Summary

12.5 STORMWATER SYSTEM

Runoff over the paved surface that tends to collect in surface depressions.

Flooding in the network of channels and pipes:

water can emerge from the network to flow overland

runoff too large to enter the network and so ponds up the surface

Urban drainage system:

minor = underground pipes and open drains

major = above ground drainage : overland flow paths (also roads) and floodplains

13 QUANTIFYING URBAN PROCESSES

13.1 H URBAN HYDROLOGY

Increase in the population living in urban areas, increase in the number of cars and other form of road
transportation —> increase in the paved surface Ill direct influence on the hydrological cycle!

Higher temperatures within urban areas tend to intensify convective rainfall leading to more intense
thunderstorms with high intensities and short durations.
Process of urbanization = replacement at natural vegetation with impervious areas that increase the
volume of surface runoff reaching the drainage channel.

The urban drainage system of gutters and pipes will have much less resistance to flow than rough
natural drainage system, which will shorten the catchment response time El runoff hydrograph with
higher peak discharge that occurs earlier than the peak of the natural channel hydrograph.

13.2 URBAN MORPHOLOGY

Study of the form of human settlements and the process of their formation and transformation.

Three approaches : Italian, British and French.

Different types of urban structure : grid model, concentric zonal model, sectoral model, multiple nuclei
model and irregular pattern model.

13.3 CLIMATE CHANGE

Effect of global %A'arming and climate change impact on urban areas. To assess the impact climate
forecasts need to be developed by using Global Circulation Models (GCMs).

Downscaling climate data is a strategy for generating relevant data from GCMs. It can be done by
applying nesting, statistical regression....

Connect global scale predictions and regional dynamics to generate regionally-specific forecasts.

Increase in intensity and frequency of disasters:

more frequent floods (that will exceed the capacity of drainage and sewer systems)
faster deterioration of such system (due to more frequent surcharges)
less efficient operation of WWTP (due to increase of influent load)
CC is making weather less predictable, rains more uncertain and heavy storm rainfall more likely.

Potential impacts:

increase number of frontal rain systems

increased intensity or rainfall evens

sea level rise combined with increase rainfa I ] =loads in low lying areas in costal regions 13,4
URBAN DRAINAGE HYDRAULICS

Flow of water:

turbolent = the particles of water move in very irregular paths which results in greater shear
stresses and more irreversibilites or energy losses.
Laminar = particles of water move along smooth paths in laminas or layers
Steady = when conditions at any point in the fluid do not change in time
Uniform = when along the flow, the velocity vector remains identical in magnitude and direction over
distance

Pipe flow = flow in which water flows under pressure

Open channel = water flows under the influence of gravity
The total energy of a particle of water at any instant is the sum of its potential energy, its kinetic energy
and its pressure energy.

When water flows in a pipe or a channel, some energy is lost from ,...vater = this is subjected to friction
losses (caused by forces betheen tne liqu'd and the solid Dounda•y) and local losses ( caused by
disruptions to the flow at local features.).

13.5 BACKGROUND TO MODELLING

Physically based model = numerical solution of equations describing the physical process for the fluid
as a continuum in the model space which is a one to one mapping of the actual physical space
and is deconstructed into cells or elemts appropriate for numerical solutions
Conceptual (lumped or grey box) = numerical solution of equations describing the physical
process for the fluid as a continuum in the model space which is a simplification of the actual
physical space in one or more conceptual objects linking output to input in the model space or
in compartments for the model space which are identified on physical principles
Data Driven (or black box) = numerical solution of eq.

Chapter 14

14.6.1 Meteorological data

 Data collected: T, p, ETP, humidity, Wind speed

 Precip: highly variable in space and time
c Graduated cylinders, weighing gauges, tipping bucket (lever tips, electric.signal), buried pit
collectors D interpolation (IDW, Kriging, Thiessen polygons)

o Need good representation of catchment; at least twice as far from obstacle as it is high &
0,5 m above ground
oOr Radar for spatial analysis (remove reflections from objects, signals from ice crystals, calib)
oDuring storm continuous recalculations necessary

Usually spatial grid 0,5 — 1km and temporal 15- to 5-minutes 14.6.2
Wastewater and stormwater systems and treatment plants

 Data: flow rate, velocity, level, overflow rate, inflow&exfiltr. Rate, biological & chemical parameters
 Depth: meters (steady flow), pressure sensors (too low flow, blocked vent tube, loss of power),
ultrasonic sensors (low battery charge, loss of power, dead band, installation difficulties) D spot
readings
 Velocity: sensor mounted on metal ring upstream of manhole, in-situ calib. with hand held vel. Meas
 Major vertical and horizontal dimension of regular conduits
 At sites with low water depths use of V-notch weirs (regular calibration necessary)
 If inflow/infiltration monitoring needed get wet&dry hydrograph, compare with theoretical flow,
then calculate all components (wastewater, gw, rain-related inflow, rain-induced infiltration) from it
 Flow gauges placement: without backwater, straight section without low v, steep slope or drop
connections; choose leafy catchment position (avoid subtraction errors)
 Pumping stations: use only as flow measurement if it has a sufficient wet weather capacity and is
not flooded regularly
 Chemical: either sampling (for event-mean concentrations EMC) or sensors (if a pollutograph is
needed)
 Sediment only few times per year

14.6.3 Receiving waters

 Need to fulfill standards for protection, enhancement and restoration (European Water Framework
Directive or EPA offices in US) 0 data: T, pH, turbidity, carbon/oxygen levels, N-species, ...)

 Tides are measured using ADCP + barometric pressure + wind-speed (tsunami+tides)

 Tracers (stable, nontoxic, easy to measure, cheap) are used to find where pollutants may come from

14.7 Measurement Uncertainty

 Sum of sampling + instrument + practice errors

 Combined using root sum of squares RSS
 Propagation using first order Taylor series
 Systematic (bias) and random (precision) errors are RSS combined and multiplied with coverage
factor to obtain confidence interval

 0 QA (Quality analysis) procedure always necessary!

 Data needs to be supportive to the insight of participating stakeholders

14.9 Data validation, processing, handling and storage & 14.10 GIS

 Outliers, biased values, anomalies, missing or invalid data replacement 0 careful docu.
 Build intuitive database to share data have it to hand and facilitate coordination of activities

 Data needed: see above, assets (nominal, ordinal, scalar), condition data, historic data, land use,
population, policy changes, environmental, financial, economic, policy related data,...
 To link various types of databases with a GIS system is usually done
 GIS allows: efficient information sharing, improved analyses tools and visualization, reduction of
manual maps, showing of development over time, ability to aggregate data, thematic maps,...
 Aspects considered in GIS: position, attributes and time
 Data types: points, lines, polygons (vector), continuous surface (raster)
 Basic functions: data input&pre-processing; data management; maripulation&analysis; data output
Chapter 21

21.1 Types of measures

 Pre-flood, during flood, post-flood modes

 Structural (physical intervention for certain level of protection) and non-structural (influencing
human behavior)
 Conventional and natural (sustainable, called 'best management practices'/'sustainable urban
drainage system'/'water sensitive urban design')
 Always take into account:
Criteria selection that reflects social needs and concerns

Evaluation of residual risk of measure + flexibility and potential for future

Potential for synergy (other disaster types + future planning)
P•acticality for implementation and monitoring

21.1.1 Fluvial
make plans public
 Extensive (along the floodplain, e.g. vegetation cover) and intensive (in the river) structural
measures (e.g. to accelerate flow and regulate water levels, to delay flow, to divert flow)

 Non-S zoning of risk areas, flood warnings, flood insurance, flood proofing

21.1.2 Coastal

 5: sea walls (Wall+rocks in front of it), tidal barrages (dam-like structure with sluice gate allowing
water to move in and out of a bay, often with turbine), barrier islands (strips of sand parallel to
land), breakwaters (offshore structures/walls built to reduce wave energy)
 N on - S: s e e a b o v e

21.1.3 5 Flash flood, Groundwater, Pluvial

-

 Flash: measures to reduce flood volume and reinforcement of river beds&sides; Non-s as above
 Gov: gvv pumping, diversion v...orks, improvement of local drainage system, property-improvement
measures

 Pluvial: runoff control measures (housing development according to infiltration and percolation),
drainage control measures (enlargement of capacity, storages, pumping stations,...)
 Non-s: as above

21.2 Upgrading of channels and pipes

 Open channels: lining, widening, energy dissipation devices, enlargements of culverts, diversions
 Pipes: replacement with larger ones, new parallel pipes, diversions, larger outlets, re-grading slopes,
catchpits, larger manholes

21.3 Construction of storage facilities

 Limit the peak discharge, can be below or above-ground, open or closed, on-line (in the channel) or off-
line (with an extra pipe/channel to the storage and back to the system)
 Detention/dry ponds: take up water in wet weather and release it all in dry periods, Usually include
spillways; settlement of sand; E.g. parks, sport fields, anything else that can be used as storage
 Retention/wet ponds: retain water permanently, part is drained after rainfall, replacement in part by
stormwater; settlement of even small particles, e.g. Pond in an urban area

21.4 On site det. And rainwater reuse & 5 Sustainable urban drainage systems SUDS
-

 On-site detention: installation of rainwater tanks 'n individual households and drainage after rainfall
 Rainwater reuse/harvesting: same, but use as toilet fl s [ling, garden watering,...
 SUDS: reduce runoff rates+volumes, encoJrage g;:v recnarge, reduce pollution, enhance natural and
aesthetic areas + habitats

Construct of soakways, green roofs (EVT), permeable paving (attenuation, may not allow
infiltration), swales, detention ponds, wetlands (water quality, short residence time to
prevent mosquito breeding)

21.6 Litter management

 Creates blockages in sewer system or pollutes receiving waters

 Legislative: restricting construction on flood plains, change land-use
 Active management: maintenance programmes (sweeping...), prevent inappropriate practices
(pesticide management, illegal uses) use RTC and forecasting (???)

 Capacity building and professional training (education, public awareness)

21.7 Flood forecasting and warning systems

 Needs data acquisition and processing (rainfall forecast using ensemble predictions), model
simulations and result-mapping (risk maps, safe areas notification, evacuation routes, traffic
control,...) and information dissemination (to stakeholders+public, e.g. using Common Alerting
Protocol CAP; trigger flood hazard emergency response plan)

 Reduce loss of life and property

21.8 RTC

 In order to use capacity in a system in an optimal way before upgrading it all

 Local, regional or central control
 Sensor, flow regulator (actuator), controller, communication system (comparator)
 Reduce spills, flooding, save costs

21.9 Disaster preparedness and response

 Natural disaster: event that ove'whelms the capacity of a household, community, city, business or
utility to resist or recover from the impacts without external assistance

 Prevention: permanent protection or reduction of intensity

 Mitigation: minimize vulnerability
 Preparedness: teach to react appropriately
 Relief: immediate help
 Recovery: restore fully
 Includes hazard, vulnerability, coping capacity assessment
 Find joint solutions with other disasters

21.10 Flood proofing

 Deve opment of building codes in flood plains can ensure beneficial use
 Raising of structures, relocation, change of use, installation of protective walls, waterproof
 Services: deeper levels or elevated levels, ensure no cross contamination possible

21.12 Economic analysis for Flood risk mitigation

 Often used Cost-benefit analysis CPA (identify whole life cycle costs, adjusting costs to present
values, compare net present value NPV, benefit cost BC ratio and internal rate of return IRR)
 Costs: Capital investment, operation costs, maintenance costs, disposal costs
 Benefits:
a Primary: direct (reduction of physical damage), indirect (avoiding disruption)
oSecondary: economic linkages through the market mechanism
 Alternative Multi-criteria analysis (MCA; set of objectives, then summed up with a weight factor)
 Ill both have not been successful in taking into consideration non-numerable social and
environmental aspects.

Chapter 17 Hydraulic modelling

17.1 Fundamental laws

 Newtons laws
a 1) body remains in its state unless a force acts upon it
o 2) F=rna
o 3) Actio=Reactio
 Thermodynamics
11 irstarrinl airlarervi fonthmlinkA rmr, ha trzr-Ifnrrriarl trti rrharkimnirml nr ham+ anabrovr frirs
 .
.._, 1 1 I I 1. 61 11 .1 GI i 1 5 y 1 , 1 1 1 • 1 1 . 1 1 , y ) , 4 1 1 1 1 . . 1 ' 4 1 . 1 1 , 1 , , 1 1 1 4 1 1 0 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 , . 1 W I I I . G . 6 G 1 1 G 1 5 y 1 . 1 1 . ,

destruction or production of energy possible)

o 2) nature always proceeds to state of greater disorder (Entropy)
 Conservation laws of energy, mass, momentum
 Eulerian view: fixed control volume at fixed space (vs. Lagrange fixed particle along its
trajectory/fixed time)

 in acceleration or total differential of velocities du/dt:

oNo local terms if system is steady (partial der. t)
oNo convective terms if system is uniform (partial der. x)
 Euler equation

oIncludes pressure force (p/m=a)

 Navier-Stokes-equation: non-linear and second order
oIncludes change of pressure and friction forces and gravity force (for incompressible fluids)
oIncluding turbulent flow: additional fluctuations term
oIntegral length: length of larger eddies; Kolmogorov Ill smallest eddies; Taylor in between
 Boussinesq equation: allows vertical accel. Into momentum equ., used for wave propagation
 Bernoulli: for steady state, based on conservation of energy

17.2&3 Saint Venant equations

The set of continuity equ (mass conservation) and momentum equ. Together are the St. V. equ.
Can be written in
oAlgorithmic form (used for 6-point implicit)
oCharacteristic form: if Fr<1 information in curve from downstream boundary, if Fr>1 from
upstream
oDischarge form: u = C./A Ill the way we wrote it with Popescu, uses Colebrook-White for
friction/roughness
oApproximate forms: analytical equ for Muskingum-Cunge method of flood routing

17.4 BC for pipe flow

 Derivatives for x and t exist Ill 4 be needed either 2 upstream and 2 initial (for super-cr.) or 1 up-+1
down + initial (subcritical flow)

 Upstream: flow can be sub-cr or critical

 Downstream: flow can be sub- or super-critical
 Losses: contraction of flow into pipe upstream, expansion downstream, shape of manhole,
benching, alignment of incoming/outgoing pipes, shaping of entrance, height of water level, possible
air entrainment...

17.5 Pressurised flow

 If pipe is surcharged there is a shock travelling along the pipe downstream, manhole is filled rapidly;
can also happen due to backwater effects from downstream

 Hysteresis of velocity 0 same value at middle depth and top of pipe Ill discharged increased, but
slower velcocity = jump in depth up (/down)
 At some point change between free surface flow and pressurized flow
There are equations for pressurized flow, but they only work for the change in one direction
c. Preissmann slot: assumes always free surface by introducing a 'virtual' slot of small d along
pipe length (=elastic pipe, compensate for storage in slots by adjusting manhole storage) Ill
always same numerical scheme usable
oPropagation of disturbances almost instantaneous in press. Flow, not in free surface flow; can
be slowed down by lateral pipe relaxation effects
17.6 Manhole storage

 Water levels in manholes change in time according to volume of incoming/

outcorning flows
 Define destiny of floodwater discharging from the manholes D use above-
ground model (see)