However, as CNG costs more than LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), LPG is the dominant source
of rural gas.

Transportation:
CNG is a cleaner and also cheaper alternative to other automobile fuels such as gasoline (petrol)
and diesel. By the end of 2014 there were over 20 million natural gas vehicles worldwide, led
by Iran (3.5 million), China (3.3 million), Pakistan (2.8 million), Argentina (2.5
million), India(1.8 million), and Brazil (1.8 million). The energy efficiency is generally equal to
that of gasoline engines, but lower compared with modern diesel engines. Gasoline/petrol
vehicles converted to run on natural gas suffer because of the low compression ratio of their
engines, resulting in a cropping of delivered power while running on natural gas (10%–15%).
CNG-specific engines, however, use a higher compression ratio due to this fuel's higher octane
number of 120–130.
Besides use in road vehicles, CNG can also be used in aircraft.[ Compressed natural gas has been
used in some aircraft like the Aviat Aircraft Husky 200 CNG  and the Chromarat VX-1
KittyHawk
LNG is also being used in aircraft. Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolev for instance is running
a development program to produce LNG- and hydrogen-powered aircraft.[75] The program has
been running since the mid-1970s, and seeks to develop LNG and hydrogen variants of the Tu-
204 and Tu-334 passenger aircraft, and also the Tu-330 cargo aircraft. Depending on the current
market price for jet fuel and LNG, fuel for an LNG-powered aircraft could cost
5,000 rubles (US$100) less per tonne, roughly 60%, with considerable reductions to carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions.
The advantages of liquid methane as a jet engine fuel are that it has more specific energy than the
standard kerosene mixes do and that its low temperature can help cool the air which the engine
compresses for greater volumetric efficiency, in effect replacing an intercooler. Alternatively, it
can be used to lower the temperature of the exhaust.
Fertilizers:
Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of ammonia, via the Haber process, for use
in fertilizer production.
Hydrogen:
Natural gas can be used to produce hydrogen, with one common method being the hydrogen
reformer. Hydrogen has many applications: it is a primary feedstock for the chemical industry, a
hydrogenating agent, an important commodity for oil refineries, and the fuel source in hydrogen
vehicles.
Animal and fish feed:
Protein rich animal and fish feed is produced by feeding natural gas to Methylococ
Environmental effects.
Effect of natural gas release
Natural gas is mainly composed of methane. After release to the atmosphere it is removed by
gradual oxidation to carbon dioxide and water by hydroxyl radicals (OH−) formed in the
troposphere or stratosphere, giving the overall chemical reaction CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 +
2H2O. While the lifetime of atmospheric methane is relatively short when compared to carbon
dioxide,  with a half-life of about 7 years, it is more efficient at trapping heat in the atmosphere,
so that a given quantity of methane has 84 times the global-warming potential of carbon dioxide
over a 20-year period and 28 times over a 100-year period. Natural gas is thus a more
potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide due to the greater global-warming potential of
methane.  2009 estimates by the EPA place global emissions of methane at 85 cubic kilometres
(3.0 trillion cubic feet) annually, or 3% of global production, 3.0 trillion cubic meters or
105 trillion cubic feet (2009 east). Direct emissions of methane represented 14.3% by volume of
all global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2004.
During extraction, storage, transportation, and distribution, natural gas is known to leak into the
atmosphere, particularly during the extraction process. A Cornell University study in 2011
demonstrated that the leak rate of methane may be high enough to jeopardize its global warming
advantage over coal. This study was criticized later for its over-estimation of methane leakage
values  Preliminary results of some air sampling from airplanes done by the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration indicated higher-than-estimated methane releases by gas wells
in some areas,

but the overall results showed methane emissions in line with previous EPA estimates
Carbon dioxide emissions
Natural gas is often described as the cleanest fossil fuel. It produces 25%–30% and 40%–45%
less carbon dioxide per joule delivered than oil and coal respectively, and potentially
fewer pollutants than other hydrocarbon fuels. However, in absolute terms, it comprises a
substantial percentage of human carbon emissions, and this contribution is projected to grow.
According to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, in 2004, natural gas produced about 5.3
billion tons a year of CO
2 emissions, while coal and oil produced 10.6 and 10.2 billion tons respectively. According to an
updated version of the Special Report on Emissions Scenario by 2030, natural gas would be the
source of 11 billion tons a year, with coal and oil now 8.4 and 17.2 billion respectively because
demand is increasing 1.9% a year.
To reduce its greenhouse emissions, the government of the Netherlands is subsidizing a
transition away from natural gas for all homes in the country by 2050. In Amsterdam, no new
residential gas accounts are allowed as of July 1, 2018, and all homes in the city are expected to
be converted by 2040.
Safety concerns:

A pipeline odorant injection station

Production:
Some gas fields yield sour gas containing hydrogen sulphide (H2S). This untreated gas
is toxic. Amine gas treating, an industrial scale process which
removes acidic gaseous components, is often used to remove hydrogen sulphide from natural
gas.[
Extraction of natural gas (or oil) leads to decrease in pressure in the reservoir. Such decrease in
pressure in turn may result in subsidence, sinking of the ground above. Subsidence may affect
ecosystems, waterways, sewer and water supply systems, foundations, and so on.
Fracking:
Releasing natural gas from subsurface porous rock formations may be accomplished by a process
called hydraulic fracturing or "fracking". It's estimated that hydraulic fracturing will eventually
account for nearly 70% of natural gas development in North America. Since the first commercial
hydraulic fracturing operation in 1949, approximately one million wells have been hydraulically
fractured in the United States. The production of natural gas from hydraulically fractured wells
has utilized the technological developments of directional and horizontal drilling, which
improved access to natural gas in tight rock formations. Strong growth in the production of
unconventional gas from hydraulically fractured wells occurred between 2000-2012.
In hydraulic fracturing, well operators force water mixed with a variety of chemicals through the
wellbore casing into the rock. The high pressure water breaks up or "fracks" the rock, which
releases gas from the rock formation. Sand and other particles are added to the water as a
proppant to keep the fractures in the rock open, thus enabling the gas to flow into the casing and
then to the surface. Chemicals are added to the fluid to perform such functions as reducing
friction and inhibiting corrosion. After the "frack," oil or gas is extracted and 30–70% of the
frack fluid, i.e. the mixture of water, chemicals, sand, etc., flows back to the surface. Many gas-
bearing formations also contain water, which will flow up the wellbore to the surface along with
the gas, in both hydraulically fractured and non-hydraulically fractured wells. This produced
water often has a high content of salt and other dissolved minerals that occur in the formation.
The volume of water used to hydraulically fracture wells varies according to the hydraulic
fracturing technique. In the United States, the average volume of water used per hydraulic
fracture has been reported as nearly 7,375 gallons for vertical oil and gas wells prior to 1953,
nearly 197,000 gallons for vertical oil and gas wells between 2000-2010, and nearly 3 million
gallons for horizontal gas wells between 2000-2010.
Determining which fracking technique is appropriate for well productivity depends largely on the
properties of the reservoir rock from which to extract oil or gas. If the rock is characterized by
low-permeability — which refers to its ability to let substances, i.e. gas, pass through it, then the
rock may be considered a source of tight gas. Fracking for shale gas, which is currently also
known as a source of unconventional gas, involves drilling a borehole vertically until it reaches a
lateral shale rock formation, at which point the drill turns to follow the rock for hundreds or
thousands of feet horizontally.[102] In contrast, conventional oil and gas sources are characterized
by higher rock permeability, which naturally enables the flow of oil or gas into the wellbore with
less intensive hydraulic fracturing techniques than the production of tight gas has required The
decades in development of drilling technology for conventional and unconventional oil and gas
production has not only improved access to natural gas in low-permeability reservoir rocks, but
also posed significant adverse impacts on environmental and public health.
The US EPA has acknowledged that toxic, carcinogenic chemicals, i.e. benzene and
ethylbenzene, have been used as gelling agents in water and chemical mixtures for high volume
horizontal fracturing (HVHF). Following the hydraulic fracture in HVHF, the water, chemicals,
and frack fluid that return to the well's surface, called flowback or produced water, may contain
radioactive materials, heavy metals, natural salts, and hydrocarbons which exist naturally in
shale rock formations. Fracking chemicals, radioactive materials, heavy metals, and salts that are
removed from the HVHF well by well operators are so difficult to remove from the water they're
mixed with, and would so heavily pollute the water cycle, that most of the flowback is either
recycled into other fracking operations or injected into deep underground wells, eliminating the
water that HVHF required from the hydrologic cycle.
Added odor
In order to assist in detecting leaks, an odourizer is added to the otherwise colourless and almost
odourless gas used by consumers. The odour has been compared to the smell of rotten eggs, due
to the added tert-Butyl thiol (t-butyl mercaptan). Sometimes a related compound, thiophane, may
be used in the mixture. Situations in which an odorant that is added to natural gas can be detected
by analytical instrumentation, but cannot be properly detected by an observer with a normal
sense of smell, have occurred in the natural gas industry. This is caused by odour masking, when
one odorant overpowers the sensation of another. As of 2011, the industry is conducting research
on the causes of odour masking.
Risk of explosion

Gas network emergency vehicle responding to a major fire in Kiev, Ukraine

Explosions caused by natural gas leaks occur a few times each year. Individual homes, small
businesses and other structures are most frequently affected when an internal leak builds up gas
inside the structure. Frequently, the blast is powerful enough to significantly damage a building
but leave it standing. In these cases, the people inside tend to have minor to moderate injuries.
Occasionally, the gas can collect in high enough quantities to cause a deadly explosion,
disintegrating one or more buildings in the process. The gas usually dissipates readily outdoors,
but can sometimes collect in dangerous quantities if flow rates are high enough. However,
considering the tens of millions of structures that use the fuel, the individual risk of using natural
gas is very low.
Reference:

 futureofworking.com
 www.ovoenergy.com
 unhabitat.org
 ypte.org.uk
 www.greenworldinvestor.com
 www.eartheclipse.com
 www.energy.gov
 www.yourarticlelibrary.com
 www.greenmatch.co.uk
 www.eia.gov
 renewablegreen.net
 www.altenergy.org
 www.e-education.psu.edu