ChE

422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2

Thermodynamics in Flow Processes

Most equipment used in the chemical, petroleum and related industries is designed for the movement of fluids
and an understanding of fluid flow is essential to a chemical engineer. The underlying principle is fluid mechanics which is
based on the law of thermodynamics. The application of thermodynamics to flow processes is also based on law of
conservation of mass and the 1st and 2nd law of thermodynamics. The addition of linear momentum makes fluid mechanics
a broader field of study. Distinction between these two fields depends on the solution required. Of course, those
problems that require only the law of mass conservation and laws of thermodynamics are studied under thermodynamics
and are separated from the field of fluid mechanics. The practical application of thermodynamics to flow processes is
usually to finite amounts of fluid undergoing finite changes in state.

Steady-State Flow Processes
Flow processes for which accumulation term in the equation of balance is zero are said to be steady state. Here,
analysis will be extended to discrete engineering devices working under steady-flow conditions such as turbines,
compressors, pumps and nozzles, the degree of degradation of energy in these devices as a result of irreversibilities will be
examined.
First, an ideal process must be defined w/c shall serve as a model. Though some heat transfer between these
devices and the surrounding medium is unavoidable, most steady-flow devices are intended to operate under adiabatic
conditions. Therefore, the model process for these devices should be an adiabatic one. Furthermore, an ideal process
should involve no irreversibilities since the effect of irreversibilities is always to downgrade the performance of
engineering devices. Thus the ideal process that can serve as a suitable model for most steady-flow devices is the
isentropic process.
The more closely the actual process approximates the idealized isentropic process, the better the device will
perform. Thus it would desirable to have a parameter that expresses quantitatively how efficiently an actual device
approximates an idealized one. The parameter is called the isentropic or adiabatic efficiency. It is a measure of the
deviation of actual processes from the corresponding idealized ones.
Adiabatic efficiencies are defined differently for different devices since each device is set up to perform different
duties.

A. Adiabatic Efficiency of Turbines (Expanders)
For a turbine under steady operation, the inlet state of the working fluid and the exhaust pressure are fixed.
Therefore, the ideal process for adiabatic turbine is an isentropic process between the inlet and the exhaust pressure. The
desired output of a turbine is the work produced and the adiabatic efficiency of a turbine is defined as the ratio of the
actual work output of the turbine to the work output that would be achieved if the process between the inlet state and the
exit pressure were isentropic.
ηT = actual shaft work = Wact .
isentropic turbine work Wisen

Usually the changes in kinetic and potential energies associated w/ a fluid stream flowing through a turbine are
small relative to the change in enthalpy and can be neglected. The work output of an adiabatic turbine simply becomes
the change in enthalpy and the above relation for this case can be expressed as:

ηT = Wact = ∆Ha = H2a – H1
Wisen ∆Hs H2s – H1

Where H2a and H2s are the enthalpy values at the exit state for actual and isentropic processes respectively.
The adiabatic efficiency greatly depends on the design of the individual components that make up the turbine.
Well-designed, large turbines have adiabatic efficiencies above 90%. Fro small turbines, however, it may drop even below
70% . The value of the adiabatic efficiency of a turbine is determined by measuring the actual work output of the
turbine and by calculating the isentropic work output for the measured inlet conditions and the exit pressure. This value
may then be used conveniently in the design of power plants.
ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2

Figure 1: H-S Diagram of the actual and isentropic processes of an adiabatic turbine.

B. Adiabatic Efficiency of Compressors:
The adiabatic efficiency of a compressor is defined as the ratio of the work input required to raise the pressure of
a gas to a specified value in an isentropic manner to the actual work input:

ηc = isentropic compressor work = Wisen = ∆Hs = H2s – H1
actual compressor work Wact ∆Ha H2a - H1

Where subscripts 2s and 2a refers to the exit state for isentropic and actual processes respectively.

Notice that the adiabatic efficiency of a compressor is opposite that of the turbine. This is because Wisen is a
smaller quantity than Wact and this definition prevents adiabatic efficiencies from becoming greater than 100%, which
could falsely imply that the actual compressors performed better than the isentropic ones. Also notice that the inlet
conditions and the exit pressure of the gas are the same for both actual and the isentropic compressor.
When the changes in Kinetic and potential energies of the gas being compressed are negligible, the work input to
an adiabatic compressor becomes equal to the change in enthalpy.
The value of the ηc greatly depends on the design of the compressor. Well-designed compressors have adiabatic
efficiencies that range from 75 to 85%.
When no attempt is made to cool the gas as it is compressed, the actual compression process is nearly adiabatic
and reversible (i.e. isentropic) process and serves well as the ideal process. But sometimes compressors are cooled
intentionally by utilizing fins or water jacket placed around the casing to reduce the work input requirements. In this case,
the isentropic process is not suitable as the model process since the device no longer adiabatic and the adiabatic
compressor efficiency defined before is meaningless. A realistic model process for compressors that are intentionally
cooled during the compression process is the reversible isothermal process. Therefore an isothermal efficiency for such
cases by comparing the actual process to a reversible isothermal one is;

ηc = Wt where subscript t refers to the required work
Wa input for a reversible isothermal process and
a refers to the actual case.

Take note that for a fixed inlet state and exit pressure, a reversible isothermal compressor will require less work input than
an isentropic one.


ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2

Figure 2: H-S Diagram of the actual & isentropic processes of an adiabatic compressor

C. Adiabatic Efficiency of Nozzles:
Nozzles are essentially adiabatic devices and are used to accelerate a fluid. Therefore, the isentropic process
serves as a suitable model for nozzles. The adiabatic efficiency of a nozzle is defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy of
the fluid at the nozzle exit to the kinetic energy value at the exit of an isentropic nozzle for the same inlet state and exit
pressure. That is,

ηN = actual KE at nozzle exit = V22a
isentropic KE at nozzle exit V22s

Nozzles involve no work interactions and the fluid experiences little or no change in its potential energy as it flows
through the device. In addition, if the inlet velocity of the fluid is small relative to the exit velocity, the conservation of
energy relation for this steady-flow device reduces to:


0 = H2a – H1 + V22a – 0
2

Then the adiabatic efficiency of the nozzle can be expressed in terms of the enthalpies as:
ηN = H1 – H2a where subscript 2a refers to the actual condition at
H1 – H2s nozzle exit and 2s to the isentropic condition at nozzle exit

Adiabatic efficiencies of nozzles are typically above 90% and nozzle efficiencies above 95% are also common.

Figure 3: H-S Diagram of the actual and isentropic processes of an adiabatic nozzle

D. Adiabatic Efficiency of Pumps:
Pumps are used to move liquids. The same equations apply to adiabatic pumps as to adiabatic compressors.


ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2
FOR ISENTROPIC PROCESSES OF IDEAL GASES:
A. @ Constant Specific Heats: Approximate Treatment
lnT2 = - R ln V2 or ln T2 = ln V1 R/Cv
T1 Cv V1 T1 V2

T2 = V1 k-1 where: R = CP – CV & k = CP/CV
T1 S = K V2 thus R/Cv = k-1

P2 = V1 k & T2 = P2 (k-1)/k
P1 s=k V2 T1 s=k P1

TVk-1 = Constant & TP(1-k) = constant & PVk = constant


∆S = Cv,ave ln T2 + R ln V2 or ∆S = Cp,ave ln T2 – R ln P2
T1 V1 T1 P1


B. @ Variable Specific Heats: Exact Treatment (∆S = 0)
∆S = (S2o – S1o) – R ln P2
P1
S2o = S1o + R ln P2 where S2o & S1o values of So at the end of
P1 isentropic process & start of the process respectively
dT
Where: S o = ∫ C P value of So = 0 at absolute temperature
T
dT
S2 o − S1o = ∫ C P
T

P2 = exp S2o – S1o = exp (S2o/R) = Pr2
P1 R exp (S1o/R) Pr1

P2 = Pr2 or V2 = Vr2 where Vr = relative sp.vol.
P1 s=k Pr1 V1 s=k Vr1 = T/Pr


Pr = exp(So/R) = relative pressure, function of T only & is tabulated w/ temperature

Specific volume ratios can also be used:

V2 = T2P1 = T2Pr1 = T2/Pr2
V1 T1P2 T1Pr2 T1/Pr1


Practice Problems:
1. Steam enters at an adiabatic turbine steadily at 3 MPa and 400 oC and leaves at 50 kPa and 100 oC. If the power
output of the turbine is 2 MW and the kinetic energy change of the steam is negligible, determine (a) the adiabatic
efficiency of the turbine and (b) the mass flow rate of the steam flowing through the turbine.
2. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 8 MPa and 500 oC with a mass flow rate of 5 kg/s and leaves at 30 kPa. The
adiabatic efficiency of the turbine is 0.85. Neglecting the kinetic energy change of the steam, determine (a) the
temperature at the turbine exit and (b) the power output of the turbine.
3. Saturated steam at 125 kPa is compressed adiabatically in a centrifugal compressor to 700 kPa at the rate of 2.5 kg/s.
The compressor efficiency is 78%. What is the power requirement of the compressor and what are the enthalpy and
entropy of the steam in its final state?
ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2

4. Steam at 7 MPA and 500 oC enters two-stage adiabatic turbine at a rate of 15 kg/s. Ten percent of the steam is
extracted at the end of the first stage at a pressure of 1 MPa for other use. The remainder of the steam is further
expanded in the second stage and leaves the turbine at 50 kPa. Determine the power output of the turbine assuming
(a) the process is reversible and (b) the turbine has an adiabatic efficiency of 88%.
5. Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 6 MPa, 600 oC and 80 m/s and leaves at 50 kPa, 100 oC and 140 m/s. If the power
output of the turbine is 5 MW, determine (a) the mass flow rate of the steam flowing through the turbine and (b) the
adiabatic efficiency of the turbine.
6. Refrigerant – 12 enters an adiabatic compressor as saturated vapor at 120 kPa at a rate of 2 m3/min and exits at 1
MPa pressure. IF the adiabatic efficiency of the compressor is 80%, determine (a) the temperature of the refrigerant
at the exit of the compressor and (b) the power input.

7. Air is compressed by an adiabatic compressor from 95 kPa and 27 oC to 600 kPa and 277 oC. Assuming variable
specific heats and neglecting the changes in KE and PE, determine (a) adiabatic efficiency of the compressor and (b)
the exit temperature of air if the process were reversible.

8. Air at 200 kPa and 950 K enters an adiabatic nozzle at low velocity and is discharged at a pressure of 80 kPa. If the
adiabatic efficiency of the nozzle is 92%, determine (a) the maximum possible exit velocity, (b) the exit temperature
and (c) the actual exit velocity of the air. Assume constant specific heats of air.

9. Steam enters an adiabatic nozzle at 3 MPa and 400 oC with a velocity of 70 m/s and exits at 2 MPa and 320 m/s. If the
nozzle has an inlet area of 5 cm2, determine (a) the exit temperature and (b) the rate of entropy generation for this
process.

10. Hot combustion gases enter the nozzle of a turbojet engine at 260 kPa, 747 oC and 80 m/s and they exit at a pressure
of 85 kPa. Assuming an adiabatic efficiency of 92% and treating the combustion gases as air, determine (a) the exit
velocity and (b) the exit temperature.


























ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2

Excerpt from the Saturated Refrigerant-12 Pressure Table
Specific volume-V, Internal Energy-U, Enthalpy-H,
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg Entropy-S, kJ/kg.K
Satd
Pressure Temp Satd Satd Satd Satd Satd Satd Satd Satd
Mpa oC Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor
0.06 -41.42 0.0006578 0.2575 -1.29 153.49 -1.25 168.94 -0.0054 0.729
0.10 -30.1 0.0006719 0.16 8.71 158.15 8.78 174.15 0.0368 0.7171
0.12 -25.74 0.0006776 0.1349 12.58 159.95 12.65 176.14 0.0526 0.7133
0.14 -21.91 0.0006828 0.1168 15.99 161.52 16.09 177.87 0.0663 0.7102
0.16 -18.49 0.0006876 0.1031 19.07 162.91 19.18 179.41 0.0784 0.7076

Excerpt from the Superheated R-12 Pressure Table
@ 1.0 MPa (Tsatn = 41.64 oC) Cp and Cv for Ideal Air
o 3
Temp, C V, m /kg U, kJ/kg H, kJ/kg S, kJ/kg.K Temp, K Cpo, kJ/kg.K Cvo, kJ/kg.K k
satn 0.01744 186.32 203.76 0.682 250 1.003 0.716 1.401
50 0.01837 191.95 210.32 0.7026 300 1.005 0.718 1.400
60 0.01941 198.56 217.97 0.7259 350 1.008 0.721 1.398
80 0.02134 211.57 232.91 0.7695 400 1.013 0.726 1.395
100 0.02313 224.48 247.61 0.81 450 1.020 0.733 1.391
120 0.02484 237.41 262.25 0.8482 500 1.029 0.742 1.387
140 0.02647 250.43 276.9 0.8845 550 1.040 0.753 1.381
160 0.02807 263.56 291.63 0.9193 600 1.051 0.764 1.376
180 0.02963 276.84 306.47 0.9528 650 1.063 0.776 1.370
200 0.03116 290.26 321.42 0.9851 700 1.075 0.788 1.364

750 1.087 0.800 1.359

800 1.099 0.812 1.354
900 1.121 0.834 1.344

1000 1.142 0.855 1.336

Ideal – Gas Properties of Air
T, K H, kJ/kg P r U, kJ/kg V r So, kJ/kg.K T, K H, kJ/kg P r U, kJ/kg V r So, kJ/kg.K
200 199.97 0.3363 142.56 1707 1.29559 580 586.04 14.38 419.55 115.7 2.37348
210 209.97 0.3987 149.69 1512 1.34444 590 596.52 15.31 427.15 110.6 2.3914
230 230.02 0.5477 164.00 1205 1.43557 610 617.53 17.30 442.42 101.2 2.42644
240 240.02 0.6355 171.13 1084 1.47824 620 628.07 18.36 450.09 96.92 2.44356
220 219.97 0.4690 156.82 1346 1.39105 600 607.02 16.28 434.78 105.8 2.40902
250 250.05 0.7329 178.28 979.0 1.51917 630 638.63 19.84 457.78 92.84 2.46048
260 260.09 0.8405 185.45 887.8 1.55848 640 649.22 20.64 465.50 88.99 2.47716
270 270.11 0.9590 192.60 808.0 1.59634 650 659.84 21.86 473.25 85.34 2.49364
280 280.13 1.0889 199.75 738.0 1.632.79 660 670.47 23.13 481.01 81.89 2.50985
285 285.14 1.1584 203.33 706.1 1.65055 670 681.14 24.46 488.81 78.61 2.52589
ChE 422: Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 2

o o
T, K H, kJ/kg P r U, kJ/kg V r S , kJ/kg.K T, K H, kJ/kg P r U, kJ/kg V r S , kJ/kg.K
290 290.16 1.2311 206.91 676.1 1.66802 680 691.82 25.85 496.62 75.50 2.54175
295 295.17 1.3066 210.49 647.9 1.68515 690 702.52 27.29 504.45 72.56 2.55731
300 300.19 1.3860 214.07 621.2 1.70203 700 713.27 28.80 512.33 69.76 2.57277
305 305.22 1.4886 217.67 596.0 1.71865 710 724.04 30.38 520.23 67.07 2.58810
310 310.24 1.5546 221.25 572.3 1.73498 720 734.82 32.02 528.14 64.53 2.60319
315 315.27 1.6442 224.85 549.8 1.75106 730 745.62 33.72 536.07 62.13 2.61803
320 320.29 1.7375 228.42 528.6 1.76690 740 756.44 35.50 544.02 59.82 2.63280
325 325.31 1.8345 232.02 508.4 1.78249 750 767.29 37.35 551.99 57.63 2.64737
330 330.34 1.9352 235.61 489.4 1.79783 760 778.18 39.27 560.01 55.54 2.66176
340 340.42 2.149 242.82 545.1 1.82790 780 800.03 43.35 576.12 51.64 2.69013
350 350.49 2.379 250.02 422.2 1.85708 800 821.95 47.75 592.30 48.08 2.71787
360 360.58 2.626 257.24 393.4 1.88543 820 843.98 52.59 608.59 44.84 2.74504
370 370.67 2.892 264.46 367.2 1.91313 840 866.08 57.60 624.95 41.85 2.77170
380 380.77 3.176 271.69 343.4 1.94001 860 888.27 63.09 641.40 39.12 2.79783
390 390.88 3.481 278.93 321.5 1.96633 880 910.56 68.98 657.95 36.61 2.82344
400 400.98 3.806 286.16 301.6 1.99194 900 932.93 75.29 674.58 34.31 2.84856
410 411.12 4.153 293.43 283.3 2.01699 920 955.38 82.05 691.28 32.18 2.87324
420 421.26 4.522 300.69 266.6 2.04142 940 977.92 89.28 708.08 30.22 2.89748
430 431.43 4.915 307.99 251.1 2.06533 960 1000.55 97.00 725.02 28.40 2.92128
440 441.61 5.332 315.30 236.8 2.08870 980 1023.25 105.2 741.98 26.73 2.94468
450 451.80 5.775 322.62 223.6 2.11161 1000 1046.04 114.0 758.94 25.17 2.96770
460 462.02 6.245 329.97 211.4 2.13407 1020 1068.89 123.4 776.10 23.72 2.99034
470 472.24 6.742 337.32 200.1 2.15604 1040 1091.85 133.3 793.36 22.39 3.01260
480 482.49 7.268 344.7 189.5 2.17760 1060 1114.86 143.9 810.62 21.14 3.03449
490 492.74 7.824 352.08 179.7 2.19876 1080 1137.89 155.2 827.88 19.98 3.05608
500 50.3.02 8.411 359.49 170.6 2.21952 1100 1161.07 167.1 845.33 18.896 3.07732
510 513.32 9.031 366.92 162.1 2.23993 1120 1184.28 179.1 862.79 17.886 3.09825
520 523.63 9.684 374.36 154.1 2.25997 1140 1207.57 193.1 880.35 16.946 3.11883
530 533.98 10.37 381.84 146.7 2.27967 1160 1230.92 207.2 897.91 16.064 3.13916
540 544.35 11.10 389.34 139.7 2.29906 1180 1254.34 222.2 915.57 15.241 3.15916
550 554.74 11.86 396.86 133.1 2.31809 1200 1277.79 238.0 933.33 14.470 3.17888
560 565.17 12.66 404.42 127.0 2.33685 1220 1301.31 254.7 951.09 13.747 3.19834
570 575.59 13.50 411.97 121.2 2.35531 1240 1324.93 272.3 968.95 13.069 3.21751