Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Tribology: Friction, Wear,

lubrication

Alfredo Valarezo

Outline
 Examples: wear, friction, bearings, etc
 Understanding Tribology and Related Disciplines
 COF, K (wear)
 Wear mechanisms
 Stresses and deformation in loaded surfaces: Contact Mechanics
 Hydrodynamic Lubrication
 Testing
 Lubrication
 Hard Coatings
*******************************************
 Applications:
 Hydraulic shafts: landing gear
 Coated tools
 Injection Molds
 Punches

29

Section 2 1
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Tribology
“Tribology is the field of science and technology dealing
with contacting surfaces in relative motion- which
means that it deals with phenomena related to friction
and wear.”

Kenneth Holmberg –
Allan Matthews

Desgaste: Wear

Section 2 2
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Desgaste: Wear

Desgaste: Wear bearings, Cams

Section 2 3
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Babbit Bearings

Mills, Cement Industry, Wear Plates

Section 2 4
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Hip Implant (Recall)

Microtribodynamics

Section 2 5
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

PVD, CVD coatings

38

Outline
 Examples: wear, friction, bearings, etc
 Understanding Tribology and Related Disciplines
 COF, K (wear)
 Wear mechanisms
 Stresses and deformation in loaded surfaces: Contact Mechanics
 Testing
 Hard Coatings
*******************************************
 Applications:
 Automobile Piston Rings
 Drilling tools
 Hydraulic shafts: landing gear
 Coated tools
 Injection Molds
 Punches
39

Section 2 6
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Heat and Friction

Understanding of Tribology
Surface

Surface Friction Energy Loss

Wear Material Waste

Surface Selection of
• Materials
• Coatings
• Surface Treatments
• Liquid Lubricants
$
• Operating Conditions

Section 2 7
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Disciplines in Tribology
 Solid Mechanics: Focus is on
expressions of contact stresses and
surface temperatures due to sliding.
 Materials Science: Focus is on atomic
and micro scales mechanisms whereby
solid surface degradation or alterations
occurs during relative motion.
 Chemistry: Deals with reactivity
between lubricants and solid surfaces.
 Fluid Mechanics: Study of lubricant
film formed between various
geometric shapes of sliding surfaces.

SOLID mechanics -- Tribology

 Response of solid material to applied force.
 Elastic, Viscoelastic and plastic materials.
 Hertzian contact pressure
 Surface roughness and real area of contact
between surfaces
 Behavior modeling of thin layer coatings having
different elastic properties than the substrate
 Heat source and heat conduction equations
 Theories related to crack nucleation, crack
propagation and delamination

Section 2 8
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Materials Science -- Tribology

 Surface hardening/treatment
 Development of high/flow temperature
coatings to provide non-stick surfaces in
molds and dies, gears, bearings and military
weapons.
 Manufacturing processes to apply nanometer
to micrometer thick coating on various
materials (material compatibility)
 Modeling of thin and thick coatings

Chemistry -- Tribology
 Synthesis of additives.
 Antiwear additives
 Extreme Pressure additives
 Compatibility of lubricants with process fluids and
contacting surfaces
 Shelf life of lubricant and its additives.
 Performance of lubricant layer as a function of
temperature, sliding, etc.
 Optimizing concentration of lubricant additives
 Covalent, metallic and Van der Waals Bonds.

Section 2 9
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Fluid Mechanics -- Tribology

 Hydrodynamic, aerodynamic
hydrostatic, and aerostatic theories of fluid
film lubrication
 Theories related to convective heat transfer
 Rheological behavior of liquid to semi-solids
 Boundary, mixed and elastohydrodyanmic
lubrication mehcanisms
 Viscosity thinning and thickening effects
 Mathematical modeling of thin lubricant film.

Outline
 Examples: wear, friction, bearings, etc
 Understanding Tribology and Related Disciplines
 COF, K (wear)
 Wear mechanisms
 Stresses and deformation in loaded surfaces: Contact Mechanics
 Testing
 Hard Coatings
*******************************************
 Applications:
 Automobile Piston Rings
 Drilling tools
 Hydraulic shafts: landing gear
 Coated tools
 Injection Molds
 Punches
47

Section 2 10
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Understanding of Friction
FT
FT
  tan 
FN
θ W FN
Plasticity Index
1
E'  P  2 < 0.6 (Full Elastic Contact)
  
H    > 1 (Full Plastic Contact)

Sliding Friction
Adhesion + Ploughing + Elastic-Plastic Deformation
Rolling Friction
Adhesion + Plastic Deformation + Microslip + Elastic Hysteresis

48

Wear & Friction Indices

Section 2 11
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Archard Equation: Wear Equation

the volume of the removed debris due to wear is proportional to the
work done by friction forces.
V = K * N* L
H
 V is the total volume of wear
debris produced, N is the total
normal load, K is a
dimensionless constant, L is
the sliding distance, H is the
hardness of the softest
contacting surfaces
 Note that N*L is proportional
to the work done by the
friction forces as described by
Reye's hypothesis. The coefficient of wear of different steels as a function of the coefficient of
friction (data and wear coeflicient definition according to Saka, 1980).

Scale of COF

Section 2 12
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Surface interaction properties

Surface properties are not
fundamental
 Coefficient of friction 
 Adhesion 
 Wear parameters 
Fundamental properties are
interdependent
Volume:
 Young’s modulus;
 Poisson’s ratio;
 shear modulus;
 yield stress;
 elastic energy;
 thermal properties.
Surface:
 chemical reactivity;
 absorbtion
 capabilities;
 surface energy;
 compatibility of surfaces;

Outline
 Examples: wear, friction, bearings, etc
 Understanding Tribology and Related Disciplines
 COF, K (wear)
 Wear mechanisms
 Stresses and deformation in loaded surfaces: Contact Mechanics
 Testing
 Hard Coatings
*******************************************
 Applications:
 Automobile Piston Rings
 Drilling tools
 Hydraulic shafts: landing gear
 Coated tools
 Injection Molds
 Punches
53

Section 2 13
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Wear Mechanism

Alfredo Valarezo

54

Friction at dry sliding Interface:

Mechanisms
The basic mechanisms of
friction are:
 Adhesion of the sliding
interface
 Plowing of the surface by
wear debris and other
particles
 Removal of asperities by
asperity interactions at
the interface Boussinesq
Stress function

55

Section 2 14
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Genesis of Friction, by Suh-Sin (1981)

 1. Frictional force is a
result of ploughing by
asperities.
 2. Slow increase in
COF due to increased
adhesion.
 3. COF increases due to
rapid increase of wear
particles

Genesis of Friction, by Suh-Sin (1981)

4. Wear particles remain
 1. Frictional
constant. force is a
Adhesion
result of ploughing
contribution by
also remains
constant as well as asperity
asperities.
deformation
 2. Slow increase in
5. COF due toforce
Frictional increased
decreases due to getting
adhesion.
smoother surfaces –less
 3. COF increases due to
asperity and less
rapid increase of wear
ploughing.
particles
6. The COF levels off and
reaches steady-state –
surfaces become smoother.
57

Section 2 15
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Wear Mechanisms
Removal of materials from one or both of solid surfaces in
contact

Types of Wear
• Friction
Adhesive
 Abrasive
 Rolling friction
Contact Fatigue
 Corrosive
Erosive wear
Cavitation
 Solid Particles
58

Sliding Friction
Adhesion FN • Force needed to shear the weakest
tangential planes
FN
• Formation and Rupture of Interfacial Bonds
Solid (1)
FT • Interfacial interatomic force and the degree of
interpenetration of asperities
θ
• Models including ~Interfacial shear strength
Solid (2) & energy, work hardening factor, critical crack
opening factor

Ploughing Foreign Particle Ploughing

• Penetration of asperities
• Friction due to
FN • Plough into the surface penetrated wear particles
• Slop exceeding 5° or 6° FN • Geometry of asperities
FT Solid (1)
θ • μP ~ 0.05 FT • Properties of wear
particles

Solid (2)

59

Section 2 16
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Adhesive Wear
• Atomic scale
• Initiated by the interfacial adhesive junction
• Without surface film, the surfaces adhere
• Very small amount of contaminant prevent adhesion
under pure normal loading
• Tangential motion at the interface
 Cold welding of the contact junctions
 Strong junction for metals of e- donor/acceptor
 Governed by mutual solubility
• Continued sliding  Junctions sheared & fractured
• Generation of wear particles
• Adhesion and fracture behavior influenced by
contaminants

60

Rolling Friction
W • Much smaller scale than sliding friction
FT • Traction and free rolling
FN • Rolling Motion = Hertzian normal stress + Tangential stress
• Combination of rolling, sliding, or slipping

Adhesion Plastic Deformation

• Similar to sliding adhesion friction
• Dominate when there is no tangential motion
• Short range metallic bonds may act in
microcontacts
• Adhesion bond at the trailing end in tension
• Very small portion of friction response
• First cycle: plastic deformation  residual
compressive stress
• Next cycle: Residual stress + contact stress
• More cycles: No longer stressed beyond the
elastic limit  Shakedown
• Shakedown Limit: Max load for Shakedown

61

Section 2 17
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Abrasive Wear
Two-Body Abrasion
• Harder material rubbing on the other
• Mechanical Operation such as
Grinding, cutting, machining

Three-body Abrasion
• Hard foreign body (grit, abrasive)
trapped between two surfaces
• Abrade either or both of them

• With the tangential motion, removal of softer material via microploughing,

microcutting, and microcracking

Fatigue Wear

FN • Repeating stresses (bending, hertzian, rotation)

FT based on subsurface condition without physical
contact cause fatigue
• Require a given number of stress cycles or in
service for a long period of time

Tension Compression • Exact position of failure based on inclusions,

porosity, microcracks, etc
• Surface friction by the harder asperities
 accumulated plastic shear deformation
• Nucleation of cracks near the surface
• Crack propagation parallel to the surface
• Crack intercepts the surface
• Producing long thin wear sheets or delaminate

63

Section 2 18
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Corrosive Wear
• Caused by a combined process of oxidation,
deformation, and fracture
• Dynamic interaction between environment
FN and mating surfaces
(1) Surface reaction with environment
(2) Reaction products are formed on the surface
(3) Attrition/abrasion of the reaction products
Reaction Layer

• Wear rate dependent parameters

 Asperity contact
 Operating condition (v, TC,FN)
 Material parameters
 Interaction features (d, TC, ε )

64

Erosive Wear
• Impact on moving blades, valve constructions, pipe
Solid Particles Erosion joints, aerospace systems, helicopter blades (sand
erosion), jet engine blades and vanes.
• Response depend on
•the material class
•exposed state (thermal, residual stress, surface
treatment)
•environmental parameters (impact velocity,
impact angle, particle type and size)
• Erosion of ceramics, glass, thermosetting polymers
matrices (refractory liners)  Engine application 
Dust ingestion

65

Section 2 19
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Erosive Wear
Cavitation Erosion
• Solid & fluid are in relative motion 
formation of bubbles
• Bubbles implode against the surface
• Damage in marine propellers, hydrofoils,
dam slipaways, gates, hydraulic turbines
• Relative high velocity impact of bubbles
• Shock wave on the solid surface
• Roughen the surface similar to etchant
• Wear rate ~ hardness, ultimate tensile
strength

66

Mechanisms interaction

67

Section 2 20
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Outline
 Examples: wear, friction, bearings, etc
 Understanding Tribology and Related Disciplines
 COF, K (wear)
 Wear mechanisms
 Stresses and deformation in loaded surfaces: Contact Mechanics
 Testing
 Hard Coatings
*******************************************
 Applications:
 Automobile Piston Rings
 Drilling tools
 Hydraulic shafts: landing gear
 Coated tools
 Injection Molds
 Punches
68

Stresses and Deformation loads

Alfredo Valarezo

69

Section 2 21
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

STRESSES AND DEFORMATION

Conforming
Surfaces

Non Conforming
Surfaces

Line Load on Semi-infinite Solid

 Boussinesq Stress
function
 r ,  
w'
* r * * sin 


2w x2 y
 x   r * sin 2  
 x 2  y 2 2
2w y3
 y   r * cos 2  
 x 2  y 2 2
2w xy 2
 xy   r * sin  * cos  
 x  y 2 2
2

Section 2 22
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Line Load on Semi-infinite Solid

 Strain

x 
u 1
 
  x  v y   z 
x E
y 
v 1

  y  v x   z 
y E

u v 21   1
 xy     xy
y x E

72

Hertzian contact
 The pressure
distribution is
1/ 2
2w'   x 2  
p x   1    
b   b 2  

 and the solution for

the contact width b is
b2 

4wR 1  v 2 
E

Section 2 23
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

 Contact Mechanics Conditions for wear

(abrasion)

Hertzian Contact Yielding no fracture

Ni5Al APS

Blunt contacts: plastic deformation

Blunt contacts: onset of cracking

Fracture before plastic deformation

Cone Cracks in WC-Co
Sharp contacts: plastic & cracking

F.W. Zok, A. Miserez / Acta Materialia 55 (2007) 6365–6371

74

Hertzian contact

Section 2 24
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Hertzian contact
 Maximum contact pressure

 State of stress

Coordenadas rectangulares (x,y) pueden ser usadas como radiales (r)

Hertzian contact

Section 2 25
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Hertzian contact

Hertzian Contact
 The maximum value of the Von Mises Stress
occurs in the substrate along the loading axys at a
depth of z=0.48 a (for v=0.3)
 The maximum tensile normal stress,
σr=(1-2v)* pmax / 3, occurs on the surface z=0, at
the contact perimeter (r=a)
 The maximum shear stress, τmax = 0.31 pmax, exist
beneath the surface at r=0 and z=0.48 a
 The foregoing results imply that a brittle mode
failure is likely to initiate near the contact
perimeter at the surface, while the onset of plastic
yielding is favored beneath the surface
79

Section 2 26
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Rigid Sphere Contacting Deformable Flat

Surface with Abaqus Theoretical Contact Radius: 11.995 mm
Abaqus Contact Radius: 11.6 mm
Error: 3%

Deformable Sphere Contacting Rigid Plate

with Abaqus Theoretical Contact Radius: 9.288 mm
Abaqus Contact Radius: 8.5 mm
Error: 6%

Section 2 27
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Hertzian contact

von Mises stresses for:

(a) indentation,
(b)indentation with
subsequent sliding a
cylinder on a flat with of
COF of 0.15, (c) 0.3 (d) 0.5
and (e) 1.0. Magnifies to
130 times. F represents
tangential forces and w
normal forces

82

Outline
 Examples: wear, friction, bearings, etc
 Understanding Tribology and Related Disciplines
 COF, K (wear)
 Wear mechanisms
 Stresses and deformation in loaded surfaces: Contact Mechanics
 Testing
 Hard Coatings
*******************************************
 Applications:
 Automobile Piston Rings
 Drilling tools
 Hydraulic shafts: landing gear
 Coated tools
 Injection Molds
 Punches
83

Section 2 28
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

TESTs Methods: Wear & Friction

84

Pin-on-disk

85

Section 2 29
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Tests Methods: Wear & Friction

86

Tests: Wear & Friction

87

Section 2 30
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Elastic Modulus
 Micromaterials machines

88

Elastic Modulus

89

Section 2 31
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Microhardness

90

Surface Roughness Tester

91

Section 2 32
Fundamentals of Thermal Spray Coatings

Surface Roughness Indexes

Section 2 33