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Marine Biological Laborolory Library
Woods Hole, MossQchusetls
 VOL
HYDRODYNAMICS
IN SHIP DESIGN

VOLUME TWO

by

HAROLD E. SAUNDERS
Captain, U. S. Navy, (Retired)

Honorary Vice-President, The Society of Naval Architects

and Marine Engineers

David W. Taylor Medalist

Published by

The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers

74 Trinity Place, New York 6, N. Y.
1957
 Copyright, l'.)')?

by
The Society of Naval Architects
and Marine Engineers
If man permits it, the water of the seas does things for him

A surf canoe riding an incoming wave toward Waikiki

Beach.
Photograph by courtesy of Photo Hawaii, Honolulu.
 Acknowledgements
This section supplements a corresponding sec-
tion on Acknowledgements in Volume I, to be
found on pages vii-xi of that volume.
The author takes this occasion to express his
appreciation to a number of his associates
friends who have been most helpful in the prepara-
tion of Volume II. Listing their names and accom-
plishments briefly
Mrs. Claudette Leveque Horwitz,
author's staff, especially for her invaluable help
in preparing the three sets of indexes for each of
Volumes I and II
Mr. W. C. Suthard and the staff members of
the Photographic and Reproduction Division of
the David Taylor Model Basin for taking the
model and flow photographs of TMB models
reproduced throughout this volume; Mr. G. R.
Stuntz, Jr. and Mr. M. S. Harper of the Ship
Powering Division of the TMB Hydromechanics
Laboratory for finding them among the vast
assortment on hand at Carderock
Mr. Werner B. Hinterthan, of the TMB staff,
who translated many of the titles in the
references listed in the present volume,
helped the author find many German
references
Miss Margaret M. Montgomery, for her
cheerfuland ever-ready help in finding books for
the author and in guiding him around the TMB
library
Mrs. Ruby S. Craven, head of the Aero-
mechanics Laboratory library at the David Taylor
Model Basin, for her assistance in looking
many references in aerodynamics and aeronautical
engineering
Mr. C. A. Ryman and other members
and Shafting, Bureau of Ships,
staff of Propellers
U. S. Navy Department, for calculating the
weight of the screw propeller designed for the
ABC ship in Chap. 70 of this volume
Dr. Hans F. Mueller, for his help in furnishing
valuable information in the rather limited field
of rotating-blade propellers
Mr. William H. Taylor, managing editor of
Yachting magazine, who has gone out of his way
to render as.sistance to the author where informa-
tion from small craft would be of value
Dott. Ing. Emilio Castagneto, Superintendent
of the Rome Model Basin (Vasca Navale;
Instituto Nazionale per Studi ed Esperienze di
Architettura Navale), for assistance in furnishing
and information concerning models tested in that
basin.
In particular, the author wishes to express his
appreciation for the useful ideas and information
of the found in a number of Russian technical books
written during the past decade. The Russian
titles and Russian authors of these books are
listed throughout the text wherever direct
references are made to them.
In over four decades of experience while
working with others, the present author has been
blessed with constant and heart-warming coopera-
tion to an unexpected degree. Nevertheless, he is
compelled to take this occasion to express his
admiration and gratitude for a superlative
measure of cooperation in the printing and en-
graving projects on this book. Mr. Richmond
Maury, Mr. W. W. Tompkins, Mr. David G.
German Wilson, Captain Horace F. Webb, Mrs. Janet
and who Jones, Mr. Orvrille W. Harrell, Mr. Henry F.
technical Drake, Jr., Mr. John L. Moore, Mr. Stuart M.
Holmes, Mr. Raymond C. Jones, and other staff
members of The William Byrd Press, Inc., of
Richmond, Virginia, designers and printers of
the book, as well as Mr. Jay R. Golden, of the
staff of the Industrial Engraving Company,
Easton, Pennsylvania, have contributed with
their efforts and their talents a friendship that
up will always be treasured.
Every reference inserted in the text of the book
"is intended as a tacit acknowledgement of assist-
of the ance rendered by the author, book, publisher, or
organization mentioned in that reference. The
present author and The Society of Naval Archi-
tects and Marine Engineers are grateful for
permission to make quotations from and adapta-
tions of material developed by others, whether
published or unpublished. Specific acknowledge-
ments are made in the cases listed hereunder.
The reproductions in Sees. 18.3 and 18.4 of
Chapter 18 in Volume I, of John Scott Russell's
admirable drawings of a boat running in confined
waters, from the Transactions of the Royal
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Society of lAliiiliurgli, ns wvll ns the (luoUtion in The fouling-resLstance graphs of E. Y. Lewis,

See. 48. rj on page 182 of (iiis vohuno, arc made adapted from the May 1948 i.ssuc of The Ixjg,

by pormiiision of the Council of that Society. are embotlied in Figs. 45. K and 45. L of this

Hrpriut-s of portions of papers by William volume by permission of The LOG (now Marine
I'roiuic and CJ. II. Bottomiey, originally pub- Engineering/ Ixig).
lished in the 1870 1S71 and l'.»:{.") Proceeding.s. (Quotations from the 1950 cnlition of "Theo-
respectively, of the Institution of Civil Engineers reticalHydrodynamics" are by permission of The
in Cin^at Britain and included in Sec. 37.4 of Macmillan Company of New York, publishers of
Volume I and Sec. 71.7 of \'olume II, arc repro- the American edition, and of Macmillan and
duced by courtesy of the Institution. Company, Limited, publishers of London, for the
The adaptation in Fig. 32. D on page 450 of British and other world markets.

Volume I, and the fiuotation on page 557 of The quotations and adaptations from the
that volume, arc made by permission of E. and following books, copyrighted on the dates indi-
F. N. Spoil, Limited, publishers of the book cated, are by permission of John Wiley and
"Marine Propellers," by Sydney W. Barnaby, Sons, Inc., of New Y'ork:

4th edition. I'JOO.

Durand. W. F., "Resistance and Propulsion of
The drawings of the magnetic lines of force in
Ships," 1903
Figs. LB and I.C of the Introduction to Volume I,
on page xxvi, are reproduced from the publication Pcabody, C. IL, "Naval .Uchitecture," IU04
"Mo<lem Engineering Practice," edition of 1902, Rou.se, IL, "Elementary Mechanics of Fluids,"
by permission of the American Technical Society 194f.

of Chicago. Vennaril,.!. K., "l-^icnicatary I'iuiei .Mechanics,"

The quotation in Sec. 20. on page 299 of
1
1 ,
2Md edition, 1947
Volume I, is from the Proceedings of the Cam- Rouse, H., editor, "Engineering Hydraulics,"
bridge Philosophical Socictj'. 1950.
The quotation from the Reports and Memo-
randa of the (British) Aeronautical Research The firm of Hutchinson and Company, Pub-
Committee, in Sec. 49.8 on page 195 of the 178-202 Great Portland Street,
lishers, Limitefl, of

present volume, is reproduced by permission of London, W.l, England, in generously granting

the Controller of Her Britannic Majesty's permi.ssioii for the use of material from books

Stationery Office. by them, advises that the book on

I)ul)li.shed

The c|uotation in Sec. 30.5, on page 127 <if
Volume I, is reprinted from "Elements of Yacht
Design," by Norman L. Skene. Copyright © 1927.
Renewal © 1955 by Quentin H. Skene.
The publication rights to the book "Sail
Power," by UlTa Fox, are held by Peter Davies,
Limited, of London. The quotation in Sec. 40.3,
on page 3 of this volume, is published with their
permis-sion. Rcjidei-s will be interested to know'
that this firm maintains a stock of the I'fTa Fox
books on jachting.
iiiotorboatsby Juan Baader of Buenos Aires (in
Spanish) is to be i.ssued by them in an English
edition in 1957. It is to be an improved and
enlarged version of "Cruceros y Lanchas Veloces,"
and published in 1951; the Enghsh title will be
"Cruisers and Speetlboats."
Mr. Thomas D. Bowes, consulting naval archi-
tectand engineer of Philadelphia, made it possible
to embody the photograph of the fircboat in
action, reproduced as Fig. 7G.II on page 775 of
the text.
 Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION xix
SOURCE ABBREVIATIONS FOR REFERENCES xx

PART 3— PREDICTION PROCEDURES AND REFERENCE DATA

CHAPTER 40— BASIC CONCEPTS UNDERLYING ALL CALCULATIONS AND PREDIC-
TIONS
40.1 The Calculation of Ship-Design and Per- 40.4 The Principles of Similitude 3
formance Data 1 40.5 Dimensions of Physical Quantities .... 4
40.2 Useful Formulas Embodied in Theoretical 40.6 The Derivation and Use of "Specific" Terms 5
Hydrodynamics 2 40.7 Double or Multiple Solutions to the Equa-
40.3 Present Limitations of Mathematical Meth- tions of Motion 6
ods 2

CHAPTER 41— GENERAL FORMULAS RELATING TO LIQUID FLOW

41.1 The Use of Pure Formulas 7 Potential Formulas for Typical Two-
41.2 The Quantitative Use of Dimensionless Diniensional Flows 17
Numbers; The Mach and Cauchy Num- 41.9 Stream-Function and Velocity-Potential
bers 7 Formulas for Three-Dimensional Flows . 20
41.3 The Euler and the Cavitation Numbers . . 8 41.10 The Determination of Liquid Velocity
41.4 The Froude Number and the Taylor Quotient 11 Around Any Body 24
41.5 Calculation of the Reynolds Numbers . . . Conformal Transformation 25
41.6 Application of the Strouhal Number . . . Quantitative Relationship Between Velocity
41.7 The Planing, Boussinesq, and Weber Num- and Pressure in Irrotational Potential Flow 25
bers Tables of Velocity Ratios, Pressure Coeffi-
41.8 Derivation of Stream-Function and Velocity- cients, Ram Pressures and Heads .... 30
viii r.ONTENI'S
C'HArTKU »;{ DKl.lNKAlluN ol' SolUCK-SIXK FI.oW OlAt iKAMS Cuntimifd

43.6 The Construclion of Two-Dimensional 4:i 11 I'ormulas for the Calculation of Stream-Form
Stronm Forms iiikI Stream Piitterns from Shapes and the Flow Patterns .Vround
Liiu* Sources and Sinks 51) Them 67
43.7 Flow Pattern for tlie T\vo-Dimeniiionnl •13. 12 The Forces Exerted by or on Bodies .\round
Doublet and the Circular Stream Form . . CI Sources and Sinks in a Stream; Lagally's
43.8 Graphic Const met ion of Three-Dimensional Theorem G8
Stream Forms and Flow Patterns .... ()2 -13. 13 Partial Ribliography on Sources and Sinks
43.9 Variety of Stream Forms Produced liy and Their .\pplieation 70
Sources and Sinks (')7 43.14 Selected Heferences on I.Kigally'3 Theorem 71
43.10 Source-Sink Flow Patterns by Colored
Liquid and Kleetric Analogy

CH.-VPTEH 44— FORCE, MOMENT. AND FT.OW DATA Fni; TIvnUOFOTT.S AXO EQI'IV-
ALENT FORMS
44.1 General; Scope of Chapter 2 14.9 N'floi'ity aiul Pressure Fields .\round a
44.2 Formulas for Calculating Circulation, Lift, Hydrofoil 82
Drag, and Other Factors 2 It. 10 Spanwise Distribution of Circulation and
44.3 Test Data from Typical Simple .Mrfoll.-* and Lift 83
Hydrofoils 3 44.11 Kffective .\.spect Ratio for Equivalent Ship
44.4 Polar Diagrams for Simple Hydrofoils . . . 75
5 Hydrofoils 8.3

44.5 Test Data from Compound Hydrofoils . . 75

5 44 12 Design Notes and Drag Data on Hydrofoil
44.6 Flow Patterns .-Vroiind Typical Hydrofoils . 78
8 Planforms and Sections 83
44.7 Pitching Moment; Center-of-Prcssure Loca- 44.13 Quantitative Data on Cascade and Inter-
tion 80
10 ference Effects 84
44.8 Distribution of Velocity and Pressure on a
Hydrofoil 80

CHAPTER 45— VISCOUS-FLOW DATA AND FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

45.1
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER 46— REFERENCE DATA ON SEPARATION, EDDYING, AND VORTEX MO-
TION— Continued
46.6 Separation Phenomena Around Geometric 46 9 . Practical Applications of the Strouhal Num-
and Non-Ship Forms 140 ber to Singing and Resonant Vibration . . 143
46.7 Vortex Streets and Rehited Phenomena . . 141 46 10. References on Eddy Systems, Vortex Trails,
46.8 Vortex Streets and Vibrating Bodies . . . 141 and Singing 144

CHAPTER 47- -THE INCEPTION AND EFFECT OF CAVITATION ON SHIPS AND PRO-
PELLERS
47.1 Scope of This Chapter 145 47.7 The Effect of Cavitation on Screw-Propeller
47.2 General Rules for the Occurrence of Cavita- Performance 152
tion on Ships and Appendages 145 Photographing the Cavitation on Model and
47.3 Vapor-Pressure Data for Water 146 FuU-Scale Propellers 153
47.4 Tables of and Nomogram for Cavitation 47.9 Propeller Cavitation Criteria 154
Numbers 147 47.10 Predicting Hub Cavitation and Hub Vor-
The Prediction of Cavitation on Hydrofoils texes or Swirl Cores 155
and Blades 149 47.11 Prediction of Cavitation Erosion 156
47.6 Cavitation Data for Bodies of Revolution 47.12 Propeller Performance Under Supercavita-
and Other Bodies 151 tion 156
Selected Cavitation Bibliography 157

CHAPTER 48— DATA ON THEORETICAL SURFACE WAVES AND SHIP WAVES

48.1 Purpose of This Chapter 160 48 Standard Simple and Complex Waves for
48.2 Theoretical Wave Patterns on a Water Design Purposes 171
Surface 160 48 Delineation of a Synthetic Three-Component
48.3 Hogner's Contribution to the Kelvin Wave Complex Sea 172
System 161 48 Tabulated Data for Actual Wind Waves . . 175
48.4 Summary of the Trochoidal-Wave Theory 161 48 The Zimmermann Wave 176
48.5 Elevations and Slopes of the Trochoidal 48 Wind- Wave Patterns and Profiles by Modern
Wave 163 Methods 177
48.6 Tabulated Data on Length, Period, Velocity, 48 Comparison Between Waves in Shallow
and Frequency of Deep- Water Trochoidal Water and in Deep Water 180
Waves 166 48 Shallow- Water Wave Data 181
48.7 Orbital Velocities for Trochoidal Deep- 48 General Data for Miscellaneous Waves; The
Water Waves 166 Tsunami or Earthquake Wave 181
48.8 Data on Steepness Ratios and Wave Heights 48 Bibliography of Historic Items and Refer-
for Design Purposes 169 ences on Geometric Waves 182
Formulas for Sinusoidal Waves 170 48 Bibliography on Subsurface Waves .... 185

CHAPTER 49—MATHEMATICAL METHODS FOR DELINEATING BODIES AND SHIP

FORMS
49.1 Scope of This Chapter; Definitions .... 186 49 10. Graphic Determination of the Dimensionless
49.2 The Usefulness of Mathematical Ship Lines . 186 Longitudinal Curvature of any Ship Line 196
49 3
. Existing Mathematical Formulas for Deline- 49.11 Mathematic Delineation and Fairing of a
ating Ship Lines 187 Section-Area Curve 198
49.4 Mathematical and Dimensionless Represen- 49.12 Longitudinal Flowplane Curvature .... 199
tation of a Ship Surface 189 49.13 Checking and Establishing Fairness of Lines
49.5 Application of the Dimensionless Surface by Mathematical Methods 199
Equation to Ship-Shaped Forms .... 191 49 14. Example for Fairing the Designed
Illustrative
49.6 Summary of Dimensionless General Equa- Waterline of the ABC Ship 200
tions for Ship Forms 192 49. 15 Practical Use of Mathematical Formulas for
49.7 Limitations of Mathematical Lines .... 192 Faired Principal Lines 203
49.8 Value and Relationship of Fairness and 49.16 The Geometric Variation of Ship Forms . . 204
Curvature 193 49.17 Selected References Relating to Mathe-
49.9 Notes on Longitudinal Curvature Analysis . 195 matical Lines for Ships 204
X CONTENTS
CIIAPTKU 50-MArili:MAII("AI, MI'miODS OF CALCULATIXC TIIK PUKSSlIiK KE-
SISTANCK OF SHIPS
60.1 General 200 50.8 Compiirison of Calculated and Experimental
oO 2 &irly KfTorta to Analyze and Calculate Ship Resistances ._ 2115
Resistance 207 50.9 Other Features Derived from Analytic Ship-
50 3 Mo<lern Developments in the Calculation of Wave Relations 217
Pressure Resistance due to Wavemaking . 210 50.10 Ship Forms Suitable for Wave-Resistance
50.4 Assumptions and Limitations Inherent in Calculations 210
Presenf-Day Calculations 212 50.11 N'ocessarj' Improveraenta in Analytical and
50.5 Formulation of the Velocity-Potential Ex- Mathematical Methods 219
pression 211 50.12 Practical Benefits of Calculating Ship Per-
50.6 The Calculation of Wavemaking Resistance . 215 formance 220
50.7 ComjKinents of the Calculated Wavemaking 50. Ki Hofercncc Material on Theoretical Rcsist-
Retii.st:incc 2IG anrc Calculations 221

C'llAl'li;i; .-.1 I'ltol'oiM'lOXS AM) SIIAI'E DATA l-'oR rVPR'Ar> SHU'S

51.1 General Comments 223 51.5 Designed Waterline Shapes and Coefficients 228
51.2 Parent Form of the Taylor Standard Series . 223 51.6 Reference Data for Drawing Section-.\rea
51.3 References to Tabulated Data on Principal Curves 230
Dimensions, Proportions, Coefficients, and 51.7 "Standard" Body Plans 231
Performance of Ships 223 51.8 Single-Screw Body Plans 234
51.4 References to Tabulated Data on Yachts 51.9 Twin-Screw Body Plans 236
and Small Craft 228 51.10 Multiple-Screw Sterns 236

CHAPTER 52— ANALYSIS OF FLOW DIAGRAMS AND PREDICTION OF SHIP FLOW

P.VTTERNS
52.1 Scope of Chapter 239
52.2 Typical Ship- Wave Profiles 239 52.
52.3 Wave Profiles Alongside Models 241
52.4 General Rules for Wave Interference Along-
side a Ship 243
52.5 Estimate of Bow-W'ave and Stern- W'ave
Heights and Positions 244
52.6 Prediction of the Surface- Wave Profile . . 246
52.7 Typical Lines-of-Flow Diagrams for Ship
Models 218
52.8 Analysis of Model Surface-Flow Diagrams . 250
52.9 Observation and Interpretation of OfT-the-
Surface Flow Data on Models 254
52.10 Elstimating the Ship Flow Pattern on the
Body Plan 255
52.11 Prediction of the Ship Flow Pattern at the
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER 54— ESTIMATING THE AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF SHIPS— Continued
54.5 Notes on Wind-Resistance Models and 64.10
Testing Techiniques 278
54.6 Bibliography of Model Wind-Resistance
Tests
54.7 Drag Coefficients for Typical Abovewater
Hulls and Upper Works
54.8 Comments Concerning Wind-Friction Re-
sistance of an Abovewater Hull
64.9 Drag and Resistance with Wind on the Bow
xii CONTENTS
CIlAITICll oS— UrNMXC.-ATTrn 1)K AND SHIP-MOTIUN DIAGRAMS— CoiUimu-d
58 4 DatA on Sinkngo and Change of Trim iu 58 Variation of Attitude and Position of Planing
Shallow and Restricted Waters 328 Craft with Spceii and Other Factors . . . :J29
58.5 ChanRis of Attitude and Trim of Sliips with 58.7 References to Published Uat^i SM
Fat Hulls 320

CHAPTER 59-PREDICTIX{; :i!I(>l!MA\CE OF PROPULSION DEVICES

59.1 Relationship to Other Chaptor.i i>;i:2 .j'.l 10 Performance of Miscellaneous Propul.sion
59 2 I'^timatvof Propulsion-Dcvioc KITioienoics . 332 Devices .339
59 3 Open-Water Test Data for Model Screw 59.11 .\rea Hntios,Blade Widths, and Blade-Heli.x
Propellers 333 .\nglesof Screw Propellers 341)
59.4 Performance Data from Scrcw-PropcUer 59.12 Pertinent Data on Flow Into Propulsion-
Design Charts 335 Device Positions 341
59.5 Performance Dat:i on Puddlcwheels and 59.13 Data on Induced Velocities and Differential
Sternwheels 335 Pressures 343
59.6 Bibliography on Puddlewheels 335 59.11 The Thrust-Load Factor and Derived Data 345
69.7 Test Results on Rotating-Blade Propellers 337 59.15 of Screw-Propeller Thrust
.•\pi)ro.>;imation

59 8 Available Performance Data on Hydraulic- from Insuflicienl Data 346

Jet, Pump-Jet, and Gas-Jet Propulsion 59.10 Relation Between Thrust at the Propeller
Devices 337 and at the Thrust Bearing 347
59.9 Performance Data on Controllable and Re- 338 59.17 Estimates of Thrust and Torque Variation
versible Propellers per Revolution for Screw Propellers . . . 348

CHAPTER 60—SHIP-POWERIXG DATA FOR STEADY AHEAD MOTION

60.1 General 354 60.11 Determination of the Propulsive Coefficient . 375
60.2 Estimation or Calculation of Effective and 00.12 Data from Self-Propulsion Tests of Model
Friction Power 354 Ships and Propellers 377
60.3 Effect of Displacement and Trim Changes 60.13 Merit Factors for Predicting Shaft Power . . 380
on Effective Power 355 60.14 Shaft-Power Estimates by the Ideal-Effi-
60.4 Methods and Factors Involved in Predicting ciency Method 383
Shaft I'ower 358 00.15 Estimating Sliaft Power for a Fouled- or
60.5 Axial-Component W'ake-Fraction Diagrams Rough-Hull Condition 385
at Propulsion-Device Positions 358 00.10 IiiiTcasing the Power and Speed of an
60.6 Three-Dimensional Wake-Survey Diagrams 300 Existing Ship 387
60.7 Interpretation and Analysis of the TMB 00 17 Powering for Two or More Distinct Operat-
Three-Dimensional Wake Diagram . . . 302 ing Conditions 388
60.8 Estimating the Ship-Wake Fraction .... 308 OU.IS Backing I'ower from Self-Propelled Model
tXJ.9 Prediction of the Thrust^Deduction Fraction 370 Tests 388
tJO.lO Finding the Relative Rotative Efruiency . . 374

CHAPTER (il— THE PREDiCTIOX OF SHIP RE1IA\ lOR IX COXFIXED WATERS

61
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER 61— THE PREDICTION OF SHIP BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS— Con-
tinued

61.16 Lack of Reliable Data on Power and Pro- 61.20 Unexplained Anamolies in Shallow and
pulsion-Device Performance 411 Restricted Water Performance 414
61 17
. Data on Confined- Water Operation at Super- 61.21 Summary and Restricted- Water
of Shallow-
critical Speeds 412 Effects 414
61.18 Data on Offset Running Positions and 61 22. Partial Bibliography on the Effects of Con-
Steering in a Channel 413 fined Waters on Models and Ships ... 415
61 19
. Prediction of Ship Resistance in Canal Locks 413

CHAPTER 62—ESTIMATING THE ADDED MASS OF WATER AROUND A SHIP IN UN-

STEADY MOTION
62.1 General 417 62.5 Estimating the Added-Mass Coefficients of
62.2 Added-Liquid Masses for Some Geometric Vibrating Ships in Confined Waters . . . 433
Shapes and for Selected Modes of Motion 419 62.6 Estimating the Added-Mass Coefficients for
Comparison of a Vibrating Ship with a Vibrating Propulsion Devices 436
Vibrating Geometric Shape 423 62.7 Added-Mass Data for Water Surrounding
62.4 The Change of Added Mass Near a Large Ship Skegs and Appendages 438
Boundary 432 62.8 Partial Bibliography on Added-Mass and
Damping Effects 439

PART 4— HYDRODYNAMICS APPLIED TO THE DESIGN OF A SHIP

CHAPTER 63—BASIC FACTORS IN SHIP DESIGN

63.1 Definition of Ship Design 442 63.5 Design as a Compromise 444
63.2 Application and Scope of Part 4 442 63.6 The Essence of Design 444
63.3 General Assumptions as to Propelling 63.7 The Design Schedule for a Ship 444
Machinery 443 63.8 The Field for Future Improvements in De-
63.4 The Fundamental Requirements for Every sign 444
Ship 443

CHAPTER 64— FORMULATION OF THE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS INVOLVING HYDRO-

DYNAMICS
64.1 General 446 64.4 Absolute Size as a Factor in Maneuvering
64.2 The First Task of the Designer 446 Requirements 452
64.3 Statement of the Principal Design Require- 64.5 Tabulation of the Secondary Requirements . 452
ments 446

CHAPTER 65— GENERAL PROBLEMS OF THE SHIP DESIGNER

65.1 Interpretation of Ready-Made Design Re- 65.6 Limits for Wavegoing Conditions to be En-
quirements 454 countered 458
65 2
. Departures from the Letter of the Specifiea- 65 . The Bracketing Design Technique . . . •
. . 458
tions 454 65.8 Adherence to Design Details in Construction 459
65 3
. Design and Performance Allowances .... 454 65 . Guaranteeing the Performance of a New Ship
65 4
. Basis for the Selection of Ship Dimensions . 457 Design 459
65 5
. Determination of the General Hull Features 457

CHAPTER 66—STEPS IN THE PRELIMINARY DESIGN

66 1
. General Considerations 460 66 . First Approximation to Principal Dimen-
66 2
. Analysis of the Hydrodynamic Requirements 460 sions;The Waterline Length and Fatness
66 3
. Probable Variable- Weight Conditions . . . 463 Ratio 464
66.4 First Weight Estimate 463 66.6 The Longitudinal Prismatic Coefficient . . . 467
xiv COXTIXTS
CHAPTER 6C— STEPS IN rill-: l'i;i:i.l Ml \ M; V DESIGN— Continued
66.7 The Maximum-Section Coefliciont; Tlio
Draft Hiid lU-nm
608 Finit K»tini;itc of Hull Volume
66.9 First Approxlniiilion to Shaft I'ower . . .

06.10 Secoiiil l'>tim:itv of l'rin('i|>:il Wi'iglitjt . . .

00.11 Second Approximution to I'rinoipiil Dimen-

sioiiM uiul Proportions
66.12 Selection of Hull Shape
00.13 Layout of Mu.xinuim-Scction Contour . . .

00. 14 First llstimnte lU-hiting to Motuccntric Sta-

bility
06.15 First Skeloh of Designed Wiiterline Shape .

00.10 I'j!timiitfd Draft Variations

00.17 Sketching the Section-Area Curve; The
Miuximum-Area Position
66.18 Middlebody
P:irallcl

06.19 Bulb-Bow Panimeters

66.20 Transom-Stern Parameters
60.21 The Preliminary Section-Area Curve . . .

66.22 I/ongitudinal Position of the Center of

Buoyancy
66.23 Preparation of Small-Scale Profiles and
S<MMi()nM
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER 68— LAYOUT OF THE ABOVEWATER FORM— Continued
68.14 Shaping and Positioning of Superstructure 68.16 Reducing the Wind Drag of the Masts,
and Upper Works 561 Spars, and Rigging 566
68.15 Design of Facilities for Abovewater Smoke 68.17 Consideration of Increased Draft Through
and Gas Discharge 563 the Years 566
68.18 Preparation of Hull Lines for Model Tests . 566

CHAPTER 69— THE GENERAL DESIGN OP THE PROPULSION DEVICES

69 1
. Introductory Comment 567 69.10 Graphic Representation of Powering Allow-
69.2 Type and Number of Propulsion Devices . . 667 ances and Reserves 576
69 3
. Positions and Limiting Dimensions .... 568 69.11 Selection of Feathering, Adjustable, Rever-
69.4 Effect of Type and Design of Propelling sible, or Controllable Features 578
Machinery 570 69 12 . Propulsion Devices to be Used with Contra-
69 5
. Number and Position of the Engines . . . 570 Vanes, Contra-Guide Sterns, and Contra-
69 6
. Use of Systematic Wake Variations .... 572 Rudders 579
69.7 Rate and Direction of Rotation of Propul- 69 13
. Disadvantages of Unbalanced Propulsion-
sion Devices 572 Device Torque 579
69.8 Design to Equalize or to Apportion the 69.14 Propulsion-Device Design to Meet Maneu-
Powers of Multiple Propellers 573 vering Requirements 580
69 9
. Powering Allowances 574 69.15 Relation of Propulsion-Device and Hull-
Vibration Frequencies 580

CHAPTER 70—SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN

70 1
. General Considerations 582 70.25 Propeller-Disc and Hub Diameters .... 612
70 2
. Design Requirements for a Screw Propeller . 583 70.26 Calculating the Thrust-Load Factors and
70.3 Comments on Available Design Methods the Advance Coefficients 613
and Procedures 583 70.27 First Appro.ximation of the Hydrodynamic
70.4 Requirements for. Availability of, and Pitch Angle and the Radial Thrust Dis-
Listing of Propeller-Series Charts .... 584 tribution 615
70.5 Comments on and Comparison of Propeller- 70.28 Second Approximation of /3, and the Radial
Series Charts 589 Thrust Distribution 616
70.6 Preliminary-Design Procedure, Employing Determination of the Lift-Coefficient Product
Series Charts 592 and the Hydrodynamic Pitch-Diameter
70.7 Modification of Series-Chart Procedure for Ratio 617
Other Design Problems 596 Finding the Blade-Thickness Distribution . 620
70.8 Preliminary Comments on Propeller-Design Blade-Section Shaping by Cavitation Cri-
Features 596 teria 621
70.9 Selection of Propeller Diameter 597 Procedure When Cavitation in Not Involved 625
70.10 Determining the Rate of Rotation .... 597 Corrections for Flow Curvature and Viscous
70.11 The Proper Pitch-Diameter Ratio; Pitch Flow 625
Variation with Radius 598 Final Blade-Section Shapes for the ABC
70.12 Choice of Number of Blades 599 Design by Lerbs' Method 627
70.13 Use of Raked Blades 600 Introducing Skew-Back in the ABC Blade
70.14 Propeller-Hub Diameter; Hub Fairing . . . 601 Profile 627
70.15 Determination of Expanded-Area Ratio; Drawing the Propeller 629
Choice of Blade Profile 602 Calculating the Expected Propeller Efficiency 629
70.16 Selecting and Applying Skew-Back .... 603 Summary of Design Steps for Lerbs' Short
70.17 Design Considerations Governing Blade Method; Schoenherr's Combination . . . 630
Width 605 Avoiding Air Leakage with Inadequate Sub-
70.18 Selection ofType of Blade Section .... 605 mersion 631
70. 19 Shaping of Blade Edges and Root Fillets . 606 Design Comments on Propellers for the
70.20 Partial Bibliography on Screw-Propeller Supercavitating Range 631
Design 606 Design of Bow Propellers, Coupled and
70.21 Design of a Wake-Adapted Propeller by Free-Running 632
the Circulation Theory 609 Open- Water and Self-Propelled Model Testa 632
70.22 ABC Ship Propeller Designed by Lerbs' Mechanical Construction; Tjrpe of Hub;
1954 Method 611 Shaping and Finish of Blades 633
70.23 Choice of the Number of Blades for the Blade Strength and Deformation 634
ABC Design 612 Propeller Materials and Coatings to Resist
70.24 Determination of Rake for the ABC Pro- Erosion 635
peller 612 70 46
. Prevention of Singing and Vibration .... 636
xvi CONII.NIS
CHAPTKK 71 TllK 1)KSU;N Ol' xMlSL"KLLANKt)r.S ruoi'l 1,S1(JX DIOVICKS

71
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER 74— THE DESIGN OF THE MOVABLE APPENDAGES AND CONTROL SUR-
FACES
74.1 General 706 74.
74 2
. Positioning Rudders and Planes 706
74.3 Single or Multiple Rudders? 708
74.4 Shaping the Rudder and the Adjacent
Portion of the Ship 709
74.5 Design Procedure for Conflicting Steering
Requirements 713
74 6
. First Appro.ximation to Control-Surface Area 713
74.7 Determining the Proper Areas of Various
Control Surfaces 715
74.8 Positioning the Stock Axis Relative to the
Blade; Degree of Balance 720
74.9 Selection and Proportioning of Chord wise
Sections 722
74 10
. Structural Control-Surface Design as Affected
by Hydrodynamics 723
74 1 1
. Design Notes for Motorboat Rudders . . . 724
74.12 Design of Close-Coupled and Compound
Rudders 726
 c:()N rr;\ IS

niAi'iiiK Tin: l'l;l•;I.I.\ll^Ali^ iivDitonvNAMic" dksicn of a MontiiUoAT

1 Scope of This Chapter 819 77.22 Deep Keel and Skeg; Other .\ppendage8 . . 842
2 General Considcmtions Rcluting to Motor- 77.23 Interdependence of Hull-Design Features . . 843
boat DesiRn 820 77.24 I.,ayout of the Lines for the ABC Planing-

3 S|)oci!il ncsinn Features for Small-Cnift Type Tender 843

Hulls 822 77.25 Design Check on a Basis of Chine Dimensions 846
. -I Ppsikh Notes for Displacemcnt-Tj'pe Motor- 77.26 Second Estimate of Shaft Power, Ba»c<l Upon
l>0!its 823 Effective Power 847
5 Scmi-rinniiig and Planing Small Cnift ... 823 Running Attitude and Fore-and-Aft Position
6 Operating Requirements for Planing Forms . 824 of the Heavy Weights 850
7 Gcncril Notes on the Powering of Small Craft 824 77.28 First Space T^ayout of the 18-Knot Round-
8 Principal llequirementa for a Preliminary Bottom Hull 852
Design Study 825 77.29 First Weight Estimate for the 18-Kiiot Hull 853
".I .Viialysis of the Principal Requirements . . . 826 77.30 First Power Estimate for the 18-Knot and
in Tentative Selection of the Tj-po and Propor- 14-Knot Conditions 853
tions of the Hull 827 Selecting the 18-Knot Hull Shape and
1 First Space I.,ayout of the 24-Knot Planing Characteristics 854
Hull 827 Layout of the Lines for the ABC Round-
12 First Weight Estimate; Weight-Estimating Bottom Tender 855
Procedure 828 77.33 Example of a Modern Round-Bottom Utility-
13 Second Weight E.stimato 831 Boat Design 858
.14 First .\pproximation to Shaft and Brake 77.34 Design for a Motorboat of Limited Draft . . 858
Power 832 77.35 Estimate of Screw-Propeller Characteristics 859
.15 Selecting the Hull Features; Section Shapes . 835 77.36 Propeller Tip Clearances; Hull Vibration . . 859
.16 Risc-of-Floor Magnitude and Variation . . 83C 77.37 Still-Air Dnigand Wind Resistance .... 862
.17 Chine Shape, Proportions, and Dimensions . 837 77.38 Design of Control Surfaces and Appendages . 862
18 Buttock Shapes; The Mean Buttock .... 839 77.39 Third Weight Estimate 863
. 19 Trim .\nglc and Center-of-Gravity Position; 77.40 Self-Propellod Tests for Models with Dy-
Useof Trim-Control Devices 840 namic Lift 864
.20 Spray Strips 841 77.41 Partial Bibliographj' on Motorboats .... 865
.21 Stem Shape 842

C'll.\l'li:i; 7S MoDEI^TESTING PROGRAM FOR A LARGE SHIP

78.1 Preliminary 8G8 78.11 Neutral Rudder .\ngli' iind Maneuvering
78 2 Model-Test Data Desired for a Major-Ship Tests 876
Design 868 78.12 Controllability Tests in Shallow Water . . 876
78 3 Model-Test Notes for Preliminary ABC 78.13 Wavegoing Model Testes 877
Designs 869 78.14 Vibratory Forres Induced by the Propeller . 877
78.4 Use of Stock Model Propellers for First Self- 78. 15 Reporting and Presenting .Mwlel-Test Data 877
Propulsion Tests 870 78.16 Test Results for Models of the ABC Ship . . 879
78 5 Displacement and Draft Conditions .... 871 78.17 Comments on Model Tests and Analysis of
78 6 Resistjinee Tests 872 Data
78.7 Wave Profiles and Lines of Flow 873 78.18 Proposed Changes in Final Design of ABC
78.8 Flow Observations with Tufts; Sinkage and Ship
Trim; Wake Vectors 874 78.19 Comments on Illustrative Preliminary-De-
78 9 Sclf-Proi)elled Tests 875 sign Procedures of Part 4 898
78 10 Open-Water Propeller Tests 876

APPENDIX 1 Symbols and Their Titles 900

Al'i'KNDIX :i Mcchanieal Properties of Water, Air, aiui Other Media 915

APPENDIX 4 Uaoful Data for Analysis and Comparison 926

PERSONAI^NAME INDEX 933

SHIP-NAME INDEX 911

SL'HJECT INDEX 918

 Introduction
Taking for granted a knowledge of the material Scott Russell, Rankine, and other contemporaries
in Volume I, a reader or user is enabled to lay in stretching to the utmost our existing knowledge
it aside temporarily and make the estimates or of hydrodynamics in its application to naval
calculations for the preliminary hydrodynamic architecture. They made incorrect assumptions
design of a ship, or the parts thereof, as well as in some instances, and arrived at solutions which
to carry through such a design, solely by reference later had to be corrected, but there is no doubt
to Volume II. The latter is to be considered a that in doing so they advanced both the analytical
reference or design volume, containing little or no and applied phases of the art.
theory or exposition and only sketchy descriptions A good measure of care is called for in the
of the phenomena or physical laws involved. The application of data derived from past practice
publication of these experimental and reference and observations, in both ship operation and
data in a separate volume, in the shape of con- model experiment. As Sydney W. Barnaby
tours, graphs, diagrams, tables, and other aids, observed in his book "Marine Propellers," written
makes it possible to omit from Volume I much of in 1900, "No table can supply the place of judg-
the strictly quantitative data which would have ment and experience." By a generous insertion of
interfered greatly with the continuity of its story. practical examples, in which the use of the form-
Many of the aspects of hydrodynamics as ulas, graphs, and procedures is illustrated in the
applied to ship design have not yet been investi- preliminary hydrodynamic design of a hypothet-
gated analytically, or else only the easiest and ical ship, embodied in Part 4, the reader may see
simplest of the problems have been solved. In for himself what sort of answers and solutions are
these cases it is necessary to fall back upon derived.
experimental results and empirical data. It must In general, all calculations in examples incor-
be admitted that in some respects our knowledge made with
porated in this volume of the book are
of naval architecture has not expanded greatly English primary units of pounds, feet, and
from its position of nearly a century ago. At that seconds. Ship speeds may be given in knots in
time the renowned hydrodynamicist, naval archi- the statement of the problem but are entered as
tect, and engineer, Wilham John Macquorn feet per second in the calculations.
Rankine, was moved to observe that: Wherever practicable, curves and graphs are
"Owing principally to the great antiquity of the art supplemented by simple diagrams illustrating the
of shipbuilding, and the immense number of practical coordinates or parameters.
experiments of which it has been the subject, that part It is pointed out in the Introduction to Volume
of it which related to the forms of water-Unas has in many
I, and repeated here, that the formulas and
cases attained a high degree of excellence through purely
relationships used in this book for expressing
empirical means. Excellence attained in that manner is
of an uncertain and unstable kind; for as it does not equalities, ratios, and the like are, with very
spring from a knowledge of general principles,
it can be few stated exceptions, in what is known as pure
perpetuated by mere imitation only" ["On Plane Water- form. That is, they involve only physical con-
Lines in Two Dimensions," Phil. Trans., Roy. Soc,
cepts and basic relationships between these
London, 1864, Vol. 154, p. 386].
concepts. The units expressing them are kept
Nevertheless, when necessity demanded, Ran- entirely separate, to be selected by the one using
kine himself was forced to fall back upon empirical the relationship. This procedure leaves no un-
data, as is evidenced in his book "Shipbuilding: certainty as to units, physical concepts, and other
Theoretical and Practical," published in 1866. factors which may be hidden in a mixed equation.
No apologies are therefore offered for following A case in point is the former use of 1.00 for 0.5p
this procedure in the present volume, especially in salt water, in the English pound-foot- second
as, in every possible instance, an effort is made system. The pure form also facilitates checking
to tie in these data with physical laws governing for dimensionality because all physical quantities
the motion of liquids. stand out clearly. Furthermore, the relationships
Nor are any apologies offered for following J. are dimensionally consistent, so that equalities
 SC)1 RC.l. ABBRl \ I A 1 lONs lOR Rl 1 1 Rl \t;i:s

have till* Kjinu' pliysioal iliinoiisioiis, nititts aro fool-.>i«'coiul units, similar in its decimal .simplicity
tunipio iiuiitlH>n<, niui mi on. to the well-known kilowatt and equivalent to
T\\v purv' foriuula.s uiul oquiitiuns may tlierffort' I. SIS horses. .\ change of this kind may conu' in
Ih» l'mploy^^^ witli any systoni of inwusuriMnont or the futunv
with any i-onthinations of unit.s in a particular In the meantime, much ambiguity could iw
sysloni. Brii'f oxaniplos of thosi- applications arc siveil by the u.se of a standard lar^e weight unit.
as follows: The long ton o{ 2,JI() pounds and the metric ton
of J,'Jt)5 pounds are of the sjxme order of maKiiiludo
(a) EfToctive power = rt'sistaniv times sjMvd, or
but are not equal. The short ton of 2,(KH) (Hiuniis
/•« - RV appearing with incn^ising
is freiiuoiu-y in naval
(h) Fatness mtio = voliuno dividinl by (a con-
architecture and shipbuilding on inland lakes and
stant times IcngllO' = »-'
(O.IO/,)'
waterways. A simple solution is to use the large
(c) SihhhI of a shallow-water wave = ((accelera-
weight unit of structural mechanics, the kip, or
tion of gravity) times (water depth))" *, or
kilopound, equal to 1,(K)0 pounds. It is O.o of a
c - \ gh. To indicate that this example is
short ton, O.lUVl of a long ton of 2,211) pounds,
dimeiisionally ctinsistent
and 0. 15I>5 of a metric ton.
c = veliH'ity = L t = "Vgh = ((acceleration) Finally, throughout both
volumes the author
has introduced some historical highlights where
times (distance))" * = ((L//')L)" * = L.t.
they seemed to be appropriate, and has mentioned
The elimination of mixeti quantities in power the names of pioneers in various hues of endeavor.
formulas represents somewhat of a ilepartm-e fron> Witli many developments now tiiken for granted,
standanl practice. The rate at which work could (he people responsible for originating them are
Ih' done by a horse served conveniently as a often forgotten. In the words of an unknown
point of r»'ferenco a contviry ago; it lias practically eiiitorial writer of some three decades ago, when
no nuxlern application. It necessitates the use of discussing an article about the originator of the
arbitrary figures such as and 550, the use I^^.IXH) set of Simpson's rules:
of the term horse as a puir unit, and strict con-
'AVo wi.sh tliiit our futuri' :ulv;inci'<l n\il on iiiival
I !.•;«•.<

formity of numerical vniits with tho.se lijiuivs. A iireliiUvtun' would follow llu- tlictuf of Or. Wolch's
vastly simpler and nnich handier unit, for the !uliln>.ss .'iiul oiilighti'iius, with ilui- |in>portion, on nu'u

F^nglish system at least, would bo KHH) pouiul- ;i.i well iux on tliii\>'.'<" (SUSli, l.'i Nov I'.C'a, pp. O00-4i01|.

SOURCE .\BRREVI.VriONS lOR REFERENCES

The soun^e abbreviations employe*.! through- .Ml.\ ".\pplitxl Hydro- and .\eromwhaii-
out the text and listed here are formetl by com- ics," by L. Prandtl and O. G.
bining the first letters of the principal wonis Tietjens, translatetl by J. P. Den
composing the titles of books, periiniicals, and Ilartog (substantially an English
the like, or of the names of organizations and translation of II.\M). Enginwring
groups wliich have publishetl tniiisiictii>ns, pri>- Societies Monographs, Mctlraw-
ceodings, and reports of one kiiui or another. Ilill. New York. 1934
The re.sulting abbreviations an> set down in .\M (.\mericaii) Motorship, Diesel I\il)-

alphabetic orvler, ttigether with suHicient informa- lications. Inc., 192 Ix'xington Ave-
tion, AS of 19511, to permit the reader to look up nue, New York N. Y.
16,

the references citetl or to get in touch with the ARC .\eronautical Research Committee,
organizations concerneti. threat Hritain
.\SCE .Vmerican Siniety of Civil Engineers,
AD "Aerotlynamic Drag," by S. F. Iloer- X\ West ;59th Stn>et, New York
ner, 11)51 publi.sheil by the author,
; IS, N. Y.
lis Uusteiil, Midlan.i Park. X. J. .V.sJME .\merican Sm-iety of Mechanical
AKW .\dminilty KxiH'riment Works, IIsus- Engintvrs, Xi \\\M ;t9tli Stre»<t,

lar, (IiKsport, Ham|islure, England New York IS, N. Y.

 SOIIRCF, AHI5KKVIA I IONS K)R RKFERENCES
ASNl'l American Hooioi.y of NiiviU lOiifri- by Dr. IT. Rons(!, Wiley, New
neci's, Inc., Suite lOO'l, (JoniiiuMi- York, 1940
tal BuildinK, 1012 14Lh Street, ETT Experimental Towing Tank, Stevens
N.W., WaHlihiKton 5, D.C. Institute of Technology, 71 1 Hud-
ASTM American Society for Testing Mate- son Street, Iloboken, N. J.

rials, 19l() Race Street, Phila- FD "Fluid Dynamics," by Dr. Victor L.

delpliia ii, Pa. Streetcr, McGraw-Hill Publica-
AT "Aerodynamic Theory," by Dr. tions in Aeronautical Science, New
W. F. Durand, series of six York, 1948
volumes (in English), Julius Sprin- FIIA "Fundamentals of Hydro- and Aero-
ger, Rerlin, 1936 mechanics," by L. Prandtl and
ATMA Association Technique Maritime et O. G. Tietjens, (in English), Engi-
A6ronautique (formerly only neering Societies Monographs,
ATM), 1, lioulevard Haussmann, McGraw-Hill, 1934
Paris, France FMTM "Fluid Mechanics of Turbomachin-
ATTC American Towing Tank Conference ery," by Prof. George F. Wisli-
AVA Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt, cenus, McGraw-Hill, New York,
Volkenrode, Germany 1947
BEG Bassin d'Essais des Car&nes, 6, HPSA "Hydromechanische Probleme des
Boulevard Victor, Paris (15me), Schil'fsantriebs," Editors, G.
France Kempf and E. Foerster, Hamburg,
BMF "Basic Mechanics of Fluids," by 1932
Hunter Rouse and J. W. Howe, HAM "Hydro- und Aeromechanik," Vols.
Wiley, New York, 1953 I and II, by L. Prandtl and 0. G.
BNA "Basic Naval Architecture," by K. C. Tietjens, (in German), Julius
Barnaby, Hutchinson's Scientific Springer, Vienna, 1934 and 1931
and Technical Publications, Lon- jjj) "Hydrodynamics," by Sir Horace
don and New York, 1948. A new Lamb, Dover Publications, New
edition was published in 1954. York, Gth edition, 1945
BSRA British Shipbuilding Research Assoc- fj q Hydrographic Office, U. S. Navy,
iation, 5, Chesterfield Gardens, Washington 25, D. C.
Curzon Street, London, W.l, Eng- USVA Hamburgische Schiffbau Versuch-
land sanstalt(Hamburg Shipbuilding
C and R Bureau of Construction and Repair, Experimental Establishment),
Navy Department, Washington Hamburg, Germany (prior to 1945)
(prior to 1940) jj'p Historical Transactions, SNAME,
OR Comptes Rendus, Academic des 1943
Sciences, Paris 1st ICSTS International Conference of Ship
CIT California Institute of Tcclmology, Tank Superintendents held at The
Pasadena 4, California Hague, Holland, 1933. This con-
DTMB David Taylor Model Basin, Wash- ference was preceded by a pre-
ington 7, D. C. liminary meeting of the superin-
EAAT "Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew tendents of European model basins
Theory," by H. Glauert, Cam- in Hamburg in 1932, and followed
bridge University Press, Cam- by a conference in London in 1934.
bridge, England, 2nd edition, 1948 2nd ICSTS "Congrfes International des Direc-
EH "Engineering Hydraulics," edited by teurs de Bassins, Paris, Octobre
Dr. H. Rouse, Wiley, New York, 1935" (Published by the Impri-
1950 merie Nationale, Paris, 1935)
EMB Experimental Model Basin, Wash- 3rd ICSTS "Internationale Tagung der Leiter
ington (prior to 1941) der Schleppversuchsanstalten,"
EMF "Elementary Mechanics of Fluids," Berlin, 1937
 SOURCE .\BHRL\1\I li)\s lOR kl 11 Ri;Nt:K.S

•Ith ICSTS (This conferoiico was to liave been 9, Catherine Place, S.W.I, Lundun
held in Home in 19;?9) MKSR .Marine EnRincering and Shipping
r,tl. M'STS "Fifdi Intoniafional Conference of MESA Review, New York, formerly Ma-
SliipTank Superintendents," Lon- rine Engineeringand Shipping Age,
don, I'JIS (Piil)lishetl by H. M. Marine Engineering, and more
Stiitionery Odicc, London, 1949) recently Marine Engineeruig/l.,og,
Gth ICSTS "Sixtli International Conference 30 Church Street, New York 7,
of Sliip Tank Superintendents," N.Y.
WatihiiiRton, 1951 (Published by MIT Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
SNAMl-:. 1953) nology, Cambridge 39, Mass.
7tli ICSII "Seventh International Conference MNA ".\ Manual of Naval Architecture,"
on Sliip Ilydrodj'namics," Scandi- by Sir William H. Wiite, Van
navia, 1954 (Published by SSPA, Nostrand, New York, 1900
1955, Rep. 34) MSXA "The Modern System of Naval
ICT International Critical Tables, Mc- Arcliitecture," by J. Scott Russell,
Graw-Hill, New York, 1926 3 vols., London, 1805 (out of print)
I ME Institute of Marine Engineers, 85, MU Naval Tank, Department of Naval
Minories, London, E.C.3, England Arcliitecture and Marine Engi-
lESS Institution of Engineers and Ship- neering, University of Michigan,
builders in Scotland, 39, Elmbank Ann Arbor, Michigan
Crescent, Glasgow, C.2, Scotland NA "Naval Architecture," by C. H.
The official abbreviation for this
Peabody, Wiley, New York, 1904
Institution in Great Britain is "I.E.S." NACA National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics, 1512 H Street, N. W.,
IIIIR Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Re- Washington 25, D. C. Also model
search, State University of Iowa, basins at the Langley Aeronautical
Iowa City, Iowa Laboratories, Langley Air Force
I \A Institution of Naval Architects, 10, Base, \'irginia.
Upper Belgrave Street, London, NBS National Bureau of Standards,
S.W.I, England Wa.siiington 25, D. C.
i PT Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnol6gicas, NECI Xortli-East Coast Institution of
Pra9a Cel. Fernando Prestcr, 110, Engineers and Shipbuilders, Bolbec
SSo Paulo, Brazil Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Eng-
riTC International Towing Tank Confer- land
ence, formerly ICSTC and ICSH NN Towing Tank, Hydraulic Labora-
lAM Journal of Applied Mechanics, tory, Newport News Shipbuilding
ASME, 33 West 39th Street, New and Dry Dock Company, Newport
York 18, N. Y. News, Virginia
.Ill Journal of Research, National Bu- NPL National Phy.sical Laboratory, Ted-
reau of Standards, Washington 25, dington, Middle.sex, England
D. C. NSP Nederlandsch Scheepsbouwkiindig
KMW Aktiebolaget Karlstads Mekaniska Proefstation (Netherlands Ship-
Werkstad, Kristinehamn, Sweden building Exijcrimcnt Establish-
(.sometimes called KaMeWa) ment), Wageningen, Holland
MI>11> "Modern Developments in Fluid NW Model Ba-sin, The Technological In-
Dynamics," Vols. I and II, edited stitute,Northwestern University,
by Dr. S. Goldstein, Oxford Uni- Evanston, Illinois
versity Press, 1938 ONR Office of Naval Research, Navy De-
ME "Marine Engineering," Vols. I and partment, Wiushington 25, D. C.
II, e<litc<J by II. L. Seward, ORL On nance Research Laboratory,
I

SNA ME, 1942 and 1944 Pennsylvania State University,

MENA Marine Engineer and Naval .Vrclii- University Park, State College, Pa.
leet, Whitehall Te.lini<:il Pn-.s,s, OTT llyilraniic Labiinitory, Division of
 SOURCE ABBREVIATIONS FOR REFERENCES
Mechanical Engineering, National burg, Neuerwall 32, Hamburg 36,
Research Council, Ottawa, Canada Germany
PD Model Propeller Data sheets, SNAME Society of Naval Architects and
SNAME Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity
PNA "Principles ofNaval Architecture," Place, New York 6, N. Y.
edited by H. E. Rossell and L. B. SPD Model Self-Propulsion Data sheets,
Chapman, SNAME, 1939, Vols. SNAME
I and II SSBH "Piloting,Seamanship, and Small-
RandM Reports and Memoranda of the Boat Handling," by C. F. Chap-
ARC, Great Britain man, Motor Boating, 572 Madison
RD Model Resistance Data and Ex- Avenue, New York, 1951 edition
panded Resistance Data sheets, SSPA Statens Skeppsprovningsanstalt
SNAME (Swedish State Shipbuilding Ex-
RPS "Resistance and Propulsion of periment Establishment), Gote-
Ships," by W. F. Durand, Wiley, borg, Sweden
New York, 1903 STG Schiff bautechnischen Gesellschaft,
RPSS "Resistance, Propulsion and Steer- Albert Ballinhaus, Hamburg, Ger-
ing of Ships," by W. P. A. van many
Lammeren, L. Troost, and J. G. STP "Shipbuilding: Theoretical and Prac-
Koning, Amsterdam, 1948 tical," by W. J. M. Rankine, 1866
RS Royal Society, London (out of print)
SandP "The Speed and Power of Ships," TABLAS "Semejanza Mecanica y Experimen-
by D. W. Taylor, 3rd edition, tacion con Modelos de Buques,
U. S. Govt. Printing Office, Wash- Tablas, Canal de Experiencias Hi-
ington, D. C, 1943 drodinamicas, Madrid, Spain, 1943
SBMEB Shipbuilder and Marine Engine- TH "Theoretical Hydrodynamics," by
Builder, Townsville House, 10, L. M. Milne-Thomson, Macmillan,
Cartington Terrace, Newcastle- New York, 1950. A third edition
on-Tyne, 6, England was issued in 1955.
SBSR Shipbuilding and Shipping Record, TMB Taylor Model Basin (used as an
33, Tothill Street, Westminster, adjective only)
London, S.W.I, England TNA "Theory of Naval Architecture," by
Prof. A. M. Robb, Charles Griffin
The customary contraction for the
name of this periodical in Great Britain and London, 1952
Co., Ltd.,
is "S. & S. R." TSS Taylor Standard Series of models
USNI United States Naval Institute, An-
SD "Ship Design, Resistance, and Screw napohs, Maryland
Propulsion," by G. S. Baker, WRH Werft-Reederei-Hafen; combined
Vols. I and II, Liverpool, 1933 with Schiffbau und Schiffahrt into
SEE "Ship Efficiency and Economy," by the periodical Schiffund Werft in
G. S. Baker, Liverpool, 1946 1943; see SH, und Hafen
Schiff
SH Schiffund Hafen, C. D. C. Heydorns ZK Journal of Zosen Kiokai, The Society
Buchdruckerei, Uetersen bei Ham- of Naval Architects of Japan.
 PART 3

Prediction Procedures and Reference Data

CHAPTER 40

Basic Concepts Underlying All Calculations

and Predictions
40 . 1 The Calculation of Ship-Design and Perform- 40.4 The Principles of Similitude 3
ance Data 40.5 Dimensions of Physical Quantities 4
40.2 Useful Formulas Embodied in Theoretical 40.6 The Derivation and Use of "Specific" Terms 5
Hydrodynamics 40 7
. Double or Multiple Solutions to the Equations
40 3 . Present Limitations of Mathematical Methods of Motion 6

40.1 The Calculation of Ship-Design and answers of how much and how many. Nor will a
Performance Data. The reader who progresses story alone, no matter how explicit, point the
this far in a consecutive perusal of the book has way out of the hydrodynamic tangles that may
found a word and a graphic picture of the flow be expected to confront the naval architect and
phenomena associated with the motion of a ship. marine engineer of tomorrow. He must have better
The first part is in general form, considering a and sharper tools with which to face newer and
simple or schematic ship. The second part is in more puzzhng problems.
successively more detailed form, having to do This third part of the book, therefore, is de-
with the behavior and effect of an actual ship voted to an exposition of the methods whereby
and its many components. flow and its phenomena may be deflned in
To avoid breaking up the story, mathematical graphical, mathematical, and numerical terms. It
derivations, processes, and formulas are purposely gives a description of the methods, formulas,
omitted from the two parts, except in a few
first procedures, and other aids whereby the influences
special cases. The reader has been asked to take and effects described in Parts 1 and 2 may be
the story largely on faith, with copious references predicted or calculated in quantities useful to
if his faith appears to waver at any point. the ship designer.
There is another reason for this procedure, well Indeed, it is the ultimate aim of all those who
expressed by R. E. Froude when discussing the take a deep interest in these phases of naval
second of D. W. Taylor's papers on stream forms architecture, to develop and to refine methods of
m 1895 [INA, Vol. 36, p. 246]: computation and calculation by which any aspect
"... The problems of stream-line motion have hitherto of the performance of a ship or any of its parts

been almost out of the reach of everybody except practical
mathematicians; not because all such problems are too
abstruse for anyone but a practical mathematician to
understand, but rather, because all treatises dealing with
those subjects have been condensed and written, so to
say, in a language which no one but practised technical
mathematicians can understand."
Manifestly, a story alone can not design a
ship, nor meet those modern needs which demand
may be predicted on paper and in the design
stage. The modern hydrographer can not afford
to wait on the spot to see what the height of the
tide and the strength of the tidal current will be
at Point X
ten years hence; he has designed and
built a machine that predicts it for him. The
modern owner, operator, and naval architect, by
the same token, can not wait, with a ten-million
dollar ship at stake, until it runs sea trials to

1
 HYHROnYNAMICS 1\ SHIP Dl.SlGN Src. 40.2

fiiul out whether it will mniiitnin a reasonable vulnerable, as long as .someone cLso continues to
tjpitil ill stomiy weather. work out new exjircssions, like the ram-pressure
The nuHlerii t^hip designer, with all the methods formula, that help him in his ilaiiy work. However,
and data of the twentietli centurj' at his eommand, to apply these or other formulas intelligently, the
can »io wontii-rs in this respect, especially with engineer shoulii know what the}' mean.
the help of model tests. However, it is not wise Furthermore, as the science of ship propulsion
to rely so much on nunlel results that analytic and ship motions progresses, more and more new
ability and prediction procedure sufTer by con- formulas are needed. Many of them can be derived
sequence. only through mathematical processes. It is not
40.2 Useful Formulas Embodied in Theo- too much to say that many of them can best be
retical Hydrodynamics. The amazingly large derived bj' the naval architect himself. The
grouj) of naval architects, engineers, scientists, omi-ssion of the mathematical derivations in this
and mathematicians, manj" of them of great tliird part should not be taken, therefore, as an
renown, who devoted their thoughts, energies, indication that the ability to derive them or to
and talents to a study of the mechanics of fluids, formulate better ones can be omitted from the
have tackled the problems confronting them knowledge of one who aims to specialize in the
along two general lines. Some have conducted hydrodynamics of the ship.
experiments, analyzed data, and evolved theories The reader who wishes to familiarize himself
explaining the fluid action obser\'ed. Others have with the mathematical theoiy and processes of
started with certain basic assumptions and hydrodynamics is referred to a number of text-
premises, like the principles of continuity and books and other publications. The authors, titles,
conser\'ation of energj- and the laws of mechanics, and other data on these books, listed in Sec. 1.3
and have succeeded, bj' reasoning and intuitive of the Introduction to Volume I, are repeated
processes, in deriving fundamental mathematical here for convenience:
expressions for the behavior and flow of ideal
(1) Binder, R. C, "Fluid Mechanics," Prcntice-llall,
liquids. By a judicious combination of the results New York, 1947. A third edition appeareti in 1955.
stemming from these two lines of endeavor, there (2) Vennard, J. K., "Elementary Fluid Mechanics,"
is aviiilablt! a surpri.sing store of mathematical Wiley, New York, 2nd edition, 1917. A third

expressions by which data on the flow of real edition appeared in 1951.

(3) Rouse, II., and Howe, J. W., "Basic Mechanics of
licjuids can be derived in numerical tenns.
Fluids," Wiley, New York, 1953
For example, by the application of the well- Rouse, H., "Elementary Mechanics of Fluids,"
(4)
known kinetic-energj- formula for solid bodies, Wiley, New York, 194G
where E = ii.bmV^, and by the tlieorem which (5) Prandtl, L., and Tietjens, O. G., "Applied Hydro-

maintains the sum of the potential and kinetic and Aeromechanics," McGraw-Hill, New York,
1934
energies constant, it is possible to deduce the
(C) Rouse, II., ICtlitor, "Engineering Hydraulics," Wiley,
ram pressure at the stagnation point in the center New York, 1950
of the nose of a body of revolution. Here the (7) Dryden, H. L., Murnaghan, F. D., Bateman, H.,
Uquid-strcam velocity is zero, and the ram pres- "Hydrodynamics," National Research Council,
sure 7 = O.opf/". The modern engineer uses this Wasliington, 1932
(S) Slrceter, V. L., "Fluid DynainicM," McGraw-Hill,
formula, as he does many others like it, without
New York, 194S
a moment's hesitation as to its accuracy and Binder, R. C, "Advance*! Fluid Dynamics and Fluid
(9)
certainly without requiring its experimental Machinery," Prentice-Hall, New York, 1951
confirmation. (10) Goldstein, S., "Modern Developments in Fluid

In this respect, the everyday formulas derived Mechanics," Vols. I and II. Oxford Prcts, 1938

by the mathematics of classical hydrcxlynaniicsare (U) Milne-Thomson, L. M., "Theoretical Hydrody-

namics," .Macmillan, New York, 2nd edition, 1950
to the mfKJern naval architect and marine engineer
(12) Lamb, Sir Horace, "Hydrodynamics," Dover, New
ju.st HO many u.seful tools. This is the reason why York, 0th rcvisetl e<iition, 1915.
the chaptirrs which follow are given over to a
presentation of formulas gathered from many 40.3 Present Limitations of Mathematical
.s<jurce«, without including the mathematical Methods. .Matlicmutical and jiiialytical nicduxis
proofs or derivations among them. The engineer in their present state, even though stretched to the
may continue to |(M)k upon the mathematics as a utmost, can by no means .supply all the an.swers
mearm to an end, without rendering iiimself wanted l.v llif nindrrn marine nrcliitecl. Thi-y
Sec. 40.4 BASIC CONCEPTS FOR CALCULATIONS
can not, in fact, supply any but incomplete
answers in cases where the physical phenomena
are not as yet fully understood. Friction-drag
formulas for ship plating are a case in point.
Despite an enormous amount of time and energy
expended on the problem of friction flow, both
in air and in water, the mechanism of fluid
(as for the lapt foot of the 50-foot plank) throughout
the last 250 feet of the surface, or to cease entirely after
50 feet; while it is perfectly certain that the truth must lie
somewhere between these assumptions."
According to E. V. Telfer and F. H. Todd, as
described in the reference cited:
".. believing the truth to lie between them, but
.

friction is still incompletely understood. Formulas

unable to decide on which was nearer to the absolute truth,
much better than those now in use can not be he (Froude) compromised by taking an exact mean curve."
expected until this knowledge is achieved.
Heretical as it may seem to mathematicians, A more modern example might arise if a marine
the use of mathematics, in both science and architect were called upon to estimate the hydro-
engineering, must always be tempered by good dynamic resistance of the balsa-log raft of South
judgment. In fact, it is a generous gift of this American design, called Kon-Tiki and used by
same good judgment that makes a good engineer Thor Heyerdahl and his companions in their
inany line of work. voyage from Peru to the South Pacific Islands in
must be recognized that mathematics is
It 1947 [Heyerdahl, T., "Kon-Tiki," Rand-McNally,
always based on some kind of assumptions and 1950]. Assuming that he could approximate the
conditions, which the mathematician hopes are drag of one log, moving end on, he would with
always complete and correct. They may be reasonable certainty estimate that the total drag
neither. This is Avhere judgment enters, in advance of the nine logs abreast was less than nine times
as well as in the wake of the mathematics. the drag of one log. Similarly, he would know
It may be interesting to quote here the com- that the drag was more than that of a box-shaped
ments of one well-known designer on this phase body having the same planform, the same
of the subject [Fox, Uffa, "Sail and Power," general dimensions, and the same volume dis-
New York, 1937, p. 20]: placement. By a series of approximations of this
"Mathematics are only person who has
of value to the
kind he could narrow the probable resistance to
the sense to use the right formula and start with the true within rather close limits.
value. Too many mathematicians today multiply an un- The diversion in this section is intended partly
known quantity by an illogical factor, and arrive at pro- as a caution, and is in no sense to be looked upon
portions that a man with discerning eyes can see are
as a discouragement. The fact that considerable
wrong, even though the mathematicians believe the answer
to be correct if the mathematics are correctly worked."
space is devoted in the chapters following to
means for deriving quantitative data should serve
It must be said in defense of mathematicians as an indicator of its importance in this line of
that they are by no means the only people who work.
"multiply an unknown quantity by an illogical For an intelUgent and proper use of the data,
factor." This is the reason for inserting some however, a certain amount of preliminary knowl-
mathematical cautions in a design book for naval edge is necessary, and a few specific rules are to
architects and marine engineers. Nevertheless, it be observed. These are described briefly in the
becomes necessary at times to venture far afield sections following.
in one's need for arriving at some kind of numerical 40.4 The A knowl-
Principles of Similitude.
answer. edge of the theory forming the basis
of similitude,
A classic example of this kind was well de- of all model-testing procedures, is not necessary
scribed by William Froude in his reports of the for an understanding of the calculation, prediction,
early 1870's to the British Association [Todd, and ship-design methods described in Parts 3 and
F. H., SNAME, 1951, p. 316], when discussing 4 of this book. However, for the marine architect
the means of extrapolating his 50-ft plank friction who is interested in knowing the conditions for
data to ship lengths of 300 ft or more. The dynamic similarity of flow and motions, and in
comments in parentheses are those of the present utilizing the dimensional-analysis methods ex-
author: pounded by Lord Rayleigh, the n Theorem of
"... it will make no very great difference in our estimate
Riabouchinsky, and elaborations upon them by
of the total resistance of a surface 300 feet long, whether R. C. Tolman, E. Buckingham, P. W. Bridgman,
we assume such decrease to continue at the same rate and others, a background of general knowledge of
 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SlllP Dl-.SKiN Sec. -to.

assuredly subject, toaccompany a chapter on modeling and

\\\c thion- ami principles of similiUuie is
dimensional analysis in his book "Hydrodynamics"
iiecessan'.
(Princeton Univ. Press, 1950, pp. 182-183|
Fur tlie reader who method,
wishes to study lliis
(24) I.,!inghaar, H. I,., "Dimensional Analysis and Theorj'

refresh his menmry, or look up doubtful points, a of Mmiels," Wiley, New York, 1951
partial list of references is given: (25) Huntley, H. E., "Dimensional Analysis," Macdonald,
Ivondon, 1952
il) HiBbourhinsky, D., "M^-thodc den Variables dc (26) Duncan, W. J., "Physical Similarity and Dimensional
Dimcndion Zero ct son Application en Af rodynam- .\n:ily»i8," St. Martin's Press, New York, 1953.
iquc (DimensionleRR \'arial>los and Their Uso in
AiToilynamics\" A6rophilo, 1 Sep 1911 40.5 Dimensions of Physical Quantities.
(2) Rayli-igh, IajmI, Brit. Adv. t'omm. Aero., Ann. Rop., Wliellier one is or is not versed in dimensional
1::JS. 1010: 2:20, 1911; 3:30, 1912
analysis or the theory of similitude, the concept
(3) Tolmnn, U. C, "The Principle of Similitude," Phys.
of the dimensions of a physical ciuantity, in terms
Rev., 1914, Vol. Ill, p. 244
(4) BuckinRliam, Iv, "On Phy.sically Similar Syplems," of the basic dimensions of length, mass, and time,
Phys. Rev., 1914, Vol. IV, p. :}45 needs to be clearly visualized. Only in this way
(5) Tolman, R. C, "The Principle of Similitude and the can the dimensionless (0-diml) relationships
Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity," Phys.
described elsewhere and employed constantly in
Rev., 1915, Vol. VI, p. 219
Buckingham, E., "Model E.\i)eriment8 and the Forms the book be well understood. The dimensions of
(6)
of Empirical Equations," Trans. ASME, 1915, the various physical quantities in general use by
Vol. 37. pp. 263-296 architects and engineers are derived bj' relatively
(7) Tolman, R. C, "Note on the Homogeneity of Physical simple processes and are tabulated in full in
Equations," Phvs. Rev., 1916, Vol. VIII (Ser. II),
Appendix 2 of Volume I. They may he memorized
p. 8

(8) Bridgman, P. W., "Tolman's Principle of Similitude," or a list may be kept handy for ready reference.
Phys. Rev., 1910, Vol. VIII, p. 423 Better still, they may be derived each time they
(9) Buckingham, E., "Notes on the Methml of Dimen- are needed by the procedure described in .Vppen-
sions," Phil. Mag., 1921, Vol. 52, p. ti<)6 (lix 2.
(10) Tavlor, D. W., "Propeller Design Based upon Model
X;itural sines, cosines, and tangents of angles
E.\i)eriments," SNAME, 1923, pp. 57-109: csp.
are perhaps the simplest examples of dimensionless
pp. 99-106, which include the deduction of the
n Theorem on pp. 102-106, from Buckingham's ratios. Others are pitch ratio, blade-thickne.ss
paper, ref. (4) of this series ratio, and aspect ratio. Unfortunately for the
(11) Slocum, S. E., Discussion of ref. (10) of this series, engineer, or so he may think, there are no limits
SNAME, 1923, pp. R0-S7
to the coni])iexity or intricacy of other dimension-
(12) Dryden, H. L., Muriiaghan, F. D., Bateman, H.,
"Hydrodynamics," Nat. Res. Council, Wa.shington, less combinations. Among the particular 0-diml
19:J2, pp. 4-6 exprc.'^sions of interest to the na^al architect are
(13) Buckingham, E., "Dimensional Analysis of M(mI(I the comijlete set of hull-form and ])ropcller-form
Proi«-ller Tests," ASNE, May 1936, pp. 147-19S. coetficients, the Froude luimber /•'„ the Reynolds ,

Pages 107-198 of this paper list 24 references on

number and the cavitation index (^(sigma).
//„ ,

the subject.
"Dimensional Analysis," Yale All of these are important, and they arc in constant
(14) Bridgman, P. W.,
University Pre.ss, rev. edition, 19;J7 use in one form or another.
(15) Rouse, H., "Fluiil Mechanics for Hydraulic Engi- The opposite sides of all etiviations involving
neers," McGraw-Hill, 1938, Chap. 1
physical (]uantitie.s must have the .sjune dimen-
(10) Davidson, K. S. M., PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 67-58,
EH, A
sions (House, II., 10.50, pp. i)'.l.'-)-!)!)8).
00-61
O. "Experimental Fluid Dynamics formula for a (luantity must have the dimensions
(17) Hnnkins, A.,
Applie<l to I'^ngincering Practice," NECI, 1943- of that (luantity. Take the familiar V = 2gh.
HM4, Vol. 60, pp. 24-25 Here 2 g is an acceleration having the
is 0-<linil;
(IS) Rouw, H., EMF, 10^16, Appx., pp. 'AhX'ATA dimensions of a length // divided by a time I
(10) Van Driest, Iv R., "On Dimensional .'Vnalysis and
stiuared, and the height h has the dimensions of
Prc!(«,-ntatinn of Data in Fluid Flow Problems,"
Jour. Appl. Mcch., ASME, 19-16, Vol. 13, No. 1 a length /.. Hence V
= (L/l'){L) = // l' =
(20) Vcnnjird, J. K., "Elementary Fluid Mechanics," (/y//)' = v. Another example is the formula for
Wiley, New York, 2nd e«Jitiori, 1947, pp. 142 153 lift force /., which is L = r',.(()..'ip).t f '', where .1 is
"Introduction NK'thodes Di-
(21) C1inrp(^nticr, H., aiix
the |)rojected area of lui airfoil or hydrofoil and f/
merurionnelloK (Intrmluclion to Dimensional Mcth-
is the fluid velocity pa.st it. Since (",. is 0-<liml. for
O.U)." ATMA, UM7. Vol. 46, p. 156
reasons given in the section following, with
(22) Roiwc. H., i;il, IBM), Appx., pp. 1MI5 WS. 1001 lOW
tilt!

(23) O. BirkhofT givoo a lint of cightMn references on this the dimensions of unity.
 Sec. 40.6 BASIC CONCEPTS FOR CALCULATIONS
in simple numerical form, the ratio of (1) the
Force L = (1)(0.5)
drag force on a given body, moving at a relative
speed U, at a certain attitude and under given
niL
conditions in a liquid, to (2) the force that would
L'f
be exerted on the body if the ram pressure
The last expression has the dimensions of a force. q (or 0.5pU^) acted uniformly over its entire
The Derivation and Use of
40.6 "Specific" projected area A. Here
Terms. The term "specific" as now applied to Drag
ship resistances of various kinds is not a new term ^ ^
to marine architects by any means but it has
come into extended use only during recent years.
Still another familiar specific resistance coeflGicient
It will surelybe encountered more frequently in
isthat for friction resistance, expressed by Cf
the years to come. The term expresses, in 0-diml
This 0-diml coefficient is again the ratio of (1) the
numbers or as a ratio, the relationship between
friction resistance Rp to (2) a ram-pressure force,
some quantity under consideration and a quantity
but the reference area in this case is the wetted
having the same characteristics which is taken
surface S of the body rather than its projected
as a standard or reference.
area. Hence
The best-known use of this term is in the
expression specific gravity, as applied to a liquid. = Rf
Cf
Here the specific gravity of any liquid is repre- SU'
sented by the 0-diml ratio of (1) the weight of
unit volume of liquid to (2) the weight of unit Provided the flows around two bodies are in
volume of standard fresh water. In this case, all respects dynamically similar, and the bodies
fresh water is taken as a reference because it is are geosims (geometrically similar), it is possible
readily available, widely used, and its weight per to determine from model tests and to tabulate for
unit volume is easily determined. ready reference the drag coefficients of objects
Another familiar but unfortunate term is the having many different forms and running at
one known as specific weight; unfortunate because various attitudes, as in Fig. 55. B. The tests
it is not truly dimensionless. It signifies the weight may be made, furthermore, in any convenient
of a substance per unit volume and is expressed medium by using the proper mass-density value
by the symbol w. While it does have a reference in the specific-coefficient formula. Similarly, the
basis of sorts, it has nevertheless the dimensions coefficients apply to motion in any other medium.
of a weight divided by a volume. Broken down When and using specific-
devising, calculating,
into its dimensional elements, explained in resistance terms, most important that the
it is

Appendix 2, and with a weight given the dimen- reference length, area, or volume be carefully
sions of a force, w = Force/L^ = {mL/f)/L^ = understood and defined. For example, in the
m/{LH-). expression for the lift coefficient of a hydrofoil or
Practically all the customary specific resistance a rudder, Cl = L/(0.5pAU^), the area A is that
terms now employed in naval architecture and of the projected or lift-producing area. In other
marine engineering are dimensionless. An example words, it is the area of the planform or the lateral
is the specific pressure coefficient, often called area of the blade bounded by the profile, as
simply the pressure coefficient. This expresses projected on the plane of the base chords. In the
the ratio between (1) a pressure difference Ap (or expression for hydrofoil drag coefficient, Cd =
an absolute pressure) at a given point on a body D/{0.5pAU^), the area A usually remains the
and (2) the ram pressure q developed at the projected area as before, notwithstanding that
forward stagnation point of that body at the this area is projected on a plane Ijdng generally
relative speed U. In the form Ap/(0.5pC/^) the at right angles to the direction in which the drag
pressure coefficient is also known as the Euler force is exerted. In the expression for the specific
number E^ In the form (p„ — e)/(0.5pf7^), where
. friction-resistance coefficient of either rudder or
e is the vapor pressure of the liquid, it is the hydrofoil, where tangential forces are involved,
cavitation number o-(sigma). Cf = Rf/(0.5pSU^). Here S is the superficial or
^ Another example is the specific drag coefficient wetted area of both sides of the rudder blade or
Cd , or simply the drag coefficient. This expresses. hydrofoil.
 IIVDRODNX VMICs 1\ Mill' 1)1 S1(;N , 10.:

40.7 Double or Multiple Solutions to the

Equations of Motion. It is pos.-jiMc for i\ .ship

to travel from one port to luiothor l)j' two or

more difTerent routes, each of which may lie the
easiest and Kest under its own particular comiiina-
Double lightning
tion of circumstances. It found that nature, in
is paths to qroun*
her role as a canscr\er of enerRj-, cau.ses water
and other liquids to flow b}- difTerent paths from
one point to another whenever there is a good Position 1

reason for doing so. Speaking in terms of mathe-

matics this means that there may he two or more Time A
solutions to the ecjuations of motion which govern
the action of the liquids or the bodies in (juestion,
two solutions ^f-
just as there are to the ordinary
quadratic equations in algebra.
Nature does not select these solutions at
Flow (^ ^
random but chooses them in strict accordance pattern
witii some secondary' or lesser cause, which maj' changes to
form large
appear only after the most careful examination vortexes on
or extended study. A case in point, although alternate sides
admittedly not pertaining to liquid flow, is the
multiple paths taken by high-voltage discharges
and by lightning in darting from one fixed point ---«-~-^ '^////////yy,,..
to another. A shifting flow pattern frequently
encountered is that which takes place around ^T7^7777777777777777777777
and behind a cylindrical stick which is drawn Ce&el separation mey occur
rapidly through the water at right angles to its ^- on alternote sides
axis. 40.A depicts the manner in which a
Fig.
double row of vortexes known as the B(5nard or
KirmAn vortex trail or vortex street is formed in
the wake of a 2-diml rod, when drawn through
a liquid in a direction normal to its axis. Here Fin. 40.A Taken from Xaturb
Sevbrai. Exampi.ks
iM-f.STRATlNG DoCBLE SOLUTIONS OK THE Egt'ATIONS
large vortexes roll up, first behind one quarter
OF Flow
and then behind the other quarter of the rod as
In the top diagriim clectririty flows through the two
itmoves along.
paths simultaneously. In the middle iiiid bottom diagrnms
The lowest diagram in the shows the
figure
the schematic flow patterns change with time or other
manner in which a jet of water i.ssuing from a circumstances; these illustrations are intended only to
nozzle with a flared exit cone clings to one side indicate that the flow patterns can and do change while the
or the other of the cone, as the nozzle is flicked surroiMulings remain the same.

quickly from side to side.

IjOss familiar cases are those encountered by flow condition causcil li,\' two suiulions to the
mf)dcl Ijasins in the transition region between equations of motion.
laminar and turbulent flow, where the nature of As a consequence of this situation it may be
the flow may and does change with position and expected that any of the real solutions to a set
time. Similar situations often occur when investi- of equations of motion may be encountere<l in
gating the flow around ship models. The water actual practice. Considerable study may be
passing through a given region on the model at nece.s.sarj'to determine which of these solutions
timcfl follows one |)ath anrl then, ai)parently will apply under conditions which arc apparently
without reason, suddeiily changes to another identical in every respect. There is on record the
path, finly to return to the first as unexpectedly case of the fast man-of-war which, at a given
BH it cleparl<-d from it. This phenomenon has often speed, rudder setting, and trim, would !ip|)iireiitly
been l(Mike<l upon as a matter of instability in the make its own on-the-spot decision as to whether
flow but it can ju»t aa well be regarded ob a uhifling it Would turn in ;i loose circle or a tight ipmc
 CHAPTER 41

General Formulas Relating to Liquid Flow

The Use of Pure Formulas 7 Potential Formulas for Typical Two-
The Quantitative Use of Dimensionless Num- Dimensional Flows 17
bers; The Mach and Cauchy Numbers 7 41.9 Stream-Function and Velocity-Potential For-
41.3 The Euler and the Cavitation Numbers . . 8 mulas for Three-Dimenaional Flows ... 20
41.4 The Froude Number and the Taylor Quotient 11 41.10 The Determination of Liquid Velocity
41.5 Calculation of the Reynolds Numbers . . . 15 Around Any Body 24
41.6 Application of the Strouhal Number . . . 16 41.11 Conformal Transformation 25
41.7 The Planing, Boussinesq, and Weber 41 12. Quantitative Relationship Between Velocity
Numbers 16 and Pressure in Irrotational Potential Flow 25
41.8 Derivation of Stream-Function and Velocity- 41 13. Tables of Velocity Ratios, Pressure Coeffi-
cients, Ram Pressures and Heads ... 30

41.1 The Use of Pure Formulas. The ahnost in which they are generally used. Table 2. a is
exclusive employment of pure mathematical repeated as Table 4 La in this volume for the
formulas in this book, described in Sec. 1.7 of the convenience of the reader.
Introduction to Volume I, is emphasized here. The Mach number ilf „ in liquids is of primary
Unless specific exceptions are mentioned, these interest in the analysis of underwater-explosion
formulas contain only symbols representing phenomena or high-order impact studies, espe-
physical concepts and dimensionless ratios, and cially in the immediate vicinity of the impact or
they are dimensionally consistent. They may be explosion. The Cauchy number C„ , related to it,

used as given, with consistent units belonging may eventually be found of interest in studies of
to any system of meas urement. cavitation erosion on propeller blades and similar
Examples are c =y/gLw/^Tz for the celerity or objects. Taking account of the elasticity and mass
velocity of a trochoidal surface wave, and density of the material, it may be useful in
h = kw{Bx/LE){Vy2g) for the predicted height analyzing shock-wave erosion on different pro-
of the bow-wave crest on a ship. Substituting the peller materials.
dimensions of the physical quantities in the first, As a study of high-order impact and of the
details ofshock-wave erosion is somewhat beyond
the scope of this book, the treatment of the Mach
f=[Hr= or Cauchy numbers in this section is limited to

For the second, examples giving the derivation of the shock-wave

velocities in salt water and propeller bronze. For
the first of these examples it is assumed that salt
ocean water at an average temperature of 60

There is nowhatever upon the units

restriction
deg F possesses an elastic modulus K at that
temperature, from Table X3.m of Sec. X3.7 of
used in these and other formulas like them,
Appendix 3, of 340,000 psi, or 144(340,000) lb per
provided they are consistent. The wave celerity, for
ft^. The mass density of salt ocean water, for the
example, may be in mi per hr, kt, ft per sec,
examples quoted here, may be taken as 1.9903
meters per what not, so long as g and Lw
sec, or
slugs per ft^. The celerity c of an elastic shock
are in the same units. The examples in the sec-
wave in ocean water is then
tions following illustrate the use of pure formulas.
The Quantitative Use of Dimensionless
41.2 ["
144(340,000)
1°"
Numbers; The Mach and Cauchy Numbers. L 1.9903 J
The ten dimensionless numbers or relationships
= 4,960 ft per sec, approx.
of hydrodynamics, previously described in Sec.
2.22 and listed in Table 2.a, are expressed briefly This is the speed of sound in the ocean water
here in quantitative terms to illustrate the manner under the conditions described.
8 FIVDROnYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Srr. -//J

For a propeller hroiize weinht density

liaviiiK a The reiation.ship between the two values of
of 519 lb per ft', the mass density p(rho) at sea celerity, as a matter of interest, is 1 1,574 4,960 =
level is 5 H), 32.174 = 10. 13 slugs per ft'. Assuming 2.33: 1.

that the elastic nuxhilus E of this bronze is The Euler and the Cavitation Numbers.
41.3
15(10*) psi, the celerity r of a shock wave in The Euler number K„ «>r the prc.s.sine cocliicient,
,

bronze is as it is also known, is a relationship between

pres-sures of the fonn
^ [E. = r i5(10")144 T
" \p Ap Ap
L 1(3.13 J ^n = (2.xviii)
P y2 q
= 1 l,.")7l ft per sec.

TABLE 41. a Sum.nhkv of D.\ta on Dimensionless Relatio.vships

This table is a duplicate of Table 2.a in Volume I, inserted here for the convenience of the reader.
The ratios of the forces set down by J. K. Vennard |"Elemcntary Fluid Meclianica,"
in this table follow the listing
Wiley, New York, 1947, pp. 144-145] and by H. Rouse (E.MF, 1946, pp. 02, 104, 322, 344). The forces mentioned are unit
forces in each case, and the inertia force is the same as the inertia! reaction.

Name of Symbol Mathematical Relationship between Physical Quantities

Relationship Expression

U Velocity of phenomenon
Mach Af.
Cb
Ratio of -— — —
r^ ;;

Velocity of compression
:

wave
in any medium

Cauchy C.
„ .

Ratio of
,
—
Inertial reaction .

any given medium

s
in
Elasticity force

Ap
Accelerative or pressure force
Euler E. Ratio of
Inertial reaction

p» — e
Accelerative or pressure force
Cavitation (sigma) Ratio of
Inertial reaction

Froude
VJl '
V^ Ratio of :
—
—Inertia force
;

Gravity force
in a deep, unlimited body of liquid

Reynolds R.
UL VL UD Inertia force
Ratio of
Viscosity force

Planing
Drag force or resistance
Ratio of
Ln Dynamic-lift force

Longitudinal vorte.K spacin g in a vortex stree t

Stroubal Ratio of
u Body diameter transverse to flow

Wil•IH-T Inertial reaction to an accolerative force

j W, Ratio of
Surface (tension) force
ylfi

Inert ial reaction within bnundiirioit of dimincl

lkMtininfac| ih Ratio of
VgR„ '
VgRii Gravity force of hydraulic rmhua liu
Sec. 41.3 GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS
-5.58
V rh Pressure Indicator -Pressure at Stagna- E„ = Ap = -0.3455
16.15
tion Point Q

I
Rom P ressure - O.SyoV^ If a model of the ship, with a scale ratio of 25
and a corresponding speed ratio of 5, were being
Atmospheric plus
Hydrostatic Pressure run in an endeavor to obtain dynamically similar
Due to Head h ^^ flow, the Euler number E„ would be the same
-f Po,r^
phe but the ram pressure q would be, as indicated in
Pressure diagram 3 of Fig. 41. B,

Pressure Dio
- = (gship)/25
?Mod'"
2 I fj
Fig. 41. a Schematic Layout and Pressure
Diagram for Pressure Observation on a 0.646 psi.
Ship Rudder

Overall Lencjth for Calculating R,-, and F^ of

I

As applied to the rudder section of Fig. 4LA, and I

Rudder as an Independent Bod-^

specifically to conditions at the orifice P, the

Chord Lenqlh for Rud der as a! Subm e
measured pressure at that point is p, with the
ship underway at the speed V. Assume that, at
rest in fresh water at a temperature of 59 deg F,
the submergence h of the orifice is 8 ft, and that
the atmospheric pressure Pa at the time is 14.69
psi absolute.
To find the hydrostatic pressure at the orifice,
with the ship at rest, it is noted from Table X3.a
of Appendix 3 that the weight density w of the
fresh water is 62.366 lb per ft^, equivalent to a
pressure of 62.366/144 = 0.433 psi. At a depth
of 8 ft the corresponding hydrostatic pressure

Ph is 8(0.433) = 3.464 psi. The ambient pressure Observed Pressure at 1 r ,o-l2.57 psia p

Pa -h Ph = P^ at the orifice is then 14.69 + Orifice. Absolute

I
I

3.464 = 18.15 psi absolute. Neoative Differential Pressure, p-po^^ -Ap=-5.58 p'

Assume next that the vessel of Fig. 41.A is Absolute Zer& —^^ Vapor ---.>. ^ -.^ E 0.25
.^k"' Pressure-^t^ _ ^ psi
r a 2
—S:-,^
underway at a speed of 29 kt, or 48.98 ft per sec. llllllllllllllTlTlllllllllllllllllMlllllllhllllllllllNllllll!

From Table X3.a the mass density p of the fresh

FOR MODEL TotaV"^ T" 15.475 p^tPH +
water is 1.9384 slugs per ft^. The ram pressure is Ram Pressure <\^^ 0.64-6 ps
psia

then
Hydrostatic plus AttnospherJc ^Pa^Phhi
T-
5 = y-' = i^^ (48.98)' = 2,325 lb per ft'
Atmos-l pheric-
k T~
0.084 psi
. ~T^I'*-606
"^
I psia
Negative Differentia
= 16.147 psi, say 16.15 psi. Pressure p-po^ --Ap'-Q223 psi

Ordinate for Atmospheric

A small pressure diaphragm back of the orifice Pressure is Compressed to
P on the rudder, connected to an indicating 0.22 of its Proper Heiqhl
Compared to Other Ordinates
mechanism at the top of the rudder stock,
on this Diaqram
shows a pressure drop of 2.12 psi helow atmospheric
when running. The negative differential pressure
— Ap below the ambient pressure p^ at rest is
then -3.464 - 2.12 = -5.58 psi. The absolute
pressure at the orifice is 14.69 — 2.12 = 12.57 psi. Vapor Pressure^

These values are shown on the pressure diagram '

A bsolute .Lero
''Absolute Zei ^ X.
llllllIlllllllllllllllTlTllMlllllllllllllllMlltllllllllllMII
2 in the middle of Fig. 41. B. The Euler number
E„ or the pressure coefficient at the orifice P, Fig. 41. B Details and Pressure Diagrams for a
when underway, is Pressure Measurement on a Rudder
10 HVDRODVN \MICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. -t 1.3

Multiplying this by tlu- luilcr numher E, = of the rudder section at the point 1', the captation
—0.3455 gives -0.223 psi ns the - ^p to be number ff(sigma) for the flow at that level is

expect<Kl at the corresponding orifice position on readily calculated from the expression
tl>e model rudder. The submergence of the orifice,
S/2o = 0.32 ft, and the
witli tlie nuKJel at rest, is = P--« _E: (2.xix)
hydrostatic pressure there is 3.404/25 = 0.139
psi. Hence, from the equaUty p — p, = —^p,
(14.69 - y) - (14.G9 + 0.139) = -0.223, as Here the ambient pressure p. is 3.464 psi gage
befor«, from which y = (0.223 - 0.139) = 0.084 or 14.69 -f- 3.464 = 18.15 psi absolute. The
psi below atmospheric pressure at the orifice. vapor pressure water at 59 deg F, with
e of fresh
This is tlie pressure that should be registered by a small amount of dissolved air, may be taken
the pressure indicator on the model, on the basis from Table 47.a as about 0.25 psi absolute. The
that the flow is djniamically similar. dynamic pressure q is the same as before, 16.15
Another way of expressing the state of pressure psi. The cavitation index is now
at the orifice P on the ship (or on the model) is
_E= 18.15 - 0.25
to say that it is equivalent to — 0.3455g. Assuming = 1.108
7' 16.15
that the test medium is the same, and that the i:

nature of the dynamic flow does not change (it

would change if cavitation set in on the ship but This index is a measure of the pressure avail-
not on the model), this pressure coefficient is able to create a gradient which will (or will not)
independent of the stream velocity. If a different cause the water to follow the rudder section.
test medium is used, of a greater mass density in Since it exceeds numerically the negative-pressure
order to obtain greater pressure differences, the coefficient —Ap/q = 0.3455 at the orifice P,
value of the pressure coefficient E„ = — 0.3455g there is more than enough pressure available to
would still be the same, for dj'^namically similar create a gradient which \vill turn the water in
flow. In the same way, tests to determine the toward the rudder. No cavitation is taking place
pressure coefiicients over a series of points along therefore at the point P, nor is any to be expected
the section contour of a model rudder, mounted at somewhat higher speeds.
by itself, could be made in air or they could be A look at pressure diagram 2 of Fig. 41.B,
run mercury, whichever was most convenient.
in plotted to scale in psi absolute, explains why this
when tests are run in a different
It is customarj', is so. The numerator p — p^ — A73 in the pressure-
medium, to set the speed at such a value that the coefficient expression is represented by the
dynamic pressure of the test is the same numeri- negative distance from P to H, or 12.57 — 18.15 =
cally as the dynamic pressure in the medium in — 5.58 psi. The terra p„ — e in the numerator of
which the full-scale body is to run. As the mass the expression for the cavitation number is

density of mercury is about 13.60 times that of represented by the distance from H to E. Cavi-
fresh water, the velocity-squared term C/J would tation is not to be expected until the absolute
have to be decreased by this ratio to keep the pressure at P drops to E, at which time both
dynamic pressure the same. This w ould involve numerators would be equal. Therefore, as long as
a red uction in velocity to a value of V2, 399/ 13. 60 p — p„ is smaller numerically for a given speed
= V
170.4 = 13.28 ft per sec, corresponding to than p„ — c, cavitation does not occur at that
a ship speed of 7.86 kt for mercury instead of speed. This is also evident directly from the fact
29 kt for water. For a scale ratio of 25, and a that the absolute pressure p at the orifice P,
corresponding speed ratio of 5, the test speed for 14.69 — 2.12 = 12.57 psi absolute, is far above
the model would be 7.80/5 = 1.57 kt. the vapor pressure e of the water, taken as 0.25
If, as maj' be expected, the pressure coefficient psi absolute.
changes with rudder angle {(delta) and with the Unless one is working constantly in this field,
thickness ratio t.x/c of the section, it is convenient the calculation and use of pressure cix-fficicnts and
for teating and for design purposes to plot the cavitation numbers can become confusing and
prciwure CKcflicicnt for any desired point or points exasperating. It is recommended that, in these

on a basis of rudder angle and of thickness ratio. cases, the calculations be supplemented by graphic
A Himilnr procedure i.s followed for other variables. diagrams drawn ap|)roximatoly to scale, cor-
If the liability of cavitation nrima in a study responding to those at 2 nud 3 in I'^ig. 11, B.
Sec. 41.4 GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS 11

a help to remember that the -pressure

It is also trim by the bow, due possibly to damage, the
coefficient E„
is a function of body shape, because it topmost rudder sections in Fig. 41. A lie at the
embodies the pressure p which is found or meas- surface of the water instead of below it, then
ured on a body under given flow conditions. The wavemaking and gravity effects come into play
cavitation number is a function of the flow conditions and the Froude number is appHcable. Here
and of the liquid in the stream; this can be re-
membered because it embodies the vapor pressure
e. The critical cavitation number (tcr occurs
when the cavitation number of the flow drops Assuming the length of these rudder sections
to same numerical value as the pressure
the as 14.6 ft, and the reduced speed as 12 kt, or

coefficient of the body at the point of lowest 20.27 ft per sec, the Froude number for the rudder
absolute pressure on the body. only is

It is customary in some quarters, when con- 20.27

venience dictates the change, to derive the Euler F„ = 0.935
V32. 174(14.6)
number E„ and the cavitation number a by using
values of head instead of pressure. The expression The corresponding Taylor quotient for the

for the former then becomes rudder only, based upon speed in kt and length in
ft, is
h - h^
-En = (41. i)
= V 12
=
r„ 3.14
2g
VL \/14.6

where Ul/(2g) is the dynamic or velocity head

The Froude number F„ and the Taylor quotient

undisturbed liquid. With a vapor-pressure Tj are related to each other by the constant ratio
in the
head hv , the cavitation number
h„ — fey
is „
^» = —^
1.6889 .„.
(-f
J and T = ^
1.6889^
(F)
"'^

(41. ii)
where 1 kt is 1.6889 ft per sec. If g is 32.174 ft
29 per sec', as in the example given, then F„ =
Employing the same data as for the preceding 0.2978r, and T, = 3.358F„ . For mental calcula-
examples, and taking g as 32.174 ft per sec^, the tions or rough approximations, F„ may be taken
dynamic or velocity head is as 0.3T, and T, as (10/3)F„ .

There are certain applications, such as in

2,399
hu = = 37.28 ft. planing craft, in which the conventional Froude
2g 2(32.174) number is modified by using the beam B as the
The measured gage pressure at the orifice P length dimension rather than the length L, or in
of 2.12 psi below atmospheric corresponds to a which ¥^'^ is used for L as the length dimension.
negative head of -2.12/0.433 = -4.896 ft. The The derivation of the numerical values for the
pressure coefficient is then: modified F^ and Fv numbers is obvious from the
corresponding expressions
Ap -8.00 - 4.896
= —0.346, as before. V V
g 37.28 = and Fy =
F,
The head corresponding to the atmospheric
VgV
pressure of 14.69 psi is 14.69/0.433 = 33.93 ft. There are set down in Table 41. b a series of
The cavitation index a is based upon a vapor Froude numbers F„ covering a range of speed
,

head of 0.25/0.433 or 0.57 ft of water. The from 2 through 100 ft per sec, equivalent to 1.18
index is then through 59.21 kt, and embracing a range of
model and ship lengths from 5 through 1000 ft.
h^ (33.93 -f 8.0) - 0..57
= 1.109 A first approximation to the Froude number for
37.28
a given speed and length, based upon a standard
2g
g-value of 32.174 ft per sec', is obtained by
This is equal to the value previously derived. inspection from this table. More accurate values
41.4 The Froude Number and the Taylor are calculated by using the formulas in preceding
Quotient. If it is assumed that at an excessive paragraphs of this section.
12 ]i\ DRODN \ \\li( s |\ sllil- 1)1 M(.\ .SV( . 11. -f

TABLE 41.b Proudb Numbers for Ship and Model Speeds and Lenoths

Velocity
Sec. 41.4 GENERAL LIQUID FLOW FORMULAS 13

TABLE 41.b ^Feoudb Numbers for Ship and Model Speeds and Lengths —Continued
Velocity
14 IIMiRonVN XMICS l\ sllll' 1)1SI(;\ Sec.-fl.-f

TABLE 41.b— Froudb Nuubbrs fob Ship and Modbl Spbbds and Lbnotiis—Condu/M

Velocity
Sec. 41.5 GENERAL LIOUID-FLOW FORMULAS 15

41.5 Calculation of the Reynolds Numbers. B or body diameter D rather than its length L is

Although many rudders lie partly or wholly the determining factor in the type and nature of
within the boundary layer of the main hull, it may viscous flow encountered. For this reason, a
be assumed in Fig. 41. A that the point P is dimension transverse to the flow rather than one
outside (below) that layer. At the orifice position parallel to the flow is used as the space dimension
the boundary layer is assumed to be that due to in the numerator of the Reynolds number. For
flow over the rudder alone. the case of the underwater sound head of Fig.
For a ship speed of 29 kt, the velocity U in the 41. D of Sec. 41.6 it is the diameter D of the head,
Reynolds-number expression UL/v{rm) for the say 1.72 ft. The relationship so formed is called
rudder only is again 48.98 ft per sec and the the rf-Reynolds number, represented by
significant lengthL of the rudder section, at 8 ft
below the at-rest WL, is 10.2 ft. From Table Rd = UD (2.xxii)
X3.h the kinematic viscosity v of fresh water at
59 deg F is 1.2285(10"') ft' per sec. Hence, for For a ship speed of 14 kt, or 23.64 ft per sec,
the rudder section as a whole, sketched in diagram this is
1 of Fig. 41.B,
Rd = UD ^ 23.64(1.72)
= 3.3(10')
48.98(10.2) V 1.2285(10"')
Rn = = 40.66(10")
1.2285(10"')
There are several other Reynolds numbers in
As the Reynolds number rarely needs to be use by hydrodynamicists, such as the 5-Reynolds
expressed in exact terms, its value for a speed of number Rs In this case the thickness 8 of the
.

29 kt, orabout 49 ft per sec, and for a length of boundary layer replaces L as the space dimension
10.2 ft, may be taken by inspection from Table in the expression UL/v.
45. a. This gives about 40(10**), almost exactly One of great importance is the blade-Reynolds
the same as by computation. number R^ for the blade sections of screw and
If the flow at the orifice position P is to be rotating-blade propellers. This expression is

studied, the significant Reynolds number is the built up in the manner shown by Fig. 41. C. It
x-Reynolds number R^ at that point, indicated in
Fig. 41. B. It is customary, in asymmetrical as
well as symmetrical shapes of this kind, to measure
the x-distance from the leading edge along the
Blode Chord Length at 0.7 R= c q.yr
base chord or other convenient dimension parallel Section
to the direction of flow. In this case it is measured Qt 0.7 Rodiusl

along the meanline. It is customary, also, when Blade Rev/nolds

\- Number Reiode
the velocity of the hquid along the boundary is
not accurately known, to consider it equal to the ^/.[2rrn(0.7R)]t-^(co.,,)
Tonqential V
undisturbed stream velocity. Here Ua, = V. Velocitij
If the orifice at P lies opposite a point 2.84 ft 2-rrn(0.7R) Nominal Blode Velocity
downstream from the leading edge, then the {v/t[a^n(o.7R)]2)0-5
a;-Reynolds number is
Lonqitudmal Velocity VA Effect of Small
^ Angle of Attack
R. = Vix) ^ 48.98(2.84)
= 11.32(10''') Nei^lected
V ~ 1.2285(10"')
is

Fig. 41. C Definition Sketch and Formula fob

by calculation or 11.2(10') from inspection of
Blade Reynolds Number
Table 45.a. For the 1/25 scale model, run at a
speed equal to 48.98/5 = 9.79 ft per sec with the
test point 2.82/25 = 0.113 ft downstream from utihzes as the length dimension the chord length c
the leading edge, the a;-Reynolds number is of a typical blade section, at 0.7i2 on a screw pro-
peller, and a nominal velocity generally parallel to
9.79(0.113)
R. =
1.2285(10"')
0.09(10') the base chord of the blade. For model pro- TMB
peller2294 shown in Fig. 78. L, where the chord
In the case of flow around a body of short length c at 0.7R is 2.682 inches or 0.2235 ft, the
length, broadside to the stream, the body beam value of 0.7R is 3.378 inches or 0.2815 ft, Va is
16 innuoDNA \Mi(.s i\ Mill' ni su.x Srr. l/.f,

(lAstinml as ft. 07 ft prr sec or l.l.i kt, aiid u as Ci'A) and the Strouhal numi)er S, ; this is available for
rpm or 10. S.} t\)!>. 'I'lic liladr-Ht-ynolds lumilitT for a sonu'wiiat lower range of fi^ in the left-hand
a J-value of l'^/ (nD) = 0.80 works out as diagram of Fig. 4().('i [House. H., EH, 19.50, Fig.

94, p. i:U); Landweber, L., TMIJ Rep. 485, Jul

^^_ \Vl+[2M0.7R)]r\c...,) ...^
1942, Fig. 8, p. 17). Assuming that the corre-
f
sponding S, value is 0.0, and using Kq. (2.xxiii)

^ 1(6.97)' + |6.2832( 10.83)0.28151'

I
° '(0.2235) of See. 2.22,
1.228,5(10-*)

= 0.371(10')
S, = ^= 0.0 =
y
41.6 Application of the Strouhal Number. wlicrc the ciidy frc(|uency
For tlio rc'triU'taliif .sound m'ar .show II in {'"ig. I I.I),
r 23 01
/ = O.G = (0.0) ' = 14.8 cycles per sec.
DJ-
0.90

Direction of Motion]
M I
I

I
|-^
I
Ke el of Vesse j^ If the frequency of resonant transverse vibra-
tion of the cylindrical sound-gear assemblj',
taking the added ma.ss of the entrained water into
account, is close to this value, the vibration caused
by the periodic alternating transverse force
accompanying the eddy pattern in the vortex
trail will To avoid resonance
be greatly magnified.
without a change diameter of the .sound gear,
in
the extension below the hull may have to be
diminished, or the maximum speed reduced.
41.7 The Planing, Boussinesq, and Weber
Numbers. Tlie planing number /-"„ is of liniilcd
application. It is expressed, as described in Sec.
2.22, as the ratio between (1) the total drag Dt

Fio. 41. D Definition Sketch a.vd Foiimi i.a hhi (or total resistance Rr) of a planing fonn and
Eddy Fiu:giEN'cv in a Vortex Tkaii. (2) the dynamic lift Lg produced by that form.
When, as usually occurs at full planing speed,

having a cylindrical neck diameter D, ami a

of
the buoyancy B is zero and the entire displace-

cylindrical liead of diameter D^ .separation ,

ment A (delta) or weight IT is supported l\v the

occurs around the after sides of both the neck dj'namic lift, the expression becomes P„ =
and the head, ^'ortex trails of eddie.s having fore- Dt/^ = Dr;]V. Expressing the planing nunil)er
and-aft spacings ofb, and bj on each side are left
in numerical values for a given case harilly

behind the two parts of the device. reciuires an example here.

illustrative

Vibration of the neck and head in a transverse The Houssinesci number, similar to the Froude
plane is certain to be encountered at some speed,
number with tlu> hydraulic radius Ri, of a conlined

and the Strouhal number .S'„ is of interest in this waterway as its length dimension, is expressed by

phenomenon. Tlu; situation depicted in Fig. u__

4 .D is complicated by a neck and head of dilTerent
1
R. = (2.XXV)
\ <jR„
diameter, so for the jiurpose of this example it is
assumed that the head diameter A>, is reduce<l The method of calculating the hydraulic
to the neck diameter /->, . This is taken as O.'JO ft. radius is described and illustrated in See. 01.14.

The value of the (/-Reynolds number lij is then, The Weber number \\\ is described in Sec. 2.22.
at Hay 14 kt or 23.04 ft per sec in standard fresh As it is not employed in anj' of the chapters in

water. this volvmie, an illustrative example of the metho<l

of computing and applying it is omitted.
H. -
UD 23.64(0.96)
1.8.5(10") again emphasi/ed that, although normal
It is
1.228.5(10 ')
engineering computations of the various dimen-
It Hum been found by experiment that here I is a sionle.ss numbers would not take account of all
n-lutiuiMihip between the HeynoIdH iiumber /{j tlu! signilicant ligurcs in the preceding examples,
Sec. 41.S GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS 17

l^u for Uniform Flo

they are retained here to insure that the same
f<"- Smijle E-DimI
answer is obtained by different methods of 2"-Diml Source f-^ '^SO

calculation. q\ V-q for Combination of these two

In view of the dimensionless character of the 'i
--Uoo V <-m9°-U ooRsir
parameters described in this section they have ^~~-Reference
Axis
the same numerical values when derived by 0s= -U„xtmlo(5gR= -UooRco5e*mloijeR
consistent units in the metric or any other system
of measurement. Fig. 41. EDefinition Sketch and Formulas for
Stream Function and Velocity Potential of
41.8 Derivation Stream-Function
of and
Combination of Uniform Flow and Single Source
Velocity-Potential Formulas for Typical Two-
Dimensional Flows. The combination of the
stream functions '/'(psi) and the velocity potentials stream of velocity — U„ listed under (a) of the ,

<^(phi), two liquid flows is dis-

respectively, of
cussed briefly in Sees. 2.11 and 2.14. To illustrate
how this procedure is employed in analytic
hydrodynamics a brief outline is given of the
preceding tabulation. The liquid in the stream is
moving from right to left, as in Fig. 4 I.E. Here
the 2-diml stream function fso for the single
source is m9 (theta.) from Eq. (3.xi). The 2-diml
,

formation of the equations for the resultant stream function ^pu for the uniform flow is — U^y.
stream functions and velocity potentials for flow Adding the two gives the stream function for the

about the following simple forms: combined flow

(a) Single-ended 2-diinl body with a single source ^s = - U^y + me = - U„R sin 6 + mB (41.ivx

in the nose; body axis parallel to the flow. A The 2-diml stream function for ^,5 = outlines
partial longitudinal section through this body is a single-ended body, of which a portion of one half
shown by the heavy line in Fig. 43. B. is pictured in Fig. 43. B. The values of ^.9 = — 1,
(b) Two-dimensional Rankine stream form de- — 2,—3, and so on, produce resultant streamlines
veloped around a 2-dinil source-sink pair whose around the body.
axis is parallel to the flow. A similar section The 2-diml velocity potential <j)s o for the single
through such a body is drawn in Fig. 43. D. source is m loge That for the
R, from Eq. (3.xii).
(c) Two-dimensional circular cyhnder or rod, uniform flow is — U^x. Adding the two gives the
with its axis normal to the flow, illustrated in velocity potential for the combined flow
diagram 1 of Fig. 41.G
(d) Two-dimensional circular cylinder with its 4>s = — U^x +m log, R
axis normal to the flow, and about which circula- = - Ua.R COS e +m log, R (41. v)
tion is taking place, corresponding to diagram 3
of Fig. 14.E in Volume I.
II. Take next the case of the 2-diml Rankine
stream form, produced by a source-sink pair,
The formulas given for the yp- and ^-values of lying in a uniform stream having a direction of
these five classes of bodies enable the coordinates flow parallel to the stream-form axis, as listed
for their potential-flow streamline patterns to be under (b) preceding. It is necessary first to derive

determined and the resultant velocities and the stream function \f/
(and the velocity potential
pressures at selected points to be calculated. The <l>) for the source-sink combination, diagrammed
methods of developing the formulas in the text in Fig. 41.F. The stream function obtained by
is

may be followed for formulas applying to bodies adding the stream functions of the source and
of varied shapes. For all of these bodies, the sink. For the source, ypso = fn tan"' [y/{x — s)];

mathematical expressions characterizing the con- for the sink, ypsK = —in tan~' [y/(x -(- s)], where
tours and the flow can be manipulated with the origin of the cartesian coordinates is at
mathematical operators to derive other useful the midlength of the source-sink axis and s is

data, practical as well as analytical. the half-distance between the two. Combining
The purely mathematic steps in the derivations the stream function for the source and sink gives:
of this section and the one following are omitted
= m y —
from the text. tan tan

I. It is convenient to take first the case of a

= m tan
single 2-diml source of strength m in a uniform L-.^^]
18 in I1R()|)^ \ AMKs IN Mill' 1)1 sK.N Sec. 11.

Satnt-ond- Sink = — ['-X + Jm log. (11. ix)

k« <t>.i
l(x + ay + j/'J

III. For the 2-diml circular cj'linder diagrammed

Reference at 1 41.0 and tabulated in (c) preceding,
in Fig.
Axis it is shown in Fig. '.i.M that this form can be
." Sourte. JJjo" inlfln'-jf?j- represented by the resultant flow from a 2-<liml
doublet and from a uniform stream. It is explained
in Sec. 3.10 that a doublet is formed by moving
the source and sink so close together that they
Adding th% SUtotn Function ¥-y • -U^y for the Uniform Row,
almost coincide, but never do. At the same time
the source and sink strength is increased so that
the product of the distance 2s separating the
ftirSinh, ^5K--mlogeRsK - -05mloq« jjx.s)'*/] source and sink times the source strength m
fcrSooree-SmW Riir,
j^c " 7 remains finite [Glauert, H., EAAT, 1948, p. 29).
T'^'^^e (t i
Stated mathematically, Ai(mu) = 2ms as s
A<Jdinq th« Velocity Moitiol ^u'-Ua>^ 'e"" the Uniform Flow,
approaches zero, where n is finite and is called
the doublet strength. The stream function of a
*3--U»>.*-Z-"'l'
>[l^] doublet is the limit as s diminishes to an infini-
F Definition Sketcfi and Formulas voh
Fifi. 41. tesimally small distance in Eq. (41.vi), the stream
Stream Function and Velocity Potential ok function of a source-and-sink pair. Expressed in
CoMBrNATION OF UNIFOR.M FlOW AND SoORCE-SiNK
.sjTiibols,
Pair
2msy
J/D = lim HI tan ' "•- 5 =
+r -
,

Ailding the stream function = —U„y Lx- s J

^,/ of the
uniform flow in the direction of the sourcc-sinlv Sim
a.xis gives for the stream function of the entire
2-diml combination = M.V
(n.x)
^n
X- + y-

^. = -U.y+ wtim- r , J'-'!

- ,1 (41.vii)
Lx + 2/ Adding stream function
'
s J to this the uiiiform-flow

\l/u — —U^y, the function of the coinliiacd flow

The ova! body shape for a value of ^.,- = 0, becomes
and the streamlines for ^., = —2, —4, and so on,
are delineated in Fig. 43. D. ny
-V~y + x'
-i
+ y'
(41.xi)
To determine the velocity potential for the
2-diml source-sink pair of Fig. 41.F, that for a
Setting \l's
= 0, which is its value at the reference
source is
surface, in this case that of the soliij 'J-dinil rod,

(t>so = m log. Rso = \m log. [{x - sY + if]

That for a sink is

U.y = -T^
X + y
(41.xii)

<t>iiK = -m log. /?.,K = -\m log. [(x + sY + ;/]

where the relationship of the coordinates is as Hence the flow takes place around a cylinder of
shown in Fig. 41. H of Sec. 41.9. Adding the radius/?„ where /?,, = 'Vti^l\, .

two Rvalues, the velocity potential for the field The .stream function yf/s of the flow around a
set up by the source-sink pair is J-diml circular cylinder in a uniform stream
nomial to it-s axis can be written in several
^c = \m log" (41.viii) alternative forms:
L(x + sY + v'j
Adding to thi.M the velocity potential = —f ^. = -r..,/ + =-f.«(i-^;)
for a uiiifurin utrcam, the velocity potential for
<f>i, '...x
f
a 2-dinil miiirce-siiik pair lying in a unifonn stream
parallel to the source-sink axis is
= -I'Ju - S'')^*" « (41.xiii)
Sec.41.R GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS
of Doublet is '; ^
y^-n ,

*•
/yi » whe
where p is the doublet strength ^

^. R'X^ y-y for Uniform Flow is -Ua

I
•^ H e nce l^s-- U<»V^^^^

Plane of Paper 15 ^r^ Plane

throuqh Reference Axis

>!-Dfor 3-Biml Doublet

/jsin^6

V-U ' -0.5 Uqo R^sin^e

where yr for this Cose is -Reference
Q 3-Diml Axisymetric Function Axis
Then 11 51 n ^6
Sphere -i/r' -0,5U„R^3in'^e+^^^-f^
/Licos9
i= -U„Rcos6--=S;?

G Definition Sketch and Formulas for

Fig. 41.
Stream Functions and Velocity Potentials
for 2-Diml Rod and 3-Diml Sphere

The velocity potential </>/, of a 2-diml doublet

whose strength ix = 2ms is found by taking the
limit of Eq. (4Lvui) as s approaches zero. This
gives

^1 cos 6 .

in polar coordinates (41.xiv)

R
IXX
in cartesian coordinates (41.xiva)
X- + y'

The velocity potential of a uniform flow from

right to left in diagram 1 of Fig. 41. G is

4>u = — U^x
Combining the two algebraically gives, for the
resultant flow around the rod,

= (4Lxv)

(41.xva)

(41.xvb)
20 HYDRODYNAMICS IN Sllll' D1.S1(;N "irc.-il.O

In a similar manner, the velocity potential is other section shajjcs by confoniial t ran<foriiiatioii,

ol)taine«l Ity adding; tlie velocity potentials of the dcscribeil in Sec 11.11.

separate flows. For circulation alone, 41.9 Stream-Function and Velocity-Potential

Formulas for Three-Dimensional Flows. Paral-
^^ = f i\ tUi +J r,}{ de = ~e (ii.x.x) leling the expositicjn uf Sec. ll.S, where formulas
are derived for the stream function, velocity
For the comliinetl hydrofoil How, potential, local velocity, and local pressure in
the streamline and hydrofoil flows around a
i„ = -{•.(/< + 1^') cas + ^e (U.xxi) 2-diml rod with its axis normal to a uniform

stream of licjuid, the present section carries out

From either the velocity potential or the stream the same derivation for the flow around:
function, the velocity at the surface of the cylinder
(a) A 3-diral sphere
is ol)tainetl from the relationships (b) A
3-diml bodj' with a head of ovoid shape,

1^ = U,
formed by placing a single .3-diml source in a
Rdd uniform stream. A partial longitudinal section
of such a bod}' is illustrated in Fig. G7.II. Only

U, 4+1). in e + .T
that flow is considered which is symmetrical
about an assumed x-axis through the center of
Hence, at the surface, where /? = /?„ ,
the sphere and of the body described. By using
spherical coordinates, diagrammed in Fig. 41. H,

U = 2r. sin e + 27r/f„

(ll.xxii)
Dioqram os Droivn is for the 2-Dimensionol Cose It Serves Also for
k»^ 1^ the 3-DimensionQl Cose b>( Rototmq It to on^
The pressure at any point on the surface of the * Ilesired Anqle About the
"^^slr^^" ~---
2-diml cylinder is, by Ec]. (2.xvi), !
[* —s... |"~- — , Souae-Sinh Axis

I
^I§S!i"=t«) ftint
2r. sin d +
V = V" '<- 1
-
VI
(41.xxiii)
Source
Upon integration of this pressure over the sur- Axis

face to obtain the resultant force in the //-direc-

tion, the lift // is obtained.
Fin. 41. H Definition Sketch for Cartesian and
= -fvR.
Jo
sin e (le = pr„r fii.xxiv) Spiikuicai. Coordinates ok Source-Sink Pair

As a matter of iiif(jnn;ition, llio npproximalc only liie coordinates A' and need be used to
value for the stream function in the case of a define the flow, although the cartesian coordinates
2-diml cylinder of radius R„ in the middle of a for a selected point in any one longitudinal plane
2-diml water passage of width .1, as workcil out through the axis, parallel to the direction of
by II. I^mb, is uniform flow, are shown for convenience.
2irx l''or I he |)iii|inscs ciT this sei-li(in, as for use in
"'"
.Rl A most text and reference books, the 3-diinl stream
^ = 17-
A 2tt/
—^ — 2x1 times the Stokes stream
^
cosh
,

A
cos —Ar- fimction is l/(27r)
function described in the concluding paragraphs
where the origin of cartesian coordinates is appar- of Sec. 2.12, on page 32 of \'oluine I. Hence the

ently taken at the center of the cylinder [Ilclc- (liuiiitity rate of flow in a "rod" of radius ij,

Shaw, II. S., IXA, 1808, Vol. XI., p. 28). A plot with a uniform velocity of — ('„ ,
is

is given by Ilele-
of the streamlines for this ca.se = -V^Ttf
^Blok..
Shaw 20 on Plate XI of the reference'.
in Fig.
However, for the 3-diml stream function used here
Knowledge of the stream function or velocity
potential for the 2-<iinil circular s<'ction is of
great value in deriving corrcspondinn dat.'i for
Sec. 41.9 GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS 21

I.The first case considered is that of the sphere.

The relationships between the stream function,
the velocity potential, the radial velocity Ur ,

and the tangential velocity Ub are, for the

axisjonmetric case in spherical coordinates [Milne-
Thomson, L. M., TH, 1950, pp. 403-404],

^= -U,R sin e
 HVDROUVNAMiCs 1\ sll||> DISIGN Sec. 11.9

To obtain the doublet, s — 0.O^o — Osk —* 6.

»
-
niul /i',,A — /^,<, — • It. Tlicii. for llic :>-(liinl (i..ul)li't,
1

— /I cos
4>
= (ll.xxxa)
= 1 siir (ll.xxxiv)

I
-MX COS , M
II. For the case of the :5-diinl bodj' of ovoid
shape, formed by placing a 3-diml source of
(U.xxxb) strength rn in a uniform stream of velocity — f/. ,

as in Fig. 07. H, the .3-diml velocity potential and

Coml)ii>iiig tlie cloul)let and the uniform- the 3-diml stream function are obtained as

stream veloeity potentials and stream functions previouslj' explained, by adding the values of
gives, for the streamline flow around a sphere in and
<f> respectivcl.v, for the two flows. Then,
}f/,

a uniform stream of velocity —U„ , depicted in from Eqs. (41.xx'via) and (U.xxviia),
diagram 2 of Fig. 41.G,
4> -U^R cose - j^
(41.xx.xva)

- U^R - n cos 8
«. cos 8 (U.xxxia)
R- From Iv|.-;. (41.xxvib) and (4l.xx\iib),

= -o
1 ,, ,-,o
f^/?"sm-
. -.
„
8 +
, u sin' 8 , ,
,

(41.xxxib)
...
i/- = — .Jf/„/2"sin" - m cos B (41.xxxvb)
^3.d.=.i
^
whence
Setting ^ = at the .spherical .surface,

/I sin^ 6 t/«
=f| =^- fLcosO (41.xxx-A-i)
I l\R' sin=
R
"'- RdB [/„sin 8 (41.xxxvii)
72' = 1^ = 7?^ or ii-o = (1^)"'
To find the coordinates of the nose of the
where Ro is the radius of the sphere about which body, set Ur and [/» equal to zero since the nose
the flow takes place. Stated in another way, the is al.so the stagnation point. Then
flow around a sphere of radius Ro is obtained by
adding a uniform stream — 1/„ to a IB-diml 7^ - i/„ cos e =
doublet of strength /x = \U,.,R\ .

Substituting m = §t/„/?o into the expressions [/„ sin =

for (f> and ^ gives:
Hence the nose is at

«a.din..

\^3-dllI>l
= - 1/.

—
[/. sin' 8
cos 8\R

{Rl
+

-
^j
R')
(41 .xxxiia)

(li.xxxiil)) The 3-diml stream

= 0, Ro =
^
function value which passes
2ft
through the stagnation point is ^ = — ;». But
From Eqs. (41.xxA-a) and (41.xxvd), this stream function is also the surface of the
body. Hence, in axisymmetric spherical coordi-
= -
1
f/, nates, tlic (I Illation of the surface is
R sin 8 dfi '
ft 08
2?/i(l — cas 6)
R- (11 .xxxviii)
U„ sin' 8

For the points abreast the source, where

On the surface of the .sphere, R = Ro , Uk = 0, 8 = 90 dcg, cos = and sin 8=1, whence
whence the local velocity is
2m
U = If/.sin e Rio = or Rt
(41.xxxiii)

The prcKHure cocilicicnt at any point on l!ic From thisit appears that Ron = /?o 2. V
jnirfncc of the Hphere Im, by F'lq. (2.xvi), Till' Inmsvcr.se radius of a 3-dinil ovoid such as
Sec. 41.9 GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS 23

To satisfy the condition that the ovoid is to have

a transverse "base" radius Rb of 6.5 ft, at a
distance of 10 ft abaft its nose.

Yj
Rb cos 63 — 10

and
Rb sin Ob = 6.5

where Rb and 63 are the coordinates of the rim

of the ovoid at its base. Substituting in the
foregoing for Rb in terms of 6b and m, gives

1 2m(l - cos 61b)

= 10
tan 6b (7.

and
2m(l — cos Qb)
=
4 6.5

From the second equation,

42.25C7,
2(1 - cos Bb)
Resultant Velocitij at Point P in
j<{^a2^ Ship Speed U,
Plane of Poqe '
^ i

Substituting this expression for m in the first

equation gives
Fig. 41.1 Construction of 3-Diml Ovoid by Inserting
Single 3-Diml Source in Uniform Stream
4.596 6.5
= 10
Vl - cos 6b tan 6b
that in Fig. 41.1 or Fig. 67. H, formed by placing
Solving for 6b by trial and error gives 6b = 135
a single 3-diml source in a uniform stream,
deg. Then
approaches as an asymptote a limiting value of
2Rq at an infinite distance downstream. 42.25(7.
As an example of the use of the formulas, 2(1 - cos 6b)
suppose that it is desired to develop the coordi-
(42.25) (34.62)
nates of an ovoid shape for the bulb bow of the = 428.4 ft' per sec.
(2) (1.707)
ABC ship of Part 4, resembling the ovoid for
which a fore-and-aft section is drawn in Fig. 67. H. The equation of the desired ovoid is
Assume that the stream velocity U„ is equal to
= (2)(428.4)(1 - cos 6) _ 24.75(1 cos 6)
the designed ship speed of 20.5 kt or 34.62 ft per R'
34.62 sin' 6 sm" 6
sec, and that at 10 ft abaft the nose it is desired
that the ovoid shape have a transverse radius of The distance of the nose of the ovoid from the
6.5 ft. coordinate origin is

Fig. 41.1 is a longitudinal section through the

axisymmetric ovoid of this example, indicating
the initial dimensions given and including the
ovoid shape derived by the methods described
here.
The equation of the ovoid, from Eq.
Knowing the value of the 3-diml source strength
m, the radial and tangential velocity components
(41.xxxviii), for any point P in the field, beyond the ovoid
surface, at a radius R from the source and an

= 2m(I - cos B) angle 6 from the axis, are found by substituting

R'
C/„ sin^ d the proper values of m, R, cos 6, and sin 6 in
Eqs. (41.xxxvi) and (41.xxxvii), with the fixed
'

2m(l - cos e) value of Combining these radial and axial

R =
[/co .

sin 6 4 components vectorially gives the velocity and

HI ll^ i)R()i)> \ \\ii( s i\ SI 11 1' ni si(.\ StT.H.lO

ninRiiitiHlf i>i ilir rc.-iilliiiit vclocii y at llic|niiiii 1'. Around Any Body. Many of the problems arising

For pxamplr. assume tliat it is roqniriMl to find from the flow of iicpiid around a IkmIv or ship
the volofity niaRiiitinlo and diroction for the resolve themselves, directly or indirectly, into the

point P in Fig. 41.1. at a ship speed equal to determination of the magnitude and direction of
r_ . or 34.tV2 ft per sec. The spherical coordinates the liquid velocity at any or all point.s, on the
of P are 9 = 85 deg and 7? = 0.0 ft. Then from surface and in the vicinity. Once the velocity is
Eq. (41.xxvsi'> the radial velocity known, the pressures, forces, moments, and other
factors are derived by relatively simple and

W cos e = ^^ - (34 .62) (0.0872) expeditious methods. Xaval Constructor David

W. Taylor, in his paper "On Ship-Shaped Stream
= S.SS ft per sec. Forms," for which he was awarded a gold medal
by the Institution of Xaval .Architects in London
(
The tangential velocity ' is, from Eq. (4 1 .x.xxvii),
in 1894, prefaced his remarks i>y the following

U, = 17- sin 6 = 34.02(0.9962) [p. 38.51:

= 33.49 ft per sec. "Doubtless tlic day will come when the naval architect,
given the lines and speed of a ship, will be able to ralculato
The re.'^ultant velocity is 1(3:^.49)' + (8.88)']" * = the pressure and velocity of the water at everj- point of the
34.7 ft per sec. The value of tan"' (8.88/33.49) is immersed That day is not yet, but the present
surface.
state of our knowledge of the mechanics of fluid motion
about 14.9 deg. This means that the direction of
is such that we can determine completely, under certain
the resultant velocity makes an angle of conditions, the pressure and velocity in a perfect fluid
(90 - 14.9) = 7.5.1 deg with the radiu.s R to flowing past botiies whose lines closely resemble tho.se of
the point P. actual ships."
In Fig. 67.H of Sec. 07.7 the 3-diml source
used as a means of constructing the ovoid shown Analytic and design problems concerning ships
there has its0-valued stream function coinciding and their parts involve real liquids, whereas most
with the positive x-axis. If a 3-diml source of the mathematical procedures and formulas
and sink are both involved, as shown in Fig. 43.J, apply only to motion in ideal lifiuids. Fortunately,
the stream function of each, and of the combina- some adjustment is possible by expanding the
tion, has a value of zero at the source-sink axis. body or ship form so that it includes the displace-
WTien representing 3-diml sources and sinks ment thickness 5* (delta star) of the boundary
mathematically, e.specially when developing the layer around it, explained in Sec. 5.15. Potential
forms of and the flow around axi.s^Ttimetric bodies, flow, as in an ideal liquid, is then a.ssumed to
it is much more convenient to take as the refer- exist around this expanded form, in the manner

ence for ^ = a plane perpendicular to the x-axis depicted by Figs. 7.1, IS.A, and 18.0.
(or the source-sink axi.s) through the center of The flow net for 2-diml bodies, described in
the source or sitik. The sources and sinks are Sec. 2.20 and constructed by graphical, electrical,
axi.sj-mmet ric with respect to the j-axis for either or other convenient procedure, is one way of

methcKi of representation but in the latter case finding the velocity. Another method is to .shape
the characteristics of the flow can be represented the body by a combination of radial and uniform
by the two spherical coordinates R and B. flow, employing sources and sinks. Then by cal-

As far as the shape of the streamline pattern culation or graphic procedures the velocities in
and the evaluation of liquid velocities at any the surrounding field are derived. Methods of

point are concenied, it makes no difference where following the latter procedure arc described in
the reference line or plane is chosen. Hut changing Sees. 41.8and 41.9. The steps for obtaining the
the reference of a source or sink changes the desired databy the second method are described
stream-function value of a given streamline. in Chap. 43. Both methods give the velocity
Thi.s is the reas<^>n why the stream-function value throughout the field as well as at the body surface.
which represents the surface of the 3-(linil ovoid If a velocity jjotential <t> for the field amund
in Fig. 07.11 is zero, while in the mathematical any body or ship form is a.ssumed or can be set
representation of the same flow, K(|. (41.xxxvb), up, by the methoils outlin<'d in Sees. 41.8 and
the Mlreain function at the surface of I he ovoid 41.9, or by any other methods, expres-sions for
hft.s a value of —m. the comi)onent velocities u, v, and «• are derived
41.10 The Determination of Liquid Velocity by partial difTcrentiation of 4> ^^ith respect to
Sec. 41.12 GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS 25

X, y, and z, respectively. Substituting selected geometric figure that preserves geometric simi-
values for the coordinates in the region being larity of infinitesimal parts of the figure. This
investigated, thecomponent velocity values are means in particular that all angles between cor-
comments apply equally
readily calculated. These responding lines are the same in the original
to the stream function f, and to 3-diml as well figure and in its conformal representation"
as 2-diml forms. [Wislicenus, G. F., FMTM, 1947, p. 582].
Data on velocity and pressure fields, already L. M. Milne-Thomson gives an excellent illus-
calculated or otherwise available for a considerable tration of conformal transformation, or conformal
number of typical body shapes, are referenced in mapping, as it is sometimes called [TH, 1950,
several of the sections of Chap. 42. p. 140]. This:
G. Baker and J. L. Kent give an example of
S. ". . afforded by an ordinary map on Mercator's
is
.

D. W. Taylor's method of using line sources and projection. It is well known that the angle between two

sinks to delineate a 2-diml ship-shaped body and lines as measured on the map is equal to the angle at
to determine the magnitude and distribution of which the two corresponding lines intersect on the earth's
surface; in fact, it is this property which renders the map
pressure around it in an ideal liquid [IN A, 1913,
useful in navigation.
Vol. 55, Part II, pp. 50-54]. They describe an
"In particular the lines on the map which represent the
adaptation of this method to a determination of meridians and parallels of latitude are at right angles. If
the same features around a ship-shaped form in a we confine our attention to a small portion of the map, we
restricted channel with straight walls parallel to also know that distances measured on the map will
represent to scale the corresponding distances on the
and equidistant from the ship axis.
globe, but that the scale changes as the latitude increases."
A. F. Zahm, in NACA Report 253 of 1926,
entitled "Flow and Drag Formulas for Simple By this method of mapping it is possible,
Quadrics," gives calculated and obsei-ved pres- starting with a circular rod and the accompan}dng
sures for a series of geometric forms, including a 2-diml flow pattern of Fig. 3.M, depicting a field
sphere, a circular cylinder, an elliptic cylinder, in which the velocities and pressures are known,
prolate and oblate spheroids, and a circular disc. to flatten the rod into a hydrofoil section with a
He also gives diagrams of isobars and isotachyls blunt nose and a somewhat pointed tail. The
about some of these forms, and discusses velocity flow pattern is flattened or transformed with
and pressure in oblique flow. the rod so that the velocity and pressure charac-
4L11 Conformal Transformation. An ingeni- teristics for the transformed pattern are fully
ous mathematical process, involving complex determined.
variables, was utilized by W. Kutta in the early Stated mathematically, the modified flow
1900's determine the flow characteristics
to picture obeys the same general laws for continuity
around typical or schematic airfoils [Kutta, W., and for irrotational flow, namely
111. Aeronaut. Mitt., 1902; AHA, 1934, p. 173].

Knowing the flow characteristics in the region —

du
dx
+—=
dv ,

dij
„ ,

and
dv
dx
du
T-
dy
=
surrounding some simple geometric form such as
a circular rod, by the doublet construction illus- as the original flow picture from which it was
trated in Figs. 3.M and 43. J, the circular form derived [Wishcenus, G. F., FMTM, 1947, p. 193].
and the flow pattern are transformed simul- Wislicenus gives a brief discussion of conformal
taneously into the form and pattern desired. transformation in Sec. 44 of the reference, pages
However, the nature of Kutta's method restricts 211-218. H. Rouse gives a more complete treat-
its use to 2-dunl problems. ment in Chap. V of "Fluid Mechanics for Hy-
The transformation is effected by retaining the draulic Engineers" [McGraw-Hill, New York,
essential shape of the "curvilinear squares" in 19.38, pp. 96-124].
the flow net around the typical body as the size An excellent presentation of this subject is the
from visible to infini-
of these squares is reduced one by A. Betz, entitled "Konforme Abbildung
tesimal dimensions. Taking its name from the (Conformal Representation)," pubhshed by Juhus
presei'vation of angles in each small area as the Springer in Germany.
"mesh" of the flow net is reduced, the process is Quantitative Relationship Between Ve-
41.12
known as conformal transformation. Put in another and Pressure in Irrotational Potential Flow.
locity
way, conformal transformation or conformal Having determined the magnitudes and directions
representation is defined "as a distortion of a of the velocity at selected (or at all) points in the
26 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SI1I1» HI SIGN Sec. -11.12

field of rvlnlive liquid motion aroiiiui ii luKiy. the Assume that for the 2-diml flow net around the
next practical step is usually to determine the blunt-ended 2-<liml .section of Fig. 41. J (adapted
pressures at thtvse points. For irrotntional poten- from Rou.se, H., E.MF, 1940, Fig. 21), p. 50), the
tial flow in an ideal liquid without viscosity, at stream-tube width An. is 0.25 in. .\nd that at the
a depth where the hydrostatic pressure remains point A on the fonvard shoulder the width An is
sensibly constant, this is a rather simple, straight- narrowed to 0.20 in. Then An,/An is 0.25/0.20 =
fonvard process. 1.25, whence (An^/An)^ = 1.5G25. The pressure

From the basic assumption, explained in Sec. coefficient or Euler number E, at this point is

2.7, that in any stream tube

which the flow is in thus 1.000 - 1.5()25 or -0.5625.
steady and continuous the total pressure remains The values thus derived for any selected number
constant along the tube, the relationship between of points are laid down graphically in several
the dynamic pressure q and the pumping pressure ways, depending upon what is to be represented
p at two reference points 1 and 2 is expressed bj- by the and negative diiTerential
plot. If the positive
pressures + Ap and — Ap are to be emphasized the
Pi + I
V\ = Pi + I
V\ or p, + ?, = p, + 9, scheme followed in diagnini 2 of Fig. 41. J is

If the point 1 is taken at a great distance in the

undisturbed li(inid from the point 2, say at
infinity, then the preceding equation i.s written as

p. + I
VI = P, + 1 c/^

Transposing,

v.-v^ = livl-v^ = l(x-^

whence, omitting the subscripts "2,"

= ^P = ^r <'-^)
This gives the relationship derived in Eq. (2.xvi) of
Sec. 2.20, namely

-^ = :^= 1 --^ (2.xvi)

The equalities expressed in Eq. (2.xvi) are

mast important and useful. They can with profit
be memorized by everyone who works with this
subject. The left-hand and middle terms in this
equation are expressions for the pressure coeffi-

cient or Euler number 7?, expressing the ,

difTer- F"io. 41.J Uki.ation Bbtween Veixjcitv and Pressure
IN Fixjw OK AN Ideal LiguiD .\koi:nd a Body
encc in pressures between that at any select<>d
point 2 and that at infinity, as a proportion of
the ram pres.sure O.TypUl which could be set uj) preferable. Here the normal vectors representing
in the unlimited, undisturbed stream. the combination of atmospheric and diiTerential
The ratio U/U.. is exactly that given l)y the l)re.ssures are laid o)T from the solid-surface contour
ratio ^n./^n in the 2-diml How net described in as a reference line, with the -f Ap vectors directed
Sec. 2.20. Hence sf|unring the fraction An. /An toward the surface and the — Ap ones away from it.

and subtracting it from unity gives directly the However, the practice of drawing vectors inside
pressure c<H'(ficient for any selected portion of t In- the .solid is not recommended for general u.sjige

flow pattern. 'I'his ratio is larger than I.O when becau.se they are crowded together in n-gions of
U IM larger in magnitude than l\ . The pressure sharp cur\'ature and the solid may be too narrow
coefficient ^p/q is then negative. to lay them down at a conveniently large scale.
Sec. 4 1.1 GENERAL LIQUID-FLOW FORMULAS 27

If the total pressures on the sohd surface are to be as in the right-liand portion of diagram 2 of
emphasized the preferred method is to draw a Fig. 41. J.
hue outside the solid surface, everywhere equi- The pressure relationships are frequently ex-
distant from it at a distance which represents pressed and plotted as fractions or as multiples
conveniently the ambient pressure p„ or that of , of the ram pressure 0.5p[/J = q. The dynamic
the undisturbed liquid at infinity. A variation of pressure variations caused by body or liquid
this method is illustrated in diagram 2 of Fig. motion are then referred to as so many "q's,"
2.B, where the atmospheric pressure Pa on the plus or minus. For the previous example the
hydrofoil section corresponds to the ambient — Ap at the point A is — 0.5625?.
pressure p„ of Fig. 41. J. This variation of customary pressure
the
In addition, of course, the pressure coefficients coefficient or Euler number
is sometimes used

may be plotted on the usual x-y coordinates, when investigating the proper location for a
using the length along the x-axis of the body as pitot-type velocity indicator or a speed meter.
the a;-coordinate. This method is illustrated in As the entire velocity head in the liquid is con-
Fig. 2.V, depicting the velocity and pressure verted to pressure head at the nose orifice of the
variation at a stem section on a ship. A third pitot tube, this velocity is measured as a pressure
method is to use the developed distance along the when the region under consideration is being
boundary or contour of the body (or an expansion surveyed. By relating (1) the pitot pressure
of it) as the distance basis, erecting the velocity observed at any selected point in the field, as
and pressure vectors normal to this contour line, registered on an instrument mounted in a fixed

TABLE 41. c Velocity Ratios and Pressure Coefficients

The data given here are plotted from Eq. (2.xvi),

Ap _ Ap = 1 (^)'
T^Ul

for potential flow in an ideal liquid. They apply to a liquid (or a fluid) of any mass density.

u
28 iiM)R()i)\ \ wiK s i\ Mill' nrsir.N Sec. -11.12

o«<e<ot»oe""''30<C'<5-""" — Musc! Oi^^Mrt»'3t*OiOOCO^

3B

oo S—n U3

S.i i» o CO 5 3e 3C Q -r o I- I- * M X "5 m « » 'C ci — c; o o

-

"5
_
M i~
- o
_ _
CO "I r<
_
o -J"
i>-
Q
"ft

'400a>aoi^t^to>0'4<comci^oa>a>aor>c8>o>a'Tt<nc4i-4r4oa>ao
O O — — ?» C7 m
cs (N e^ N M N e*

OpQOQQOQ©©OOOOQQOQQPOOOOQQOQpp
Ml.
2 ZC *jS.^
**> PC
')>«oooooowr-e<30ii^or-©"-'<o-Hoo>rt'Oiot^C3e<50>incoMe^^
Z. 5 •» 6 cscccococc*^'r^"5»-'5icco©t*h-oooocoC5C500-^c^c*<Mrc-?'*r»o
-^^
5
•< ^ t^ 2 »>
" «
5
©oe>Ju5ooe>j»^«e^05ffl«'<ooo»oc5«MiooCi-<>oomo©«
-^cO'^iooodc5-^c^^ipr^Oi^cO'i'eooooco»ot>-C5C^'t*t>-OM-ft>'

u ~ S.C- - - — c5 -,. — — — 00 C^ "3 » CO o

Ei
^2fS r-t>.r-aoooooo>c>

lO 0»-<C^'«'«OOOCJCi5"5r»0-HC>5-t"OOOOC^-H<iOr^O»«COU3t^OOON
°
= 'r^b^^odojoc>^co'l<u^td^»ojo-^e^co'OtDI>^ccooc^M"»>«5t£iocic>
..l

S -5-s S

ag e<'<»'OcoQN'»'<?coON-3'co'ococj-i>!Soop5ig;©ooQe>'»'«oop
v^">"'»">5'OiO'SS5oo«©3r-i~i~r^i-ooao<»(»o6oososao90

6"3 ©-r-T35<ot5^o>ooo-»'c5iraocco5c«5 — (Nci«5

li: = _5 S £
— -^ -3
oc>doodb^-H«^^c^co«^5^^ou5»^^cooc>^*u5o6o"cj'*
< = - S

c^ooo-rcoM-ri- — »i"N— ff^'OCOMCitoooior-.tpocoMM

oo — — c«c<5"riotoooc3-<ro''5i«0'-i"><«cixi<oMOooi~i>-i-oo
3 a. b ddddddoc>ddO'-<'^'--">-'"e>4C>iMc<5W'S'>o<btdi'-odo>o

cot«>OMOi>oo>oora«aoo>-i>M<-<o©t^>-ine4a>e<3U3
&^
II'
— t-wSS — i-«Slo — i-SS'* — I— NoooN'*«ooa>-He<5u5h-

III
H e<W'»'0»t^or)Oo-"C«coT'0!or»<»o>Ofj'i"sRWQ2<3C2«©
Sec. 41.12 GENERAL LIOUID FLOW FORMULAS 29

T3 -* O
2 t; o

f-T'i-^

lO 03 o

a.
30 nVDRODVNAMlCS IN sniP i)tsic;.\ Srr. 11.13

position ami at a lixinl nttitinie on tlie Ixxly or variation in velocity are plotted for the potential
ship, t*> (2) tlu- nnn prrssure which would lie flow of an ideal li(|uid around any body. Table
registered in tlie direction of motion at an infinite ll.c gives the variation of Euler number or
distiince, a simple relationship q,./q is established pre.ssure coeflicient with velocity ratio as deter-
which greatly facilitates plotting experimental mined by the following relationship derived from
data. Contours of pitot-pressure coeflicient of the Bernoulli Theorem:
1.00, with allowable limits on each side, indicate
Ap
the regions where the pitot orifice of the instru- -^='-^ = '-(^)" '--'
ment can be located to give accurate results
under the coiulitions established.
If the flow remains steady and free of rotation, This relationship applies to liquids of any mass
and if vi.scosity effects are neglected, the pressure density p, provided the values on both sides of
and velocity relationships are dimcnsionlcss and the equality sign are for the same liquid.
hold regardless of scale, velocity, liquid density, The ram pressures corresponding to 0.5p6'i = q,

and upon the sj'stem.

overall pressure calculated for both standard fresh water and
A pressure determination from known velocity standard salt water, are set down in Tables 4l.d
magnitudes and direction is much less deter- and 41.e, respectively. These are given in both
minate when the flow is complicated by viscosity lb per ft^ and supplemented by the
lb per in',
effects. velocity head in ft. noted that the
It is to be
41.13 Tables of Velocity Ratios, Pressure laller value is the same for water (or other liquid

Coefficients, Ram and Heads. To

Pressures or fluid) of any mass density. The range of veloc-
facilitate the preparation of diagrams in which the ities covers those normally encountered in model

distribution of dilTercntial pressure and the tests and ship design.

 CHAPTER 42

Potential-Flow Patterns, Velocity and

Pressure Diagrams Around Various Bodies
42.1 Various Methods of Drawing Streamlines 42.8 The Distribution of Velocity and Pressure
Around Bodies 31 About an Asymmetric Body 43
42.2 Flow Patterns Around Geometric and Other 42 9 . Flow, Velocity, and Pressure Around Special
Shapes; Published Streamhne Diagrams . 31 Forms 46
42 3 . Flow Patterns in Ducts and Channels ... 39 42.10 Velocity and Pressure Distribution Around
42.4 Flow Patterns for an Ideal Liquid Around Schematic Ship Forms 47
Simple Ship Forms 39 42 . 11 Pressure Distribution Along a Vee Entrance 48
42.5 Flow Patterns About Yawed Bodies in an 42. 12 Use of Doubly Refracting Solutions for Flow
Ideal Liquid 40 Studies 48
42.6 Velocity and Pressure Distribution Around 42 13. Delineation of Flow Patterns by Electric
a Body of Revolution 40 Analogy 49
42.7 Velocity and Pressure Diagrams for Various 42.14 BibUography on the Electric Analogy for
Two- and Three-Dimensional Bodies . . 43 Flow Patterns 50

42.1 Various Methods of Drawing Streamlines Despite its limitation to an ideal liquid, the
Around Bodies. For 2-diml potential flow around 2-diml flow-net technique has a rather extensive
a body of any shape, at any orientation with the practical usefulness in applied hydrodynamics.
stream, there are several methods of determining There are many instances in the course of ship
the streamline pattern. Listed briefly, these are: design or in the analysis of ship behavior where
an approximation to the flow pattern by this
(a) Constructing a flow net made up of streana-
method is most illuminating. For example, before
lines and equipotential lines
surface wavemaking has become pronounced, the
(b) Determining the streamlines mathematically
flow around the uppermost waterlines of a ship
or by graphic
construction, if the body shape is
is predominantly 2-diml in character, expecially
one that may be formed by placing one or more
abreast the forward part of the vessel. Several
sources or sinks, or source-sink pairs, in a uniform
examples are to be found in Figs. 2.S and 4. A.
stream
Other examples are the 2-diml flow patterns
(c) Plotting the equip otential-line pattern in an
around a sharp 2-diml bend in a duct, illustrated
electrolytic tank and constructing the streamline
in diagram 2 of Fig. 2.X, and around the stem
pattern from it
bar of a ship, shown without the equipotential
(d) Plotting the streamline pattern as an equi-
lines in diagram 1 of Fig. 2.V.
potential-hne pattern in an electrolytic tank
Three-dimensional flow nets can be constructed
(e) Placing the body in a circulating-water
[Rouse, H., EH, 1950, Fig. 26 (lower), p. 33] but
channel and observing the streamline pattern by
the technique becomes complicated, as described
one of several methods
in Sec. 2.21. Practical methods for constructing
(f) Utilizing conformal transformation.
them are not considered here.
By following the relatively simple sketching It is important to note, as mentioned on page
process described in Sec. 2.20, a flow net for 44 of Sec. 2.20, that since the flow in a separation
continuous, irrotational, potential flow in two zone is not potential in character, it can not be
dimensions in an ideal liquid can be constructed represented in a flow net. Furthermore, this
for a great variety of boundary shapes, channel technique does not take account of centrifugal-
boundaries, or both. Flow nets are reproduced in force effects as the liquid changes direction around
Figs. 2.0, 2.P, 2.W; in diagrams 1, 2, 3, and 4 of bends and corners in channels and ducts. These
Fig. 2.X; and in Fig. 41.J. They are to be found forces may be appreciable at high velocities.
frequently in the literature, as hsted in Table 42.a. 42.2 Flow Patterns Around Geometric and
31
S2 lI^llR()l)^ \ wiK s i\ Mill" 1)1 si(;n Src. 12.2

TABLE 42.ft— IlErKRESCEData kor Line Diww is<is of Fix)w Pattbrnb Around
Gbombtric and Ornsn SiMrix Shapes

Type of Body
or Shape
Sec. 42.2 POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS 33

TABLE 42.a— (Continued)

Type of Body
or Shape
S4 IIM)R<)in \ \MI( s IN Sllll' l)ISI(;\ Sec. 42.2

TABLE 42.b— IlKFEiuiNcE Data »x)h riioTuiauriis ok Flow Patterns Abound

GeOUBTRIC AND OrilKli Sl.Mfl.K SlIAI'liS

Type of Body
orShapo
Sec. 42.2 POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS 35

TABLE 42.b— (Continued)

Type of Body
or Shape
.S«i in DKODN \ WIU s I\ sllir 1)1 sl(.\ Set. 12.2

UJI.K •rj.r— Ukkkhkncb Data koii Ligi'ii>-Fu)W Pattkhnk in IJiu-rs anii Ciianneui

Tvpo of PtiMaRO
Sec. 42.2 POTENTIAL FLOW PATTERNS 37

TABLE 42.C— (Continued)

Type of Passage
38 nvnRonYN.\Mic:s i.\ ship dksign Sec. -12.2

1931, \i.l. ;i;n :«31. Tli.- hitter paper 3. Flanim, <)., "Die .SchilT,s.si'liraubc uiid iliru Wirkung auf
I, pp.
daa Wnsser (The Screw Propeller and Ifa .\clion in
contains oxcoUent photogruplis of 'J-tlintl objectij
Water)," published by R. OldenlKJurg, in .Munich
moving through glycerin with alununum powder and Berlin, 1909. Some of the Flamm pliotngraplis
on the surface to show the flow patterns.
sprinkletl arc published in STG, 1909, Vol. 10, Figs. 1 through
The Ueynoltls number in Tietjens' experinjents 7, opjxisitc page 34ti.

varied from 0.25 to 251). The discussion of the 4. Gebers, ".Vbwehr der Kcmpfschcn AngrilTo und
F.,

paper points out tliat the double row of vortexes einiges mehr iilx-r seine und meine Propellerversuche

leaving the blunt-ondetl bodies, now calletl the (Defense of Kempf's Method of .-Vtt.'ii'k and .\ddi-
tional Information on His Projvller Tests and
vortex trail or street, was noted by Mallock in
Mine)," SchilTbau, 28 Feb 1912, pp. 388-396. On
1907 and liy R<5nard in 190S, prior to von Kiirmiin's
pp. 390 and 391 there are a.xial views of model
first paper on this subject in 1911. propellers showing some of the flow paths over the
The propeller photographs and flow diagrams widths of the blades, on both faces and backs.
of Alill)orn were supplemented a few years later 5. Gebers, F., "N'euc Proi>ellerversuchc (New Pro|)cllcr
by those Wagner, O. Flamm, and F. Gebers,
of R. Tests)," STG, 1910, pp. 729-7S1, esp. Fig. 12, opp.
p. 758, and Figs. and 3 on 782; also INA,
also made in Germany. The results were embodied 1, 2, p.
1910, pp. 69-70.
in the following papers and books:

1. Wagnor, R., "Versuche mit Schifrsschrftul)oii utul litTon

In the course of the last half-century, since
praktisohe Ergcbnisse (Tests with Ship Propellers
and Their Practical Results)," STG, lOOG, pp.
most of the foregoing references appeared, a
2&4-366, esp. pp. 293-295, 302, 310-323. This paper multitude of flow-pattern photographs have been
embodies many flow diagrams and flow patterns taken, a large number of flowiine diagrams have
around propeller blades and propellers. been drawn, and a great many of i)oth have been
2. Flamm, O., "Beitrag zur Entwicklung der Wirkungs- published. Reference data on some of these are
wcise der SchifTsschrauben (Contribution to the
presented in two groups in this section, and in
Development of the Ship Pro-
EfTectivene.ss of the
peller)," STG, 1908, pp. 427-438, esp. Figs. 1-12 other groups in the sections to follow:
opp. p. 432 Table 42. a Reference data for line drawings of

TABLE 42.d Rekkrknce Data for Fixjw Patterns .\Rot:.Nn Simple Siiapi-:.s When Yawed

Type of Body
or Shape
Sec. 42.4 POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS
flow patterns around geometric and other simple
shapes
Table data for photographs of
42. b Reference
flow patterns around geometric and other simple
To save space in Tables 42. a and 42. b of this
section, in Table 42.c of Sec. 42.3, and in Table
42.d of Sec. 42.4, the authors' names in the refer-
ences are omitted. All photographs which have
been made with reflecting particles sprinkled on
the liquid surface or suspended within the Uquid
are marked "Al. Powder," regardless of whether
or not aluminum powder was used in every case.
"Normal" means that the long dimension of the
section or body was across the flow, normal to it.
"In line" means that the long dimension was
parallel to the flow.
Of the streamline diagrams derived by analytic
methods, among the first to be published were
those of W. J. M. Rankine, appearing in the
literature of the Institution of Naval Architects
and of the Great Britain), in
Royal Society (of
the period 1862-1872. Stemming from the work
of Rankine were the analytic streamlines about
ship-shaped and other bodies pubUshed by D. W.
Taylor in the references Usted in Sees. 3.8 and
43.6 of the present book, and in Volume II
the 1910 edition of "The Speed and Power
Ships."
Many more streamline diagrams evolved from
source-sink combinations have been pubUshed
since then. Among the references, not well known
in America, may be hsted:
(i) Legendre, R., "Hydrodynamique Graphique (Graphic
Hydrodynamics)," ATMA, Vol.
1933,
395-410. This paper contains anumber of flow nets
and diagrams giving streamline and equipotential-
line patterns for a series of flow conditions.
(ii) Brard, R., "Les M6thodes pour le Trace des Lignes de
Courant dans les Ecoulements Thfeoriques ou Reels.
Leur Role en Hydrodynamique (The Tracing of
Streamlines in Theory and Practice. Their Role in
Hydrodynamics)," ATMA, 1938, Vol. 42, pp.
65-83. So far as known this paper is not translated
into EngUsh. A full understanding of it involves a
working knowledge of complex variables and con-
formal transformation.
In the early 1910's, representations of the wake
patterns and streamHnes alongside and abaft
surface-ship and airship models were pubUshed
in the technical Uterature. A brief Ust follows:
a. Eden, C. G., "Apparatus for the Visual and Photo-
graphic Study of the Distribution of the Flow Round
39
Plates and Models a Current of Water," ARC,
in
M
R and 31, Mar 1911, pp. 48-49
b. Booth, H., and Eden, C. G., "The Wind Resistance of
Some Aeroplane Struts and an Examination of Their
Relative Merits," ARC, R and M
49, 1912, pp. 95-96
c. Bairstow, L., and Eden, C. G., "Experiments on
Airship Models," ARC, R and M
55, 1912, pp. 48-51
d. Eden, C. G., "Investigation by Visual and Photo-
graphicMethods of the Flow Past Plates and
Models," ARC, R and M
58, Mar 1912, pp. 97-99
e. Baker, G. S., "Methodical Experiments with Merchant
Ship Forms," INA, 1913, Part I, pp. 162-180, esp.
pp. 167-168 and PI. XVIII. This plate shows four
photographs made at the stern of totally submerged
models, each composed of the underwater body of a
ship form with its mirror image superposed, in
inverted position.
T. B. Abell published some unusual photo-
graphs of the wakes abaft simple ship-shaped
bodies, using filaments of colored Uquid and air
bubbles as indicators ["A Contribution to the
Photographic Study of the Mechanism of the
Wake," INA, 1933, pp. 145-152 and Pis. XVII,
XVIII].
N. W. Akimoff pubUshed the results of some
flow-pattern and wave studies about vertical
circular-section rods and elongated forms sus-
pended in a moving current of water ["tJber das
of Wesen des Mitstroms (On 'the Behavior of the
of Wake)," STG, 1934, pp. 149-163].
42.3 Flow Patterns In Ducts and Chaimels.
The naval architect and marine engineer are
interested in the details of liquid flow within
pipes, ducts, and channels, as well as of the flow
outside of bodies and objects of varied shape.
Flow-net diagrams for the motion of an ideal
Uquid within typical open and obstructed passages
37,pp.
are shown in Fig. 2.X of Sec. 2.20.
Table 42. c Usts reference data for what might
be termed "inside" Uquid-flow patterns, subject
to the notes in Sec. 42.2 applying to Tables 42.
and 42.b.
A paper by H. S. Fowler and V. Walker,
entitled "Fluid Flow in Turbo-Machinery"
[lESS, 1953-1954, Vol. 97, pp. 113-152], contains
many informative diagrams of air flow through
ducts, bends, and axial-flow turbine and blower
blades.
42.4 Flow Patterns for an Ideal Liquid Around
Simple Ship Forms. Available flow diagrams
around forms resembUng those of ships are rela-
tively scarce. Such as do exist are limited to the
more-or-less 2-diml flow about the designed water-
line, and that in an ideal Uquid only.
Other than those embodied in Figs. 2.S and 4.A
•10 HVl)R()l)V.\A.MIC:s IN Mill' DKSIGN Sfc.-f:^

of Volume I of this book thiTc mny be listed the .\ii excellent source of analytic information in
following: this particular field is the work of A. F. Zahm,

Two-dimensional ship h.'iviiiR n li-titiciihir form of

embodied in NACA Report 253, 1927, entitled
(»)
walorlinc, for which the flow puttcrn was derived "Flow and Drag Formulas for Simple Quadric.-*,"
and publiiihiHl l>y D. \V. Taylor in: pages 517-537. Fig. 3.C of Volume I of this book
(1) INA. isoi, Vol. 35, Fig. 14, PI. LXXI is adapted from Fig. 23 of the Zahm report.
(2) S and P, 1933, Fig. 4, p. 4; practically the
More recent data, applying to pressures rather
sanio figure aa in (1)
S and than streamlines around a yawed body, may be
(3) P, 1943, Fig. 4, p. 0; practically the
same figure aa in (1). found in Admiralty Research Laboratory (Great
(b) How anJ forward shoulder waterlines of a 2-diml ship Britain) Report ARL/Rl/G/HY/19/1 of April
generated by a uniform line source in a uniform 1954 by Campbell and R. G. Lewis, entitled
I. J.
stream. Derived and published by H. Futtinger in
"Pressure Distributions: Axially Symmetric Bodies
STG, 1924, Vol. 25, Fig. 11, p. 306; TMB Transl.
in Oblique Flow." A copy of this report is in the
4S, May 1952, p. 14.
(c) Same as (b) preceding e.\cept that the line source TMB library.
increases linearly in strength from the stem. Pub- 42.6 Velocity and Pressure Distribution
lished in STG, 1924, Fig. 12, p. 307; TMB Transl. Aroimd a Body of Revolution. For bodies of
48, May 1952, p. 15.
revolution having appreciable diameters, the
(d) Complete 2-diml ship with waterlines generated by
the combination of a bow line source and a stern same as for ships with appreciable beams, it is

line sink, each of constant and equal strength.
Generally similar to (c) preceding. Published by
F. Horn in "Theorie des SchifTcs," Vol. V. Repro-
duced in RPSS, 194S, Fig. 2, p. 15, including dia-
grams giving the variation of p and U along and
beyond the .ship a.\is.
(e) Three-dimensional ship having a lenticular form of
lateral plane, for which a schematic flow pattern
was pubUshed by D. W. Taylor in:
(i) INA, 1895, Vol. 36, Fig. 0, PI. XVI. It is to
be noted in this figure that the streamlines are not
spaced from the body a-xis at distances corresponding
to cquidifTerent stream functions in tubes about the
axis.
(ii) S and P, 1933, Fig. 5, p. 4; practically
figure as in (i)
(iii) S and P, 1943, Fig. 5, p. 6;
as for (i) preceding.
(f) Ship-shaped forebody, 2-diml in character, introduced
in a uniform stream flon-ing parallel to the ship a-xis.
G. S. Baker and J. L. Kent give a plot of 2-diml
streamlines ahead of and abreast this forebody,
when there is no limitation on the extent of the
surrounding water ["Effect of Form and Size on the
Resistance of Ships," IXA, 1913, Part II, pp. 37-60,
and Pis. Ill, IV, especially Fig. 5 on the latter
plate). The lower portion of Fig. 5 gives graphs of
pressure variation with distance along the longi-
tudinal axis for two stream surfaces fairly close to
the ship.
42.5 Flow Patterns About Yawed Bodies
Ideal Liquid. 'Iho itJcaI-lif|ui(i
pattern.s about yawed bodie.s in a stream, avail-
able in the publi.Hhcd literature,
a very small fraction of those worked out for
axial flow. A partial list of references embodying
these patterns is presented in Table 42. d. One
HUch patt«:rn is that around the incUncd flat plate
in diagram of Fin. 3.IJ in Volume I.
1 of flow, in a
customary to plot velocity and pressure distribu-
tions on a basis of body or ship length along the
principal or x-a.\is. This scheme is followed in
Figs. 4.C and 4.D of Volume L However, when the
diameter is large in proportion to the length, or
when one end or the other is blunt, the velocity
and pressure distributions are plotted to much
better advantage on a base of length along the
section contour, as in diagram 2 of Fig. 2.B of
Volume I or in the diagram of Fig. 4LJ of this
part of the book.
AVhen working with 3-diml rather than 2-diml
same flow, as with that around a body of revolution,
it is important that the nature of the 3-diml flow
same comments
pattern be clearly understood. In a number of
pubhshed diagrams in standard works of reference
the streamUnes approaching and leaving the
3-diml bodies of revolution have, apparently as
a matter of convenience in drafting, equidistant
radial spacing from the principal body axis. This
is equivalent to equidistant transverse .-ipacing
when a longitudinal section through the body axis
is diagrammed [Prandtl, L., and Tietjens, 0. G.,
AHA, 1934, Fig. 58 on p. 109, Fig. 59 on p. 110,
Figs. G3 and 64 on p. 120, and Fig. 65 on p. 122;
Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1910, Vol. II, Fig. 20;
in an S and P, 1943, Fig. 5 on p. 6). The streamlines
potential-llow so depicted do not correspond to cquidifTerent
3-diml stream functions, as do the traces in
amount to only diagram 2 of Fig. 2.M of Volume I, and those of
Figs. 42.A, 42.B, 43.M, and 43.0.
Consider the symmetrical 3-diml flow of an
ideal liquid along a solid rod of circular section of
radius Ro , with its axis parallel to the direction
stream whose undisturbed uniform
Sec. 42.6 POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS 41

in proportion to the increase in its mean radius,

to maintain the relationship of Eq. (42.i).
When the flow takes place around some body
of revolution which has a varied section along the
axis of flow, such as the sphere in Fig. 42.B, the

elocity in all tubes Varying liquid velocity

at different rad
Fig. 42.A Schematic Diagram of Uniform Three-
DlMENSIONAL FlOW AeOUND A STRAIGHT CIRCULAR
Rod With Equidifferent Stream Functions
Fig. 42.B Longitudinal Section Through Three-
velocity is ?/„ . This situation, pictured in Fig. DlMBNSIONAL FlOW ArOUND A SPHERE, WiTH
Equidifferent Stream Functions
42.A, is derived immediately from the 3-diml
stream-function diagram 2 of Fig. 2.M
lA(psi) in

by an
freezing the hquid within the central rod, is no longer constant
velocity in each stream tube
operation which does not change the flow pattern but changes with distance along the x-axis. In
around it. The immovable quantity of frozen fact, there are three variables in the stream-
liquid, extending out to radius Rq is then , function expression which vary with x, namely R,
subtracted from the whole. It is convenient in An, and U, where R
measured normal to the
is
this process to retain the rod axis as the reference axis of the uniform stream flow. It then becomes
axis for measuring the 3-diml stream functions. necessary to make use of some rather involved
If the thickness of the first, second, or any other procedures to dehneate the stream surfaces. For
tube of hquid is represented by An, and its mean two 3-diml bodies of revolution, including the
radius from the axis by R, then the increment of sphere, the stream functions in spherical coordi-
hquid volume AF passing tlurough it in the nates are worked out in Sec. 41.9.
time At is represented approximately by A 3-diml stream form, especially one derived
A¥ = -U„{2ivR)An (42. i) from a single source-sink pair, lends itself to
graphic construction of the flow pattern around it,
where the velocity [/„ is constant throughout all
as well as to calculation of the elements of this
the tubes. If Ra is the radius to any selected
pattern. When so constructed, the radii -Ri , R2 ,

cyhndrical stream surface, the 3-diml stream

and the stream-tube thicknesses An^ , AUi , . . . are
function of that surface is
measured, the local velocities U are determined,
and the accompanying pressures p derived from
= \~){-u:)-k{ri-r^:)
Eq. (2.xvia). The graphic construction is de-
(42. ii)
scribed in Sec. 43.8 and illustrated in Figs. 43.L,

{Ra — Ro)
At the soUd cylindrical surface of radius Ro the
3-diml stream function is zero.
The subdivision of the uniform liquid flow into
stream tubes of equal area means that the normal
spacing between the tube-wall traces in any
longitudinal plane through the axis is no longer a
direct measure of the velocity in each tube, or
even of the relative velocity, as it was in the
2-diml case. For equidifferent values of the
volume increment per unit time or of the stream
function, the tube thickness diminishes inversely
43.M, 43.N, and 43.0. The formulas for a 3-diml
sphere are set down in Sec. 41.9 and in diagram 2
of Fig. 41. G.
Fortunately for the physicist, marine architect,
and others, certain staff members of the Aero-
dynamische Versuchsanstalt (AVA) at Gottmgen,
Germany, have worked out the pressure distri-
butions over 12 forebodies and 59 fuU bodies of
revolution, of a great variety of shapes and pro-
portions. These bodies were created by placing
various combinations of point and hne sources
and sinks along an axis, and then superposing
upon this combination a uniform flow of ideal
•12 IlVDROnVNAAflCS IN SHIP DESIGN Srr. 42.6

liquid parallel to the axis. A few of the 3-diml

streamlines adjacent to the 12 forebcKlies are
also given in their Report I'M 320G, dated 30
December 1944, available in I-nglish as T.MB
Translation 220, issued in April 11)47. An English
translation of AVA Report VU 3106, by F.
Riegels and M. Brand, mentioned on page 1 and
listed as Reference 2 on page 7 of TMB Trans-
lation 220, i.>< on file in the AercMlynainics Divi.sion

library at the David Taylor Motlel Basin.

L Source- Strength
I SinW-Strenglh .
Distribution 1
Distribution
---.^miniTMl^
, \

Ratio of x/L from Nose

1.0 0.9 0.8 a? ae o.s 0.4 0.3 0.2 qi

ai I

-0.1

-02

Fio. 42.C SouHCB-SiNK Strength Distmbution,

AXISTMMETRIC BODT FoR.M, AND DISTRIBUTION OF
Pressure CoEFnciENT Around an Aircraft Fuselage
Sec. 42.8 POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS 43

Flow About Elongated Bodies of Revolution," axes in the ratio of 6 2 1, with a uniform flow of
: :

TMB Rep. 761, Aug 1951. On pp. 59-61 the author velocity C/„ taking place parallel to the longest
lists 28 references, some of which are given here.
axis, has been investigated by H. Chu, P. C. Chu,
(14) Campbell, I. J., and Lewis, R. G., "Pressure Distri-
butions About Axially Symmetric Bodies in and V. L. Streeter [Illinois Inst. Tech., Report
Oblique Flow," ARL (Admiralty Research Labora- on Project 4955, sponsored by ONR Contract
tory) Report (ACSIL/ADM/54/254) of Apr 1954. 47onr-32905, dated 15 Mar 1950]. They found
that around the elUptic midsection periphery the
42.7 Velocity and Pressure Diagrams for surface velocity parallel to the stream axis had
Various Two- and Three-Dimensional Bodies. a constant value of 1.0714f7» , At the quarter-
When the body shape, form, and contour can not lengths the velocity around the girth of the body
be expressed by some type of mathematical variedby only about one per cent from the mean.
equation, or when the liquid flow around a body The uniformity of tangential surface velocity
can not be expressed in the form of a given stream at the midlength, parallel to the undisturbed
function \}/ or velocity potential <^, analytic expres- stream direction, is a sign that the surface pres-
sions for the velocity and pressure can rarely be sure around the midsection girth is hkewise
established or derived. It becomes necessary, as everywhere the same. However, at a constant
a back upon experimental observa-
rule, to fall given distance from the body surface, in the plane
upon data previously derived, assembled,
tions, or of the midsection, the velocity and pressure do
and pubhshed by other workers. vary around the girth. This variation has been
Some references containing these data for investigated by R. K. Reber for the elhptic
various 2-diml and 3-diml bodies, usually with ellipsoid having axes in the ratio of 6 2 1 [unpubl. : :

graphs of both velocity and pressure, are given memo of 13 Apr 1950 to HES], lying with its
under the appropriate categories in Table 42.e.
Could this list be made complete, for all published
works, the marine architect might find readily Circular A,'^

stream-tube boundarvj
at hand a great amount of data that would be
directly useful and occasionally most valuable.
Port streamline
42.8 The Distribution of Velocity and Pressure
About an As3mimetric Body. Many underwater
craft, such as submersibles and submarines, have
shapes resembUng roughly a body of revolution
but they almost invariably possess transverse
asymmetry, at least above and below the principal
longitudinal axis. Submerged bodies, and craft
of the type mentioned, usually possess asymmetry
in a fore-and-aft direction as well, reckoned about
the midlength.
However, considering first the geometric forms
having asymmetry about the principal axis, it so
happens that formulas are available for computing
Fig. 42.D Typical Schematic Flow Abound
the velocity and pressure distribution about what
AxiSYMMETRIC AND ELLIPTIC ELLIPSOIDS
may be termed elUptic elhpsoids. For these bodies,
the profiles, planforms, and sections are all of
elliptic shape, as in diagram 2 of Fig. 42. D. Indeed, longest axis parallel to the uniform stream. The
this particular form is special in two respects; results are shown in Fig. 42.E. Here it is noted
first, in that the flow of an ideal fluid around it that, in the plane of the midsection, the isotachyls
lends itself to computation, and second, in that, or loci of constant velocity (parallel to the body
when placed with one axis in the direction of axis and to the stream direction) he closer than
uniform flow, the velocity at the surface is the average distance to those portions of the
constant everywhere around the girth of the transverse midsection having the sharpest curva-
midsection. The latter feature appears to be ture. Opposite the portions of least curvature
inherent in these elliptic shapes only. they are farther from the body. The transverse
The flow around an elhptic ellipsoid having velocity gradient is therefore greater in way of
u ]\\ DRODN \ WIK.s 1\ Mill' 1>I ^1(.\ Src. f2.S

TABLE 42.0— RltrERENCKS -m iiijsiu;i> Data on Vki/»ity am> Tukssi hk

I'l I •isiiium ih.n k.k Vahioi's
Two- AND Timr.K-DlMKVBIOSAI, BoDIKS
direction of How.
The 2-diml bodiea liatod have conitant aoctiona along an axia normal to the

Type of Body
or Sliapo
Sec. 42.8 POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS 45

TABLE 42.6— (Continued)

Type of Body
or Shape
•16 11M)R()I)VX A.MICS IN SHIP DESIGN Scr. 12.9

tlie caw asymmetric hcxlies of tin- kind shown

of contours representing component in the
the
by Fig. 42.F. Nothing lias as yet been lieveloped plane of the contour diagram, as is done in the
to take its place. For the time being it appears wake-survey diagrams of Sees. 11. G and 11.7 of
useful to retain the enveloping stream surfaces, ^'^olume I and Sees. 60.0 and 60.7 of this volume.
such as those of diagrams 1 and 2 of Fig. 42. D, 42.9 Flow, Velocity, and Pressure Around
along which the direction of flow is everywhere Special Forms. It is certain that the toclmical
tangent to the direction of those surfaces. They literature contains much more data on the flow
are qualified, however, as surfaces for which the patterns and the velocity and pressure distribution
tangent velocity — not necessarilj' the axial com- around bodies of special shape than are referenced
ponent of that velocity — is constant around the in this book and in others on hydrodynamics and
trace of the stream surface in any transverse hydraulics. Moreover, it appears reasonable to
plane of the body. For any such section, these expect that, in the course of time, data in this
traces form what are describetl in Sec. 1.4 and field which arc now da.ssificd will becume available
illustrated in Fig. l.B of Volume I as isotachyls, for general distribution.
or contours of equal velocity. Unfortunately, they Among the special forms in this category arc
do not define the flow completely because the the planing surfaces on the bottoms of flying-boat
direction of the constant-velocity vector must hulls and fast motorboats. A considerable amount
also be specified for every point around the of experimentalwork on flow patterns under these
periphery. This can be done, at the expense of some surfaces has been carried out by the National
complication, by adding vectors alongside the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and the

Direction ond Moonilode of Uniform- Flow Velocity, Um^ FISH-EYE VIEW

Asymmetric Bod>^ whose Sections ore shown
here IS formed bvy J>locinQ Three Sources ond
One Sink in Q Uniform Streom Eoch Source
of Slrenqth m-l ot Stotion Zero is Offset
3 Lencjth Units or Stotion Intervals from the
Centerplone The Source m-3 is ol Sto. -5.
The Sink tn--5 is ot Sto 10.

cole for Stations

Alono the X-Akis

TVie Numerals on the Diagram

and in the Table Represent the
Maqnitudes of the Tonqentiol
Velocities at the Points Indicoted.
Expressed as Multiples or Fractions
of the Uniform- Stream Velocity l^

Streomllne at
nisition of

8Urn 12
Sec. 42.10 POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS 47

Experimental Towing Tank at the Stevens x-distance from the bow for the streamlines at
increasing lateral distance from the form.
Institute of Technology. The following references
(d) Bows and forward shoulders of 2-diml ships generated
pertain to this work: by line sources (and sinks) in a uniform stream.
Curves of velocity and velocity head on a basis of
(1) Ward, K. E., "A New Method
Studying the Flow
of
distance along the ship axis are published by H.
of the Water Along the Bottom of a Flying-Boat
Hull," NACA Tech. Note 749, Feb 1940
Fottinger [STG, 1924, Vol. 25, pp. 306-307; TMB
Transl. 48, May 1952, pp. 14-15].
(2) Sutherland, W. H., "Underwater Photographs of
(e) Complete 2-diml ship with waterlines generated by
Flow Patterns," ETT Tech. Memo 86, May 1948.
bow and stern line sources in a uniform stream.
Curves of, Ap and At/ along the ship axis are pub-
42.10 Velocity and Pressure Distribution lished by F. Horn ["Theorie des Schiffes," Handbuch
Around Schematic Ship Forms. For the deter- der Physikalischen und Technischen Mechanik,
mination of velocity and pressure around ship Leipzig, 1930, Vol. V; reproduced in RPSS, 1948,

forms whose shapes do not lend themselves to p. 15].

(f) Three-dimensional ship having a lenticular form of
expression in mathematical terms,
convenient
waterplane, developed by D. W. Taylor [INA,
Uke those of bodies of revolution or thin, deep 1895, Vol. 36, Fig. 7, PI. XVI]. Reproduced later
planks, theoretical hydrodynamics in its present in S and P, 1933, Fig. 7 on p. 4, and S and P, 1943,
stage of development offers little that is of practical Fig. 7 on p. 6.

value to the ship designer or even to the flow (g) Three-dimensional model of a merchant ship of normal
form, on which local pressure measurements were
analyst. There are definite indications, however,
made by W. Laute ["Untersuchungen iiber Druck-
that the theoretical work on wavemaking resist- und Stromungsverlauf an einem Schiffsmodell
ance and on analytic ship-wave relations, de- (Investigations of Flow and Pressure on a Ship
scribed in Chap. 50, may in time lead to reasonable Model)," STG, 1933, Vol. 34, pp. 402-460; TMB
predictions of the characteristics of the flow sur- Transl. 53, Mar 1939]. There is a bibliography of
19 items at the end of this paper; some of them are
rounding a ship, other than its surface configura-
quoted here.
tion and its below the surface.
local direction (h) Eggert, E. F., "Form Resistance Experiments,"
Until that time comes the marine architect has SNAME, 1935, pp. 139-150
recourse only to non-classified data available at (1) Eggert, E. F., "Further Form Resistance Experi-

testing establishments and in the technical ments," SNAME, 1939, pp. 303-330; abstracted in
SBMEB, Apr 1940, pp. 162-164. Simultaneous
literature.
pressure measurements were made with a multitude
Diagrams illustrating, for simple ship forms, of orifices in the hull of a battleship model having a
the changes in and distribution of velocity or very large bulb bow.
pressure, or both, are to be found in the papers
listed hereunder. References which illustrate flow Methods for determining the velocity at any
patterns as well as velocity and pressure distri- point in the potential field around a schematic
bution are duplicated from earlier sections of the ship form are described by:
present chapter:
(1) Taylor, D. W., 1894, Vol. 35, pp. 396-399
INA,
(a) Two-dimensional ships having lenticular forms of (2) Lerbs, H. W."Die Verteilung der Verdrangungs
E.,

waterhne [Taylor, D. W., INA, 1894, Vol. 35, Stromung neben der Schiffswand (The Distribution
Figs. 24 and 25 on PI. LXXV]. Adaptations of these of the Displacement (potential) Flow Around the

original diagrams are to be found in S and P, 1933, Hull of a Ship)," WRH, 7 Jul 1928, p. 263; TMB
p. 4 and in S and P, 1943, p. 6. In the original
Transl. 85, Feb 1944.

diagrams the plots are in terms of pressure heads

for fixed speeds, on a basis of distance along and Both these methods require rather drastic simplifi-
beyond the ship axis. cations of the actual conditions for a ship.
(b) Five 2-diml forebodies of ship-shaped stream forms, Method (1) 2-diml flow throughout.
calls for
with waterlines delineated by the use of line sources
Method (2) requires that the ship form be con-
and sinks in a uniform stream, are given by W.
sidered as a body of revolution generated by
McEntee [SNAME, 1909, Vol. 17, pp. 185-187
and Figs. 5 and 6, Pis. 114, 115]. These figures multiple sources and sinks, having a lateral plane
embody curves of velocity ratio (f/co+ AC/)/C/„, corresponding to the ship waterplane. Neither
and of pressure head. method takes account of wave formation at the
(c) A flow diagram for a 2-diml ship-shaped form midway
surface, displacement thickness of the boundary
between two walls, with an ideal liquid streaming
layer, possible separation zones, and other factors.
by, is given by G. S. Baker and J. L. Kent [INA,

1913, Vol. 55, Part II, Fig. 5, PI. IV]. It is supple- S. Yokota, T. Yamamoto, A. Shigemitsu, and
mented by curves of pressure coefficients with S. Togino describe the "Pressure Distribution over
 •J8 IIM)R()|)N \ WIK.S IN Mill' DKSIGN Srr. 12.11

the Surfaoc of the Ship ami its 1;iT«mI mi lu^isi- HMilts, dirive<I by conformal transformation on
anco" ill Paper 789, presented before the World the bai>is that the flow leaves the trailing edges
Engineering Congress in Tokyo in 1929. The of the plates tangentiallj-, are shown in their paper
complete paper is published in the Proceedings "Cavitation and Pressure Distribution: Head
of this Congress, Vol. XXIX, Part 1, issued in Forms at Zero Angle of Yaw" [State Univ. of
Tokyo in 1931. The text in question is found on Iowa, Studies in Eng'g., Bull. 32, 1948, pp. 2C-28).
pages 293-318; Figs. 1 througli 30, accompanying These data, supplemented by J. S. McXown for
the paper, are published on pages 319-341. iticluded angles of the order of those encountered
These experimenters rneasureil the distribution on actual ships, are diagrammed in Fig. 42. G.
of pressure on tlie Inill and the magnitude of the
thrust at the tiirust bearing on a self-propelled
steel steam launch having a length between
perpendiculars of 39.37 ft, an extreme beam of
9.79 ft, and a depth of 5.7-i ft. The draft was
about 3.99 ft, the trim was zero, and the depth of
water for the test with the underwater propeller
varied from 12.8 ft to 13.8 ft.
The total number of pressure orifices was 289,
well distributed over the entire length of the
launch. Each orifice had a diameter of 1 mm
(0.04 in), and was connected by flexible tubing
to one glass tube of a multiple-tube manometer
which was photographed during the tests. How-
ever, it was found that those orifices lying above
and in the vicinity of the actual wave profile
when underway could not be used.
The speed of the launch was measured bj' a
10 0.9 Q8 a? 0.6 05 a^ as Qz ai
pressure speed log in the form of a standard pitot
tube mounted forward of the bow, with its orifice

2.23 ft below the at-rest waterline and about 2.83 Kio. 12.0 Orapiis of Pressure Coefficient for
luiOAi, I,ujun> Fi.ow Ai-ONO A Two-Dimensional
ft forward of the stem.
\'i;e Entii.\nce
The launch could be driven by its own single,
3-l)laded screw propeller underwater
or the
propeller could be removed and the launch be The varialiuii ol' A/j </ iVdiii the vertex aft serves
pushed by an engine-driven airscrew mounted as an indication of the pressure distribution along
above the deck. A d^'iiamometer served to record the forward portion of the entrance of a simple
the thrust in each case. ship, about as far aft as the forward neutral point.
Attempts were made to photograph the wave It is expected that these data may eventually
profilefrom another boat running alongside but be combined with others, possibly those derived
the actual wave-surface inter.section at the IniU from the Guilioton method, for a prediction or
was partly oiwcured by the wave crests beyond determination of the pressure distribution along
the hull. The wave profiles given in the report are the 2-(linil waterline area of a ship hull of normal
thase recorded in a model basin on a one-third design.
scale model of the launch. This i)roblem is (rcaU'd iiy L. M. .Milne-
Tables accompanying the report give the Thomson (TH, 1950, pp. 309-310), who obtains
individual pressure readings for a scries of several an exi)rcssion for the drag on the pair of plates,
Hpeed.s. with a cavity behind them. H. I.anib [HD, 194'),
42.11 Pressure Distribution Along a Vee l)p.
104-10")) describes the analytic solutions of
Entrance. The pre.s.sure coeflicients for 2-diml Rethy and HobylelT, of 1879-1881, and gives a
flow along two flat plates, disposed .s3'mmetrically convenient table of pressure ratios for this system
in V-fuithion ina stream, like those on each side for entrance slopes from In 170 dcj:;.

of the stem of a shij), have been calculated an<l 42.12 Use of Doubly Refracting Solutions for
plot led by II. I'lOU.sc and .1. S. MrXowii. Tlir Flow Studies. I<\' ii lOMiiiiiiatinn of ]>oiari/,(Ml
 Sec. 42.13 POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS 49

lightand doubly refracting colloidal solutions, equipotential hues everywhere at right angles.
mentioned in Sec. 5.6, it is possible to observe Diagram 2 of Fig. 42. H shows how this method
certain interesting and useful types of flow isused to trace the streamlines directly. This is
phenomena. The solution most commonly used accomplished by passing the current across the
in the past has been water with a finely ground flow, as it were,and shaping the body out of a
clay called bentonite; the procedure is described conducting rather than a non-conducting material.
briefly by C. H. Hancock [SNAME, 1948, p. 52]. Three-dimensional axisymmetric flow is repre-
B. Rosenberg, in TMB
Report 617, issued in sented by using a tank having a cross section
March 1952, goes into the fundamentals as well corresponding to one sector of the axisymmetric
as the procedure. In this report there are listed flow field, like a narrow sector cut out of a log.
45 references on the subject. Diagram 3 of Fig. 42. H
illustrates such an arrange-
One of these references, plus three others not ment, with the current passed in the direction of
in the hst, are given here: flow and the body a nonconductor.

(1) Dewey, Davis R., II, "Visual Studies of Fluid Flow

Patterns Resulting from Streaming Double Refrac- [Electrodes
tion," Dr. of Sci. Thesis, Dept. of Chem. Eng'g.,
MIT, 1941
(2) Takahashi, W. N., and Rawlins, T. E., "The Streaming
Double Refraction of Tobacco Mosaic Virus,"
Science, 1937, Vol. 85, pp. 103-104
(3) Ullyott, Phillip, "Investigation of Flow in Liquids by
Use of Birefringent, Colloidal Solutions of Vanadium
Pento.xide," Trans. ASME, Apr 1947, pp. 245-251.
A list of 23 references is given on pp. 248-249.
(4) Peebles, F. N., Garber, H. J., and Jury, S. H., "Pre-
Broken Lines ore \
liminary Studies of Flow Phenomena Utilizing a
True Equipotential
Lines for Flow from
Doubly Refractive Liquid," [Third Midwestern
Right to Left
Conf. on Fluid Mech., Univ. of Minn., Jun 1953,
pp. 441-454]. These authors describe similar tests
made successfully with an organic dye. On pp.
451-452 they list26 references on this subject,
including the Dewey, Ullyott, and Rosenberg
references mentioned previously.

42.13 Delineation of Flow Patterns by Electric

Analogy. The story on velocity potential in
Sec. 2.13 discusses rather briefly the parallel
between velocity potential and electric potential.
Diagram 1 of Fig. 2.P illustrates in schematic
fashion the use of an electrolytic tank for deUneat-
ing the equipotential Unes around any body or
surface in 2-diml streamline flow. Diagram 1 of
Fig. 42. H indicates the essentials of the setup for
delineating the flow around a 2-diml body of
lenticular shape, utilizing a weak liquid electrolyte
and direct current passing between the rows of
electrodes at the ends of the tank. If the latter is

of area sufficiently large compared to that of the

body around which the flow is being studied, it is

possible to replace the separate electrodes, con-

nected to resistances so as to pass equal amounts
of current, by single-plate electrodes. When the
equipotential lines are delineated by the probe
method it is necessary to sketch in the streamUnes
by hand, utilizing the principles of the flow net.
This means that the streamlines must cross the
50 MYDRODYNAMK-S IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 42.14

opposite plato plus that being fed into the foil, Publ. Sci. et Tech., Min. de I'.Vir, Paris, No. 57,
1934
between the plates. In diagram 4 of Fig. 42. H,
(5) Salct, G., "D6tennination dcs pointcs do tension
traced from one published by H. Fottingcr [STG, dans lea arbrca de revolution sourais ii torsion au
1924, Fig. 43, p. 338], the foil i.s replaced by a moyen d'un module 6lcctrique (Determination of
small heart-shaped botly and the flow resembles Tcn.sile Stress in RevolvinR Shii/ts under a Tor-
sional Load, by Means of an Electric Model),"
(hat delineatetl for the Magnus Effect in Fig. 14. E.
.VTMA, 1930, Vol. 40, pp. 341-351. Thia paper
An auxiliary direct current of the proper amount
illustrates and describes an electrolytic tank which
is fed into the body. This done by con- is easily
is, in effect, a 3-diml affair, inasmuch as the body

necting it to the source that supplies the row of in the tank hits varied depths of electrolyte over it.

positive electrodes, and interposing a variable (0) P6r&i, J., and Malavard, L., ".\pplication du bassin

The flectrique i\ quelques questions de mecanique dcs

resistance in the circuit of the body. current
fluidos (The .\pplication of Electric Flow in Liquids
from the botly flows in the manner shown toward
to Some Questions of the Mechanics of Fluids),"
the row of negative electrodes. It pushes aside, ATMA, 1938, Vol. 42, pp. 529-541. This paper,
as it were, the current paths from the row of so far as known, is not translated into English. A
positive electrodes. This setup produces equi- number of references are listed on pp. 529, 531,
potential lines which are actually the streamlines and 534.
The authors go into the question of the use of
of a combination of counter-clockwise circulatory
the electrolytic tank for flow problems involving
flow around the body and a streamline flow from circulation.
(he right; see Figs. 14. E and 14. F. In the same volume, in a paper by iRonet,
The electrolytic-tank technique has now ex- Plate 3 on p. 551, there is shown a group of equi-
potcntial spots for a 3-diml Rankine ellipsoid.
panded and developed to the point where it needs
(7) Malavard, L., "fitude de quelque probl6mes reU'vant
its own book. All that can be done here is to
de la thforie dcs ailcs. .\pplication ii Icur solution
give a hst of the principal references so far de la mcthode rh6o61cctrique (Study of Problems
unearthed, in generally chronological order, and Relevant to the Theory of Wings. Application of
leave the reader to further study by himself. (he Rheo-Electric Method to Their Solution),"

some Publ. Sci. et Tech., Min. de I'Air, Paris, No. 153,

Comments are appended to of the references.
1939
42.14 Bibliography on the Electric Analogy for
(S) Peres, J., and Malavard, L., "Rlieographic and
Flow Patterns. In tlii.s section there arc listed Rheometric Analog Methods," (in French), Bull.
a number of the principal references to the rather Soc. Fr. Elec, 1939, Vol. 8, pp. 715-744
extensive literature on the employment of the (9) Malavard, L., and P^ri^s, J., "Tables numfiriques
pour Ic caloul de la rtpartition des charges aCro-
electric analogy for delineating streamline, equi-
(lynumiqucs sur I'envcrRurc d'uiie aile (Numerical
potential, and other flow patterns. Tables for the Calculation of the Distribution of
.\crodynamic I^oada On the Span of a Wing),"
(1) Relf, E. F., "An Electrical Method of Tracing Tech. Rep. 9, Group. Frangais pour les Rtcherches
Streamlines for the Two-Dimensional Motion of a Aero., 1943
Perfect Fluid," Phil. MaR., Sep 1924, Vol. 48, pp. rh6o61ectrique do
(10) Malavard, L., "Sur la solution
535-539; sec al.so ARC, R and M 905, 1924
questions dc representation conforme et application
(2a) Taylor, G. I., 'Troblcma of
and Sharman, C. F., ,^ la th^'oric des prolils d'ailcs (On the Rhco-Electric

Flow in Compressible Fluids," Proc. Roy. Soc, Conformal Representation

Solulioii of Questions of
Ix)ndon, Scries A, 1928, Vol. 121; also ARC, R and and Theory of Wing Profiles),"
.Application to the
M 1195, AuR 1928 Compte.s-Rendus, .\cad. Sci., Paris, Jan 1944
(2h) Taylor, O. I., "The Flow Round a Body MovinR in
(11) Sicstninck, R., "Sur un mode de solution rhfo-
a Comprc-f-silile Fluid," Pror. Third Int. ConR. <''lcrlri<iue dv* problemcs <lc rhf'liie propulsive
Appl. Mcch., Stockholm, 1930, Vol. I, pp. 203 275, (On a Rheo-Electric Method of Solution of Screw-
cap. pp. 205-272 Propeller Problema)," Comptcs-Rcndua, Acad. Sci.,
(3) Koch, J. J., "Fine Expcrimcntcllo Methotic zur Paris, Sep 1914
Bcxtimmung der Reduziertcn Masse dcs Mit- (12) Malavard, L., and Sicstrunck, R., "Sur unc melhodo
schwinRenden Wasscrs Dei SchilTsschwingunRcn dY-tude des grilles ind^fmics de prolils quclconquea
{Exfwrimcntjil Metho<l for DctermininR the Virtual (On a Method of Study of llnderined Flow Nets
Maw) for Cjsrillations of Ships)," lnR.-.\rchiv, Around any Profde)," Cong. Nat. Aviat. Franfftise,
1033, Vol. IV, Part 2, pp. 103-109; TMH Transl. Apr 1945
225 of May 10-19 (13) Malavard, L., "Application afrodynamique de ejdcul
(4) Malavard, I.., "Application dea analogies ^Icctriquea oxp^rimontal analoRique (.\erodynamic Applica-
h lu iHihitiun do (|Uclr|u<-fl prold^mes dc I'liydro- tion of ExiHirinientid .\nal<iR.v t'alrulalions),"
dyiinmic (A|iplicatiun of Eleclriral AnuloRicji to Cong. Nat. Aviat. Franc^aiw, Apr 1945
the Solution of Some Ilydrodynaniic ProWcms)," (14) .Malavard, L., "Calculatcur d'aiica ul rOscau do
Sec. 42.14 POTENTIAL-FLOW PATTERNS 51
resistances lineaire pouvant remplacer, dans Analogy in Fluid Mechanics Research," Rev. Sci.
certaines questions, le bassin 61ectrique (Calcula- Inst.,Nov 1949, Vol. 20, pp. 802-807; also State
tions of Linear Wing and Network Resistances Univ. Iowa, Reprints in Eng'g., Reprint 82
which can be Performed, in Certain Cases, in the (22) Surugue, J., "Techniques gen^rales du laboratoire de
Electrolytic Tank)," Comptes-Rendus, Acad. Sci., physique (General Techniques of the Physics
Paris, Jul 1945 Laboratory)," edition of CNRS, Paris, 1950,
(15) Siestrunck, R., "Sur les corrections de parois dans les Vol. Chap. 15 contains a discussion by L.
II.
essais d'hfelices (On Wall-Effect Corrections in Malavard on "Les Techniques des Analogies
Sorew-Propeller Tests)," Comptes-Rendus, Acad. Electriques (Electric Analogy Technique)."
Sci., Paris,Sep 1945 (23) Rouse, H., EH, 1950, pp. 20-22 and Figs. 17, 18
(16) Siestrunck, R., "Sur le calcul des hfilices ventilateurs (24) Markland, E., and Hay, N., "The Potential Flow
(On the Calculation of Propeller-Type Fans)," Tank," Engineering, London, 7 Mar 1952, pp.
Comptes-Rendus, Acad. Sci., Paris, Sep 1945 292-294
(17) Peres, J., and Malavard, L., "Sur la determination (25) Borden, A., Shelton, G. L., Jr., and Ball, W. E., Jr.,
des corrections de soufHerie (On the Determination "An Electrolytic Tank Developed for Obtaining
of Blowing-Pressure Corrections)," Comptes-Ren- Velocity and Pressure Distributions About Hydro-
dus, Acad. Sci., Paris, Sep 1945 dynamic Forms," TMB Rep. 824, Apr 1953.
(18) Marchet, P., "Determination des lignes de jet dans
les mouvements plans et de revolution (Deter- A concise but comprehensive treatment of
mination of Streamlines in Two- and Three- "Electroanalogic Methods" is given by T. J.
Dimensional Flow)," Probleme D359A, Travaux Higgins, covering many methods other than the
du Laboratoire de Calcul Experimental Analogique,
electrical-tank analogue described here [Appl.
under the direction of L. Malavard
(19) Peres, J., Malavard, L., and Romani, L., "Prob-
Mech. Rev., Jan 1956, pp. 1-4]. Part I of this
lemes non lineaires de la theorie de I'aile. Applica- paper, devoted to "Solution of Electrical Prob-
tion k la determination du maximum de portance lems by Continuous-Type Conductive Proce-
(Non-Linear Problems of the Theory of Wings. dures," carries at its end a huge array of 111
Application to the Determination of Maximum
references, a few of which are to be found in the
Load)," Rep. Tech. Group. Frangais pour les
Recherches Aero. preceding list. Part II of this paper, entitled
(20) Malavard, L., "The Use of Rheo-Electrical Analogies "Solution of Continuum-Mechanics Problem by
in Certain Aerodynamic Problems," Jour. Roy. Continuous-Type Conductive Procedures," is
Aero. Soc, Sep 1947, Vol. 51, No. 441, pp. 739-756. supplemented by an even more massive list of
This is an excellent paper, with many photographs
203 references, some of which are also to be found
and diagrams illustrating the technique and the
results. in the preceding list [Appl. Mech. Rev., Feb 1956,
(21) Hubbard, P. G., "Application of the Electrical pp. 49-55].
 cuAPiER i:;

Delineation of Source-Sink Flow DiaoTams

43 1 . General 52 43. S Graphic Construction of Three-Dimensional
43.2 Delineation of Two-Uimensional Stream- Stream Forms and Flow Patterns .... C2
Form Contours and Streamlines Around 43.9 \'ariety of Stream Forms I'roduced by
a Single Source in a Stream 52 Sources and Sinks fi7

43.3 Graphic Construction of a Two-Diniensional 43.10 Source-Sink Flow Patterns by Colored

Flow Pattern .\round a Source and a Sink 51 Liquid and Electric .\nalog_v G7
43.4 Graphic Determination of Velocity .\round 43.11 Formulas for the Calculation of Stream-Form
Two-Dimensional Stream Forms .... 57 Shapes and the Flow Patterns .\round Them 67
43.5 Laying Out the Two- Dimensional Flow 43. 12 The Forces E.xcrtcd by or on Bodies Around
Pattern .\round Two Pairs of Sources and Sources and Sinks in a Stream; Lagally's
Sinks in a Uniform Stream 58 Theorem 08
43 6 . The Const ruct ion of Two-Dimensional Stream 43.13 Partial Bibliography on Sources and Sinks
Forms and Stream Patterns from Line and Their .\pplication 70
Sources and Sinks 59 43.14 Selected References on Lagally's Theorem . 71
43.7 Flow Pattern for IheTwo-Dimensioniil Doub-
let and the Circular Stream Form . . . 01

43.1 General. Sees. 3.8 through 3. L3 contain architect who expects a knowledge of hydro-
a description and discussion of radial flow and dj'namics to serve him should know how to draw
the source and sink, the radial stream function source-sink stream forms and flow patterns.
and velocity potential, and other features of Frequent application of this "know how" will
source-sink flow. Figs. 3.M through 3.P illustrate greatly expand the usefulness of source-sink or
a variety of simple stream forms resulting from a radial-flow knowledge in his work.
graphic combination of the stream functions of 43.2 Delineation of Two-Dimensional Stream-
uniform and of radial flow. The present chapter Form Contours and Streamlines Around a Single
contains instructions for drawing manj' kinds of Source in a Stream. Notwithstanding that for
stream forms and for delineating graphically the every source there must theoretically be a cor-
flow patterns around them. In Sees. 41.8 and 41.9 responding sink of ecjual strength, the plotting of
there are a few typical formulas for calculating the flow around a single 2-diml source in a uniform
the coordinates of some simple stream forms stream is first described as a preliminary to sub-
rather than plotting them graphically. Both sets sequent operations. For the time being it may
of sections tell how these constructions and be assumed that the companion sink lies at an

formulas lead to a determination of the velocities infinite distancedownstream. The plotting method
and pressures around the forms. is a single-step combination of the "radial"
It has been true in the past, and perhaps may stream functions for the soiu'ce and the "parallel"
be for some time to come, that the stream forms functions for the uniform stream.
and streamline patterns created in this way have Lay down first a set of radial equidiflerent
found and will And infrctjuent u.se in practical stream-f miction lines for the source. It is con-
naval architecture, as contrasted to their frctiuent venient, for reasons which appear presently, to
occurrence in analytic investigations and their have two of these radial lines lie on the customary
use in the development of underwater non-ship X- and //-axes, and to jilace the imiform stream
forms. Nevertheless, a knowledge of the mechanics parallel to the z-axis, as in Fig. 43. .V. The four
of drawing source-sink flow patterns and some (juadrants around the source are then each
experience in drawing them gives one an insight divided into a suitable number of equal arcs by
into and a working knowledge of certain phases the remaining radial streani-function lines. The
of hydro<Jyiiainics that can not be obtained in any stream functions from tht; source, identified aa
other way. A parallel ca.se is experience in the ^ao(p«i)) then marked with any convenient
'ii"*-'

coiutruclion of flow neta. Literally, the marine set of positive numlicr.s, in tliis cxse 1 through 28,
 Sec. 43.2 DELINEATION OF SOURCE SINK DIAGRAMS 53

Unifoi'm- by the
-2.0- full-line vectors beyond B. It then goes
flow
stream _|g_
through a gap where the algebraic sum of the
function radialand uniform-stream functions is equal to
—4. Such a gap is that portion of the radial hne
4'so = +4 represented by the segment BF, lying
between the parallel horizontal lines whose
stream functions 4/u are —4 and —8, respectively.
The original four units of liquid in the parallel
Reference avis +oo
flow turn up through this gap and cross the line
Fig. 43. a Uniform-Flow and Radial-Flow BF. At the point F, therefore, the stream function
Stream Functions for a 2-Diml Soubce ^s of the combined flow is equal to —4. The four
units of liquid in the radial flow turn upward
starting with at the positive x-axis and going inside the point B.
around both ways to 32 at the negative x-axis. The second four units of uniform flow, between
Only those hnes above the a;-axis are shown in \pu = —4^ and ypu =^ ~8, now approaching a new
the figure. barrier at F, turn up between F and J, whereupon
Off to the right draw the stream comb for the the point J lies on the new streamline ^s = —8.
uniform flow and assign suitable equidifferent If the procedure just described is followed for
values, marked from i/'^ = through ^c = ~20
in Fig. 43. A. The negative signs for the uniform
flow signify liquid moving opposite to the positive
direction of the .T-axis. The stream comb is then
extended to the left to form the horizontal
straight-line portions of Fig. 43. B. In this and
succeeding layouts the lower half of the diagram,
that is, the mirror image of the upper half, is

omitted to save space.

The horizontal hne extending from — » through
the source to + <» , coinciding with the a;-axis,

represents the trace of the reference plane for the Fig. 43.B Combination of Uniform Flow With
Radial Flow Feom a 2-Diml Source
flow diagram to be constructed. If four radial
vectors are drawn from SO, between the lines

4'so =
^ and 4/so = +4, they represent sche- groups of eight liquid units instead of four, a
matically the four units of the quantity rate of point C is established at the intersection of
flow from the source in that sector. If four parallel i^so = +8 and ^u = ~8
where the resultant
vectors are drawn between the trace of the stream function value \{/s is again zero. There is
reference plane, in the x-axis, and the horizontal also found a point G where the stream function
line ^p = - 4, they represent in the same manner of a new series is lAs = —4 and a point K where
the quantity rate of flow in that part of the ^s = —8.
stream. These eight vectors are drawn in broken A whole pattern of intersections is thus quickly
lines in the figure. The two flows, in which the determined, at which the stream functions xf/g of
quantity rates are each numerically equal to 4, the third series are equal to the algebraic sums
buck each other along the region AB in Fig. 43. B. of those of the second and the first series. For
At the intersection B of the radial line ^so = +4 example, at E it is found that i/'p = —16 and
and the horizontal line ^^ = —4, the resultant 4'so = +16, so this point is on the line \ps = 0.
stream function value is zero. Assuming for the At L, xpu = —20 and 4'so = +12, so this is a
moment that the reference plane is impenetrable, point on the streamhne 4's = —8.
the uniform flow between the x-axis and ^pu = ~^ The various points so determined are all inter-

is deflected upward. There is estabhshed a line sections of radial stream-function lines having
^s = between A and B, across which no liquid values greater than the uniform stream-function
passes. lines by increments equal to the value of the new
The liquid in the uniform stream \}/v , in quan- stream function 4's This means that the parallel
tity rate equal to —4, turns upward as indicated stream flow that lay below 4'u = —4 at infinity
51 IIVDRODVN \MK:.S IN SUIT DI-SIGN Srr. 43.3

now flows across the radial sogincnls BF, CG, is chosen with a radial stream function \l/so = +8
DH, and so on. A fair line joining the points at 90 deg, in.stoad of ^.^o = -|-1G as shown.
B, C, D, and E becomes the streamline or bound- Similarly, the uniform-fiow stream function ^j; ,

ary where 4^3 = 0. Another line through F, G, H, if given values twice as great, produces a body
and corresponding points becomes the streamline only half as wide. It is to be noted particularly,
where 4's = —4. A line joining J, K, L becomes in this and other applications suh-socjuenlly
the streamline yps = —8. described, that the velocity of the uniform flow
If the same construction is followed inside the can be increased without changing the shape of
line BODE, tlie radial flow preponderates at the the form represented by ^.s = if the radial-flow
point M, where = — 4 and ^so = +8, where-
^t; velocitj' is increased in the same ratio. This is

upon (^Ao = -fSplusi^y = —4 becomes^/ = -|-4. equivalent to multiplying or dividing all stream
Similarly, at N, ipso = +12 and fpu = —8, functions in Fig. 43. B by the same factor; the
whence rff, = +4. A streamline representing form contour and the various streamlines in the
^/ = 4, for inlernal flow, is then drawn from the diagram remain the same.
source through M, N, P, and a corresponding The solid boundarj' around a single source in
series of intersections. The four radial broken-line a uniform stream in 2-diml flow continues to
vectors, each representing unitj' quantity rate of widen with distance downstream so that it is of
Uquiil, originally lying below the line \pso = +4, limited practical application to ship design.
turn upward and to the left as they pass between However, Sees. 41.9 and 07. 7 tell how a 3-diml
tlie boundary BCDE and the inside streamline single source in a uniform stream may be used
^i = 4. to delineate an underwater bulb shape for the
from the source SO and
If all the lii|uid issuing bow of a ship. The solid boundary' around a
doubling back boundary BCDE
inside the source and adjacent sink in uniform flow is
freezes into ice, or is otherwise suddenly solidified, closed and of oval shape, resembling some
the flow outside that boundary remains exactly parts of a ship. Because of the ea.se with which
the same as defined by the streamlines of the 2-diml streamlines are constructed around it, tliis
^s-system. bodj' serves well as a simple ship form, by which
Bj' following this extremely simple and straight- to explain and depict many kinds of flow phe-
forward construction in both quadrants above the nomena.
reference plane, and then adding its mirror image 43.3 Graphic Construction of a Two-Dimen-
below that plane, bounding
the ovoid-sliaped sionalFlow Pattern Around a Source and a Sink.
surface ABODE ... is extended to any desired The construction of a solid boundary surface and
limit downstream. All the streamlines around it a streamline diagram for a 2-diml source and a
can be sketched through the respective series of 2-diml sink placed in a uniform stream involves
intersections by the process of adding the stream one more step than the procedure described for
functions algebraically and joining the points a single source. It is convenient, as before, to
having equal ^s values, as in Fig. 43. B. As few take up each of the steps separately. They are
or as many radial and parallel stream function simple graphic operations which, when once
Unes are drawn as may be desired. The more are learned, are easily and rapidly performed.
drawn, the more intersections arc found and the Let the horizontalline from — oo to -|- <» in
more accurately is the body defined and the result- Fig. 43. C, pa.ssing through the source and the
ing stream pattern delineated. Filling in stream- sink and coinciding with the x-axis, represent the
function lines at intervals of unit quantity rate in trace of the reference plane for the 2-iliml uniform-
Fig. 43. B instead of in increments of four units stream flow. The y-ax'is is midway between the
would give sixteen time^ as many intersections and source and the sink. Using separate sheets of
four tim&s as many streamlines as are shown tracing cloth, or other suitable transparent
there. material, lay down orthogonal axes in the center
The width of the ovoid-shaped boundary of each sheet. In each of the four ((uadrants draw
opposite the source is equal to the uniform-stream- an equal number of uniformly sijaceil radial lines,
function position for a value corresponding to the representing equidifl'erent radial stream functions.
radial-.streatn-function number at 'JO deg from the Series of numbers difi"ering by 2 or 4 are used
Hlream direction. Therefore, to make the solid generally in the present ch.'ipter but any series is

boun<liiry half as wide as in Fig. 43. H, a source licrmissible.

 Sec. 433 DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS 55

Fig. 43.C Radial Stream Functions foe a 2-Diml Source-Sink Pair and the Resultant Stream Functions

Leave a clear space at the center of each sheet pattern representing the liquid movement from
where the lines would otherwise be crowded the source to the sink. For this purpose it is more
together. One way is to use large circles for the convenient to start from the axis between the
source and sink. Extend the radial lines as far source and sink instead of from the axis stretching
as the drawing area permits or requires. The to the right from the source.
radial flow from the source is designated as the Considering four units of liquid emanating
^/so- or ^o-system; that from the sink as the from the source in the sector between the hori-
^SK- or \^K-system. Number the radial lines zontal reference line and the radial- stream-function
around both source and sink, starting with zero hne \po = +28, represented by the four broken-
at the reference Hne in the positive x-axis on the Une vectors, these units must enter the sink
right and increasing numerically hoth ways to the between the reference line and the radial line
negative x-axis. This applies both to the diagram ^K = —4. Where the stream-function hne
shown and its mirror image. As previously men- fo = +28 crosses the hne \pK = —4, at the point
tioned, any convenient set of equidifferent Y, the value of the resultant^ stream function
numerical values may represent the outflowing i^c = +28 (-4) = +24. The numerical
+
and inflowing stream functions, but the sets stream-function values of the fc system are dis-
must be identical. The lines i^o = and ^^ = — tinguished by single bars over the numerals.
both he over the reference trace and point toward However, the four liquid units flowing out of the
the source of the uniform-stream flow and opposite source and into the sink, corresponding to the
to its velocity vectors. The hnes radiating from fuU-hne curved vectors shown, actually pass
the source are marked with positive signs to between the point Z, where rf/c = +28, and the
indicate positive stream functions, while those reference trace.Whereas the streamline \pc = +28
pointing toward the sink are marked with negative is tangent to the radial line ^o = +28 at the
signs. source and to ^^ = — 4 at the sink, this streamhne
With the reference-plane trace as a base, super- moves downward or inward, away from those
pose these separate radial-flow diagrams with hnes, as the distance from the source or sink
their centers at the selected source and sink increases. In other words, instead of passing
positions. Fasten the source and sink sheets in through Y it passes through Z.
place, then over both diagrams lay a third sheet The intersections of other parts of radial Hnes
of tracing paper or cloth, or other transparent along a perpendicular to the reference hne,
material, upon which the straight reference line midway between the source and smk, occur at
isdrawn and the source-sink positions are marked. the points m^ked_Y, X, and_W, where the values
The hnes visible through the top sheet then appear of ^c are +24, +20, and +16, respectively. Two
as the straight-line portions of Fig. 43. C. other points, M
and N, on the streamline
The next step is the construction of the flow if/c = +16, are given by the intersection of
56 1IM)K()I)\ .\ \.\IK:s IN Mill' 1)1 sU.\ Sec. (jJ

^o = +20 plus \fiK = — t'<|ual.s 4>r = +><», as J sectors, there is always a radial stream-function
well as bv 4'o = +'-S plus ^^ = —12 equals line from the source at right angles to another
^f. = +1(5. These permit the streamline ^c
= +1G line from the sink. For example, since the circular

to be drawn, rememheriiip that, like the first one streamline \pc = +12 is tangent to rpo = +12
descrilMxl, it is tangent to (lie radial linc^o = +1C at the source, its center lies on the line rpo = +28,
at the source and the line ^k = —16 at the sink. where 12 -|- 16 (for one quadrant) = 28.
Actually, for 2-iliml How between a source-sink On this basis, and with the additional inter-
pair, all the streamlines of the^c series are drcics sections on the diagram, the remainder of the
which pass through the source and sink centers. circular streamlines are drawn. AVhereas these
These circles have a radius of s cosec 0(thcta), lines are approximately equidistant from each
where s is the half-tlistaiice between source and other at the source and sink centers, they become
sink, and is the angle between (1) the radial increasingly farther apart at greater and greater
stream function at the sourer for which the circle distances from the source and sink, bccau.-je of
is drawn and (2) the reference axis. Considering the slowing down of the liquid in the widening
the radial source streamline ypo = +1G, is ir/2 crescent-shaped sectors. However, once drawn by
or 90 deg and_cosec 6 = \; the radius of the circle subdividing each quadrant into a given number
for ^c = +16 is therefore s, half the distance of sectors, the circular stream pattern nerer
from the source to the sink. This particular changes for any change in source-sink strength or
circle has its center on the reference line and is spacing. Once carefully drawn, it can be enlarged
tangent to the radial strcamhncs if/o — +H> and or reduced photographicallj^ to suit the source-
^K = —16 at the source-sink axis. When cxteiidetl sink spacing. The numbers on it are altered to
below the source-sink axis in the diagraraj_thiri .suit the source-sink strengths.
circle becomes the stream function ^^ = -flfi n •
This completes the first step in the operation.
that side. Similarlj', all other circles extended The second step is the combination of this circular
below the axis become what might be termed source-to-sink flow pattern with the 2-diml
supplementary streamlines in that region. For uniform-flow pattern parallel to the reference
example, the streamline ioTjpc = +4 above the plane. The uppermost sheet of tracing cloth or
reference line and tpc = +28 below it are parts paper containing the circular-streamline pattern
of the same circle. Numerically, the stream of the \{/c S3'stcm is now transferred and superposed
function for these two parts of any complete on a sheet which has parallel streamlines of the
circle total 32, the same value as for half of either uniform flow drawn on it. Following this, the
the source or the sink. The centers of the circular i^f/ flow is combined with the ^c flow by adding

streamlines fall on intersections alreadj' given liy the ipc and the i^y stream functions algebraically
the radial-flow lines in the diagram, because if the where the strcamhncs cross each other. For
quadrants are divided into a whole number of example, in the right-hand portion of Fig. 43. D,

\ Uiiifomi-flow
v stream tuifclions^'^''

aurtace

Fi'i. 'l-'t.!) Uankink. Stiikam Form and Simnoit.VDi.vo Stiikam Vuiw Uesi'i.tino Fmni Inskhtion or a '.J-Himi.
Soi;k(;k-Sink 1'aiii i\ a U.\ih-oiiM Stiikam
Sec. 43.4 DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS 57

at the intersectioii_B of the circular stream-func- hand, a new form is as quickly sketched, using
tion Una ypc = +4 and the uniform-flow stream different relative strengths for the several flows.
function Hne ^v = —4, the resultant flow is zero. The shape of the stream form is preserved while
Therefore B is a point on the boundary of the changing its velocity relative to the uniform
Rankine body to be formed. There is a second, stream by the simple expedient of increasing or
and corresponding point B for iZ-^ = at the left decreasing all the velocities and stream functions
of the sink. At the intersections of the circles by the same factor. The oval "ship" thus retains
\pc = +8, +12, and 4-16 with the parallel-flow its form while changing its speed through the
lines ^f/ = —8, —12, and —16, respectively, the liquid.
pairs of points C, D, and E are found, all on the 43.4 Graphic Determination of Velocity Around
stream-form boundary. Two-Dimensional Stream Forms. The magni-
A streamline through the lettered points where tude and direction of the resultant velocity in the
yps = 0, passing through the stagnation points streamUne field ^s is determined in a simple
Q and embracing the lower or mirror image as graphic manner, originating with W. J. M.
well as the upper half of the flow diagram, forms Rankine. By this method the velocity vectors of
an oval-shaped stream form or Rankine body. the separate flows are combined to give a resultant
The flow pattern around this body is constructed velocity vector of the streamline flow. The inter-
by drawing the streamlines for the functions relation between the composition of stream
^s = —2, —4, —6, and so on, using the method functions and Uquid velocities for 2-diml flow is
described for the single source. The resulting explained in Sees. 2.11 and 2.14 and illustrated in
body shape and flow patterns are illustrated by Figs. 2.L and 2.Q of Volume I. Fig. 43. E diagrams
the heavy lines of Fig. 43. D. Points near amidships
along the body boundary are determined by
drawing intermediate streamlines which are
radial, circular, and parallel, or they may be
determined by calculation, whichever may be
found most convenient. The necessary formulas
are listed in Sec. 41.8.
Flow from the source to the sink also takes
place within the boundary of the Rankine body,
depicted by the stream-function line ^/ = +2
in the figure. This inside liquid can be considered Fig. 43.E Diagram Illustrating Graphic Method
and the flow neglected.
as solidified oj' Determining Resultant Velocities for
The length of the oval-shaped form is partly 2-DiML Flow
adjusted but not wholly controlled by the spacing
2s between the source and the sink. Its length- the graphic method for the example of Fig. 43. D,
beam or fineness ratio is a function of the relative as applied to several points around the body.
strength of the source-sink flow and the uniform- Take first the body point B in Fig. 43.E. A
stream flow. The absolute size form is
of the uniform-flow velocity vector — (7„ is laid off at
largely a function of the scale upon which the OiB, parallel to the reference axis. From B a line
diagram is laid out. is drawn toward A, tangent to the circular or
With relatively simple radial- and uniform-flow source-sink streamline of the ^c system passing
diagrams made up beforehand on translucent or through B. The latter is shown by the light circular
transparent material, the delineation of a stream arc in the diagram. From B a hne BC is drawn,
form and its surrounding 2-diml flow pattern is tangent to the body surface at B. From Oj a
a much shorter and easier task than might appear line OiA is drawn parallel to the body-surface
from the detailed description just given. In fact, tangent BC, cutting the hne from B which is

with a httle practice, the freehand sketching of tangent to the circular-arc streamline. The
the form and the flow pattern is the work of velocity Ub at the point B is then defined by the
only an hour or two. Figs. 3.0 of Sec. 3.11 in vector OiA. For any point on a streamline in the
Volume I and 43. G of Sec. 43.5 are examples of field away from the body, the procedure is exactly
this procedure. If the stream-form shape and the same, considering the streamline as the surface
proportions are not suitable for the work in of a new body.
58 HYDROOVNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 0.5

When the resultant velocity Ub is known at a stream form resulting from the combination of
8olcct«l point, the corresponding Ap is found by uniform flow with the "circular" flow between
the rclationsliips Ap = 0.bp{l'\ — Ul) and one source-.sink pair is often too blunt to represent
^p/q —
(i'g/U.Y], described previously in
c= (1 the no.se of a body or the bow of a ship, even
Sec. 41.12. Values of the pressure coefficient cor- schematically. This bluntness is modified by the
responding to various combinations of velocities addition of a second source-sink pair on the same
squared, in English units, for liquids of any mass axis, placed farther apart than the main pair, and
density p(rho), arc given in Table 41.c of Sec. having somewhat less strength (Rankine, W. J. M.,
41.13, on page 27. INA, 1870, p. 178]. The construction of the body
The forward neutral point Nb occurs at a shape and the flow pattern involves four steps as
point in the surface where the streamline velocity compared to the two of the previous section, but
U,v represented by the vector OjN in Fig. 43. E,
,
the procedure for each is equallj- straightforward.
equals in magnitude the uniform velocity — U. ,
An example is worked out here to illustrate the
represented by the vector OjH. By striking an method, using a main source-sink pair, each
arc on 0, as a center, using the radius 0,H = f/. ,
having a total quantity rate of flow of 128 units,
it is known that the extremity of the vector OjN and an auxiliary pair, each having a flow of 32
lies somewhere on the arc HM. It is also known units.
that: First, a stream-flow diagram representing the
"circular" ^ci-systcm flow between the primary
(1) The streamline-velocity vector OjN is parallel
source and sink is constructed. When drawn by
to the tangent NbL at the body surface, at the
the method described in Sec. 43.3 and illustrated
proper location of the neutral point Nb
in Fig. 43. C, one-quarter of has the appearance
it
(2) The vector HN
is parallel to a tangent to the
of diagram 2 of Fig. 43.F. Second, a stream-flow
arc NflK, which represents a portion of the
circular-arc source-sink streamline of the — S2 —
^c-system through Nb , where that arc crosses Half of source-alnK distance
the body boundary.
V'C2" System
By a process of trial and error a point Nb on
the body surface is found where the necessary
conditions are met [Rankine, W. J. M., Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc, 1871, Vol. IGl, p. 305, where
Rankine calls the neutral point "the point of no
disturbance of pressure"].
The U.SC of Rankinc's graphic method gives a
neat solution for the conditions at the stagnation
points Qb and Qs where it is known that the
,

resultant velocity is directed normal to the body

surface. At Qb , for example, the circular-stream-
function lines of the ^c-sj'stem are directed
ahead, opposite to the uniform-flow line rpa = 0.
Therefore, at this point the circular-stream
velocity vector Qb03 is equal to the vector U„ in
magnitude but is of opposite sign, hence the
resultant velocity at Qn is zero.
At the midsection of the stream form or Ran-
kine bfxiy, and abreast it, the grapliic method
describo<l in the foregoing breaks down. The
cirrular-flow velocity vectors are parallel to the
uniform-flow vectors and the intersection cor- Half of aourca-»ink di»tsnca M:ircular »tr«A<n
funcLOn
n-Hpoiifiing to .\ in Fig. 13. E i.s indetfrminate. h 5, *]

Laying Out the Two-Dimensional Flow

43.5 Fin. -13.
F-"
Soi'iir-K-SiNK SriiKAMi.iNr..s t-t>n Two
Pattern Around Two Pairs of Sources and Sinks SoUHCE-SlSK PaIIW OK DlF«:RKNT OuTPlT AND
in a Uniform Stream. The 2-diml Rankine DiF>xRt.sT .VxiAL Spacing
Sec. 43.6 DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS 59

diagram representing the ^c2-systena flow between down the inked radial diagrams in different

the secondary source and sink is prepared, by positions along the source-sink axis.
the same method. When completed, one-quarter To make the bow and stern even more pointed
of appears hke diagram 1 of Fig. 43. F.
it a tertiary source-sink system may be added near
It is possible to use the same basic radial the extreme ends. The graphic construction of
diagrams for constructing tlie circular streamlines such a form and the streamline pattern around it,
associated with the two sets of sources and sinks involving as it does the six steps listed hereunder,
by assigning to them different radial stream- is admittedly tedious but it is readily done for
function values. However, both the ^ci and \i/c2 special studies if the results are worth while.
diagrams must be drawn with lines sufficiently These six steps are:

heavy to make them visible through each other

(1) Flow between primary source and sink, \(/ci
and through the sheet carrying the ^cz diagram,
(2) Flow between secondary source and sink, if/ci
subsequently to be placed on top of them. When
(3) Flow between tertiary source and sink, \j/c3
the ^ci and i/'c2 diagrams of the primary and
(4) Combination of flows ^d and \pc2 = 4'ct
secondary source-sink flows are finished and
(5) Combination of flow \]/c4 with flow xj/cs = 4'cs
superposed, with the sources and sinks at the
(6) Combination of flow rpcs with uniform flow
distances Si and Sa respectively, from the origin,
,

iu = iPs
a third flow diagram is constructed by adding
the two sets of "circular" stream functions to Regardless of the combination of stream-func-
form a composite diagram for the two pairs, tion values used in this operation the ends retain
called for convenience the ^C3 stream-function some bluntness any reasonable number of sets
for
system. It is shown by the curved broken lines or pairs of point sources and sinks. A solution to
of the freehand sketch of Fig. 43. G, radiating this problem, developed by D. W. Taylor, is
from the two sources. described in the section to follow.
It is pointed out here, as W. J. M. Rankine
did in his classic treatise of 1866 on "Shipbuilding:
Theoretical and Practical," that it is not strictly
necessary to limit a ship curve, for analysis or
design, to the contour of the Rankuie body or
stream form defined by the stream function
-64
rps= 0. Parts of the lines of ships may be repre-
Stream function "^ sented by streamlines which lie at some distance
from what is considered as the solid boundary of
-Sttejm functions Jiijj
the stream form, described in Sec. 4.2 on page 72
Fig. 43. G Freehand Sketch of Source-Sink of Volume I. This is in accordance with the
Streamlines for Two 2-Diml Source-Sink principle previously enunciated that any stream
Pairs, Form of Body When Inserted in surface in an ideal liquid can be replaced by a
Uniform Flow, and Resultant Streamlines
solid surface without changing the flow pattern
on the other side of it.

As a fourth and final step, the i/'c3-system is The Construction of Two-Dimensional

combined with the uniform flow i^crsystem to
produce a stream form yj/s = 0, indicated by the
heavy line of Fig. 43. G. This has definitely more
pointed ends than the 2-diml body which would
be produced by either primary pair alone.
The exact shape of the ends of a body such as
that delineated in Fig. 43. G depends upon the
strengths of the secondary source and sink and
the relative locations selected for them. A great
variety of body shapes can be drawn in a sur-
prisingly short time, simply by assigning different
stream functions to the radial and parallel flows
and changing the source-sink spacing by tacking
43.6
Stream Forms and Stream Patterns from Line
Sources and Sinks. It is possible to construct
stream forms with the sharp ends customary in
ship waterlines, and with practically any desired
shape and degree of fineness or fullness, by an
ingenious method devised by D. W. Taylor many
years ago ["On Ship-Shaped Stream Forms,"
INA, 1894, pp. 385-406; "On Sohd Stream
Forms, and the Depth of Water Necessary to
Avoid Abnormal Resistance of Ships," INA, 1895,
pp. 234-247]. This involves the use of what are
called line sources and sinks.
In its simplest form this procedure embodies the
t;u HVDROnVNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. -13.6

use uf n niultituile of nuinite sources and sinks, distributed along the XO-part of the line to the
not nt>ccs!«irily all of tlio siuno strength, willi sinks tlistributwl along the t)Xi-part, corre-
infinitciiimal spacing, crowilixl togetlier along a sponding to the "circular" stream flow for the
line representing the longitudinal axis of a Innly simple l2-diml sourcc>-«ink pair of Sec. 43.3 pre-
or ship. The sources are groupetl along the en- ceding. When the flow pattern of the resultant
trance; the sinks along the run. Despite the source-sink stream function is found, it is com-
minute strength of each source or sink, the bined with the uniform-flow function ^t/ along
combineil strength of ench group of them along the reference a.\is to give the outline of the ship
the line is finite. form, defined by the streamline where ^.,- = 0.
Other values of the stream function ^., give the
[- — Line of Sinks-*-! 2-diml flow pattern around the ship form, at a
lOutline of 2-diml Streom distance from the boundary.
r^ Form-^^^sr At any selected point G in diagram 1 of Fig.
43.1 it is necessary to determine first, the flow
from all the dx sources; second, the flow into all
the dx sinks; and then to combine them. Taking
the line X,OX as the trace of the reference plane,

-Line of Source9-»j
as before, the stream function at G due_to any
infinitesimal (/x-source, such as at E, is dx^BVljOg
0^__l,-t-^T:urve of Strength Distribution '
,

where 0^ measured counter-clockwise from the

is

Fio. 43.11 DEnsTTiON Sketch kor Li.ne Source reference plane. The stream function at G due
AND Line Sink to any rfx-sink, such as at F, is — rf.r(CF)fl;, .

Plotting these values as a separate graph, diagram

Fig. 43.H depicts schematically such a line, 2 of Fig. 43.1, the source stream function is laid
marked X,OX, with a row of sources from X to off as the ordinate EH above E, and the sink

O and a row of sinks from to X, The strength .

stream function as FJ below F. Proceeding in
of each is represented by the height of a velocity similar fashion for all the rf.r-sources between X
vector perpendicular to the source-sink line.

Source strengths are laid off above the line and

sink strengths below it. A line joining all the
5ource-intensily curve
ordinates is the source-sink, strength-distribution
curve. If each source or sink occupies a space of
dx along the line, then the total strength of all
the sources is the length OX
times the average
strength or ordinate. Similady, the total strength
of all the .sinks is the length (JXi times the average
negative ordinate.
The strength of any source or sink along the
line XOX, may be a.ssigncd at will, depending
upon the shape of the Ixxly or ship which it is
desired to form. The only limitation is that the
area below the curve of source ordinates, AXO
in V\g. 43.11, representing the total source output,
be ixaclbj (t/ual to the area above the curve; of
sink ordinates (JDX, , representing the total sink
input. Otherwi.s*' there will be some liiiuid lacking
or left and the resulting stream furni will
over,
not \)C bounded by a closed curve.
In practice, when working with line .sources
and sinks, it is convenient to plot a grajili of
ituurcc and sink strengths as in diagram 1 of
Fio. 43.1 DEKiNrnoN Sketch nm the Stream
Fig. -13.1. The problem then is to find the stream Ki'NrrioN AT A Point in a Linb Souhck-Link
function of the combined llnw from the sources Sink I''iei.1)
Sec. 43.7 DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS 61

and 0, and all and X,

the dx-sinks between ,
3-diml bodies of revolution, one of which is

the curves KHO

and OJR are produced. Sub- illustrated in Fig. 42.C.
tracting the area under the first from the area (d) Using a calculating machine developed by
above the second, both measured to the XOXj H. Fottinger [STG, 1924, pp. 295-344; TMB
axis, gives the net value of the combined source- Transl. 48, May 1952, pp. 14-15].
sink stream function at the point G. It is repre-
43.7 Flow Pattern for the Two-Dimensional
sented by the hatched area in diagram 2 of the
Doublet and the Circular Stream Form. A source
figure.
and sink, both 2-diml, when placed infinitely
Repeating this procedure for all points in the
close to each other along a given axis, form a
entire field other than G
and carrying through
doublet, described in Sec. 3.10 and illustrated in
the remainder of the operation is a tedious and
Fig. 3.M of Volume I and in Fig. 43.J of Volume
laborious task, despite the systematic method of
II. The source-sink streamlines retain their
calculation outUned and described by D. W.
circular shape, as in Fig. 43. C. However, the
Taylor in the references cited. Nevertheless, it
inner streamline circles between the source and
can be and has been done, as witness the works
the sink diminish in size as the source-sink
of the AVA, Gottingen, on 3-diml line sources
distance 2s along the axis is decreased toward
and sinks in their report UM
3206, mentioned in
zero. When this distance is reduced to an extremely
Sec. 42.6. The general problem is simplified
small value, the only circular streamhnes left in
immensely by:
sight are the outer ones, beyond both the source
(a) Making the source-and-sink lines XO and and the sink. Furthermore, the visible streamlines
OX, of equal length and the source-and-sink of the circular pattern now lie tangent to the
distribution symmetrical about 0, as was done source-sink axis, regardless of their radius. This
by Taylor. The method is explained and used in is because the fine forming the locus of their
a practical example by him on pages 392-396 and centers, normal to the axis, now crosses the axis
Plates LXX-LXXIII of his 1894 INA paper. at the doublet position which is, in effect, a
(b) Shortening the lines of sources and sinks to common position for both.
cover only hmited intervals or portions of the When the source and sink are brought together
length near the bow and stern to form a doublet their strengths m are increased
(c) Replacing the general source-and-sink strength to hold the product m(2s) constant. The strength
curves by straight fines; in other words, making of the doublet is then indicated by /i(mu), where
the strengths constant along the source-and-sink n = 2m(s).
lines or uniformly varying in those regions. The When the double-circular flow pattern around
latter two steps were adopted by H. Fottinger a doublet is combined with a uniform flow in the
and F. Horn in producing the simple 2-diml ship direction of the doublet axis the resulting 2-diml
forms described in Sees. 2.17 and 4.3 and illus- stream form, depicted in half-section in Fig.
trated in Figs. 2.S and 4.C of Volume I. They 43. J, is circular. The derivation of this form is

were also used by Brand and others in producing set down in Sec. 41.8. It is convenient, for reasons

-6
^ V4 /

Rodii of )^-5yslem Equol to ^.-^•^^-n where -;n la the Value of 'Ji^u at the Point M,

Other Half Below Axis Identical Sink^ n^b^

Fig. 43.J Construction Diagram for 2-Diml Doublet
f.2 IIYDRODYNAMICS IN SIIIl' DKSK.N Src. -f^.S

pxplainod presently, to he able to delineate speak, to suit the new contour. Sections of hydro-
aicuratcly tiie potential flow of an ideal liquid foils, propeller and control
blades, rudders
around this circular form. This is accomplishetl surfaces, even transverse sections and watcrlines
by combining the circular doublet streamlines of of ships, are the end result of this procedure,
the ^o-system with the parallel streamlines of complete with data for the flow around them.
llie ^^systcm, as described for other graphic However, because of the discontinuity at tlie
constructions in the sections preceding. However, trailing edge of a hydrofoil which is definitely
the ^o-system is constructed in quite different sharp, the method breaks down for the region in
fashion. this vicinity.
Selecting the desired radius R of the circular Graphic Construction of Three-Dimen-
43.8
stream form, the stream functions of the uniform sionalStream Forms and Flow Patterns. The
flow arc laid off at intervals of say tenths of the manner in which an oval 2-diml body is formed by
radius R on a.\is. This is illustrated
each side of the inserting a 2-diml source-sink pair into a uniform
in Fig. 43.J, one side only. The inner-
drawn for stream, flowing in a direction parallel to the source-
most circular streamline of the doublet system, sink axis, is described in Sec. 43.3. It is possible,
not shown in the figure, has a radius of R/2. Its in much same way, to form an axisymmetric
the
geometric center, as for all other centers of the 3-diml body by inserting a 3-diml source-sink pair
system, lies on a line normal to the doublet a.\is into a uniform stream moving parallel to the
at the doublet position 0. If this innermost circle source-sink axis.
were drawn from the center P it would be tangent For the mathematical formulations of Sec. 41.8
to the doublet a.\is at and to the uniform-flow and the spherical coordinates employed there, it
streamhne for iu = —10 at M. Since is a M was convenient to use a zero stream-function
point on the stream form where \f/s = 0, this reference for the 3-diml source (and sink) in the
circle has a stream-function value ^o = -f-lO. form of a transverse plane through the source
The next circle representing a doublet stream center, normal to the source-sink axis. For the
function ^o is tangent to the a.xis at and has a graphic construction, however, it is much simpler
radius (7?/2)(10/9). The remaining circles of and more straightforward to use as a zero reference
the i^c-system have the radii (/?,'2)(10/8), for both source-and-sink flow and uniform-stream
(/<:/2)(10/7), and .so on to (ft/2)(10/l) for the flow the source-sink axis itself. The representation
outermost circle, ^o = +1- Expressed in another of the stream function \pv for the 3-diml uniform-
way, at the top of Fig. 43.J, the radii of the stream flow is the same in both cases. It is depicted
\^/)-systcm maj' be taken as A-/1, fc/2, k/3, . . . k/n, in diagram 2 of Fig. 2.M of Sec. 2.12, on page 31
where n has the numerical value of ^,; at the of Volume I, where the 3-diml stream function
point M, and k = nR/2. ^[/ corresponds to — U^y'/'l, with y measured
The algebraic addition of the 4'd and the ^u radially from the source-sink axis.
stream functions produces points in the resultant Using the same zero reference for the 3-diml
^s-isystem. The stream function for ^., = is a flow out of the source and into the sink, the
circle of radius R. Other stream functions such as radial flow is split up into a cone-and-funnel
^fl = 1, 2, and so on define the streamlines pattern symmetrical about the source-sink axis
depicted in Fig. 43..J for the ^.,-systcm, covering rather than into a "pyramidal" pattern uniformly
as large a field may
be desired for analysis.
as distributed in all directions around the source
Both by this graphic construction and b^' pure (or sink) as a center. This means that the inner-
calculation, using the formulas of Sec. 41.8 for most subdivision of the radial 3-diml flow t-akes
flow about a 2-diml rod of circular section, it is the form of a cone whose axis is coincident with
possible to determine easily the stream function, the source-sink axis, as at B in Fig. 43. K. The
the velocity potential, the flow pattern, the pre.s- radial flow is assumed to pass through the circular-
»ures, the velocities,and other flow characteristics contour spherical base of this cone, notwithstand-
around the circular stream form. Bj' the proccjvs ing that it is shown closed at B in the figure. A
of confornial transformation, mentioned in Sec. similar cone lies diametrically opposite the source
41.11, the circular boundary of Xhi' 2-diml doublet or sink, also shown at B.
Htrcam form is transformed into almost any The next subdivision of the 3-diml radial flow,
dceired Hha()e, taking the flow pattern and the reckoned outward from the source-sink axis and
variuu.H flow characteristics along with it, so to out of (or into) which a unit (|uiinlity rate of
Sec. 43.S DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS 63

Cones of inflow for unity stream function

between -p^A and fi-^ =0

Funnels of outfiow for

unity stream function
between V'q'Z and TiQ'\

Fig. 43.K Definition Sketch foe 3-Diml Soubcb-and-Sink Stream Functions for Graphic Construction
OF Body Shapes and Flow Patterns

liquid flows, is a conical "funnel," surrounding equal parts corresponding to the selected stream
the cone. The same quantity rate of liquid is functions for each "hemisphere" of the radial
assumed to pass through the annular spherical flow, such as k = 10. When perpendiculars are
surface at the base of the "funnel." This funnel is erected on this radius at the spacing h = R/k,
diagrammed at A in Fig. 43. K where, to make it the intersections of these perpendiculars with a
stand out more clearly, the cone around the circle representing the spherical surface give the
source-sink axis is omitted. Diametrically opposite limits for the bases of the cones and the funnels
one funnel is an identical one, drawn at the left through which equal quantities of liquid move
side of the 3-diml source in the figure. With a out from the source and in toward the sink.
3-diml stream function ^o = at the source-sink The radial-flow diagram for a 3-diml source (or
axis, this stream function has a value of unity sink), as projected on a page to represent the
(1.0) at the outer surface of the cone and the inner traces on any plane passed through the source-sink
surface of the funnel. It has a value of 2 at the axis, takes the form indicated in diagram 1
outer surface of the funnel, indicated in the of Fig. 43.L, where only one-quarter of the pattern
figure. Surrounding the inner funnels are a series is shown. That for the sink is the same, with
of other larger funnels, also concentric with the negative signs.
source-sink axis, terminating in zones of area The uniform flow approaching from a distance
equal to the first, through which unit quantity is assumed to be made up of stream rods and
rates of Hquid flow in and out. tubes, circular and annular in section and con-
For a given spherical radius and radial velocity centric about the extended source-sink axis, as
at the source and sink, the quantity rates of shown in diagram 2 of Fig. 2.M of Volume I
liquid flowing through the cones and funnels are and in Fig. 42.A. The inner stream "rod" of
directly proportional to the areas of their spherical Fig. 2.M has the form of a cylinder of any selected
bases and zones, respectively. For the construction radius, depending upon the value of the 3-diml
of the 3-diml stream forms to be described, the uniform-stream function assigned. The outer
surface of each source or sink "sphere" is divided stream "tubes" have radial thicknesses such that
into an integral number of zones of equal area, the quantity rate of flow through each of them
all symmetrical about the axis. equals that through the center "rod." Their
The area of a spherical segment or zone is divisional surfaces therefore have equidLfferent
expressed by the formula 4s = 2irRb, where R stream functions, based upon their common axis
is the radius of the sphere and h is the height of as a reference. prospective inner and outer
The
the segment or zone in the direction of the polar and the annular stream tubes are
radii of the rod
axis, normal to the planes dividing the zones. In determined graphically by laying down a second-
this case the polar axis corresponds to the source- order parabola y' = ex, with its vertex on the
sink axis, and to the direction of flow. Hence a source-sink axis. Perpendiculars are then erected
selected or convenient spherical radius along the at uniform intervals along the source-sink axis
direction of flow is divided into a number of in the manner indicated at 2 in Fig. 43.L [Taylor,
64 IIVDRODYN AMIC.S IN SIIII' 111 SICN Sec. -fJ.S

TAULB 43.n Data roK CoNSTKCcTisr. Tmhkk-Dimi. 1{mihi-I' I )i m;k\\is

This tablo applies to (iingram I of Pii;. i:i.I,.

k
Sec. 43.ft DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS fiS

22 2

0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.5O 0.60 O.TO 080 0.90 1.00

Source- R"^^ H "-^O I

or sinK

^-20
Curbed streamlines correspoodmq to 32 plus the inward The curved streamlines are tanqenl to the Outward raoial
radial stream function values are tanqenl to each flow lines havinq the same numerical stream function
other at the sink center Ifc WO'>>rtW V^ (2^) at the source center

Fig. 43.N Stream-Function Pattern for a 3-Diml Source-Sink Pair

the 3-diml siiigiosource-and-uniforin-flow combi- stream tubes, formed by the intersection of the
nation described picviou.slj' in tliis section and circular-section .stream surfaces with the plane of
illustrated in Fig. 43. M. The result, indicated in the page.
Fig. 43.0, isa plane longitudinal section through If the solid axisj'mmetric stream forms resulting
the a.\is of a 3-diml stream form of revolution of from anj' of these combinations are too blunt,
oval shape and the 3-diml flow pattern around it. pairs of 3-diml secondary or tertiarj' sources and
This form may be called, following the lead of sinks may be added, following the scheme de-
D. W. Taylor, a solid stream form; it may also scribed in Sec. 43.5 for 2-diml radial flows of this
be called a solid liankine body. The streamlines kind.
lying outside it are the traces of varied-radius The methods of constructing graphically the

-?4 Curvad source-sink streamlines of Fiq.

43Ji

PlO. 43.0 AxiBTUMBTIUf Ik)l)Y SlUrK rOR C'dMIIISATION oy 3-DlMI. SotmCF.-SiNK TaIU and :t-niMI. HSIMIIIM Flow
Sec. 43.11 DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS 67

flow patterns around source-and-sink combina- The number of forms which can be developed
tions in uniform flow is described here at some by source-sink combinations is in fact limited only
length as an aid in the visuaUzation of this type by the ingenuity, imagination, and talent put to
of flow and in understanding the nature and the work on them. The reward offered by this work
combination of stream functions. The more is the ability to calculate the characteristics of the
famihar this action becomes to the marine archi- flow around these forms, under a great variety of
tect, the more frequently is it recognized around initial conditions. The useful and practical results
a ship form and the more interesting and useful of these enterprising endeavors are described in
is this knowledge become in practice.
likely to somewhat greater detail in Chap. 50, in a dis-
43.9 Forms Produced by
Variety of Stream cussion of calculated ship resistance.
Sources and Sinks. Thanks to Taylor's line 43.10 Source-Sink Flow Patterns by Colored
sources and sinks, and to mathematical methods Liquid and Electric Analogy. In Sec. 2.13, on
which have been developed in the three-quarters pages 34 and 35 of Volume I, there are explained,
of a century since Rankine's time, it is now possible in somewhat general terms, the means by which
to produce stream functions and velocity poten- radial-flow patterns around sources and sinks,
tials for forms and combinations
source-sink singly or in combination, are determined by
hitherto undreamed of. This applies not only to plotting traces of equal electric potential in a
the 2-diml source-sink combinations of Sees. 43.2 weak electrolyte.
to 43.7 but to the 3-diml source-sink combinations The use of colored hquids, emanating from and
of Sec. 43.8. Examples of these apphcations are: flowing into actual holes representing sources
and sinks, is mentioned in Sec. 3.8. Excellent
(i) Line sources and sinks along a longitudinal
source-sink flow patterns for practical use, capable
axis parallel to the direction of uniform flow, to
of manual diagramming or photographing, are
form a large number of bodies of revolution,
delineatedby this relatively simple, expeditious,
having a great variety of shapes and proportions
and economical technique [Moore, A. D., "Fields
[AVA, Gottingen, Rep. UM
3206, dated 30 Dec
from Fluid Flow Mappers," Jour. Appl. Phys.,
1944; available in English as TMB Transl. 220,
Aug 1949, Vol. 20, pp. 790-804]. Colored hquid
Apr 1947]
moves from the source orifice(s) to the sink
(ii) Sources and sinks offset from the longitudinal
orifice (s) through a thin horizontal space between
axis to produce a rather blunt stern on a de-
a light-colored slab containing the orifice (s) and
stroyer form, pictured in Fig. 3.Q on page 69 of
a sheet of plate glass just above it. Streamlines of
Volume I [Lunde, J. K., INA, 1949, Figs. 1 and 2,
sorts are indicated by colored streaks left on the
pp. 186-187]
slab. Motion pictures may be made of the colored
(iii) Assembhes of doublets a introduced in
liquid while it is flowing.
uniform stream to produce special forms, as has This method lends itself to the quick solution,
been done by Sir Thomas Havelock not only of 2-diml flow problems but to the deline-
(iv) Ring sources in a plane normal to a uniform ation of axisymmetric flow in three dimensions.
stream of relatively high velocity, to form duct Further, fine sources and sinks may be represented,
or pipe entrances with streamlined outer and using slots instead of holes. The slot width is

inner walls. Longitudinal traces through some of varied to correspond to the strength distribution
the 3-diml bodies worked out in this fashion by along that axis. Flow from or into relatively large-
the Ilhnois Institute of Technology on Project area sources and sinks is represented by running
4955, ONR Contract N7onr-32905, under V. L. the colored Hquid through small sand beds
Streeter, are illustrated in the First Phase Report within the boundaries of the sources and sinks.
of this project, dated 1 February 1949, entitled Similar representations, employing a liquid flow
"Axially Symmetric Flow Through Annular of constant depth over a broad-crested weir, were
Bodies." utiUzed by J. F. Harvey to approximate heat-flow
(v) Infinitesimal dA sources spread over the after patterns in boilers [SNAME, 1950, Vol. 58,
area of a propeller disc and dA sinks spread over pp. 252-257].
the forward area to reproduce the velocity and 43. 11 Formulas for the Calculation of Stream-
pressure effects of a screw propeller, following Form Shapes and the Flow Patterns Around
H. Dickmann. A group of five pairs arranged in Them. The shapes of all the stream forms con-
this fashion is shown in Fig. I5.F. structed graphically in the preceding sections^of
G8 IIM)R()1)\ \ AMICs I\ Mill' DISICN Sic -I J. 12

the prt-stMit rliiiptor, tlu> Iriict's of the How patterns Body M CTo'»cd~Ji Ver^ Loni). ond i4 Synmetixol Unif orm Flow
nroiiiitl tlu-iii, iiiul tlu' local stream veliuitifs ami ~'~ "* — "•~-^~" 1 About Sink ol -

me LtU tno-
presjiiiri-s, eaii l)eby mathematical
calcuiatetl
formulas. This metluxl the most con-
is often
veiiient anil advantageous, depending upon the
eipiipment and facilities available and the use to
which the deriveil data are to be put. Specific
formulas for accomplishing a few selected
this, in

cases, are derivtnl in Sees. 41.8 and 41.9 and are

(pioted on Figs. 41. E, 41. F, and 41. CI accompany-
ing them. These formula.s, and others, are found
in many mixlern te.xt and reference books, but
more often than not they are without adetiuatc
explanation as to the symbols and notation
employed.
Some additional formulas were dcNclopi'd iiy
\V. J. M. Rankine [Phil. Trans., Roy Soc, 1871],
such as those to establish the loci of points of
ma.ximum and minimum velocity around stream
forms, but the references which containthem are
not readily available and the notation in which
they were exprcs.sed threc-{|uartcrs of a century
ago re(|uires conversion to nKxlern Mt)tatioii.
43.12 The Forces Exerted by or on Bodies
Around Sources and Sinks in a Stream; Lagally's
Theorem. If a i-loscd body is formed by a
stream surface around sources and sinks, as for
the bodies around the source-sink pairs dcscrilied
previously in this chapter, there is a resultant

hydrfxiynamic force acting on the stream surface

bounding the body. It is explained presently that
in a uiiifonn stream the resultant force is zero,
conforming to the fl'.Memliert paradox, but in an
unsteady or non-uniform flow the force is finite.
It can be evaluated very neatly by the use of
what is known as the Lagalbj Throrrm. The
derivation of Lagally's theorem is beyond the
I'"iG. i'A.Y' Diagrams Ii.lustratino the Factors
.scope of this book, but at the expense of stretching
InVOI.VKD IN' TUB Lacai.i.v Tiikorkm
the mathematical truth temporarily, the physical
basLs for it is rather easily explained.
Consider what happens inside the 2-dLml which the emanated from the source, it.s
li(|uid

ov(>id-shape<i boundary which envelops the'2-diml ultimate direction is downstream.

Hource or up.stream singularity in the leading end As the "inside" li(|uid moves farther and farther
of .such a brxly, formed aroimd a source and a from the source the railial component of its
sink at a gnat dixlancc frinn rnrh nihrr. In diagram velocity |)rogre.ssivel}' diminishes. At a great
I of Fig. 13.1', dei)i(ting the nose of this body, distance downstream, on its way to the sink, this
lying in a uniform flow of velocity —l\, all the li<|uid acfiuires a velocity —U essentially etjual
emanating from the after part of the .source
lifiuid to — f/o. , that of the uniform stream. If a certain

flows more or le.ss directly toward the left, away volume of li(iuid i.ssues from the source in unit
from the oncoming stream. That from the forward time, .so that Q is the volume or (|uanlit,y rate of
part of the source turn.s rather and
sharply this (low, then the mass of li(|uid (lowing o\it in
reverses it.s «lirection, also to flow downstream unit time is fA). .Fust before the litpiid i.ssued from
toward the left. Regardlesw of the direct ion in the source it had no compniiciit of mulioii p;ir;dlel
Sec. 43.12 DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS 69

to the uniform stream. At a large distance down- that of Ui . The net hydrodynamic force on the
stream, half-way to the sink, has a velocity
it body is the vector summation of the individual
approximating — U„ . Therefore the augment of forces, evaluated for each source and sink within
velocity AC/ imparted to it in the process of the body.
flowing around inside the ovoid-shaped stream- If the body is placed in a uniform stream,
form boundary is — C/„ Its . momentum far Ui at each singularity equals the uniform-stream
downstream is its mass times its velocity, or velocity U„ And since, for any closed body
.

— pQUo, assuming that

, —U= —U„ . This is formed by a stream surface, the source outputs
also its increase in momentum which, by the laws must equal the sink inputs, and the mass density
of mechanics, is a measure of the force necessary p is constant, the net hydrodynamic force acting
to impart that increase. The force in question, on the body is zero, which simply confirms
acting downstream, is balanced by an equal and d'Alembert's paradox.
opposite force acting on the body surrounding The complete theorem developed by M. Lagally
the source to shove the body upstream. The ["Berechnung der Krafte und Momente, die
may be likened to a thrust which is
latter force stromende Fliissigkeiten auf ihre Begrenzung
producing the relative motion depicted between ansiiben (Calculation of Forces and Moments
the source boundary and the stream. The different which Streaming Liquids Exert on Their Bound-
signs for the two terms of the equality F = —pQUa, ary)," Zeit. fiir Ang. Math. Mech., Dec 1922,
indicate that the direction of F is opposite that of Vol. 2, pp. 409-422 (in vector notation); MUne-
U^ indicated
, in diagram 1 of Fig. 43. P. Thomson, L. M., TH, 1950, pp. 208-211] permits
At the left or trailing end of the body, an the determination of both forces and moments
"opposite" situation exists, depicted at the acting on a body in both steady and unsteady
left indiagram 3 of Fig. 43. P. As the velocity in flow [Cummins, W. E., "The Forces and Moments
the uniform stream is every^vhere — U„ the net , Acting on a Body Moving in an Arbitrary
thrust or drag on the body is obviously zero. Potential Stream," TMB Rep. 780, Sep 1952].
When the forces on both source and sink are For example, if the uniform flow at the right of
taken into account, the expression diagram 1 of Fig. 43. P is replaced by a single
outside source on the x-axis, the flow from the
f Bodv — / ,oU^ + kU.
latter is radial rather than parallel and uniform.
isa simplified form of the Lagally Theorem, for The velocity C/„ in the momentum equation is

the special case considered, in which Fsody is zero. then replaced by an array of radial velocities,
The and extremely useful applications
practical varying with distance from the outside source.
of the theorem embody situations in which the If the outside source is offset from the a;-axis of

flow is unsteady and non-uniform and in which a source-sink body, there is a moment as well as a
the closed body may be 2-diml or 3-diml, formed force exerted on the ovoid-shaped boundary.
by any desired number and combination of The marine architect who wishes to delve
sources and sinks. further into this subject may flnd a paper by
Leaving the schematic physical explanation A. Betz of Gottingen somewhat more readable
and turning to one that has hydrodynamic rigor, than the references cited in the preceding para-
a simplified form of the theorem is the expression graph. This paper is entitled "The Method of
Singularities for the Determination of Forces and
F — J(Q.C/0
Moments Acting on a Body in Potential Flow"
where Qi is the output of the source or sink [TMB Transl. 241, Nov 1950].
within the body, expressed as a volume rate of In all applications of Lagally' s Theorem it is

flow, positive for a source and negative for a important to remember that, although the line
sink. The symbol C/; represents the velocity of of action of the force on a body, formed by
the stream, at the position of the source or sink placing a source-sink system in a stream, passes
under consideration, which would occur if the through the source or sink, the force is not to be
body, and hence all the sources and sinks forming taken as acting on the source or sink proper but
the body, were removed from the stream. For on some type of surface or body boundary sur-
each source or sink the line of action of the rounding each. However, in the conventionaUzed
individual force is through the singularity under diagrams published by Betz in Translation TMB
consideration and in the direction opposite to 241, he apparently employed a schematic short-
70 I1M)R()|1VN \MI(:s IN SIIII' DESIGN Stc. n.n
\\i\w\, with no nttciiipl to iloliiicatc tlic surfare of the electromagnetic phenomenon, where unlike
rosultiiip from tlie system of sourcos, sinks, poles attract each other.
doublets, and vortexes. diagrams the
In his 43.13 Partial Bibliography on Sources and
result ing forces are shown as emanating directly Sinks and Their Application. The literature on
from the singularities. the application of the radial-flow characteristics
There are indications tliat an important future of sourcesand sinks to problems in hydrodj'namics
u.se of the I Jigally Theorem may be in the solution is extremely extensive. There are listed here a
of the problem of determining the forces and the few of the most important references, with which
moments exerted on ships when pa.'vsing or meeting the marine architect may pursue his studies in
each other in confinetl waters. Thi.s will involve a this fascinating field:
knowletigc of the nature and direction of the
(1) Rank-ine, W. J. M., "On Piano Wator-lincs in Two
forces exerted by the boundaries arounrl nearby DimpiisionB," Phil. Trans., Roy. Sor.. 1S03
.sources and sinks, arranged cither singly or in (2) Runkino, \V. J. M., "Summary of Proportios of

groups or arrays, and placed in non-uniform and Certain Stroam-Linc)," Phil. Mag., Oct ISCt, pp.

unsteady flow. 282-288

(3) Rankine, W. J. M., "Shipbuilding: Theoretical and
It is interesting in this connection to consider
Practical," 1866, p. 106
another aspect of the forces involved for one or (4) Rankine, W. J. M., "On Stream-Line Surfaces,"
two simple hypothetical conditions. Assume first IN.\, 1S70, Vol. XI, pp. 175-181
that two sources of equal strength, lying opposite (5) Rankine, W. J. M., "On the Mathematical Theory
of Streamline.'!, Especi.iliy those with Four Foci
each other, are enclosed by two large bo<ly
and Upwards," Phil. Trans., Roy. See, Ix)ndon,
surfaces; also that those portions of the body
1S71, Vol. 161, pp. 267-300; alsoPI. XV
surfaces adjacent to the sources take the form of
(6) IJaulc, A., "Note sur les Lignes d'eau Propo.sic8 par
a pair of parallel but independent flat surfaces M. le Profefsseur Rankine (Note on the Waterlines
place<l between them, as at 2 in Fig. 43. P. As Proposed by Professor Rimkine)," Ann. Soc. Sci.,
there no superposed stream flow in this case,
is Rrus.'icls, 1885

the liquirl flowing from each source toward the (7) Pollard, and Dudcbout, .V., "Thfiorie du Naviro
J.,

(Theory of the ShipX" 1S02, Vol. Ill, pp. 401-410,

adjacent flat portion of body surface Ls deflected
417-418, especially Fig. 135 on p. 408
anfi pu.shetl backward. For the 2-diml case, the
(8) Taylor, D. W., "On Ship-Sha[>ed Stream Forms,"
flow from each source is pictured graphicallj' by INA, 1894, pp. 38.5-106
combining the stream functions of the two .sources, (9) Taylor, D. "On Solid Stream Forms and the
\V,,

indicated by the light radial lines in the diagram. Depth Water Necessary to Avoid Abnormal
of

Because of the momentum imparted to the sui- Resistance of Ships," INA, 1895, pp. 234-247 and
l>ls. XV-XVIII
romiding liquid, in a direction opposite to that
(10) Fuhrraann, O., "Widerstands- und Druckmessungen
in which the other source lies, away from the
an Ballonmodellen (Resistance and Pressure
adjacent flat body surface, a reactive force is Mea.surcmenta on Balloon Models)," Zeit. fiir
created on each body, directed toward the ad- Flugtcchnik und Motorluft-schiffahrt, 15 Jul 1911,
jacent body and the other source. While the Vol. II, pp. lG.5-106

analogy' Ls by no means a perfect or a valid one,
it can be said that, unlike the similar poles of
electromagnets, the two adjacent sources give
the appearance of attracting each other.
If a .source and a sink lie near each other in a
(11) A French by van Meerten |ATMA,
series of papers in
1903, pp. 51-60 and PI. I: 1904, pp. 275-293; 1905,
pp. 209-289 and Pis. III-VIj. These discuss the
application of hydrodynamic studies of the theory
of sources and sinks in both two and three dimen-
sions. They contain diagrams of a variety of source-

unifonn stream who.se direction of motion is sink flows, including several involving line sources
perpondlrular to a uniform How. .\ st.'irt is made
parallel to the source-sink axis, as in diagram 3
in the 1905 paper to utilize this method of analysis
of Fig. '13. P, the action of the "inside" lifpiid is
for predicting the resistance of an actual ship.
such that equal arul opposite reactive forces are (12) Fdltingor, 11., im
"Fort.schnitte der Striimungslehro
directed away from and the source
the sink Maschinenbau und Schiffbau (/\(lvance8 in the
positions, respectively, and act outward on the Theory of Flow in Fngineering and .Shipbuilding),"

upstream and the downstream ends of the IxmIv. STfi, 1924, Vol. 25, pp. 295-311; lOnglish version

.Mthongh the analog,v here i.s perhaps less valid

ill TMH Transl. IS, May 1952
(13) AcnMlynainisc-he Versui-li.Mjuistalt (AV.\), rK'ittingen,
than it wa.s in the ca.se of the adjac<>nt .sources,
Report UM 32(M(, dat«-<l 30 Dc- 1911; available in
the source and the sink give the appearance of lOnglish a.s TMH Transl. 220, .\pr 1947; sec also
repelling each other. This is again the opposite Sec. 42.0
Sec. 4 3. DELINEATION OF SOURCE-SINK DIAGRAMS 71

(14) Lamb, H., "Hydrodynamics," 6th ed., Dover, New ARC, R

and M
1166, 1928-1929, Vol. 33, p. 104ff
York, 1945, pp. 57-71 (6) Glauert, H., "The Effect of the Static Pressure
(15) Glauert, H., "The Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew Gradient on the Drag of a Body Tested in a Wind
Theory," 2nd ed., Cambridge, England, 1948, Tunnel," ARC, R and M
1158, 1928-1929, Vol. 33,
pp. 21-32 pp. 81-113
(16) Brard, R., "Cas d' Equivalence entre CarSnes et (7) Lamb, H., "Note on the Forces Experienced by
Distributions de Sources and de Puits (Similarities Ellipsoidal Bodies Placed Unsymmetrioally in a
Between Ship Hulls and Distributions of Sources Converging or Diverging Stream," ARC, R and
and Sinks)," ATMA, 1950, Vol. 49, pp. 189-230 M 1164, May 1928, Vol. 33, pp. 114-117
(in vector notation) (8) Mohr, E., "tJber die Krafte und Momente, welche
(17) Milne-Thomson, L. M., "Theoretical Hydrody- Singularitaten auf eine stationare Fliissigkeits-
namics," 2nd ed., Macmillan, New York, 1950, stromung iibertragen (On the Force and Moment
pp. 194-223 which Singularities Transfer upon Stationary
(18) Cummins, W. E., "The Forces and Moments Acting Liquid Flow)," Jour, fiir die reine und angewandte
on a Body Moving in an Arbitrary Potential Mathematik (Crelle's Jour.), 1940, Vol. 182
Stream," TMB Rep. 780, Sep 1952 (9) Pistolesi, "Forze e momenti in una corrente
E.,
(19) Hellerman, L., and Van Zandt, T. E., "Rankine leggermente curva convergente (Forces and
Solids," Harbor Protection Project, Edwards Moments in a Slowly Coverging Curved Stream),"
Street Lab., Yale Univ., Tech. Memo. 14, 15 Commentations, Pont. Acad. Sci., 1944, Vol. 8
Sep 1952. (10) Brard, R., "Cas d'Equivalence entre Carenes et
Distributions de Sources et de Puita (The Equiva-
43.14 Selected References on Lagally's Theo- lence of Ship Hulls and Distributions of Sources
rem. For the reader who wishes to investigate and Sinks)," ATMA, 19.50, Vol. 49, pp. 189-230
further the application of the Lagally Theorem, (in vector notation)

the following references should prove useful: (11) Milne-Thomson, L. M., "Theoretical Hydrody-
namics," Macmillan, New York, 2nd ed., 1950,
(1) Kelvin, Lord, "On the Motion of Rigid Solids in a pp. 208-211
Liquid Circulating through Per-
Irrotationally (12) ToUmien, W., "Uber Krafte und Momente in schwach
forations in Them or in a Fixed Sohd," Phil. Mag., gekriimmten oder konvergenten Stromungen (On
May 1873, Vol. 45 the Force and Moment in Flows which are Weakly
(2) Munk, M., "Some New Aerodynamical Relations," Curved or Convergent)," Ing.-Archiv., 1938, Vol. 9;
NACARep. 114, 1921 translated in ETT, Stevens, Rep. 363, Sep 1950
(3) Lagally, M., "Berechung der Krafte und Momente, (13) Betz, A., "Singularitatenverfahren zur Ermittlung
die stromende Fliissigkeiten auf ihre Begrenzung der Krafte und Momente auf Korper in Potential-
ausiiben (Calculation of Forces and Moments stromungen (The Method of Singularities for the
which Streaming Liquids Exert on Their Bound- Determination of Forces and Moments Acting on
ary)," Zeit. fur Ang. Math, und Meoh., Dec 1922, a Body in Potential Flow)," Ing.-Archiv, 1932,
Vol. 2, pp. 409-422 Vol. 3, pp. 454-462; TMB
Transl. 241, Nov 1950
(4) Taylor, G. I., "The Forces on a Body Placed in a (14) Weinblum, G. P., MIT Hydrodyn. Symp., 1951,
Curved or Converging Stream of Fluid," Proc. pp. 91-92
Roy. Soc, London, 1928, Series A, Vol. 120 (15) Cummins, W. E., "The Forces and Moments Acting
(5) Taylor, G. I., "The Force Acting on a Body Placed on a Body Moving in an Arbitrary Potential
in a Curved and Converging Stream of Fluid," Stream," TMB Rep. 780, Sep 1952.
 c;ilAl' 1 I'.R 1

Force, Moment, and Flow Data for Hydrofoils

and Equivalent Forms
41.1 General; Scope of Chapter 72 44.9 Velocity and Pressure Fields Around a
14.2 Formulas for CnlculafinR Circulation, Lift, Hydrofoil 82
Drag, ami (Hhor Factors 72 44.10 Spanw-iso Distribution of Circulation and
44.3 Test Data from Typical Simple Airfoils and Lift 83
Hydrofoilii 73 44 11 Effective Aspect Ratio for Equivalent Ship
44.4 rolar Diagrams for Simple Hydrofoils . . . 75 Hydrofoils 83
44 5
. Test Data from Compound Hydrofoils . . 75 44.12 Design Notes and Drag Data on Hydrofoil
44.6 Flow Patterns Around Typical Hydrofoils . 78 Planforms and Sections 83
44.7 Pitching Moment; Ccntcr-of-Prcssure Loca- 44.13 Quantitative Data on Cascade and Inter-
tion 80 ference Effects 84
44.8 Distribution of Velocity and Pressure on a
Hydrofoil 80

44.1 General; Scope of Chapter. I'lu' hyilro- Nomenclature and !\'inl)ols for hvdrofoils are

foils ami 0(|iiivaleiit foini.s for wliich pi'rfonnaiu'o found in:

data are k'vcii in this chapter embrace plates and

(a) Sec. 14.2 and the accompanying Fig. 14. .\
bodies, irrespective of shape or size, which are
(b) Sees. 32.8 and 32.9 and the accompanying
intendi'il for the production of dynamic lift wlien
Figs. 32.F, 32.G, and 32.11 on the geometry of
submerged in a lit|uid. The manner of producing
the screw propeller
this lift, in a ilircctioii generally at right angles to
(c) Sees. 3r).2, 37.2, and 37.3 and the accompany-
the flow or to the direction of body motion, is
ing Figs. 37.A, 37. B, 37.C, and 37.D on fi.xed
described in Chap. 14.
and movable appendages.
Insofar as their behavior is concerned, including
test and performance data on them, airfoils may 44.2 Formulas for Calculating Circulation, Lift,
1)6 classed as hydrofoils if it is known that the Drag, and Other Factors. There are no simple
flow around the two, in air and water, is generally formulas wliirli will permit the computation of
similar. In other words, data from tests in air are lift, ilrag, pitching moment, ami other factors on

perfectly valid for applii'ation to the design and hydrofoils of given shape and on botlies of random
performance of hydrofoils in water if it is known shape acting as hyilrofoils. There are given here
that air-water surface effects and cavitation are only a few of the basic fornuilas and procedures
to 1)6 nonexistent. As a rule, sejiaration effects for the calculation and prediction t)f tlicse quan-
around botlies wholly submerged in air and in titles. In practice it is necessary to rely on experi-

water are similar; this applies also to the correla- mental data for the determination of design and
lion of the.se effects between niiKlel and full scale, other factors. The volume of these data is now
Since whole books are insufficient to list the very large; some of the priiici|)al sources are listed
airfoil and hydrofoil data presently available in Sec. 44.3 following.
(195.")) for design purpases, it is manifestly impo.s- As is customary for groups of fornuilas relating
sible, in this chapter, to do more than to present to other fields, the shape, characleristics, and
certain data which the marine architect may find performance of hydrofoils and e(|uivalent bodies
uwful in ship and appendage ilesign. The.se and an' given in 0-diml ratios, coellicients, and
other data in the technical literature almost expressions.
invariably a|)ply to steady-stnte con<litions. For The lift force L developed on unit span of a
control .surfaces and other ship parts restMubling hydrofoil or similar bod^' in a lii|uid stn-am, when
hydrofoils, the relative .speeds and angles of circulation is .set uj)by an effective angle of attack
uttuek may change violently with time. or other suit.able means, is represenleil by

72
Sec. 14.3 FORCE AND FLOW DATA FOR HYDROFOILS 73

L per unit span = pU^T (44.i) ture, a great wealth of published data on the lift,

drag, and moment coefficients and other factors

where
of a great variety of airfoil shapes, when tested
p (rho) is the mass density of the liquid in the in air. Some data are in tabular form but
of these
stream most are in graphic form, corresponding somewhat
[/„ is the velocity of the uniform stream relative to the information in Figs. 44. A and 44. B. Here,
to the hydrofoil
r (capital gamma) is the strength of the circu- Moment Coefficient C^
lation in a plane parallel to the stream 0.1 O.a 0.3 04
motion and normal to the body axis.

For a hydrofoil of span or breadth h, measured

normal to the stream direction and to the plane
of circulation, the total lift force

L = bpU^T (44. ii)

The circulation required to insure that the

liquid leaves the hydrofoil tangentially at its

trailing edge is approximated by [Rouse, H.,

EMF, 1946, Eq. (192), p. 279]

r = xct/oo sin (44.iii)

where a(alpha) is the geometric angle of attack

of an equivalent flat plate and c is the chord.
Expressed in terms of the Uft coefficient Cl
and the drag coefficient Cd the overall Uft and ,

drag are

Lift L = Ci^^ Ulhc = CA UlA„ (44.iva;

Fig. 44.A Lift-Coefficient, Drag-Coefficient,
AND Moment-Coefficient Graphs for Gottingen
Profile 409 op Aspect Ratio 1.00
Drag D = CoT) Ulhc = Co^ UlA„ (44.ivb)

For the special case of an infinitely thin flat as in many cases in the literature, the geometric
plate lying at an angle of attack a in a uniform or the nominal angle of attack is the independent

stream, when the plate is also of infinite span, variable. For the data in Figs. 44.A and 44.B,
with infinite aspect ratio, the adapted from the work of H. Winter at Danzig
on Gottingen section 409 ["Flow Phenomena on
Lift coefficient Cl = 2x sin a (44.V)
Plates and Airfoils of Short Span," NACA Tech.
[Durand, W. F., "Aerodynamic Theory," 1935, Memo 798, Jul 1936, Figs. 16 and 17, respectively],
Vol. I, Div. B]. the values of the angle of attack a are spotted
By making an arbitrary assumption as to the along the Cl and Co curves. To use these graphs,
distribution of the intensity of lift over a hydrofoil follow along the proper curve until a mark is
of finite span, an approximate induced-drag co- found for the particular value of the angle of
efficient is Cdi = Cl/[T{b''/A„)], where 67 A „ is attack that has been selected. Then the abscissa
the aspect ratio [Rouse, H., EMF, 1946, p. 285]. and the ordinate of this mark are the values of
By the same reasoning the downwash angle drag and lift coefficient, respectively. For ex-
e(epsilon) is approximately C/,/[T(?>V^ff)l. ample, for the full-line graph of Fig. 44.A, take
The magnitude of the lift by the Magnus Effect the point where the angle of attack a is 17.8 deg,
on a rotating cylinder in a stream is given by the at which partial breakdown or preUminary stalling
simple expression L = p[/„r for unit length of the occurs. The corresponding value of Cl is about
cyhnder along its axis. 0.592 and of Co about 0.12. The lift-drag ratio
44.3 Test Data from Typical Simple Airfoils at this hydrofoil position is 0.592/0.12 or about
and Hydrofoils. There is, in the technical litera- 4.93.
 HVDRonvx AMirs IN SHIP nrsiGX Sec. H.3
Moment Coefficient C^ D«KMihofT, A. i:., and Stivers, L. S.. Jr., NACA
0.0 0.1 O.Z 0.3 a4 0.5
Rep. 824, 1945]. This report contain.s, in addition
DroqCoefft., Side EcJoe!
Flo't
to the usual information on airfoil shape and the
f?bund Side Eaqc
customary experimental data, a considerable
amount of information on pressure distribution
over the airfoils illustrated.

For the specific needs of the marine architect in

predicting the behavior of simple movable hydro-
foils of the shapes, sections, and proportions
required in ship design there are several useful
sources of information. These appl^' principally
to hydrofoils of sj'mmetric section and to aspect
ratios in the smaller ranges.

I. Data on Thin Rectangular Plates of Aspect

Ratio 5.0, 1.0, and 0.20. In PXA, 1039, Vol. II,
Fig. 6 onpage 204, K. E. Schocnhcrr gives curves
0.0 Q2. 04 0.6 08 and ratio of (1) distance
of normal-force coefficient
Drag Coefficient Cd of center of pressure CP from leading edge to
(2) chord length of plate, on a base of nominal
^"Z^ angle of attack in degrees, for three flat plates
Fia. 41. B Lift-Coefficient, Drag-Coefficient, "Mcssungen
tested at Gottingen [Flach.sbart, 0.,
AND Moment-Coefficient Graphs for GOttingen
an ebenen und gewolbten Platten (Measurements
Profile 409 of Aspect Ratio 0.5
on Flat and Curved Plates)," Ergebnisse der
Aerodynamischen Versuchsanstalt zu Gottingen,
To prevent confusion, mo.st of the marks for
1932, Vol. 4, p. 9GfT]. Included are graphs for one
specific angles of attack are omitted from Figs.
of the test plates of Joessel, but with no informa-
44.A and 44.B. In Figs. IG and 17 of NACA
tion as to its aspect ratio.
Technical Note 798 there are small circles along
the moment-coefBcient graphs but no numerals II. Data on NACA Symmetrical Airfoil Sections

to indicate the numerical values of a.

with tx/c Ratios of 0.06, 0.12, 0.18, 0.25, and
Tables of coordinates for the symmetric Aspect Ratio 6. In PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pages
Gottingen section 409, as well as for Gottingen 205-206, K. E. Schoenherr gives curves of lift

sections and 640,

410, 411, 443, 429, 539, 639,
coefficient, drag coefficient, and ratio of CP from
with lift, and moment coefficients, are
drag, leading edge to chord length of the hydrofoil.

given by W. P. A. van Lammcren, L. Troost, and The section ordinatcs are given, together with a
procedure (explained in the text) for converting
J. G. Koning in Tables 3 and 4 on pages 324 and

325 of RPSS, 1948. the given data to that which would be expected
for aspect ratios other than 6. The data are taken
It is pointed out here, and it will again be
pointed out in later portions of this chapter, that from a report by E. N. Jacobs and R. E. Anderson
the behavior of a water or in air often
["Large Scale Characteristics of Airfoils as Tested
foil in is
in the Variable Density Wiiul Tunnel," NACA
influenced critically by small changes in its

section. No performance data are acceptable for Rep. 352, 1930].

design and other purpo.ses in practice, therefore, Additional data are given Ijv E. N. Jacobs,

unless accompanied by a delineation (and pref- K. E. Ward, and R. M. Pinlierton in NACA

erably al.so a table of coordinates) of the section,
Report 460, publi-shed in 1933 (pages 299-354 of
to be reproduced
the volume for that year), entitled "The Charac-
in sufTicicnt detail to permit it

to large scale. teristics of 78 Relatetl Airfoil Sections from Teats

For the physicist, engineer, or architect who is
in the Variable-Density Wind Tunnel."
looking for a comprehensive compilation of airfoil III. Data on Hydrofoils Having Symmetric
data in form tliere is available a
systt-inatic Sections and Outlines Suitable for Ship Rudders,
summary of airfoil data prepared and published with Aspect Ratios of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0. In the
by the National Advi.sory Cfimniittce for Aero- early 1930's there was tested at the Experimental
nautics in Washington [.Mtbott, 1. 11., Von Mcxlcl Ha.siii ill Wa.shingloii a scries of twelve
 Sec. 44.5 FORCE AND FLOW DATA FOR HYDROFOILS 75

hydrofoils of symmetric section, having varied one of the four in Figs. 44. A and 44.B serves also
aspect ratios and blade outlines. The results of as a so-called -polar diagram, which is useful in
these tests by R. C. Darnell
were reported determining the Cl/Cd ratio at one aspect ratio
["Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Twelve Sym- when the Cl/Cd ratio at another aspect ratio is
metrical Hydrofoils," EMB Rep. 341, Nov 1932]. known [Rouse, H., EMF, 1946, pp. 285-286].
The hydrofoils were towed beneath a special flat- When the ordinate scale of C^ is same as the
the
bottomed float which carried a dynamometer to abscissa scale of Co , the slope of a line (with
measure the lift, the drag, and the torque. The respect to the horizontal) drawn from the origin
angle of attack was varied from to 45 deg and to any a along the graph is the
selected value of
the gap between the top of the hydrofoil and the value of the hft-drag ratio CJCd A line from the
bottom of the float was varied from to 2 inches. origin of coordinates, tangent to the graph,
The report gives the 0-diml lift, drag, and moment represents the maximum lift-drag ratio of the
coefficients for each hydrofoil in each test condi- foil; the corresponding angle of attack is indicated
tion, together with the positions of the center of at the point of tangency.
pressure with respect to the leading edge. The lists a number of references to pub-
Table 44. a
running the hydrofoils with their trailing
effect of lished polardiagrams for representative airfoils.
edges foremost was also studied. Diagrams of this type are of little use for practical
and design purposes, however, unless the section
For hydrofoils having raked or swept-back
contours of the hydrofoils or airfoils are defined
leading (and trailing) edges and some taper, it is
by a rather complete set of coordinates.
customary to assume a nominal chord length
44.5 Test Data from Compound Hydrofoils.
equal to the mean chord length, neglecting local
Figs. 37.A, 37.B, 37.C, and 37.D of Sees. 37.2
rounding of the outlines at the corners. Although
and 37.3 indicate that for boats and ships the
not clearly stated in EMB
Report 341, this
compound hydrofoil is used as extensively as the
scheme was followed for the 12 hydrofoils reported
simple hydrofoil for movable appendages and
upon in that publication. control surfaces. Included in this category are
For fixing the fore-and-aft position of the
hydrofoils with flapsand tabs as well as hydrofoils
center of pressure CP or of the point of zero
placed abaft fixed leading-edge portions and abaft
pitching moment, this distance is reckoned along
fixed horns, fins, and For steering rudders,
skegs.
the direction-of-motion chord at midspan. For a
diving planes, active roll-resisting
fins, and other
blade outline with rake and taper but with
movable appendages the hydrofoils and hydrofoil
straight leading and trailing edges, the chord at
midspan is also the mean chord.
In PNA, and pages 206-207,
1939, Vol. II, Fig. 9
K. E. Schoenherr summarized the results of
selected tests on five of the twelve symmetrical
hydrofoils tested by Darnell, involving those with
varied rudder outlines but with the aspect ratio
limited to 1.0. In the figure cited he gave graphs
of lift coefficient C^ and of the ratio of CP position
from the leading edge to the mean chord length
of the hydrofoil for the five blade outlines dia-
grammed in the figure.

IV. Data on Tests of Wageningen Rudders A and

B, with Symmetric Sections and Different
Outlines. The results of open-water tests on two
model spade-type rudders of orthodox shape,
outline, and proportions are described by W. P. A.
van Lammeren, L. Troost, and J. G. Koning
[RPSS, 1948, Figs. 210-214 and pp. 319-322]. Fig. 44.C Graphs of Lift Coefficient for Com-
pound Hydrofoils Having Varied Proportions
44.4 Polar Diagrams for Simple Hydrofoils. AND Varied Angles of Attack of the Movabm;
A Hft-coefficient, drag-coefficient graph such as Blade
76 ll^MR()|)^ \ VMics IN SHIP nisi{;N Sec. H.5

TABLE 44jk—Bnoir Lwr of RcrcHKNccii Illl'stiutinc; Pui.kk DuniiAMti and Lirr/DRAa Ratios roR Airfoils
AND IlrDROFOIlA

Type of Section
Sec. 44.5 FORCE AND FLOW DATA FOR HYDROFOILS 77

0.227, 0.329, and 0.453, respectively. The varia- The results of somewhat similar experiments
tions between the two sets of ratios were due to made by T. B. Abell are to be found in his paper
the rounded ends of the planform of the assembly. "Some Model Experiments on Rudders Placed
For rudders and planes having aspect ratios Behind a Plane Deadwood" [INA, 1936, pp.
materially less than 4, stalling should occur at 137-144]. The results of these experiments are
flap angles greater than those shown in Fig. 44. C. summarized by W. P. A. van Lammeren, L.
On page 105 of the Gottingen reference there Troost, and J. G. Koning [RPSS, 1948, pp.
are given some data for a flap-type compound 327-328].
hydrofoil in which the fixed leading portion lies
at an angle of attack a to the stream, and flap
"ImoWp,
angle ^(ksi) is applied to augment the lift, as in
diagram 2 of Fig. 14.U.
In the late 1940's the National Advisory Com-
mittee for Aeronautics conducted an extensive
investigation of control-surface characteristics.
Its purpose was to provide experimental data for
designers and to determine the section charac-
teristics of various types of fin-and-flap (or
airfoil-and-flap) combinations suitable for use as
control surfaces.
Two of the reports describing the results of
these tests are listed hereunder:

(1) Riebe, J. M., and Church, O., "Medium and Large

Aerodynamic Balances of Two Nose Shapes and a
Plane Overhang Used with a 0.40-Airfoil-Chord Flap
on an NACA 0009 Airfoil," ARR L5 COl, March
1945. This appears to be Part XXI of the report
complete investigation.
series covering the
(2) Riebe, M., and McKinney, E. G., "Medium and
J.
Large Aerodynamic Balances of Two Nose Shapes
and a Plane Overhang Used with a 0.20-Airfoil-
Chord Flap on an NACA 0009 Airfoil," ARR L5
F06 of June 1945. This is Part XXII of the com-
plete series.

As applying to combinations of fixed plates or

fins and movable control surfaces abaft them,
K. E. Schoenherr gives a graphic summary [PNA,
1939, Vol. II, pp. 207-208] of data derived by
experimenters abroad and published in the
following references:

(a) W. L., Simmons, L. F. G., and Coales, J. D.,

Cowley,
"The Effect of Balancing a Rudder, by Placing the
Rudder Axis Behind the Leading Edge, upon the
Controlling Moment of the Motion," Tech. Rep.
Adv. Comm. for Aero., R and M 253, 1916-1917,
p. 154ff
(b) Munk, M. M., "Systematische Versuche an Leit-
werkmodellen (Systematic Tests on Models of
Control Surfaces)," Technische Berichte der Flug-
zeugmeisterei, 1917, p. 168ff.

Fig. 44.D, adapted from Fig. 10 on page 208 of

the Schoenherr reference, covers a number of
cases of this kind, in sufficient detail to indicate
about what may be expected of elementary com-
pound assembfies.
78 ll\l)RenJ\.\A.\lR„s l.\ Mill' 1)1 SU,.\ Sec. 11.6

TABLE \\.\i — List ok IIcfcrences Containing FijOw Diauiuus About AiBtx>iLs and IIyuuofoils
AU diagruna roproecnt flow with circulation unless othcrwiao indirntcd.

Tj'pp or Shape
of Hydrofoil
Sec. 44.6 FORCE AND FLOW DATA FOR HYDROFOILS 79

TABLE 44.C List op References Containing Photographs of Flow About Airfoils and Hydrofoils

Type or Shape
of Hydrofoil
80 innRoinx \Mi(.s i\ siin" disk.x Srr. 11.7

Tlio roador is riuitiniicd ii> ninfmlxT that How can not be rotated change its angle
in s«'rvice to

pnttoms inailo on a plate lieKl lirmly anainst tlio of attack it may be well-nigh useless. The torque
pad of n hydrofoil, iioriual to its axis, are liahle applied liy hydrmlynamic action on the blades of
to Im? niisleadiiig. Tliere is n hoiiiulary layer of controllable jiropellers and on rudders is necessary
indennite thickness over tliis plate,and the pattern knowledge for their design. The location of the
tlepiite*! on it is jilTettcHl to some extent by (low efTectivc center of pressure on the entire under-
ut the l)otton» of this layer ["Photographs of the water bixly of a turning ship, considered as a
Flow Almut an NAt'A 2:«)1") Airfoil at an lllTec- hydrofoil, is a major factor in its maneuvering
tive Reynolds Nnniher of ISO.IMMI," 'IMH Hep. characteristics and in the heel while turning.
..'i7, Apr I'.MC.]. Most of the moment (and other) data relating
!•'. Ciutsehe has published a series of jjlioto- to foils and available for engineering use apply to
graphs which show the flow traces over hydrofoils airfoils. For these a fore-and-aft aerodynamic

which comprise the blades of experimental model center is usually assumed, about which the
screw propellers. These show the i)aths taken bj' (pitching) moment coefTicient for various con-
the surrounding liquid when passing over and ditions is relatively constant. This center is

between the blades, as viewed generally normal sometimes taken on the chord of the meanline,
to the projectttl area of the blade ("Versuche an at a distance of c/4 from the nose, but usually it
umlaufenden riiigelschnitten mit abgerisscner lies on the ba.se chord, at the same distance from

Striinuing (Kxperiments on Rotating lilade Sec- the nose.

tions with Hrcakawaj' Flow)," Report, of the As an indication of what may normally be
Berlin Ahnlel liasin, published in S'R!, HMO, expected in the way of chord wi.se shift of the
Vol. 41. pp. 1S8-22G]. center of pressure CP with varying angle of
44.7 Pitching Moment; Center-of -Pressure attack, Fig. 44. F illustrates this feature graphi-
Location. .Vs a rule, information a.s to the ])itch- cally for a flat, rectangular plate (diagram 1) and
ing-nioment coenicient and location of the center for an airfoil section of not-unusual .shape (dia-
of pressure on a hydrofoil to be used on a ship is gram 2).
as important as that relating to the lift and drag Sonie (luanlitative didii on this item, for simple
eoenicienl.s them.solves. Indeed, if the hydrofoil hydrofoils and others suitable for ship rudders,
arc given in items I. tlinnigh I\'. of Sec. -1 \.'.\.

44.8 Distribution of Velocity and Pressure on

a Hydrofoil, 'i'lie distribution of velocity and
Direction of Flow for
&oth Oiograms l)rc.>isure on an airfoil or hyilrofoil, discussed in
the jHcsent section, is that occurring on and meas-
ured <Iirectly at its external surface. This is to be
distinguished from the velocity and pressure fields
around it, described in Sec. 44.9 following, which
are tho.sc existing outside of and beyond the
external foil surface. In general, the pressures
occurring on the foil surface determine the lift,

drag, and other forces exert<^d on or by it. The

pres.sures occurring in the adjacent field determine
Smoll Circles Indicate Center-of -Pressure
the forces on adjacent objects.
Poftitions for Nominol Anolee of AttocU
Hydrofoils of symmetric section arc widely
used in ship tlesign and construction. Figs. 44.G,
Section U5A5
Airfoil
Aspect Rotio 6 44.11, and 44.1, adapted from Volume II of the
book "Modern Developments in Fluid Dynam-
ics," eiliteil by S. CJoldstein, Oxford Press, 1938

(Fig. 179 on page 455, Fig. 180 on page 4tV2, and

1.0 0.0 06 0.4 0I~" '-2 Fig. 139 on page 404, respectively), give the
Chord Length from Leadmo Edqe '"
chorilwi.se distribution of pressure coi'fTicient on
eight typical .symmetric .s<'ction8, covering a wide
Kio. 44. K D1AORAM8 Ii.i.i/HTiiATi.Nii Hmrr or Cf.ntkk-
or-l'iiKjuii'iiK Position With Anoi.k ok Attack, range of thickness ratios tx/c. The angle of attack
ion A l''l.AT P1.ATK ASI> A HyDKOPOM. is zero, so the pressures on both sides are the same.
Sec. it.S FORCE AND FLOW DATA FOR HYDROFOILS 81

08 06 04 OZ
X-Diatonce from LE, Froction of Chord c

Fig. 44.G Typical Chordwise Pressure Distri-

bution ON Face and Back op a Symmetric Hydro-
foil AT AN Angle of Attack

At the nose the dynamic pressure equals the ram

pressure 0.5pC/« or LOOg. On the back of a sym-
metric section working at a small angle of attack,
the pressure coefficient usually drops very rapidly
with distance abaft the nose, to a value of 0.0
at 2 or 3 per cent of the chord. Within from 5
to 20 per cent of the chord length from the leading
edge it increases numerically to a large negative
value. Then it diminishes with distance abaft
the nose, until at about 0.9 or more of the chord
length the pressure coefficient may reach zero
or have a small positive value. On the face
of the section, in a typical case with a small angle
of attack, the pressure coefficient drops from its
value of LOO at the nose to a small positive value,

Hydrofoil
82 HYDRODYNAMICS 1\ Mill' 1)1 SKiX Src. -14.9

l>nck of the ncvenil nootions shows wide vtiri:iti<iii!< .11.. Villi Liiinimrrii, \V. P. A., lU'SS, 1948, Fig. 104,
for tho oxtn-mc vmIuci of real-slip nitio roprescnte*! p. 101

in the ti-st. (17) Hill, J. G., "Tho Design of Propcllors," SNAME,

(2) Jones, B. M., nml Piitenion, C. J., "InvostiRation of 1949, Fig. This diagram shows the
11, p. 151.
the Diiitribution of Pressure over the Entire Surface graphs of pressure coclTicient Ap/7, on a base of
of an Aerofoil," Teeh. Rep. Adv. Comm. for Aero per cent of chord from the leading edge, for tho
for 1912-1913 (Kngland), R and 73, Mar 1913, M backs of two N.\C.\ sections with two difTereot
pp. 97-lO.S camber ratios and two angles of attack.
(3) Norton, F. H., and Bacon, D. L., "Pressure Distri- (18) Reed, T. G., and Ormsby, R. B., Jr., "The AVA
bution over Thick Airfoils— Model Tests," NACA Method of Calculating Pressure Distributions Over
Rep. 150, 1922, pp. -I.'il-ITI. On pp. 451-J52 there Profiles of Arbitrary Shape (Including a Transla-
is a list of a numlicr of prior references on pressure tion of 'l;ber die Berechnung der Druckvertcilung
distribution over airfoils. von Profilen,' by F. Riegels, Technische Berichtc,
(4) Fage, .\.,and Howard, R. G., "A Consideration of 1943, Vol. 10)," TMB Aero. Memo 28, Mar 1955.
.Virscrcw Theory in the Lisht of Data Derived
from an Experimental Investigation of the Distri- 44.9 Velocity and Pressure Fields Around a
bution of Pressure over the Entire Surface of an
Hydrofoil. In Fig. 44. E of Sec. 44. G there are
Airscrew Blade, and also Over .Verofoils of Appro-
priate Shapes," .\RC, R and M
6S1, Mar 1921, pp. ])ii'Uirp(i two flow pattern.s around a tj'pical sym-
264-357. Pres-sure measurements were taken on a iiiotric airfoil or hydrofoil, one corresponding to
full-size airscrew, one point at a time. the flow of an ideal lifiuid and one of a real liquid.
(5) Briggs, L. J., and Dryden, H. L., "Pressure Distribu-
Tables 44. b and 44. c of that section list references
tion Over Airfoils at High Speeds," NACA Rep.
to diagrams and flow patterns around other
255, 1926
(6) Fage, A., "The Flow and
an Inviscid Fluid
of Air of airfoils and hydrofoils, made up generally of
.\round an EUiptic Cylinder and an Aerofoil of streamlines. However, the designer can often use
Infinite Span, Especially in the Region of the to advantage a chart or plot embodying isobars
Forward Stagnation Point," Tech. Rep. Aero. and isotachj'ls, to show the essential characteristics
Res. Comm. (England), 1927-1928, Vol. I, R and
of the pressure and velocity fields around the foil.
M 1097, Jul 1926, pp. 61-80
W. G. A., "The Theoretical Pressure Distri- Unfortunately, the published data on this
(7) Perring,
bution Around Joukowski Aerofoils," Tech. Rep. particular item are very meager and there appear
Aero. Res. Comm. (England), 1927-1928, Vol. I, to be no distribution plots that can be taken as
R and M 1 106, May 1927, pp. 209-221 typical. Most of the data apply to airfoils, of the
(S) Perring, W. G. A., Discussion, INA, 1928, Fig. B on
customary asymmetric .sections used for airplane
253
p.
(9) Knight, M., and Loc.ser, O., Jr., "Pressure Distribu-
wings. Thej' were taken usually to indicate
tion over a Rectangular Monoplane Wing Model acceptable positions for the pitot tubes of air-
Up to 90 Degrees Angle of Attack," N.\CA Rep. speed meters, and so do not cover the fields sur-
288, 1928 rountiing the airfoil as a whole.
(10) Gutsche, F., "Versuchc an Propellerblattschnittcn
(Tests on Propeller Blade Sections)," Schiffbau,
A few references indicate sources of some of the
1 Aug 1933, pp. 267-270; 15 Aug 1933, pp. 286-289.
published results for projects of this kind:
The latter group of pages contains many graphs of
pres-sure distribution on airfoil section.^. (1) Piercy, N. A. V., and Richardson, E. G., "On the
(11) Schoenhcrr, K. E., SXAMi;, 1934, p. 90. Contours Flow of Air Adjacent to the Surface of an .\ero-
for pressure minima in terms of (1) Ap/g, (2) foil," ARC, R and M
1224, Dec 1928, pp. 32f.-34S
thickness ratio, and (3) lift coefficient, for ogival (2) Tanner, T., "The Two-Dimcnsional Flow of Air
and airfoil sections, respectively, arc given in Around an .\crofoil of Symmetrical Section," ARC,
and 20, pp. 109-112.
Figs. 19 R and M l.!.">3, Jul 1930, pp. 100-116
(12) Winter, H., "Flow Phenomena on Plates and .\irfoils (3) Parsons, J. F., "Full-Scale Wind-Tunnel Tests to
of Short Span,"NACA Tech. Memo 798, Jul 1930, Determine a Satisfactory Location for a Service
pp. 7-9 and Figs. 21-24 Pitol-Stalic Tube on a Low-Wing Monoplane,"
(13) Shannon, J. F., and Arnold, R. N., "Statistical and NACA Tech. Note 501, Mar 1936
Experimental Invostigalions on tho Singing (4) Gates, S. B., and Cohen, J., "Note on the Standardisa-
Propeller Problem," lESS, 193H-1939, Vol. 82, tion of Pilot-Static Head Position on Monoplanes,"

pp. 255-374, esp. pp. 270-285, 326 ARC, R and M 177S, Jan 1937, pp. 1238-1251
(14) Schoenhcrr, K. E., PNA, 19.39, Vol. 11, Fig. 29, (5) Crablw, E. R., and Diproso, K. V., "Calculated
p. 176. Thiti diagram give.n the pre.Hsure distribuliun Pri'».sures /Vhcad of Struts and Wings," R..\.E.,

along the chord of a hydrofoil (or airfoil) wrction Farnborough (Engliiiun, Ti'chiii.-al Note .Xero 1510,
at nn K.6Hlegre<.- angle of attack. Oct 1944
(15) Goodttll, Sir Sliinli-y V., "Sir Charles Parsons and (6) Kuethr, A. .M., M.K.-.-, P. U., .•m.l Curry, U . II.,

the Royal Navy," INA, Apr 1942, pp. 1-10, esp. "Measurements in the Boundary Ijiycr of a Vawcil
Fig. 6, p.|3; SCO also HBHR, 23 Apr 1942, p. 451 Wing," NACA Tech. Note 1946, Sep 1949.
Sec. 44.12 FORCE AND FLOW DATA FOR HYDROFOILS 83

44.10 Spanwise Distribution of Circulation and lift that actually obtains, and is
of circulation
and Lift. Sees. 14.8 and 14.9 and Fig.s. 14.1 and by no means an independent function of the
14.J illustrate the variations that may occur, or geometric planform shape and proportions. This
that may be planned in the spanwise distribution is because the effectiveness of the end plate
of circulation and lift across a hydrofoil. These depends upon the magnitude of the overall
diagrams, plus Figs. 14. L and 14.0, show about pressure differential between the +Ap and the
where the principal trailing vortexes may be — Ap surfaces. If the pressure differential at the
expected for certain circulation distributions. In tip is zero, and if this differential increases at
practice, particular spanwise distributions of only a slow rate inboard from the tip, there is no
circulation and lift are desired for the purpose of: need for an end plate. With a large pressure differ-
ential at the tip, an end plate of adequate area
(a) Reducing the tip-vortex strength and severity,
(if it were practical) would create an effective
in an effort to reduce the force and energy losses
aspect ratio roughly twice that of the actual
there, as well as the induced drag
geometric ratio.
(b) Eliminating almost entirely the root vortexes
At one limit it is probably sufficiently accurate
in a cantilevered hydrofoil. This be done at may
for engineering purposes to say that a gap parallel
the roots of screw-propeller blades to reduce the
to the span, equal to the adjacent chord length,
strength and harmful effects of the swirl core.
has the same effect as one of great width. A tip
(c) Applying the greater part of the lift load at a
or an end next to such a gap may be considered
given point or in a given region across the span,
free, beyond the influence of the adjacent structure
because of strength, rigidity, or other require-
acting as an end plate.
ments
At the other limit the customary working or
(d) Reducing the magnitude of the — Ap values
construction tip clearance used in mechanical
in a region where air is liable to be sucked down
design isenough to prevent the adjacent
large
from the surface. An example is the top of a
structure from serving as an end plate, and the
rudder which has only a thin layer of water above
hydrofoil from behaving as one of infinite length
it.
and aspect ratio. Furthermore, an end plate
(e) Distributing the lift load to achieve the
attached to a tip with zero gap is probably not
greatest efficiency for the hydrofoil as a whole.
effective as such unless it extends for at least one
The desired circulation distribution is generally chord length around the section. The hub
all

obtained by changing the nominal angle of attack surface of a screw propeller, as one example, is
across the span, with respect to the probable almost never adequate for this purpose, when
direction of the inflow velocity. In this connection, considered as a combined inner end plate for all
it is to be remembered that, as the angle of attack the blades.
is reduced, the circulation, the lift, and the Design Notes and Drag Data on Hydro-
44.12
induced velocity diminish with it. A large induced foilPlanforms and Sections. This section is in-
velocity results in a large actual angle of attack, tended to cover hydrofoils designed and fitted for
for which compensation must be made when general and special purposes. The design of
shaping the hydrofoil. control-surface hydrofoils is discussed in Chap. 74
Another method of reducing the circulation and and of screw-propeller blades in Chap. 70.
the lift is to diminish the camber of the sections Aside from the influence of planform on the
in question. This must usually be done without aspect ratio, the principal features in the selection
changing the section thickness, since the latter is of hydrofoil planforms and section shapes involve:
required for strength, rigidity, and other con- (a) Increasing the chord length and thickness at
siderations. points where the foil attaches to some fixed
44.11 Effective Aspect Ratio for Equivalent member or structure and where the end-plate
Ship Hydrofoils. No general procedure is known prevent loss of overall
effect is sufficient to Ap
for determining the effective aspect ratio of a (b) Diminishing the chord length at the tip
hydrofoil when either or both ends lie close to because of the low strength needed there and the
surfaces which may act as the end plates described reduction in tip-vortex loss which normally ac-
in Sees. 14.7 and 14.8 and illustrated in Figs. companies the use of a short tip. Values of the
14.H, 14.1, and 14.M. Indeed, the effective aspect taper ratio Ct/cr may range from 0.3 or less for

ratio depends largely on the spanwise distribution fixed fins to 1.0 or more for screw-propeller blades.
84 in OROm \ \MI(.S 1\ SHIP DESIGN Sec. H.13

If rnkc or .xwoop-lmck is lu'Ci-ssjiry or licsirahlc

in the leading edpe of a hydrofoil, and if the trailing
edge raked in the opposite direction so that the
is

hydrofoil has a taper ratio less than 1.0, the

behavior and characteristics may be estimated on
the basis of a number of chordwisc eiomcnts
liaving small spans Sh and varying chord lengths.
If the raked or swept-back hydrofoil has ajjpioxi-
mately constant chord over the span, it.s per-
formance may be predicted on a basis of (1) a
span normal to the relative-flow direction cc|ual
Fio. 44. K Variation OF Total-Drao, Friction-
to the diagonal length of the hydrofoil, and (2) a Drag, AND Residuary-Drag CkjEKKiciENTs of a
rciativc-flow velocitj" equal to the dircction-of- JorKOWSKI .\lRFOIL WiTII THICKNESS RaTIO
motion speed times the cosine of the angle of
sweep-back. This corresponds to the situation adapted from Fig. 138 on page 138 of Volume II
depicted in diagram 1 of Fig. 17. D on page 2G5 of the referenced book, gives representative
of \'olume I.
values for the total-drag, friction-drag, and
The appropriate chapters of Part 5 in ^'olu^le rcsiduary-tlrag coefficients, on a base of thickness
III describe and illustrate the manner in which ratio, for Joukowski airfoil siH'tioiis.
ship hulls themselves act as low-aspcct-ratio 44.13 Quantitative Data on Cascade and In-
hydrofoils. Of still smaller aspect ratio are the terference Effects. On the basis that interference
fbced roll-resisting keels whose design is discussed effects ill) exist between the flows around hydro-
in Sees. 73.15 and 73. IG, especially the forward foils placed abreast or in cascade, despite the
portions which run at varying angles of attack qualifying statement in the last paragraph of
as the ship pitches and rolls.
Sec. 14.15 on page 228 of Volume I, the matter of
The ma.ximum section thickness/.v and thick- allowing for or predicting these effects poses
ness ratios /.v/c arc, more often than not, fi.xed by many difficulties. So far as known, there are no
requirements for strength and stiflne.ss. Xevcr- reasonably simple or straightforward rules or
theles.s, it is well for the designer to know some- procedures by which the marine architect may
thing of the effect of thickness ratio upon hydro- execute a proper new design or even estimate the
foil drag. Fig. adapted from "Modern
44.J, behavior of an existing design involving two or
Developments in Fluid Dynamics," edited by S. more hydrofoils approximately abreast each other.
Goldstein (Fig. 137 on page 402 of Volume II), In every screw propeller, even though it has
indicates the variation in drag coefficient with only two blades, there arc some small radii where
thickness ratio to be expected on a Joukowski the stagger between blade sections is small with
type of airfoil section at low /?, values. Fig. 44. K, respect to the gap. However, the interference
effects here, in the case of an analytic design
based upon the circulation or vortex theory, are
Data Are for Joukowshc Airfoil Sections taken care of by other portions of the design
ot a Reynolds Number Uc/k of 4 (lO*)
procedure, as described in Chap. 70. It is not
Drag Coefficients ore Based on Chord
Lenqth per Unit Span easy to transfer the correction procedure to
Jifl2
another problem, such as to that of twin or triple
steering rudders, side by side.
Problems involving the use of ratlier closely
spaced hydrofoils in cascade are of common
vOOl occurrence in the design of pumps for handling
fluitls of all kinds. Allliough there is an extensive
literature in this field, the symbols, methods of
''ioniinor Flow on o Fiol Plote
analysis, and design procedures hydraulic
m
Thici<ne»»
55 —r—
Rolio -^
35 machinery' are so different from those customary
in marine proi>ulsion and relateii fieUls
for

that they
Fifi. 'll-J Vaiiiatiom in ReHiDUARY-Diun Cokkkiciknt are not in a form readily usjible by naval architects
ov J0UKOW8K1 Aiiiron. Skctionh With Tiiickncss IIatio and marine engineers.
Sec. 44.13 FORCE AND FLOW Dy\TA FOR HYDROFOILS 85

Nevertheless, a few of these references are A recent reference, written entirely in readable,
quoted here: straightforward English, is the description of the
(a) Gutsohe, "Versuche an Propellerblattschnitten
F., analytic and experimental work undertaken by
(Tests on Propeller Blade Sections)," Schiffbau, Commander W. T. Sawyer, USN, as his doctorate
1 Aug 1933, pp. 267-270; 15 Aug 1933, pp. 286-289;
dissertation at the Federal Technical Institute in
1 Sep 1933, pp. 303-306. Some of these original data
are worked over and adapted bjf K. E. Sohoenherr Zurich, Switzerland. It is entitled "Experimental
ISNAME, 1934, pp. 105-107, esp. Fig. 15 on p. 106]. Investigation of a Stationary Cascade of Aero-
(b) Spannhake, W., "Centrifugal Pumps, Turbines and dynamic Profiles," Mitteilungen aus dem Institut
Propellers," MIT Press, Cambridge (Mass.), 1934
fiir Aerodynamik, No. 17, an der Eidgenossichen
(c) Wislieenus, G. F., FMTM, McGraw-Hill, 1947

(d) Rouse, H., EH, 1950, Chap. XIII, pp. 858-992. A Technischen Hochschule in Ziirich, 1949, Verlag
list of 54 references is given on pp. 990-992. Leeman, Zurich (copy in TMB Ubrary).
 C;11A1'1LR IJ

Viscx)us-Fl()\v Data and Friction-Resistance

Calculations

45 1 General 80 45.13 Wetted-Surfaco and Boundary-Layer Calcu-

45 2 Refcnnice Data on Mass Density, Dynamic lations for the Transom-vStern ABC Ship
Viseosity, anil Kinematic Viscosity ... 94 of Part 4 109
45 3 Representative Internal Shearing Stresses in 45. 14 Estimating the .MIowanccs for Curvature . . 110
Water Alongside Models and Ships ... 94 45.15 Criterion for a Mydrodynamically Smooth
45.4 Tables of Reynolds Numbers for Various Surface 112
Ship Lengths and Speeds 94 45.10 E(|uivalent Sand Roughness 113
45 5 Data on and Prediction of Ship Boundary- 45.17 Practical Definitions of Surface Roughness . 1 14
I.,ayer Characteristics 95 45.18 Determination of the Allowances for Rough-
45.0 Typical Velocity Profiles in Ship Boundary ness 115
layers 97 45.19 Factors Affecting Fouling Resistance on Ship
45.7 The Development of Formulas for Calculat- Surfaces 117
ing Ship Friction Resistance 99 45.20 The Prediction of Fouling Effects on Ship
45. 5 List of Principal Friction-Resistance Form- Resistance 120
ulas for a Flat, Smooth Plate in Turbulent 15 21 References Relating to Fouling as Affecting
Flow 102 Ship Propulsion 125
45.9 Specific Friction Coefficients for the Schoen- 45.22 The Calculation of the Friction Drag of a
herr or ATTC 1947 MeanHne 104 Ship 120
45. 10 I.aminar Sublayer Thicknesses in Turbulent 45.23 Allowances for Friction Drag on Straight-
Flow 104 Element and Discontinuous-Section Hulls 127
45.11 Friction Data for Water Flow in Internal 45.24 The Friction Resistance of a Planing Hull . 128
Passages 105 45.25 Friction Drag of a Craft Moored in a Stream 128
45.12 Computation of the Wetted Surface of a Ship 100 45.20 Selected Bibliography on Friction Resistance 128

45.1 GeneraL Cliap.s. 5, G, and 22 of \'olume rccniircd for (.stiinatiiig or [jrodiftiiig various
I give a general physical picture of the viscous features of the viscous flow around bodies and
flow in a real liquid along flat and curved plate ships, including the friction resistance. Fig. 45.A
and around the e.xternal boundaries of
surfaces, summarizes these data for convenience and the
an underwater ship hull. The reader who may subsequent sections of this chapter explain how
find useful a somewhat different exposition of they are used to derive numerical answers for a
friction is referred to a paper by Senor M. L. ship and some of its parts.
Acevedo, .Superintendent of the M(k1c1 Basin at The method of calculating and using the
E\ Pardo, near Madrid, Spain, entitled "Shii) Hej'nolds inunber antl it*! several variations is

Friction Resistance." This an am()li(ied version

is described in Sec. 41..") and in subseciuent .sections
(in KnglLsh; of tlur contribution actually presented of the present chapter. The Reynolds number
by Senor Acevedo at the Fifth International Con- .serves not only as a flow parameter but as an
ference of Shiji Tank Superintendents, lield in indicator of the type of viscous flow which may
London September, 1948. It gives a brief
in be exi)ected aroimd a IkkIv imder a given set of
re.sumd of the development of the various friction conditions. This latter feature is of inti-rest in
formulas, a most elaborate comi)ari.son of the model rather than in ship work, becau.se most of
re.Hultw obtained from each, and a set of re(|uire- the Rej'nolds nmnbers for minlels are in the
mcnt.s for u satisfactory and acceptable f rid ion low ranges.
formulation. A cojjy of this pajjer o' available in One other fcaliu'e invohing the u.se of the
Ihr- '1MB library. Reynolds number in practice does require men-
'IhcTc are a«s<?mbli«! in the present cimptcr I lie tion. It is cuslomary in many (juarters, when
furnuilaM, c(|untiunH, and other qnanlitalivc data cnnsidcring only the visctnis-flow situation for

8G
Sec. 45.1 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 87

Turbulent Flow a-l-:— Transition —>4-<: Laminar Flow

r~~ — ^

-. I
Logarithmic

Tr-
\i I rorabolio Approximation
I
|_ U^- — 1^
Leodii

Parobolol I
^«:- ?~T6
^~~^-^_ U ? I
V/?T?/y>, mA I

FOR TURBULENT FLOW X to Leading Edqft

Equation of Profile, |
Equation of Profile, FOR LAMINAR FLOW
U-Cyf or U = U„f^)^| U-Clogy or U-U„-|^ Equation of Profile, U„-U-a(6-y)^or U=U^--^(6-y)2

Nominal Thickness of La\/er ot Points B and C, Nominol Thickness of Lo^er ot ony Point A,
6 - 0.38 ^{^^'^ - 0.38 X R^"''^ 6 = 5.(-^)''== 5.Ri°-=
Displacement Thickness 6*= 0.146, obt. Displocement Thickness 6*= l.73x R^'^ = 0.55S,abt.

5ublQx;er Thickness S^_- k-^ , where ll.6-i k*: IS.6 Sublayer Thickness 6l- (Entire Loijer is Laminar)

Momentum Thickness 6- 0.097 6 Momentum Thickness 9= 0.133(5, abt.

6*
Shape Factor H = -|- - 1.3 to 1.5 Shape Factor H = -q-" 2. 6, obt.

Enerqiy Thickness 0*- 0.175 5, abt. Enerqy Thickness ©*= (Not Applicable in This Case)

Shear Stress at Plote TQ-CLp-q -0.059q-Rx°"^ Shear Stress at Plate To=CLF-q- 0.66q-R^°-^
Sheor Velocity ^t'{-^)°''' Shear Velocity \Jt-(^)°-^
Shearinq-Stress
^
Coefficient ^^ -
Ct . ."^
0.5/0 U^
, ,
- -?-
1 Shearing-Stress Coefficient (^r~ oJoU ^ " ~3~

Local Frictional-Drag Coefficient at Points B ond C, Local Frictionol-Droq Coefficient at Any Point A,
Clf = 0.059 Rx""'* Clf" 0.66 R.£°-5

Mean Drog Coefficient for x-rDistance Mean Drag Coefficient for x-Distance to A,
°"^
to B or C, Cf - 0.074 R^ Cf- 1.33 Rx'"

Fig. 45.A Summary op Viscous-Flow Formulas for Laminar and Turbulent Flow

the entire length L of a body or ship, to use the It seems almost certain that there are factors
symbol R„ . When this is done it almost invariably in viscous flow not taken into account by the
signifies that the space dimension in the Reynolds Reynolds number, but until more is known of
number is that entire length. However, in many them, they can not well be considered in any
studies of viscous flow and boundary-layer quantitative treatment of friction resistance.
development it becomes necessary to consider Friction-resistance calculations are necessary
the situation at or ahead of a certain point along for the Froude method of predicting ship resist-
the body or ship which has an x-distance less ance, in which the residuary resistance derived
than the length L. In these cases the Reynolds from tests of a model of the same proportions and
number for the situation under study is the shape is added to the friction resistance deduced
x-Reynolds number, expressed as R^ with the ,
from resistance tests of flat, smooth surfaces in
x-distance from the leading edge or stem stated the form of thin planks or friction planes.
in each case. For example, in the formulas of Because of the limitations of model-testing
Figs. 5.R and 45.A, the symbol R^ is used in equipment it is still necessary to extrapolate the
connection with values averaged for the whole flat, smooth-plate data well beyond the experi-

length, while R^ is used for local values, or for mental range, especially for large, fast vessels. It
situations where the x-distance is itself a factor has not been possible to check this extrapolation
in the formula. in the latter range by full-scale ship measurements
88 IIVDRODVX AMIC.S IN SHIP DtSIGN Sir. -15.1

TABLE 4&a— Rbtnouw Nuubebs raa Vabious Ship Lenothb and Spkeos in STANDARD FRESH WATER

Velocity
Sec. 45.1 FRlC'llON-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 89

TABLE 45.a— (Continued)

Velocity
90 IIMIRODN \ \MI(;s l\ sllll' l>|s|(,\ Sec. -15.1
Sec. 45.1 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 91

TABLE 45.b-
92 11M)R()^^ \ \MI(;s l\ sllll' IIF.SIGN Srr. If. I

TABLK -JS.l) -Hkvnou.8 Nimbkils in .STANDAKD SALT WATER (Continuod)

Velocity
Sec.4'i.l FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 93
«M HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 45.2

in which the friction resistance can be segregated A

calculateii average t„ for a whole solid surface
with reasonahle accuracy. is found simply by dividing the wetted area S
Adequate nielliotls are not yet avaihible for into the calculated friction drag Rr Its local •

ninking accurate prwHctions of the effects of value for any designated point along the solid
transverse and longitudinal curvature and of surface may be found by the formulas of J'ig.
pressure gradients, when making the transition 45.A and of the preceding paragraph. The
from the flat, smooth plate to the niotlel or ship numerical examples of Sees. 5.12 and 45.15 give
surface. the following representative values for "standard"
Limited full-scale data derived from thrust Siilt water:
measurements enalile a reasonably reliable assess-
(a) Ship 500 ft long, speed 20.72 kt, 5 = 45,000
ment of combined smooth-plate and rough-ship =
ft^. To 1.797 lb per ft' as an average value for
friction resistances for certain types and condi-
the whole ship, calculated at the end of Sec. 5.12
tions of ship-bottom surface.
(b) Ship 400 ft long, speed 30 kt, but basing
45.2 Reference Data on Mass Density, Dy-
calculations on a point 200 ft abaft the FP,
namic Viscosity, and Kinematic Viscosity. Tables
To = 2.504 lb per ft" at that point
X3.d thri)Uij;h X:^.i of Api)x. 3 of this volume give
(c) Ship 190.5 ft long, speed 12 kt, to = 0.485
values of the ma.ss density p(rho) and the kine-
lb per ft' for a point at the stern
matic vi.scosity v(\\n) of "standard" fresh and
(d) Slup 510 ft long, speed 20.5 kt, t„ = 1.051
salt water, the latter of 3.5 per cent salinity, for
lb per ft' for a jioint near the stern, TjOO ft from
a range of latitudes and temperatures sufficient
the bow
to meet the usual needs of the ship designer and
(c) Model 20 ft long, speed 10 kt, but basing
marine architect.
calculations on a point 10 ft abaft the FP,
Tables X3.j and X3.k of Appx. 3 give values of
To = 0.G093 lb per ft' at that point.
these characteristics, plus values of the dynamic
viscositj' M(niu), over a rather wide range in 45.4 Tables of Reynolds Numbers for Various
temperature, for a number of well-known li((uids Ship Lengths and Speeds. It is pointed out in
encountered at times in ship-design work. The Sec. 2.22 of X'olume 1 and in many of the standard
original data, from which these tables were reference works on hj-drodynainics, that the
adapted, are listed .somewhat differently in: Reynolds number is a logical and a practical
parameter for representing quantitatively the
(a) Rouse, IT., EMF, 1940, Appx., pp. 3.J7-3G.5
analytical and experimental evidence on viscous
(b) Rouse, H., EH, 19.50,Appx., pp. KIUI 1013,
flow, involving friction resistance. This is regard-
including the references listed
less of the type of viscous flow, whether laminar
(c) Rouse, n., and Howe, J. W., BMF, 1953,
or turbulent, or of the degree to which surface
Appx., PI). 231-238.
roughness effects enter into the picture. In the
45.3 Representative Internal Shearing Stresses latter case there are, however, certain (|ualifica-

in Water Alongside Models and Ships. From the tions as to the separate influences of liquid
rcl:itionsliii)S given in Chap. 5 of Volume I, velocity and distance from the leading edge. As
particularly in Fig. o.R, the shearing stress r(tau) such the Reynolds number enters into many of
at any point in a li(|uid undergoing viscous action the present-day calculations and predictions, not
i.s = nidU/dy) where y is measured normal to
T only with the space dimension x representing
the flow, in the direction in which U is varying. length from the leading edge, as in a ship form,
At a solid surface under a viscous liquid flow the but with the space dimension representing the
shearing stress at the wall is [Rouse, H., KMF, width b or the diameter i) of a body.
HUG, pp. 185-180] To facilitate calculations involving its wide-
spread use. Tables 45. a and 45. b give calculatecl
'^"'" values of /f„ = VL/v for both "standard" fresh
'•
'(f) L. - '^"(i)"- - and "standard" sjilt water, as defined in .Vppx. 3.
where to ha.s the dimensions of a force per unit The range of lengths L, or j:-<listances, is large
area or a pressure, namely in/Li'. The local enough to span both model and ship sizes, as is

specific friction resistance coefficient Cir is as the range of speed, expressed in both ft per .sec

given in the wvcral formulas of Figs. 5.R and and kt.

•t.')..\, for the condilions existing or assumed. The <lat;i in Table l.").!i are caiculatrd bv the
Sec. 45.5 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 95

usual formula 72„ = VL/v, where V is the ship hull, long before the ship is in the water. This
speed in ft per sec, L is the length or space new surfaces and those
applies to both clean,
dimension in ft, and v is the kinematic viscosity roughened by uneven paint coatings and by
for standard fresh water at a temperature of fouling in service.
59 deg F, 15 deg C, namely 1.2285(10"') ft' per sec. A velocity traverse with a cylindrical pitot tube
The data in Table 45. b are calculated in the at a given point on a model of the ship gives some
same way for standard salt water, having a 3.5 indication of the thickness but this method is
per cent salinity and a temperature of 59 deg F, tedious and uncertain, at least in the present state
15 deg C. Under these conditions the kinematic of the art. The principal reasons for the uncer-
viscosity v is 1.2817(10"'^) ft' per sec. tainties are:
Values of x~ or d-Reynolds numbers are taken
(a) The boundary-layer thickness at a given
from these tables simply by substituting x or D
point on a model is greater in proportion than at
forL.
the corresponding point on a hydrodynamically
Values of /?„ are in millions, or /?„(10"°).
smooth ship, for the reasons explained in Sec. 6.8
To facilitate calculations of R^ for speeds and
of Volume I and illustrated in Fig. 6.E of that
lengths not covered by these tables:
section
(a) Speeds in ft per sec corresponding to integral (b) Existing uncertainty (in 1955) as to the
values of kt, from 1 through 100 kt, are given in effective roughness of the actual ship surface, and
Table X4.b its action in thickening the boundary layer, over
(b) The reciprocal of 1.2285(10^') is 0.8140(10') and above what it would be on a hydrodynami-
or 0.08140(10') cally smooth surface
(c) The reciprocal of 1.2817(10"') is 0.7802(10') (c) The difficulties in making accurate velocity

or 0.07802(10'). traverses in the vicinity of the laminar sublayer

on a model, or on a ship, at distances from the
G. S. Baker gives a small table of R„ for a
surface of the order of a few thousandths of an
y-value of 1.29(10"') for speeds of 2 to 35 kt, and
inch.
for lengths of 50 to 1000 ft [INA, Apr 1952, p. 61].
4S.5 Data on and Prediction of Ship Boundary- F. M. Richardson, J. K. Ferrell, H. A. Lamonds,
Layer Characteristics. A number of detail ship- and K. 0. Beatty, Jr., in a paper entitled "How
design problems require, for their proper solution, Radiotracers are Used in Measuring Fluid Velocity
a good estimate of the boundary-layer thickness Profiles" [Nucleonics, Jul 1955, pp. 221-223],
5 (delta) at any given point around the underwater describe new tracer techniques by which liquid

6=5xRx,"'° for Laminar Flov

in Standard Fresh Water

,R^= 8.14(1 0*") Broken Lines Indicate Regions of Extrapolation for the Formula Given
0.09.:

0.08ii

0.03IQ

30 £8 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 le 10 8 6 4 2 0"""
x-Distonce from Leadino Edae, ft

Fig. 45.B Vaeiation of Boundary-Layer Thickness 6 with s-Distance from Leading Edge, for Laminar

Flow in Fresh Water

96 IIVDRODVNAMKLS IN Mill' DKSIGX Sec. -(5.5

velocities nmy l>e lieteriniiied within 0.002 inch location for a pitot^type speed log.was necessary
It

of the inner wall of a tube of circular section.
Fig. 3 on page 23 of the reference is a plot of
local velocity V on distance from the inner wall,
embodying observations taken within 0.0006 inch
of the solid surface in a regime
laminar in character.
Despite the difficulties and drawbacks men-
tioned, the velocities at a series of
to know the position, both fore and aft and
relative to the surface of the underwater hull, of
the cloak of the boundary layer where, at the
designed speed, the relative water velocity was
which is distinctly within one per cent plus or minus of the ship
speed through undisturbed water. Although it was
expected that the log would be installed under
normal dis- the entrance, as is customary' for these instru-

tances from the hull surface can be and have been ments, an acceptable pasition was found only
measured on both ship and model, and the velocity after exploring the boundarj' layer under a model
profiles plottetl. Two sets of typical ship profiles of the ship from the stem to a position far aft,
arc reproducctl in Sec. 45.6, and reference data under the after engine room. When the isotachyl
are quoted there on many others. Despite the representing 100 per cent of ship speed was
shortcomings of the observed data, anj' informa- drawn on the outboard profile it was found that,
tion at all is considered l)etter than none. at the position originally proposed for the log,
A designer's need for boundarj'-layer data may the isotachyl lay more than 6 ft below the keel.
be sufficienth' pressing — for instance, in selecting This distance was about twice as great as the
propeller-tip clearances alongside the hull on a contemplated log extension beyond the hull.
large and important passenger liner —
to justify a On the basis previously' mentioned, that some
rather extensive model- or ship-measurement indication of 6-valucs are better than none. Figs.
project. However, it is well for the designer to 4o.B and 45.C show plots of boundary-layer
know beforehand no matter how extensive
that, thicknesses for laminar and turbulent flow,
are the measurements projected, they will almost respectively, derived from the space-velocity
surely be found insufficient when the time comes relationships of Sec. 5.13 of ^'olume I and Eqs.
to plot, analyze, and use the results. This is not (o.vii) and (5.viii) for flat, smooth plates. In
intended to discourage the designer before he plotting these graphs, the data have been extra-
begins but to broaden the scope of the measure- polated to ranges far beyond those justified by
ments. the manner in which the formulas were derived.
As an illustrative example there may be men- The plots are therefore to be considered as indi-
tioned the investigation carried out on a cruiser cators of the 5-values, nothing more.
model in the early 1940's, to determine the proper A graph illustrating the values of 5 for the

400 360 960 340 320 300 260 260 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 eo
I- Distance from Leodinq Edqe, ft

Fio. 45.C' Vaiuatki.n uv HorsDAnY-LAVKii Thic-knkk.h i with j-1)i.stanck kiu)M Lkadino Kiiok, fxju Trniiiii.ENT
Flow in Fkuii Watek
Sec. 45/, FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 97

ABC ship designed in Part 4, calculated by this Freeman entitled "Measurements of Flow in the
method, is given as Fig. 45.1 in Sec. 45.13. Boundary Layer of a 1/40-Scale Model of the
Values of the displacement thickness 6* (delta U. S. Airship Akron" [NACA Rep. 430, 1932,
star)are even more difficult to predict because pp. 567-579]. This paper contains a considerable
they depend upon the shape of the velocity number of boundary-layer velocity profiles of
profile within the boundary layer. The ratio the type which should be available to naval
5* = 0.145 for turbulent flow, given in Fig. 45. A, architects for typical ship models.
is an acceptable engineering figure in the absence In the cases where ship (or model) profiles are
of more definite data. available, described in the references listed here-
under, either:
45.6 Typical Velocity Profiles in Ship Bound-
ary Layers. It is regrettable that the technical (a) The velocity traverse was not fine enough, at
problems involved in the measurement of bound- the small values of y, to follow the velocity
ary-layer profiles on ships, or even on models, variation in the range of U (or V) less than
are of such magnitude that complete and accurate about 0.6 or 0.5 1/„ (or V), or
observed profiles are almost nonexistent. For an (b) The velocity traverse extended only to a
indication of the enormous amount of labor value of y where U (or V) was approximately
involved in a comprehensive study of this kind equal to U^ (or F), despite indications that at a
the reader has only to study a report by H. B. greater transverse distance U would exceed [/„ ,

Bottom Hull PlQti nq.pf^ShJR

Scale for Local Velocit'j U 100
in Percentooe of Ship Speed

Boundorvj- Lo\;er Velocitij Profiles for a Small Destrovjtr

Zero Point 118.5 ft Abaft FP,
"1
/6.10 ft below At-Rest WL
1 1
1 1

1
Relative Velocitvj U •

in PercentQoe of Ship Speed

-Bottom^ Hull^PlQtintf, of Ship (rnvertedj

Fig. 45.D Typical Boundary-Latek Velocity Profiles for Several Operating Conditions on Two Ships
98 HYDROnYN WIK S I\ SHIP DESIGN Sec. 45.6

because of tlio nugmeiit of velocity +At" to Ijc Both high-speetl deep-water profiles on Fig.
expecteil itt the potential flow abreast the wide 45.D show a characteristic flatness almost a —
portion of the body or ship. —
hollowness at a ratio U/Um of about 0.90. The
Laute and Gruschwitz profiles of Fig. 22.C in
This lack of essential data makes it impossible,
Sec. 22.(5 are actually hollow.
more often than not, to determine the boundary-
(Jthcr ships upon which velocity-profile observa-
layer tiiifkncss by the delta-velocity method
tions have been made, including the Wrangcl,
described in Sec. (5.5 of \"olumc I. An example of
are the:
this situation is found in the upper right-lmnil
diagram of Fig. 45. D, giving three partial velocity (1) Hindcnburg, German merchant vessel, early 1920's.
taken from unpublished The (lata, by W. Dnhlmann, II. Hoppe,
as reported
profiles for a large liner,
and O. Schafor |\\TIH, 7 Sep 1920, pp. 415-4191,
data kindly furni.'shed by J. P. Comstock and were taken witli a resistance log towed abeam from
News Shipbuilding
C. H. Hancock of the Newport a boom, and are rather sketchy.
and Dry Dock Company. The data in all cases (2) Hamilton, U. S. destroyer (DD 141), 1933-19.34. The
are from observations with a Pitometer speed log. TMB data are unpublished except for one model-
ship velocity profile comparison by E. A. Wright
Unfortunately, the log-tube extension was in this
(S\.\ME, 1940, Fig. 24, p. 393).
case only suflicient to obtain readings of local
(3) Ctairton, U. S. merchant vessel, 1933-1934. The
relative velocity U ecjual to the ship speed V at TMB data are unpublished.
23. G kt, with clean bottom and in deep water. (4) Tannenberg, German merchant ship, 1938. Some
boundury-laycr profiles were measured on this ship
The observations at 23.G kt, with dirty bottom
but they were not published |WRH, 1.5 Jun 1939,
in deep water, indicate greater local velocities U pp. 107-174).
in the inner portion of the l>oundary laj'cr and a (5) Sanln Elena, merchant ship, 1951. V'^elocity profiles
considerabl}' thicker laj'er, as diagrammed for a for both rough and smooth hull surfaces were

typical foul-bottom boundar3--layer velocity pro- measured amidships, 72 meters (236.2 ft) from the
stem and 4 meters (13.1 ft) below the at-rest
file in Fig. 22.H of Sec. 22.13. Again the full
wat«rlinc [Kempf, G., and Karhan, IC, HSV.\ Rep.
boundarj'-laycr thickness could not be explored
200, 1952, Fig. 7A; TMB transl. available; STG,
because of the limited log-tube extension. 1951, Vol. 45, pp. 228-243).
For the test at 18.85 kt, with a dirty bottom (0) Snaifell and Ashworth, British cross<-hannel steamers.
Observations by G. S. Baker [NECI, 1929-1930.
and in a depth of water of 2.24 times the draft,
Vol. XLVI, pp. 8:5-100 and Pis. III-V; .also pp.
the local velocities U are less than for the higher
141-140).
speed with clean bottom in deep water. Considera- (7) Wrangcl, Swedish destroyer. Observations by II. F,
tion of backflow in the shallow water, plus surface Xordstrom and assistants ["Full-Scale Tests with
roughness, but taking the reduced speed into the Wrangcl and Comparative Model Testa,"

account, indicates that the local velocities should SSPA Rep. 27, 1953).
(8) Victory ship, APS, Tcrvacle. Observations by G.
possibly be higher rather than lower. In anj' case,
Aertsscn and his assistants [IN.V, 1953, pp. J21-J5G].
the boundary layer is thicker, as it should be. Fig. 3 on p. J25 and Fig. 22 on p. J52 (a revision of

The boundary-laj'er velocity profiles for the Fig. 3) show velocity profiles made with a rodmetor
speed log under various conditions.
small destroj-er Swedish ]Vrangcl), shown
(the
(9) Lucy Ashlon. Pilot traverses were made by a Pitometer
inverted in Fig. 45. D, are taken from tho.se pub-
log (INA, 1955, Vol. 97, pp. 543-545 and Figs. 13,
lished by II. F. Nordstrom [SSPA Rep. 27, 1953, 14). No velocity profiles show U > Ua, .

Fig. 39, p. 85], with the horizontal scale modified

to suit the features being illustrated. These
I'ur llie sake of completciics,s, the references of
velocity measurements were, like those on the
Sec. 22. G of Volume I are repeated here, along
large liner, made below the ship but fortunately
with a few others. These, however, apply to
the pitot-tube extension was greatly in excess of
tests on models only:
the j/-distance where U ~ U^ = V. With the (a) Laute, \V., STG, 1933, pp. 402-460; T.MB Transl. 53,
relatively small submergence of the pitot-tube Mar 1939. This paper covers flow testj<, velocity
orifice in the case of the Wrangcl, it is possible that measurements, and pressure observations on a
there is some wave wake being measured with cargo-ship model.
(b) Hamilton, \V. S., "The Velocity Pattern Arnuml a
the friction wake. Indeed, it is possible that the
Ship Model Fixed in Moving Water," Doctorate
wave action in the ca.se of the large liner makes Diss., IIIIR, Dec 1943. Dcscrilx-s flow measure-
itself felt not only down the side but under the mi'iils made on a mmlel of the (icrnian M. 8.
bottom U.H well. Sun Frnncixco.
Sec. 45.7 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 99

(c) U. S. Hamilton (DD 141), destroyer. The

S. TMB have been told many times so that they are not
data are unpublished except for one model-ship summarized or repeated here. A historical sum-
velocity profile comparison by E. A. Wright
[SNAME,
mary was given some time ago by K. S. M.
1946, Fig. 24, p. 393].
(d) TMB model 3898, representing a proposed twin-skeg Davidson [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 76-83] and
Manhattan, described by the present author in others more recently by F. H. Todd [SBMEB,
SNAME, 1947, pp. 112-125. Unpublished data are Jan 1947, pp. 3-7; SNAME, 1951, pp. 315-317].
on file at the David Taylor Model Basin. A list of the principal references is given in Sec.
(e) Baker, G. S., NECI, 1929-1930, Vol. XLVI, pp.
45.26 for the benefit of the interested reader.
83-106 and Pis. Ill, IV, and V; also pp. 141-146
(includes tests on models). On page 86 of this
It has been recognized, practically from the
reference. Table I gives other sources of test data
on models. beginning of this development, that a friction
(f) Baker, G. S., NECI, 1934-1935, Vol. LI, pp. 303-320; formulation which correctly expresses the drag
also SBSR, 28 Mar 1935, Fig. 5, p. 353. of a thin, flat plank or friction plane by no means
(g) Calvert, G. A., INA, 1893, Vol. XXXIV, pp. 61-77.
applies directly to the prediction of ship friction
This reference describes one of the first, if not the
resistance. There are a number of reasons for this:
firstmeasurement of the velocity profile in the
boundary layer of a friction plank, 28 ft long. In
Fig. 9 of PI. Ill Calvert gives three velocity profiles,
(a) The possibility of laminar flowon the plank
for speeds of 2, 3, and 4 kt, for a transverse distance or plane and on a towing model whose friction
of 0.44 ft from the plank surface. drag is calculated from such data, as compared
to the fully turbulent flow over practically the
45.7 The Development of Formulas for Calcu-
entire wetted area of the ship
lating Ship Friction Resistance. Friction resist-
(b) The effects of transverse curvature on the
ance was recognized as a sort of separate entity
submerged edge or edges of the plank or friction
in the ship-resistance picture as far back as the
plane as well as of both transverse and longitudinal
1790's. Attempts were made then, by Mark
curvature on a towing model and on the ship
Beaufoy and others, to determine its magnitude
(c) The effects of various pressure gradients,
[INA, 1925, pp. 109, 115]. It remained, however,
especially the longitudinal gradients, on the
for the eminent William Froude to conduct the
curved surfaces of model and ship
first systematic friction experiments on flat sur-
(d) The variation between the calculated at-rest
faces and to establish the first systematic basis
wetted surface of a model or ship and the actual
for the calculation of friction drag. Following
wetted surface when it is moving and making
extensive towing experiments with thin planks
waves, as well as changes in flow caused by
having various coatings, he developed the
orbital wave motion and the like
expression
(e) The smoothness of the plank or friction-plane
R^ = fSV (45.i)
surface as compared to the relatively rougher ship
where / was his own friction-drag coefficient and surface, especially in view of the need for greater
the exponent n approximated 1.83 for smooth, absolute smoothness on the ship to insure hydro-
varnished surfaces. He found a length effect in dynamic smoothness in the larger scale

addition, but this was not reduced to mathematical (f) Other effects of differences in absolute size

terms. R. E. Froude, the son of William Froude, or scale.

after a re-analysis of the observed data, later
William Froude, B. J. Tideman, and others,
changed the speed exponent n to 1.825.
working in the 1860's, the 1870's, and later,
Following the elder Froude's work the principal
recognized that no ship is ever as smooth as a
landmarks in the evolution of a suitable formula
friction plane towed in a model basin. They
for calculating ship friction resistance were:
provided in their friction coefficients a series of
Osborne Reynolds' development in the early
(1) positive allowances for what they considered to
UL/v,
1880's of the_ dimensionless relationship be unavoidable roughnesses in the ships of their
now named the Reynolds number and expressed day. They did not know, in those years, that the
SLsR„ ships had actually to be smoother, in an absolute
(2) The development of the boundary-layer sense, to afford the same degree of hydrodynamic
theory by Ludwig Prandtl in the early 1900's. smoothness as obtained on their models. However,
The highlights and details of the last three- the modern friction formulations are all developed
quarters of a century of progress on this project for and apply strictly to fiat, smooth plates,
100 nVDRODVNAMK.S l.\ SHIP ni'SICN Src. 45.7

bccaust" smooth surfaces are icpnxluiiblc and onlj' available experimentalresult.s. While the.se experi-

in that way can consistent cxperimentul data be ments antedate the year 1932, the line can alwaj's
assured. be shifted to accommodate newer and better data.
Despite the extensive studies of recent years It docs, however, conform to the physical laws
there is as yet no comprehensive, accurate formula for the dependence of friction drag on Reynolds
for bridging tlie gap between an experimental number and it has given satisfactory ship pre-
friction plane or model and an actual ship, and dictions for many years. There is no specific
for taking account of the effects listeil in the seconil provision in the .\TTC 1947 procedure for edge
paragraph preceding. In fact, workers in this field effects, transverse and longitudinal curvature
are not even agreed on the form which such an effects, variations in wetted surface and flow
expression should take, or whetiier an attempt patterns due to waves, or any other factors.
should be made to embmly all the bridging The ATTC 1947 (Schoenherr) meanline, de-
factors, as it were, into a single formulation. ])icted graphically by the heavy, solid line in the
In meantime the naval architect must
the log-log plot of Fig. 45.E, expresses the relation
span the gap somehow, and with assurance that between CV and /?„ by either of the equations
his predictions are reasonably correct. The
American Towing Tank Conference decided in 242
"•g^ = log,o {R„Cf) (o.xiva)
1947 that for its work this operation is to be
performed by the use of:
{C,)-"' = 4.132 log.o {RJCf) (S.xivb)

(1) The meanline developed by K. E. Schocnhcrr

Since this equation is not readily solved for
for expressing the specific friction drag Cf of
Cy , sufficient values of Cf and R„ , in themodel
turbulent flow on a flat, smooth surface a.s a
and ship ranges, have been calculated and tabu-
function of Reynolds number 7?„
lated for practical use. The tables arc published
(2) An additive allowance, in the form of a
in SNAMIC Technical and Research Bulletin 1-2,
specific friction resistance and called ACV , for
dated August 1948, for all who need them. Two
the effect of unavoidable roughness on a clean,
small portions of these tables, modified to express
new ship.
all /?„ values in jtiillions, are reproduced in Tables
The Schoenherr meanline, as its generic name 4.5. c and 45. d of Sec. 45.9, covering mniiol and ship
implies, was based upon a careful analysis of ranges, respectively.

50 100 500 1000

Reynolds Number ( I0"»j- ^ (lO"*)

Fio. •I.I.FC Purr or Tiiiu;k TrrKs oi- ItocciiiNKHH Ai.uhvanik fou Siin-s, SimwiMi Vauiatiu.vs wrrii IlKV.Nouns
Nll.MII>:lt
Sec. 45.7 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 101

Using the ATTC procedure, the friction resist- Methods estimating the curvature allow-
of
ance of the wetted area of a ship is calculated by ances are described subsequently in Sec. 45.14.
the general formula given as Eq. (22. iv) in Sec. Tentative values for the four listed roughness
22.15, based on specific friction-resistance co- allowances are given in Sees. 45.18 and 45.20.
efficients: In many of the published reports quoting
Rf = qSlCp for fully turbulent flow on a flat,
SACp values [Todd, F. H., TMB Rep. 663, 1949;
smooth plate having the same S as the TMB Rep. 729, 1950; SNAME, 1951, pp. 327-345]
ship this term embraces not only all the roughness
allowances listed in Eq. (45.ii) preceding but the
+ AiCp due to the increment of relative
equivalent resistance of condenser-coohng scoops
water velocity for longitudinal curva-
and discharges and miscellaneous sea chests, as
ture
well as the forces involved in driving cooling
-FAzCf due to the increment of drag for water through the condensers and in overcoming
transverse curvature the effects of forcing water out of and drawing it
into certain hull openings.
+ ApCp for plate or planking roughness In towed and self-propelled tests of ship models
+ AsCf for structural roughness it is customary to omit the lips, projections,

openings, and internal ducts belonging to these

+ AcCf for coating roughness
-f-ApCp for fouling roughness]
= qS{CF + 2ACf)
where the ram pressure q = 0.5pV^, S
wetted area, and V is the ship speed.
systems.Not all ships have them, and in any case
they partake of the nature of appendages rather
than of structural or other roughnesses. Unfor-
(45.ii)
tunately, no suitable procedures have been worked
is the ship out as yet whereby the true additions to ship
resistance occasioned by the devices proper and

TABLE 45.C—Sample Table of ff„ and Cf for the ATTC 1947 Meanline in the MODEL RANGE
This table adapted from the upper portion of the table on page 8 of SNAME Technical and Research Bulletin 1-2,
is

pubUshed in Aug 1948. The listings of fl„ in the extreme left-hand column are in terms of (10») or millions. Those in all
other columns are Cp(lO').

Reynolds Number
102 IlM)R()l)^ \ wiKs i\ siiir i)isi(,\ Sec. f5.S

TAlU.i: l-Vli-SAMIIK I UlIK OK A-, AMI Cy Kill TlIK ATH ' I'.MT Mkasune IN THE SHIP UANGK
This t«l>le is ndnptoti from ihe upixr portioD of the tiiblo on page 12 of SNAMIC Technical and Research Bulletin 1-2,
published in Aug 104S. The listings of R, in the extreme left-hand column arc in terms of (10*) or millions. Those in all
other columns arc Cjr(10>).

Reynolds Number
in Millions
Sec. 4 5. FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 103

(b) Cp = 0.0725(log,„ Rn - 2)-' application to fresh water [SNAME, 1951, pp.

373-374]:
/?.)"''''
(c) C^^ = 0.370(log,o

(4) Prandtl-Schlichting [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 82] Rr ['''- + (^t)]-'

Cp = 0.455(log,oi2„)"'-"
For the local specific friction drag Cip or shearing-
stress coefficient C,. , H. Schhchting gives [Ing.
Archiv, 1936, Vol. 7, p. 29]

C,^^ = C. = (2 log.oiJ. - 0.65)-'-'

(5) Von Karman, based on the 1/7-power law of

velocity distribution [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 80];
see Sec. 5.10 of Volume I of the present book:

(a) Cf. = 0.072(E„)~'"

This is also given as [Rouse, H., EH, 1950, p. 106]

(b) Cr = 0.074(i?„)"°'

(6) Gebers [INA, 1925, pp. 110-111]

(a) Rf = hSV\R„)-''-'''

where /c2 is a rather complicated term defined in

the reference.
(b) [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 80]

Cp = 0.02058(i?„)"°'''

(7)
lot IIY^Ro^>v\.\^fI^.s i\ snip df.sicx ^'r. 7 1.0

(c) VS\. l'.t;Ui, \ul. 11. Tal.lf '.1, |). Ill, fur- 45.9 Specific Friction Coefficients for the
ship lengths of 10 through 500 ft Schoenherr or ATTC 1Q47 Meanline. Tables
(ti) Polliinl, J., and DiKlcbout, A., "Tii(''orif du l.j.c anil 4.j.d are small illustrative sections of
a
Nnvirc," 1892, \'ol. Ill, pp. 374-375, using essen- group of larger mentioned in Sec. 45.7,
tables,
tially the dimensional formula given previously calculate<l in the 1940's by the Experimental
hut with different symbols and metric units, for Towing Tank of the Stevens Institute of Tech-
ship lengths of 5 through 120 in, 10. 1 through noloK.v and published in August 1948 as SX.\ME
31)3.7 ft. Technienl and Research Bulletin 1-2. These
tables give values of the .specific friction resistance
(9) Taylor, for 20-ft jilanks in fresh water at OS
((H'dicient (V as determined by the .\'1"T'C 1947
dog F,
(Schoenherr) meanline, ]'>|s. (5.xiva) or (5.xivb)
(a) C = 0.03117?:"'" and the formulas of item (1) of Sec. 45.8, for fully
developed turbulent flow on a flat, smooth plate.
An alternative form is
The range of the argument /?„ for entering the
(b) lir = 0.00907 .sr' "' for 60 deg F, fresh
complete set of tables is suflTieient to cover both
water, and a 20-ft friction plane.
model and ship regions. The entries in Tables
(10) I^p and Troost [SNAME, Nortii. Cidif. 45. c and 45.d are modificHi so that all /?„ values
Sect., 29 Feb 1952; see SNAME Member's Bull., are in terms of millions [5th ICSTS, Lontlon,
Jun 1953, pp. 18-22] 1948, p. 112, item 4, top of page].

^ = ,..[(f.)v/^].....
The meth(xl
and using them
in Sec. 45.22.
45.10
of picking
for Hy
Cy values by inspection
calculations

Laminar Sublayer Thicknesses in Tur-

is illustrated

= log.
(It) + I
log. C, + KC" bulent Flow. S<jme quantitative knowledge of
the thickness 5/, of the laminar sublayer next to
or Cfo = O.133(log,off„ + 0.724 - log.o -4)-'
=

a solid boundary is of interest in a study of rough-

where the subscript combination "FD" signifies
ness efTects, to determine whether the.se are
friction drag.
essentially viscous or primarilj' pressure phe-
(11) G. Hughes' "2-diml" formula is Cp = nomena. It has been found [Rouse, IL, EMF,
1.328«:°' +
0.014/2;''-"* [7th ICSII, 1954, 1940, p. 194; Baines, W. D., "A Literature Survey
SSPA Rep. 34, 1955, p. 76, Eq. (2)].
ofBoundar^'-Layer Development on Smooth and
Hout^h Surfaces at Zero Pressure Gradient,"
(12) Telfer, Lackenby, and others, IIIIR, 1951, p. 25] that the thickness 5,, of the

= laminar sublayer in turbulent flow over a rough

C, = a + bR~', so that for /2„ «> , Cy = a
surface can be expres.sed by
Here, the lower-case subscript of the Reynolds-
number symbol is not to be confused with the =
di. (a coeflicient)
exponent n. A table of the specific friction co-
efficientCf "smooth paint surfaces," derived
for 4 (r..vi)
from the I^ackcnby formula Cy = 0.0000 -f-
0.0791/?:"" for the Froude-Kempf data, is given (a coeincicnt)
r.
by G. S. Baker, over a range of /?, from 1 to 75
million (IN A, Apr 1952, p. 02|. where values of the coeflicient vary from about
11.0 to 12.0, and [/, = Vto/p is the shear
(13) Blasius, for laminar flow on a flat, smooth
velocity. Using the larger cocfTicient, a number of
plate,
5;. values calculated for a wide range of li, are
'
C, = 1.32H/1';" Ijlotted in Fig. 45. F. It is to be noted that the
5,. values increase slowly milh Icnyth for a given
(14) For a completely rough surface of length />
speed, hut they decrease rapidly with speed for a
and an equivalent sjind-roughnesa height of Kg ,
given length. The reasons for this are discussed
as given by L. .\. Haier,
presently.
" It is interesting to note that the permi.ssible
Cr = [l.89-f l.f.2(log,„^'jJ average ronghne.s.s height for a livdroilyn.'im-
A' v.
Sec. 45.11 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 105

(45 .v)
Ul

This means that Sl increases very slowly as x

increases and that it decreases rapidly as U«,
increases. For example, if C/„ increases from 10
kt to 20 kt and then to 30 kt, 6x, decreases very
nearly to | and then to | of its 10-kt value. If x
increases from 5 ft to 15 ft, the increase in 8l
occasioned by it is only in the ratio of 1 to (3)°'
or 1.116.
At the same time, an increase in either U„ or
1.0 50 10.0 50.0 100 500 1000
Reynolds Number in million5 x to three times its original value multiplies the
original Reynolds number by three. It can not
Fig. 45.F Variation of Laminar Sublayer Thick- and
be said, therefore, that the change in 5i, ,

ness SiWITH X-DlSTANCB (L) AND SPEED

hence the change in the effect of a given roughness
of a certain absolute size and shape, is a function
ically smooth surface, given by the exiDression solely of the Reynolds number of the flow, as
described at greater length in Sec. 45.15 [Gold- determined by the product of the relative velocity
stein, S., ARC, R and M, 1763, Jul 1936, p. 113], [/„ and the distance x from the leading edge
namely (neglecting the kinematic viscosity).
A given barnacle at the bow of a long ship
fc.v < 5 (45.iii) might project through the thin laminar sublayer
Ur
there but lie just within this layer at the stern.
indicates that roughnesses should average
the However, as the ship speed increases, the value
somewhat than half the laminar-sublayer
less of 5i diminishes. A barnacle of the same size at
thickness S^ in the ratio of say 5 to 12.6, if
,
the stern projects more and more through the
they are to produce no roughness effects. laminar sublayer and becomes more and more
Granting that the relationship between the effective as an item of roughness. This is the
height of the roughness on a solid surface and the reason why, in aeronautical circles, it is customary
laminar-sublayer thickness has an important to use a special Revnolds number with the rough-
influence on the roughness effects, it is useful ness height as a space dimension, instead of the
to know what factors influence this thickness 6i . distance x from the nose or leading edge of the
To understand this, Eq. (5.vi) may be written body or plate. In fact, if the Goldstein relationship
mentioned earlier in this section is rearranged in
6i = 12.6Kp)°'(r„)- (45. iv)
the manner
From Eq. 5.R or the corresponding
(S.iii) of Fig.
fcAv?7.
equation from the turbulent-flow column in Fig. 5 > (45 .vi)
45. A, one may also write

it forms a Reynolds number of this kind, where

To = 0.059 UlRZ /cav is the space dimension.
I
(5.iii)
This relationship is discussed further in Sec.
U„x
= 0.059 Ul 45.15.
I 45. 11 Friction Data for Water Flow in Internal

Combining these two equations, there Passages. Thisnot the place for an extended
is
is obtained
discussion of the friction resistance offered by the
~°'
(^0.059^ / \-0.57-7— 1 t-tO.I 0.1 internal surfaces, both smooth and rough, of
8l = 12.6Kp) (P) U„ U„ X V
water ducts and passages which are separate
= from those in the maciiinery plant. Some reference
12.6(0.0295)-°- V"f/;"'(a;)''-'
data on this subject are given by J. K. SaUsbury
Dropping out the numerical values for the [ME, 1944, Vol. II, Fig. 51 on p. 61 and Art. 12
moment, and assuming that the kinematic on pp. 62-63], but it must be noted that the
viscosity v is constant for this study, weight density (lb per ft^) of the liquid is repre-
\m HVHROnYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Srr. 41.12

acuUil ill tliat rcfiTi'iiio l>y llu> syii»l>ol p iiisteml s«'ctioii ((K'nirient ('x , the beam-draft ratio B, II,
of by the R'STS or I'lTC symbol w. and the "mean immersed length" L were known,
A nitlior comprohonsivo <liscussion of steady the wettinl siirfaee .S was determine*! by
flow ill pij)«'.s aiiil eoiuliiit.-^, from tlie slnndpoiiit of i^ = ChsvAL, where A wa.s in long tons
hyil ran lies ami hydrixlynamies, is given by V. L. (2,240 lb) of salt water of sp. gr. 1.024, with a
Strcetor in Cluip. VI of "EngineeriiiR Hydraulics" volume density of .}.").07.j ft' per long ton. Since
(Rouse, H., Kditor. ia")(), pp. 3S7-1 t.'^j. the mean immersed length was usually not known
45.12 Computation of the Wetted Surface of a until the form was laid out, the waterline length

Ship, .\ithough the et)mputation of tiie wetted was often substituted for it.
surface ^' of the unilerwater body of
a shij) is a Contours of C,rx on a basis of C'.v and B/II
problem in solid geometry rather than in hydro- were first published by Taylor in the 1910 edition
dynamics, the flow conditions over dilTcrent of S and P (Vol. I, p. 47; Vol. II, Fig. 41]. They

portions of that surface are closed- related to the were repeated in the 1933 edition of S and P,
specific friction resistance coofiicients. The wetted- Fig. 20, page 20, and in PNA, 1939, Vol. I, Fig. 33,

surface calculations are therefore made with page 90.

these conditions clearly in mind. Furthermore, a These contours were reworked by M. E. Fowler
value of S is required in the earlj' stages of the of the TMB staff in the early 1940's to include

preliminary design, as described in Sec. 66.9, data from many additional models of all types.
when the lines may
not yet be sketched and Fig. 20 on page 22 of the 1943 edition of S and P,
there arc no girths to measure. embodj'ing the revised contours, thus differs
W. Taylor solved this problem by the use
D. slightly from its predecessors.
of a wettod-vsurface coefficient, now known as As C„s is a dimensional (luaiitity, which varies
CVs ba.sed upon data from a great number of
,
with the system of measurement, 1). W. Taylor's
models and man.v types of lines, not limited to formula is for this book converted to the 0-diml
the series bearing his name. When only the di.s- form
placement A(delta; large capital), the maximmn- S = Cs CsVVL (-Jo.vii)

Ratio of Bx/Hx Framed Area is Reproduced to Lorqe Scole 1 Ficj 45.H

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 3.5 '-^ij.O 4.5 5.0 5.5

0.701
1.0 1.5 2 2.5 Z>.0 35 4.0 4 5 50 55 6.0
Beom-Droft Ratio Bx/Hx
Km. •l.'i.li Co.NTOUiUH l)K ()-l)lMI. WK-rTKI>-.S|lKKArB CoKI'riCIICNT (\ Kill .Sllll'S
Sec. 45.12 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 107

where L is now the waterline length and the area bounded by values of Bx/Hx from 2.0 to
conversion from A to F or V is based upon the 3.5 and Cx from 0.9 to 1.05, expanded contours of
volume density of salt water previously mentioned. this area are shown to a consideralily larger scale
Supplementing this conversion, a further revision in Fig. 45.H. A similar plot by M. L. Acevedo
of the contours provides new values of Cs which [TABLAS, 1943, opp. p. 128] gives values about
are somewhat more realistic, especially as every 4 per cent lower than those in Figs. 45.G and 45.H.
ship has to have plating them carry
and most of The new Cs values have been checked repeatedly
rudders and other simple appendages. The result since their preparation with all available new
is a minor increase of about 0.03 over Taylor's data, and the agreement has been found to be
revised values of 1943. The new plots are based within limits of engineering accuracy. The new
largely on data taken from SNAME RD sheets 1 contours are certainly adequate for use in the
through 100, covering modern vessels of many early stages of a preliminary design.
sizesand types and relatively normal form. However, the Cs contours of Figs. 45.G and
Fig. 45.G gives the new contours of Cs plotted ,
45.H are to be used with caution for vessels of
on Cx and Bx/Hx . As the wetted-surface coeffi- abnormal form, such as those of shallow draft,
cients for the great majority of ships fall in a small those with broad, flat sterns, with excessive

'2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 , 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.'.

Beam-Draft Ratio B^/Hy

Fig. 45.H Enlarged Plot of 0-Diml Wetted-Subfacb Coefficient Cs for Usual Ship Ranges
108 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 45.12

cutaway in tlu' ftuefool or aftfoot, and with the rules of solid geometry or any convenient
chubby luills. For these, a value of C., is
sliort, method. An appendage is considered small or
tletormincil with reasonable accuracy, provided short when the r-Reynolds number at the trailing

the correct value of Cs is available for a prototype edge than about 15 milUon at the given
is less

vessel whose proportions and coefficients do not speed. As an example, this occurs for a length of
differ too much from the vessel whose wetted about 7.5 ft at 15 kt, 5.G ft at 20 kt, and 3.75 ft

surface is sought. Suppose for example that Cs at 30 kt. If the appendages are very short, like
from Fig. 4.").Ci is small by 0.04 for a craft of the arms of shaft struts, their wetted surfaces are
abnornuil form whose Cs is known. It may be neglected, and their resistances are computed by
taken as apjiroximately 0.04 small for the same the rules of Chap. 55.
tjT>e of hull, even though the proportions and The surfaces of exposed rotating shafts, rotating
changed somewhat from those of
coefficients are hull plates of cj'cloidal or rotating-blade propellers,

the "known" vessel. The C'., derived from Fig. and similar areas not subject to translatory
45.C1by using the proportions of the given form, motion onlj', require to be handled by mcthotls
augmented by 0.04, may be relied upon for the considered apjjropriate in each case. No logical

abnormal type being developed. If it is known, and systematic procedures have as yet been
for instance, that the wetted surface of a twin-skeg worked out for these parts. Friction drag on
stem design is 3.2 per cent greater than that of a propeller-hub, fairing-cap, and blade surfaces is
normal-form ship, the latter as given by Fig. 45. G, taken into account in propeller performance.
then this allowance may be applied rather gen- It has not been practicable, as described in
erally, any twin-skeg stern ship, to the
for Sec. 12.3 of Volume I, to resolve the tangential
predicted result given by the formula. forces on each unit of wetted area into components
In any case, because of the present (1955) un- parallel to the direction of ship motion. The
certainty as to the correct roughness allowance for summation of the actual friction forces gives
any seems not necessary, when making
ship, it therefore a value slightly greater than the sum
preliminary force and power predictions, to of the direction-of-motion components; see Fig.
calculate the wetted area to a high degree of 12. A. Effective if not e.xact compensation for this
accuracj'. inequality is achieved by using the mean girth

The procedure currently employed in detail for calculating the wetted

without a surface,

calculations of the friction drag on the doubly correction for obliquity, thus giving a wetted-
curved wetted surface of a ship hull assumes that surface area slightl}' less than the actual area.
the surface is flattened into a single thin plate For those who wish to emploj' the obliquity cor-
which has a DWL
length equal to that of the rection a diagram giving the necessary factors
ship and a width equal to that of the half girth at and instructions for their use is published by
each station or frame. Such a plate has the general D. W. Taylor [S and P, 1943, p. 18]. The obliquity
.shape indicated by the 0-<liml girth curves of correction is of interest only for full, fat ship.s. It

Fig. 22.A of Volume I. The two sides of the flat amounts to about 0.01 for a ship having an L/H
plate correspond to the two sides of the ship. ratio of 4 and a B/H ratio of 2.2.

This leads to the general rule that the wetted At the design stage where the girths are taken
surface of the main hull, without appendages but off for the early wetted-surface calculations,

with large bo.ssings or skcgs, is the product of the usuallj' onlj' the molded lines are available,

waterhne length and the mean wetted girth to representing the inside rather than the outside
the waterline. The mean girth may be computed of the plating. A small plus allowance can be
by Simpson's first rule, using 20 e(iuully spaced made for the surface of the ship to the outside

stations, or by any convenient e(|uivalent method. of the plating, or the girths can be measureil
The wetted surface of a large appendage, par- deliberately a little large.

ticularly one which is long like a bilge keel, is Unless circumstances indicate that the wave
calculated similarly from its mean wetted girth, formation along the side may be unusual at the
to be obtained by any convenient method, and speed for which the A',, calculation is being made,
ita length as projected on the centerplane of the no account is taken of the wave priilile in altering

vessel. The wetted surface of small, short append- the at^rest wetted surface. The wetleil surface

ages, which arc relatively thin and on which the gained in the crests of waves along the ship's side
rcsisUincc is largely fridional, is lalciilalrd by is ])riibably somewhat less than that lost in the
Sec. 45.13 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 109

troughs, but this is largely compensated for by generous in measuring girths to include the shell
the bodily sinkage of the ship while in motion, plating outside the molded lines.
described in Sec. 29.2. The reduction in wetted (3) For large appendages, especially those long
surface becomes appreciable, of course, when a fast enough to have an a;-Reynolds number exceeding
or high-speed boat approaches or reaches the 15 million, calculate the wetted girth as for (2) pre-
planing range. ceding and multiply by the length projected on
Often it is definitely known that a separation the centerplane
region exists along some part of the wetted surface,
(4) For small, short appendages, excluding rotat-
such as that behind a transom stern or inside a ing shafts and the like and the propulsion devices
sizable rudder recess, or the extent of the zone
proper, if their resistance is primarily frictional,
can be estimated with reasonable certainty. The calculate the wetted surface by any convenient
wetted area next to the separation zone is then method
subtracted from that of the rest of the ship,
(5) Make no allowance or correction for actual
considering the extent of the zone constant at all

speeds [Horn, F., 3rd ICSTS, 1937, p. 22; Acevedo,

wetted surface between the at-rest and the WL
wave profile when the ship is in motion except
M. L., "Skin Friction Resistance," Madrid,
for F„ > 0.6, Tj > 2.0, or for unusual cases
1948, p. 14].
Estimate the wetted surfaces of zones of
When a fixed appendage covers a part of the (6)
separation, if it is practically certain that they will
main ship such as a roll-resisting keel of
hull,
exist at the speeds for which resistance and power
V-section, the area so covered is subtracted from
estimates are wanted. Otherwise, neglect them.
the calculated wetted area of the hull.
Although all and appendage wetted areas
hull (7) Calculate the hull area covered by the attach-
are frequently lumped together, and although ments of fixed appendages of appreciable size

there is some justification for adding an allowance (8) Add the areas of (2), (3), (4), and (5), and
for appendages to the wetted surface S in the subtract the areas (6) and (7). The result is the
early stages of a design, before the appendages value of wetted surface S for the design.
are laid out, it is preferable to make separate
45.13 Wetted-Surface and Boundary-Layer
wetted-surface calculations for the appendages.
Calculations for the Transom-Stem ABC Ship of
This gives the designer an idea of what is being
Part 4. The wetted-surface calculation for the
added to the S value of the ship.
preliminary design of the transom-stern ABC ship
Summarizing, the calculation of the wetted designed in Part 4 of this volume is made by
surface of a ship, when the shape and size of the
using Eq. (45.vii), namely S = CsvVL. When
hull and the underwater appendages are known,
the hull lines are available this is checked by a
takes the following form:
calculation embodying the measured girths at 21
stations, plus those at four half-stations near the
(1) If the lines are not yet drawn, estimate the
wetted surface by the use of the wetted-surface ends, namely 0.5, 1.5, 18.5, and 19.5.
coefficient Cg from Fig. 45. H, then combine it
At the stage corresponding to the first estimate
with the underwater volume ¥ and the waterline of wetted surface the pertinent parameters are:
length L in the formula S = Cs 'V'VL. Add a Bx/Hx = 2.808; Cx = 0.956; V = 574,000 ft'.

percentage or an area allowance for the contem- The latter is derived from an estimated weight
plated appendages, if it can be estimated at this
displacement of 16,400 t and a round-number

stage and if it is considered necessary.

volume density of 35 ft'' per ton. Entering the
0-diml wetted-surface coefficient contours of Fig.
(2) With ship lines available, measure the girths
from designed waterline to designed waterline at
45.H with the first two parameters, the value of
Cs by inspection is 2.616. The location of this
21 or more equally spaced stations along the
point is shown on the diagram by the distinctive
waterhne length, including the FP. Compute the
double circle with its black lower half, used in
mean girth from Simpson's first rule [PNA, 1939,
Vol. I, p. 16] or the equivalent, and multiply the
this volume for the ABC design. Substituting
these values in Eq. (45.vii),
mean girth by the waterline length. When measur-
ing the girths, include large bossings or skegs and
S = CsVVL = 2.616 \/(574,000)510
discontinuities in the sections where the ship
plating is carried continuously around them. Be = 44,759 ft'.
 no JIVDRODVN AMK.S !\ Mill' DESIGN Seciyi-f

\\ liiri till- I'xiifl iinili'iwiilor volume V is ditti- Hare-hull surface, plus cutwater,
iniiiotl by pliinimetcr, iisiiiR the fair lines of the from girths 44,883
ship, foimd to be 575,847 ft'; the correspoiui-
it is Hilgc keels (2 of), surface expo.scd to
iiig wetted surface 5, by Kq. (45.vii), is 44,831 ft'. water 2,743
This is very close to the value determined by the Rudder and fixeil rudiler horn 748
more precise method described in the next para- Deduction for hull area covered by
graph. bilge keels —489
The
calculation of wetted surface, using (1) the Deduction for hull area covered In-
measure<l girths at 21 stations, (2) a combination rudder horn —10
of the Simpson and trapezoidal rules, and (3) no
correction for obliciuity, gives a value ofS for the Net total, ft', 47,875
bare hull, incluiling the cutwater shown on Fig.
As an indication of the absolute thickness S of
67.E, of 44,883 ft'. It is found, for this ship, that
the wetted surface is about 1.2 per cent higher
the boundary layer for the ABC ship, a .series of

values are calculated by the flat, smooth-plate,

when using two half-stations at each end in
.

turbulent-flow 0.38(x)(R,y"- of
formula S =
addition to the customary 21 stations. However,
Fig. 5.R and plotted in Fig. 45.1. A note on the
the precision here is much greater than for the
friction-resistance coefficient Cp , especially when
roughness taken into account.
is
ABC Tronaan-Stem Peamn Spi ed Astj inea .s_|05 kt.-o- J'S_6i<tp«r mc
Thickness is Cokukited b» ine FiotPlole
The original estimate of net bilge-keel area of ,
R,-I35III0;;
,, ]

I Formula ,„r Turbulent no« 6- 038WBi"

_;

Sec. 6G.9, assuming a keel length of 200 ft, a jond b^ ERtropololion For beyond lis Normol"
Limits a;- I 2817(10 ')ri^ per set for SoltWller-
width of 3 ft, and a girthwisc span at the base of
1 ft, is 2,400 - 400 = 2,000 ft'. Using the bilge-
keel design of Fig. 73. N, with a length of 193.5 ft,

a width of 3.5 ft, and a girthwise span of 1.25 ft

at the base, the net area is calculated to be
2,743 - 489 = 2,254 ft=. Incidentally, the
Reynolds number R, for a bilge-keel length of FiG. 45.1 Variation ok Boundahy-Layeb Thickness
wrrH i-DisTANCE FROM Stem kok .\BC Ship
193.5 ft is

VL ^ (20.5)(l.fl889)(193.5)
graph emphasizes that this formula extrapolated
R. is
V 1.2817(10")
far beyond its usual limits. It should be empha-
= sized further that, since this is a flat-plate formula,
522.7 million.
the assumption is made that the wetted area on
The wetted surface of the rudder and rudder each side of the ship same as that on one
is the
horn, calculated from the dimensions given in side of a thin plank of the same length, namely
Fig. 74. K, and a.ssuming the wetted area
to be 510 ft. The formula employed takes no account
twice the projected area, found to be 748 ft^.
is of either longitudinal or transverse curvature in
The only separation zone expected around the the ship, or of roughness, so that the thickness
underwater hull is that abaft the transom. The values for ship ranges indicated on the plot may
area of the after side of the transom is therefore be altered rather drastically when the ship values
not included in the wctted-surface calculation, are actually known. l']ven then, they could be
using niea.sured girths. No deduct ioii is tlicrcforo considered as only average or tj'pical, because the
necessary for it. local boundar3--layer thickness, at a given .r-di.s-

Xo allowance is made in this calculation, nor tance from the stem, varies with the local radius
is any customary, for the change in welted surface of curvature, both longitudinal and transverse.
due to substitution of the wave profile at designed 45.14 Estimating the Allowances for Curva-
speed for the at-rest watcrlinc as an upper ture. For ('--tinialing tlio ;i|)|)i()ximate ciTcct of
boundary of the wetted area. coiiicx transver.se curvature of a body or ship
The
iiull area covered by tlir li\rd luddi r Imrn form, di.scus.sed in Sec. (>.S of N'olume I, use is

about 10 ft^
i.s made of Land Weber's fornnila |TiMli Hep. tiSK,
The actual wetted .surfiicc of the tnin.som-stcrn Mar 1919, p. 7] for the increa.se in friction drag
AlU' whip, with all appendages, in ft', is: of a .semi-subnicrgcd cylinder n\ rr (lie friction
See. 45.14 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 111

drag of a flat plate of equal area. This takes the No procedure has as yet been worked out for
form making allowances for concave transverse curva-
ture. This is seldom of great degree, except for
1^ = 1 + 0.54 ^ C, (45.viii) the coves of discontinuous-section hulls, the
coves along the inside corners of roll-resisting
where keels, or the coves along the superstructures of
Rp is the friction drag of the convex surface some types of submarines. In these cases, the
Rfo is the friction drag of an equal area of flat plate adjacent convex curvatures on the chines and
Li is the length of the convex surface edges largely neutralize the concave curvatures,
Si is the area of the convex surface so that both may be neglected.
Cf is taken for the whole body or ship. For estimating the effect of longitudinal curva-
ture by Horn's method, described in Sec. 22.5 of
The sides are vertical at the WL, hence the girth
Volume I, some knowledge or estimate of the
angle from the WL on one side to the WL on the sinkage at given speeds, derived from model tests,
other is 180 deg.
may be used. Alternatively, ARp may be calcu-
Taking Li = L and words con-
Si = S, in other
lated from the L/B, B/H, and Cp values by the
sidering the wholeL\/Si may be
ship form,
formula given by F. Horn [3rd ICSTS, Berlin,
expected to vary from about 10 for a fine form to
1937, Eq. 2, p. 24], as follows:
4 for a full form. For the ABC ship designed
in Part 4 it is 5.8.
(11.25 - L/B)-
Considering only the region of sharp, convex, ARp = 0.01
transverse curvature on a body or ship, the value [ (45. ix)
of Ll/Si for that region may be considerably
+ -
higher than the values given; in fact, several
•(0.35 Cp)(l.3
^)
times as great. If two I'elatively sharp bulges are
involved, each having a girth angle of 90 deg, as This is a good approximation for normal forms of

where the bottom joins the two sides, the bulges not extreme proportions and for a range of F„
and the angles may be combined to form a smaller, values from 0.0 to 0.35, T, from 0.0 to 1.18.
separate body with a girth angle of 180 deg. For the ore carrier previously referenced,
Eq. (45.viii) may then be used as given. There is L/B = 635/70 = 9.07, B/H = 70/24.885 =
a question as to whether to use a value of the 2.812, and Cp = 0.881, from which ARp (also

specific resistance coefficient Cp for the ship numerically equalto AiCp) is found to be
length L or for only the bulge length Li . Since
the boundary-layer thickness determined largely .25 - 9.07)'
is
ARp = 0.01 + '^]
by the ship length L it seems reasonable to use l_^ 5
the same Cp as is picked from Table 45.d on
- 2.812
page 102 for the ship as a whole. •(0.35 + 0.881) 1.3
10
Taking as an example a modern Great Lakes
ore carrier about 635 ft long [MESR, Jul 1952, = 0.04326
p. 65], the bilge radius is 3 ft and the length L
of uniform bulge is 331 ft on each side. Ll is then For the ABC design, where L/B = 510/73 =
109,561 ft^ and Si is (3)Tr(331), or 3,119.6 ft^ 6.99, B/H = 73/26 = 2.81, and Cp = 0.62,
whence Ll/Si = 35.12. The service (sea) speed substitution in Eq. (45.ix) gives
is 14.15 kt, whence R„ water from
for fresh
Table 45.a is about 1,242 million and Cp from 25 - 6.99)-
Table 45.d is 1.491(10"'). Then
ARf 0.0l[^ + 2.5

Rf 2.81
Rp
= 1 + 0.54(35. 12)(1.491)(10"') •(0.35 + 0.62) 1.3
10/
= 1 + 0.0283
= (0.01)(6.13)(0.97)1.019 = 0.0606
whence A^ of Eq. (22.iv), in Sec. 22.15 of Volume I,
is 0.0283, or just less than 3 per cent. The value For the Lucy Ashton, a ship of quite different
of A,Cp is 0.0283(1. 491) (10'') = 0.0422(10"'). form [INA, Oct 1953, p. 350ff], having an L/B
112 IIM^RODN \ WIIC.S I\ Sllll' IMSICX ^^rr.n.n

ratio of 0.07. a li II ratio of t.JO, ami a (',. of given by .1. S. Hay in Portoti Technical Paper 428
0.705: (unclassified) of 24 June 1954, issued bj'' the
Chemical Defense Experimental Ivstablishment of
Ai?, = 0.0i p^^-^^-^»^)V 2.5] the Ministry of Supply in Great Britain (copy in
TMB librarj')- I'l the .symbols of the present
volume, and where the factor A"o is definetl solely
+
•(0.8.-, 0.70o)[l.3
-^J as a "roughness parameter," these are:

= 0.0320 (1) Aerodynamically rough flow.

For a paddle steamer like the lAtcij Ashton,

augment
A-„ > 2..'5
especially of shallow draft, the of velocity U,
in the watcrlinc region arising from the induced
(2) Tran.'^itiiina! flow.
velocity generated ahead of and abaft the paddles
acts to increase the friction drag. This amount is
-^
difficult todetermine in figures but theoretically
2.0 > > 0.13

it always involves an increase in resistance.

(3) Aeroilynamically smooth flow,
Despite the hydrodynamically correct basis for
increases in the friction drag due to convex
curvature in a ship, both transverse and longi-
ko < 0.13
U,
tudinal, many cases occur in practice which cast
doubt upon the validity of those additions to the To apply Goldstein's criterion to the practical

friction drag for a smooth, flat plate in turbulent

case, it is first neces.sary to know the local inten-

flow. Indeed, there are cases where the entire

sitj' of shear tq . For turbulent flow, from Fig. 45. A,
-(AC^) allowance, for all types of roughness as To _ _ 0.0.')9
well as for both types of curvature, is practically
— ^
,

I.F — nOi
zero. There are those who say, and with some
reason, that results of this kind lead them to whence
question the smooth, flat-plate, turbulent-flow
friction formulation it.sclf, which gives higher C^
values than it should in certain ranges of R„ .
0.059
ii4{R.y (5.iii)

In any event, the analyses made to date of

As an example, assume for a destroyer a point
existing propeller-tiirust data on ships are in-
200 ft abaft the stem and a speed of 30 kt,
sufficient to indicate whether the curvature
ecjuivalent to 50. G7 fps. The kinematic viscosity
allowances, as estimated by the procedures
V for salt water is 1.2817(10"^) ft" per sec and p/2
described, are reasonable or not. All that can be
is 0.995 slugs per ft^. The value of U^ is 2,507 fps'.
said with certainty is that A,CV and A^Cy are
From Table 45. b li, is about 790 million, whence
probably no larger than indicated, and that they
IC = 60.2. Then u = 0.059(0.995) (2,507)/G0.2
are both [)ositivc. = =
2.504 lb per ft". The shear velocity U,
45.15 Criterion for a Hydrodynamically Smooth = =
{to/pT' [(2.504)/1.9905]"' 1.1215 ft per sec.
Surface. A.s a crilcrion for liydrudynaiiiic smooth-
From Ef|. (45. vi), assuming that [(A-^.f^,)/*'] is
ness in turbulent n(jw S. CJoldstein has suggested
as large as 5,
the exprcs-sion |R and M 1703, Jul 1930, p. 113]
= (5)1.28n(10-') ^
k,Mr ,^, = (5,)/f;, 3 ., j(jQ..j ^^^
< 5 (4.'i.vi)

whence A\, = 0.08()(10"') ui.

where fc^, is the average height of the hills or
roughnesses above tlio limen, (/, is the shear This means that the maximum permissible
velocity V T„/p, and v is the kinematic viscosity. rougluie.ss heights, for a hydrodynamically smooth
Ah pointed out in Sec. l.'j.lO, the left-hand expres- surface, would
i)rol)ably be of the order of one-
«ian of the ini'<|uality ha.s the form of a Heynoltis thousandth an inch. It amounts practically to
of
number, so that it can be rrlatcd to a simple a laboratory smoothness, exceedingly expensive
number. and laborious if not practically impo.ssible to
Of intcre.st in this connection a .set of crilcri.a i.s achieve on a i.'irge ve.s.sel, even for a .sjiecial trial.
Sec. 45.16 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 113

Assume for the 20-ft towing model of this matic viscosity v (the water temperature is

destroyer a point 10 ft abaft the stem and a unknown) is 1.42(10"') ft' per sec and the mass
speed of 10 kt, equivalent to 16.89 fps. The density p is 1.985 slugs per ft'. Then, as a local

kinematic viscosity v for the fresh water of the value at the stern.
basin is 1.2285(10"'). The value of p/2 is 0.969
slugs per ft'' for fresh water and Ul is 285.3 fps^. To = 0.059[^^)U^{RS
From Table 45.a, R^ is about 13.75 miUion,

whence E°' = 26.77. Then ^ 0.059(0.9925)(411)

49.63
To = [0.059(0.969)285.3]/26.77
= 0.485 lb per ft'.
= 0.6093 lb per ft'

fcA. = [1.2285(10"')5]/0.6093 = 10.08(10'') ft,

'-(?r=(^r=°--"--
whence
Then
/cav = 1.209(10"') in.
5(1.42)10"
This value for the model, although not for 0.494
exactly similar conditions, is about twice the
permissible value for the ship. = 14.37(10"') ft or 1.725(10"') in.

For the ABC ship, at an a;-distance of 500 ft 45.16 Equivalent Sand Roughness. Although
from the FP, and a speed of 20.5 kt, equivalent the procedure is admittedly empirical, and is not
to 34.625 ft per sec, i2, for standard salt water is, based upon good roughness criteria, some practical
from Table 45.b, about 1,350(10'). The shear use has been made of a quantitative measure of
stress To at the ship hull is
roughness based upon numerous tests of flat and
curved surfaces covered with sand grains of
To = 0.059 UlR-J-^ (5.iii)
different mean diameters. When a rough surface,
I
of whatever configuration, has a specific friction
1QQfl5 Cp Clf equal
= 0.059 ^^^^ (34.625)'[1,350(10'')]- resistance, either average or local ,

to that of a similar surface completely covered

= 1.051 lb per ft'.
with sand of uniform size, it is said to have an
equivalent sand roughness equal to the mean
Hence the shear velocity is
diameter of the sand grains on the reference sur-

1.051 face. This diameter corresponds to the height of

U. = /
= 0.726 ft per sec. the grains as individual protuberances and is
\ 1.9905
represented by the symbol Ks .

whence the laminar-sublayer thickness is

With grains completely covering the reference
l-2817(10-°) plate surface, the sand-grain density is assumed
,
h, _
- lofiJl-
12.6 - 12.6
igr The actual mean roughness
^^ ^^26 to be 100 per cent.
height is then than the mean grain diameter
less
= 22.24(10"') ft or 2.67(10"') in,
Ks indicated in diagram 3 of Fig. 5.0. However,
,

this detail is overlooked when establishing equiv-

and the permissible average roughness height for
alent sand roughness as a practical comparator
a hydrodynamically smooth surface is
for surfaces whose irregular roughness can not be

fcA,< 5^ <5i^?||^< 8.83(10-') ft

measured by any available method.
M. L. Acevedo at the Madrid Model Basin and
W. P. A. van Lammeren at the Netherlands Model
or < 1.06(10"') in.
Basin in Wageningen have pubUshed tables
For the Lucy Ashton [Conn, J. F. C, Lackenby, [TABLAS, Madrid, 1943, pp. 98-117; van Lam-
H., and Walker, W. P., INA, Oct 1953, p. 350ff] meren, W. P. A., RPSS, 1948, pp. 66-69; 3rd
the waterhne length is 190.5 ft and the speed is ICSTS, Berhn, 1937, pp. 42-47, 100-101] of

12 kt, or 20.27 fps. The value of U^ or F' is then roughness allowances based upon the R. E.
410.87 ftVsec'. From Table 45.b, R„ is about 301 Froude formulation and the roughness effects
million and Rl'' = 49.63. The estimated kine- developed by H. M. Weitbrecht from the Prandtl
Ill nvnRODVNA.MK.S IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. n.n
TABLIC lo.e Sand Roughnkrs
1'Xiiivaij;\t V'ai,i;i-;s ness. Sec. 5.21 of Volume I describes some of the
Kf OF H. M. Weitbrecht known —or suspected — aspects of viscous flow
The listed vftlues of Kx for "now, painted hull plates, over a rough solid surface and the effect of these
inclusive of butts, seams, and rivot heads ." apply to the
. .

features on the friction drag generated at the

types of ships indirate<i.
surface. In particular, it outlines briefly the new
approach to the viscou.s-flow problems presented
(a) Sporting and racing craft, torpedo-
boats and destroyers 0.10 mm 0.004 in by rough surfaces on the inside of pipes and
(b) CrossK-hanncl ships, cruisers, conduits, devised by H. N. Morris [ASCE,
battleships 0.15 0.006 Hydraulics Div., Jan 1954, Vol. 80, Separate 390].
(c) Mail shijxs, fiu<t liners, carefully
Fig. 45..I is a diagram prepared bj' the present
built cargo ships 0.20 O.OOS
(d) Carpo ships of less careful work-
Clear Circumferential
manship, tugs 0.2.5 0.010
Space Between
Rouqhness
Elements,
theory. In this work Weitbrecht used the values Meosured ot
inner Periphery
given in Table 45.e.
Of
In a more recent paper H. Sasajinia and E. Conduit, 15
y
s
Yoshida pointed out rather convincingly that
the t.vpc of roughness embodied in the hull n is Number of

coatings of most large ships (not necessarily

Roucjhness "" ^ -^ ^^~^;^- -^^^^ Radius rg is

Elements in o ^h ^^
Rouqhness Heiqhl
"-^ d/e less the
including fouling not the t3'pe
roughness), is l-jpicol Periphery
IS
I '
'
u i..
Heiqnt l.
h
which produces a constant Cf value at large Rouohness Elements Shown Are Entirely Schemotic
values of /?„ [Int. Shipbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol. 2,
No. 13, pp. 441-450]. In other words, since the Fig. 45.J Definition Sketch for Roughness Pabam-
ETER-s OF H. N. MoRms, Applied to the Inside of
derived friction-resistance values for full-scale
A TlBE
tests appear to involve a constant increment of Cf
and not a constant total CV the effective rough- ,
author as a definition sketch to illustrate the
ness is of a t3'pe different from the sand roughness
dimensions used by Morris to represent the
of Nikuradse's pipes. They reason that the in-
roughness characteristics mentioned in his paper.
crease in friction drag due to a waviness in
is
The roughness projections shown in this diagram
which there is a degree of pressure and separation
are purely schematic; Morris gives no dimension
drag, ahead of and behind the roughnesses, which
for them other than their height /i.
adds to the normal viscous drag. This means
It is pointed out in Sec. 22.14 that what might
that the dynamic effects on the ship, varj'ing as
Ijetermed the roughness index of a surface, more
V', form only a part of the friction drag of the
must take account
or loss regardless of its shape,
rough hull surface, and not all of it.
of at least seven factors, repeated here for con-
The feature responsible for this dilTcrcncc in
venient reference. It is possible, in fact probable,
effect is, according to the reasoning of Sasajima
that must take account
it of others as yet un-
and Yoshida, the effective slope of the roughnesses
recognized or unknown:
in the direction of the flow. For example, the
slope of a wavy surface is less than that of a (a) Height of roughness peaks above the limen
sand-roughened surface. In fact, according to or reference surface, in terms of mean heights
their findings, the slope or the steepness of the (averaged by some suitable method), maximum
roughness elenioiit.s is more important than their heights, and a statistical or significant hciglit
absohitc height. It is interesting in this connection (!)) Slopes of the roughnesses, on botli tlie u])-

to c|uote their conclusion "g" on page 450 of the stream and the downstream sides
reference: "The roughness effect of paint seems (c) Orientation of the sloping surfaces with
to be almost determined by an
completely respect to the litiuid-flow direction
clement of the smallest height but the steepest (d) Spacing of roughnes.ses in the flow direction,
Blop(!." They derive curves for various roughness probably with respect to the roughness heights.
effects which appear to conform, rea.sonably well, This corresponds to the distance ,\ in l''ig. 15., I,

to the curvf.s derived from fuil-H<'ale tests. or to the ratio A li.

45.17 Practical Definitions of Surface Rough- (i) Type of roughness projections as affecting the
 Sec. 45.1R FRICTION RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 115

viscous flow, having in mind that sand-coated ness &[, of the laminar sublayer in way of the
surfaces give different variations of Cp with /?„ roughnesses, the thickness 5 and characteristics
than surfaces coated with sprayed plastic paints of the boundary layer, and the type of flow exist-
(f) General pattern of roughnesses, as viewed ing in the inner regions of that layer.
normal to the surface, including spacing, density, 45.18 Determination of the Allowances for
shadowing or shielding effects, and the like Roughness. It is necessary to estimate the fric-
(g) Finally, it must be possible to ascertain the tion resistance and both the effective and the
roughness index easily and quickly in service and shaft powers early in the design stage. Often it
to express it (or its results) in quantitative terms. may not be known definitely of what material
Further development of the shadowgraph pro- the shell will be constructed, how smooth the
cedure described in Sec. 22.14 and illustrated in material will be, how the shell plates or planks
Fig. 22.1, or of an equivalent procedure, should will be applied, what sort of workmanship is to
give the heights of the roughness peaks above the be expected, or what the eventual external coating
limen or above the adjacent surface, in terms of will be. If trial predictions only are involved the
the lengths of the shadows for a given inclination hull will at least be cleanand new, but not neces-
of the light rays with reference to the surface as sarily smooth and fair. If an average service per-
a whole. With an inclination of say 15 deg it formance is wanted, fouling allowances must be
could be assumed that any region covered by estimated and added.
shadow was in a separation zone and therefore For an intelligent application of the several sets ,

subject to — Ap's. It is not known, however, that of roughness allowances which have been de-
this is the proper angle or that the angle remains veloped to predict the service performance of a
constant. The slopes of the upstream sides of the ship, it is necessary to consider the existence of at
roughnesses could be determined generally by least six different regimes in the roughness setup.
their relative brightness although it is recognized From the knowledge so far gained (1955) it
that the shadowgraph scheme breaks down for appears that somewhat different physical laws
an upstream face which lies at a large angle to govern the viscous flow in these regimes and that
the limen, say 80 to 90 deg. The orientation of the different sets of practical rules apply. The six
sloping surfaces with respect to the direction of regimes may be described as:
flow is easily recognized from a photograph taken
by I. Zero ACf. where, at sufficiently low values of
this method although it is not so simple to ,

express this orientation in terms of angles or Rn say up to 4 or 5 million, with a range of Cp

,

numbers, especially as an average or effective above about 3.3(10"''), roughness effects appear
to be small or nonexistent, at least for moderate
value for a given area. The spacing, density, and
values of speed compared to length. For example,
general pattern of the roughnesses, as viewed
it has long been known that ship models built for
normal to the surface, is perhaps easiest of all to
routine resistance and self-propulsion tests re-
visualize on the shadowgraph, although again
quired no special finish. It appears that small
not so readily put in terms of numbers or scalar
racing sailboats are in the same category, except at
quantities.
It is not improbable that some sort of screen extremely low speeds, say less than 1 kt.
or set of screens may be devised which, when II. Zero ACf , at all values of i2„ ,where the model,
superposed on a shadowgraph, would give a boat, or ship surfaces are hydrodynamically
numerical or other roughness index of any given smooth. Sees. 45.10 and 45.15 explain the circum-
surface. stances under which the laminar sublayer thick-
Whatever may be the method (s) ultimately nesses exceed the roughness heights by sufficient
developed for expressing the physical roughness of margins so that this type of smoothness is
a surface, the index derived therefrom must be achieved.
compared with the hydrodynamic parameters of III. Small ACf , at all values of K„ throughout
the viscous flow taking place over that particular the boat and ship range. In the lower or boat
surface to determine its roughness effect on friction portion of this range the roughness effects appear
resistance. These may include the downstream to be small, especially at low speeds, despite the
distance x from the leading edge of the body or existence of normal physical roughnesses. In the
ship, the speed V of the body or ship or the upper or ship part of the range the use of self-

relative velocity U of the water past it, the thick- leveling coatings and the existence of certain
116 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 45.18

roiighiipss configurations, as yet unknown in For ship-design purposes in America the Ameri-
character, appear to limit the shij) roughness can Towing Tank Conference in 1947 adopted an
effects to subnormal values. The nominal rough- overall tentative roughness allowance ACV of
ness heights in this regime definitely exceed the 0.4(10"'). This is a constant addition (not a plus
limiting values for hydro<^lynamic smoothness. percentage) above the ATTC 1947 meaniine for
IV. Large ACV , relatively uniform with speed in turbulent flow on a flat, smooth plate, regardless

the case of any one ship, in the larger ranges of of the size or speed of the vessel concerned. As
R, This situation results largely from the use
.
pictured in Fig. 1 on page 2 of SNAME Technical
of rougli plastic paints and from fouling. The and Research Bulletin 1-2 of March 1952, en-
roughness heights in this regime far exceed those titled "Uniform Procedure for the Calculation of

forhydrotlynamic smoothness, perhaps hj' several Frictional Resistance and the Expansion of Model

hundred times, yet the total Cp for the ship Test Data to Full Size," it is a compromise
continues to vary with A', in a generally normal between the equivalent plus roughness allowances
manner. of the Froude formulation and the tentative

V. Very large AC,. , with practically constant

ATTC roughness allowances adopted in 1942. The
latter increase progressively as the ship length
total C, throughout the speed range. For ships
diminishes from 1,000 to 100 ft whereas the
and other large floating craft, this condition
former decrease slowly as the ship length dimin-
probably applies only when the fouling coat is
ishes from 1,000 to about 300 ft. Below this
complete and it exceeds 0.4 to 0.5 ft in thickness.
length the Froude allowances dcircaso rather
In this ca.sc the friction resistance is in effect
rapidly.
entirely a pressure resistance.
There are definite iiuiications, described in Sec.
VI. Normal IC r , in which the various rough-
22.15, that this roughness allowance should
nesses are normal and the hull of the ship is kept
diminish with /?„ , at least for low values of speed
reasonabl}' clean. The AC,, values, exclusive of
V or relative velocity U. For the lower speeds it
fouling, conform to those represented by the
appears to diminish toward zero in the region of
lines C-C or D-D in Fig. 45. E, or to some com-
R„ = 3.5 to 5 million, as does the allowance
bination of the two.
inherent in the Froude formulation. Fig. 45. E of
To
take care of the effects of normal roughness Sec. 45.7 embodies, in addition to the ATTC 1947
on a clean, new vessel, involving manj' unknowns, or Schoenherr meaniine and the ATTC constant
the Froude formulation, listed under item (7) in ACp = 0.0004 line, a proposed roughness allow-
Sec. 45.8, is still used in many parts of the world. ance line C-C proposed by J. M. Fergu-son [6th
This formulation gives a so-called "Froude Fric- ICSTS, 1951, pp. 67-69], and a line D-D proposed
tion Grid," indicated graphically by J. M. and used by L. A. Baier for some years past.
Ferguson and others [6th ICSTS, 1951, Fig. 1.5, Baler's line leaves the ATTC line at an R„ of
p. 68], according to the length of the ship and about 3 million and reaches the (ATTC + 0.0004)
the speed-length constant (L). The latter is eciual line at an R„ of about 600 million [SNAME, 1951,

to 3. .545 times F, ,
Appx. 1.
as listed at the end of Fig. 19, p. 365]. Ferguson's line reaches Baier's line
The lines of this grid lie sufficiently above the at an y^„ of about 7,380 million, corresponding to
ATTC 1947 (Schoenherr) meaniine to provide an a I,400-ft ship running at 40 kt in salt water.
acceptable roughness allowance for a ship in the Whatever the line or table used to estimate
"clean, new" category. roughness effects in the early stage of a ship
A dimensional and carefully systematized attack design, as soon as more is known about the
on the problem of predicting the friction resistance roughness — or smoothness — to be expected on
of a full-scale ship, including the effects of rough- the hull the tentative value is modified, and the
ness, is given by W. W. Smith in his discussion of friction resistance is re-calculated.
K. E. SchcKMjhcrr's cla.ssic SXAME 193'2 paper on As.suming that the necessary data are available,
"Uesi.slance of Flat Surfaces Moving Through a the logical method of determining a roughness
Fluid," pages .305 through 308. Smith's proposed allowance in the pre-construction stage of a ship
methcxJ is too long to be given here, and is likewi.sc design is to select and add together four separate
wjmewhal ob.solete, but his line of attack is logical values for the plating, structural, coating, and
and juHtilies a study of his jiroposal bj' anyone fouling roughnes-ses, respectively, as describeil in
working on the pr<jblcm of roughness fridioti. Sees. 22.15 and 45.7 ami as lislcd in !']((. (22. iv)
Sec. 45.19 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 117

and Eq. (45. ii). Although adequate means do not (iii) Those accumulated in service, after undock-
yet exist for selecting these separate roughness ing.
allowances independently and exactly, it is
The matter of fouling roughness is discussed in
possible to assess reasonable values, within not-
Sec. 45.20 following.
too-close limits, to:
Using the best information available in 1955,
(a) A
combination of plating and structural the plating, structural, and coating allowances
roughness may be assigned tentative individual values as
(b) Item (a) plus coating roughness listed in Table 45.f, for values oj R„ greater than
(c) Item (b) plus fouUng roughness. about 100 million. For a modern vessel, with
clean plates, riveted lapped seams, and flufsh-
These serve to subdivide:
welded butts, coated with a self-leveling bottom
(i) The roughnesses built into the ship paint, this gives a SACf (10^) = (Ap + Ag + Ac)
(ii) Those inherent in the coating(s) applied after (10^) Cf. (excluding fouling) having a minimum
construction or during docking value of 0.09 and a maximum value of 0.32. For
a clean, new steel ship with both flush-welded
butts and seams, also coated with a self-leveling
TABLE 45.f Tentative Individual Allowances
FOR Roughnesses of Three Types bottom paint, the value of SACp(lO^) may
approach but usually does not exceed 0.2 [Vincent,
These correspond to three of the types listed at the end
of Sec. 45.7. FouHng-roughness predictions are listed in S. A., unpub. Itr. to HES, 26 Jun 1953]. These

Table 45. g. The present values are intended to apply only values do not apply to ships coated with plastic
to ships of medium and large size, having ship Reynolds bottom paint of the kinds in use at the time of
numbers at designed speed in e.xcess of about 100 million. writing (1955).
Values of 2ACp for a number of merchant
(a) Metal plating, ApCj?(10=)
vessels of varied size and type, in the range of
(1) Pickled, sandblasted, or galvanized 0.01 to 0.05
(2) Rusty, pitted, mill scale 0.05 to 0.1 R„ from 150 to 1,800 million, are plotted by
R. B. Couch on a plate accompanying Appendix
(b) Wooden planking, ApCfClO^)
XXVIII of the published Minutes of the 1953
(1) Plastic, or molded pl3Tvood, with
few seams or the equivalent, very
ATTC meeting. The ranges of speed for some
smooth 0.00
individual ships are sufficient to show changes
(2) Flush seams, planks in the direction in ACp with R„ .

of flow, no open seams, and no seldom logical to predict a

Manifestly, it is
calking 0.00 to 0.01
roughness allowance by adding all the Ap , As ,
(3) Flush seams, calked, planking not
in direction of flow 0.01 to 0.05 and Ac factors. The preservative coating on the
(4) Soft planks, slash-grained, rough bottom may cover up (or even exaggerate) some
finish 0.05 to 0.1 of the plating (or planking) roughness, just as the

(c) Structural roughness, AsCf(IO^)

fouling may later cover up the plating and coating
roughness and perhaps even the structural
(1) Metal plating, lapped riveted or
welded seams, smooth welded butts 0.06 to 0.1 roughness. A designer may well predict two or
(2) Metal plating, lapped riveted more roughness allowances, one for trial and the
seams and butts 0.08 to 0.15 other (s) for service conditions. The latter should
(3) Wood planking, lapped or clinker
correspond to the ship just out of dock, and
(1)
style, discontinuities in line of flow 0.12 to 0.18
(2) the ship with x months in service, following
(d) Coating roughness, AcCp(lO') the last docking. In any case, a good prediction of
(1) Varnish, yacht-racing enamel, pol- bottom roughness, excluding fouling, requires
ished metal 0.00
rather unusual judgment and a better background
(2) Red lead, metallic oxide, zinc
chromate of reliable roughness and resistance data than are
0.05 to 0.18
(3) Self-leveling varnish-type bottom available at present (1955).
paints 0.02 to 0.12 45.19 Factors Affecting Fouling Resistance on
(4) Vinyl resin 0.05 to 0.3
Ship Surfaces. W. J. M. Rankine, in his 1866
or 0.4
(5) Cold plastic 0.1 to 0.3
book on "Shipbuilding: Theoretical and Prac-
(6) Hot plastic 0.3 to 0.8 page 5, says of fouling that "It is very
tical,"
common to find the resistance increased by about
118 IlVnROnVNANflCS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 45.19

n fourth from tlii.s causf; ami iH-rasionally it is paint may lake on the a|)|)earance of ha\ing been
increaiicd more." I'nfortimatoly, Hankiiie (Iws made up of a mixture of paint and sand.
not say what rosistaiuo is involvoil, whether .Mso mentioned here is the deterioration of hot-
frietioii or total. W. V. Diiraiul, in liis 1903 hook due to unfavorable weather
plastic paint coatings
entitled "Re-sistanee and Propulsion of Ships," conditions, improper application methoils, and
pages 55 and 56, tabulates increases in total similar factors. This deterioration sometimes
rcsistanec due on V. S. Naval vessels of
to fouling occurs before the ship is waterborne at the end
the ISDO's as varying from 20 to 200 per cent at of the docking period. Runs, supcrpo.sed layers,
speetis of 7 to 11 kt. The.se are understandable in folds, "icicles," and peeling of the plastic coating
view of the r2-in barnacles reported to have involve roughnesses of the magnitude of those
grown on an old ironelad which spent most of its encountered in fouling.
time at anchor [SBSR, 24 Feb 1938, p. 229]. Fouling of the second class is accelerated in
The reader who ma.v question these data has warm, salt water, especially with slow relative
only to look at the photographs in the book motion of the ship and water. It is augmented by
"Marine Fouling and Its Prevention," prepared seasonal and other conditions, not too well known,
by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution conducive to the rapid growth of marine life, both
and publi.shed by the l'. S. Naval Institute in vegetable and animal.Growth is slower in cold
1952. water; much slower when the ship is in almost
The deposits which form on the surface of any continual motion. It is practically nonexistent in
ship or ship element, immersed in any type of fresh water, giving trouble onlj' in exceptional
water, are divided roughly into two classes: cases and then usually along the watcrline.
Fouling of both classes maj' be arrested by the
(1)Gelatinous coatings and soft slimes containing
on.set of unfavorable conditions for the growing
no visible solid matter and representing a rela-
organisms, such as moving a ship from .salt water
tively deposit of apjiroxiniately uniform
thin
to fresh water. It can not be expected, however,
thickness. These are often a factor in the take-off
that this will le.s.sen the added friction resistance
characteristics of seaplanes and Hying bouts.
or that it will eliminate the fouling drag altogether.
(2) Rough coatings, semi-rigid or rigid, composed
The firmly fixed barnacle shells on a ship entering
of grasses or other marine vegetation, shells,
the Panama Canal from a long sea voyage will
barnacles, and the more-or-less rough and firm
not drop the ship anchors for a
off just liecause
growths of all visible types of marine life.
few days in the fresh water of Gatun Lake, long
Fouling of the first class usually begins immedi- enough to kill the barnacles themselves.
ately upon immersion, following launching and The effect of hard, rough fouhng is to create a
undocking. It develops its own friction drag from friction drag of the tantjua type, defined in Sec.
that hour, increasing slowly but progressively 5.21 on page 108 of Volume I, varying as the
until its effect is overtaken bj' fouling of the second square of the speed. For a ship of medium or
class. A ship resting in w-arm, quiet water usually large size, this involves a constant AfV allowance
acquires a slime coating rather rapidlj', whereas above the ATTC 1947 mcanline, or above any
one moving continually or resting in cold water other modern flat, smooth-plate, turbulent-flow
may never have more than a thin coating form friction line. Whether fouling roughness is a
on it. negligible factor at /?„ values of 2, 3, or 4 milHon,
Although not to be classed as fouling, in the as smaller si^es of roughness appear to be, espe-
mentioned here a deteriora-
strict .sense, there is cially at .slow speeds, is not yet known. What
tion of the bottom paint which occurs at unex- applies to the latter should, however, also apply
pected places and times. The causes of this action to the former.
.seem t(j be related to the causes of particular Numerous rules have been devel()|)c(l from
kinds of fouling in certain areas at specified times. time to time to predict the effect of fouling on the
The deterioration to vary by j'ears in the
ajjpi^ar.s resistance, j)ower, and speed of ships. For any
.Maine locality, somewhat the same way that
in one kind of anti-fouling coating these an? based
extra-warm Hummers or unusuallj' .severe winters generally upon tlu- time which has elapswl from
are fni'oimtere(l. The action is often extremely llic application of the last anti-fouling coating,
rapi<l, especially when a vefwel is at amhor. In iipiiii IIk- average speed of the shi|) iluring ccrt^iin

one 8hort week of immersion a new c-oat of ml mi I I |ii'ii(Hls, ami npon the kind and llie IciiipiTMliirc of
Sec. 45.19 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 119

the water in which the ship has been floating. ship allowance for plating, structural, and coating
Unless an external coating is proof against most roughness, described in Sec. 45.18 preceding, is

types of fouling, an estimate based only on time of the order of only 0.25(10"') for the tug whereas
out of dock is precarious at the best, considering it is about 0.39(10"') for the liner.

all the variables involved. The basis for fouling The roughness drag of fouling is predominantly
effect should be one of history, modified in degree a tanqua resistance proportional to V^ and is

to conform to the anti-fouling properties of the largely independent of /?„ ,

except possibly at
outside coatings on the underwater hull. The low R„ values. It is not a function of the tanvis
history embodies a combination of ship location in resistance and should therefore not appear as a
the navigable waters of the globe, ship operation, percentage of the latter.

elapsed time, the seasons during which the ship The use of a formula with additive specific
is exposed, and the portion of the fouling cycle resistance terms, as in Eq. (45. ii) of Sec. 45.7,
in each water area which is involved, if this is requires that the roughness effects of the fouling
known. be considered as a primary function of the size,

Assuming that the location, the events, and shape, and distribution of the fouling roughnesses
the time history are fully recorded, it is found on the hull surface. They may be a secondary
that the fouling rates, fouling types, and fouling function of Reynolds number, at low R„ values,
effects are variable because of seasonal, cyclic, only because of a laminar sublayer which either
or other factors pertaining to marine life. Fur- persists over fouling .that is not excessively rough
thermore, in making predictions of future fouling or which is increased in effective thickness by
effects it is possible only to estimate a probable some physical action as yet unknown.
history forany given period. With our present To reduce the observed fouling effects to terms
(1955) knowledge, an average result is the best of an additive ApCp factor by the older methods
that can be expected in the prediction of fouling is difficult. For most of the cases on record, the

resistance. propeller thrusts were not measured and the

It has been the custom in the past to reckon actual ship friction resistances were not known.
the effect of fouling as a percentage increase in Furthermore, there is no way to determine how
the friction resistance Rf , va. the effective power much of these resistances was due to plating,
Pe , or in the shaft power F,, . Occasionally it is structural, and coating roughnesses, exclusive of
expressed as a percentage of the total resistance fouling. The operation is greatly facilitated by
Rt or of the friction power Pf but with the dis- the use of the specific resistances Ct = Cr -{

advantage that, of the five quantities mentioned, Cp -\- SACp , if it is assumed that the specific

only the shaft power is known with any degree of residuary resistance Cr remains constant regard-
accuracy on ships in operation. Actually, be- less of the extent of fouling. The flat, smooth-
cause the friction resistance of certain not-too- plate specific friction resistance Cp remains
smooth ships of the past —and some of the constant by derivation. Therefore any increase
present —consisted of some tanvis resistance in is a change due
Ct over the clean-bottom value
(varying with the Reynolds number), with a large to fouling and may
be represented by ApCp as a
amount of tanqua resistance (varying as V^), first approximation. This procedure takes no
therewas some logic in expressing the resistance account, for example, of a ApCp or a AcCp that
increase due to fouling as a percentage increase may be diminished because heavy fouling covers
of the total resistance. up original plating or coating roughnesses.
Modern knowledge indicates that the average It may be presumed that, for a large and a
flat,smooth-plate specific friction resistance Cf small ship having exactly the same underwater
decreases as the ship size and speed increase. By coating, the same exposure position with refer-
all indications, the ApCp values for fouling as ence to the adjacent water bodies and currents,
well as for other types of roughness decrease and the same fouling history, the fouling will be
somewhat with the size (length) but they increase exactly the same on the underwater surface of
rapidly with the designed speed of the ship, as each. In other words, the marine growths will be
described in Sec. 45.10. For a tug or ti'awler Cp of the same absolute shape and size and will be
issay 2.3(10~^) at an i2„ of 50 million whereas for distributed in the same manner over each unit
a fast liner it is only 1.3(10"') at R„ = 4,000 of area. If each craft has about the same hull
million. At the same time a "tapering" ACp new- shape and a reasonably large draft, there will be
IL'O HYDRODYNAMICS IN Sllll' l)i;si(;N Sec. 45.20

no prc-poiuli'raiu'c of foiiliiin cfTocIs along tlic placement both increa.sc perceptibly as the growth
waterlino. thickens. Should the ship have to be propelled or

This boinp the case, the laminar sublayers over towed while fouled it is effectively larger than
the two hulls, at the same absolute speed for each when clean and requires additional power in
hull, will have only a slightly greater thickness proportion, over and above that due to the fouling

on the large ship than on the small one, roughness. Ships have been known to pick up
5t
indicated in Fig. 45.F of Sec. 45.10. For the higher from 100 to 300 or more tons of marine growth
speed at which it is presumed the larger ship when heavilj' fouled. The effective, equivalent
will run, its laminar sublayer will be thinner than increa.se in volume of water displaced is probably
still larger.
on the smaller ship. This means, for example,
that a group of barnacles of a given size and All additive allowances for fouling effect should

ilistrilnition will have a greater roughness effect constitute increases in the "clean, new" friction

on the large, fast ship than an identical group of drag Rr a ship. This is not ahvays the case
of

identical barnacles on the small, slow ship. If when ship data arc reported. In fact, some reports
this physical reasoning is correct, the effect of a are so ambiguous as not to specify the quantity

given amount of fouling in unit surface area of the which increases with the fouling. Stictly speaking,
hull decreases slowly with the increase in ship the magnitude of the friction drag is not known

length but it increases rapidly with the increase for any ship but it can be calculated by the

in magnitude of the speed term U in the Reynolds methods described elsewhere in this chapter. It
number UL/v. can be estimated as a percentage of the total
towrope resistance for the type of ship in question.
It can not be said, therefore, that a fouling
If corresponding changes in the power and speed
rate and a fouling effect determined for a sm-'ll
are wanted, they may be predicted by the methods
craft will be valid for a large one, and ^'ice versa,
described in Chap. 60 for the estimate of power
any more than the effect of a given roughness is
and speed on a new design.
independent of ship size and speed.
In this connection it must be remembered that
Even though all other conditions remain the
an increase in roughness due to fouling increases
same, there is almost certainly some non-linearity
the thickness of the boundary layer at the pro-
of the roughness effects nith time out of dock. An
pulsion-de\ace positions. This in turn almost
older curve of several decades ago, given in
invariably increases the average-wake fraction
reference (15) of Sec. 45.21, indicates a moderate
over the thrust-producing area Aa of the pro-
ri.se immediately after undocking, a rate less than
pulsion device. Furthermore, the additional
the average for the intermediate period, say
resistance means augmented thrust, higher thrust
from 2 to 4 months, and a rapidly increasing rise
loading, and undoubtedly a lowered efficiency of
at the end of the interval, from about 5 months to
propulsion. Estimates of increased shaft power
months. On the other hand, results of experi-
due to fouling are not ahvays accurately predicted,
ments by \V. IMcEntoe, reported in reference (3)
therefore, on a basis of model tests run with an
of Sec. 45.21, gave rates that were almost exactly
overload allowance only for a clean, new hull
the opposite [Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1943, Fig.
surface.
43, p. 38]. Later and possibly more accurate data
45.20 The Prediction of Fouling Effects on
indicate that the increa.sc in A^Cr for the first
Ship Resistance. Simimarizing the elTects of
few days and weeks out of dock may be slightly
fouling on shi]) resistance, dist'u.ssed in Sec. 45.19,
le.s.s than the average while the increase under
the principal factors appear to be:
conditions favorable for marine growth, during a
later portion of the docking period, may be greater (1) The type and nature of the fouling which
than the average. Ifmoored or at
the .ship is left adheres to the .ship hull

anchor to accumulate ^ marine growths having (2) The history of the operation of the ship
thickncs-ses of inches or even feet, AyCr probably during any one interval between dockings, taking
reaches a maximum value by the time the hull account of the length of time out of dock, and
surface is completehj covered with a growth 0.1 including the kind and temperature of the water
or 0.2 ft thick. It may not become larger no (3) The fouling rates, cycles, and other features
matter how However,
dcnst; or thick the growth. a.ssociated with the historyfof ojMTation. These
the weight displacement and the volume dis- rates vary widely in the different parts of tho
Sec. 45.20 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 121

world, from positive heavy fouling to slightly units of specific resistance which is to be applied
negative scouring. to the sum of the specific pressure (or residuary)

(4) The size of the vessel, and especially the resistance and the turbulent-flow specific friction

operating speed for which the fouling prediction resistance, with or without corrections for cur-
is required. vature.
Considering item (1) at the beginning of this
The first three items correspond to those which section, it is explained in Sec. 22.11 that relatively
have been recognized for many years past. The little is known about the quantitative effect of
fourth item is, in an analysis of fouling effects, surface slime. At the other end of the roughness
believed to be entirely new. scale, a very heavy, thick, and rough deposit is

One may conclude, from the discussion of Sec. neceSsary to eliminate entirely the effect of
45.19, that the effect of fouling on ship resistance viscosity. Such a deposit has the effect of making
should be expressed as an additive rather than as the sum of the smooth-plate friction resistance
a percentage term, as proposed by G. Kempf in and the fouling resistance constant, independent
1936 and 1937. This is on the basis that the of the Reynolds number. For the normal ship
fouling creates an increment of resistance depend- situation, the viscosity effects are retained, so
ing upon its physical characteristics and the flow that AfCf is roughly constant in the relatively
around it, without regard to the amount of the narrow range of speed for any one ship for which
friction resistance of a clean, new hull to which fouling effects are to be predicted.
the fouling is attached, of the separation drag The ultimate solution to this problem, despite
around the hull, or of the resistance due to wave- the demand for simplicity, seems to call for a
making of that hull. A convenient additive form subdivision of items (2) and (3) of the summary,
is the use of an increment ApCp expressed in
, to take care of conditions which vary widely in

TABLE 45.g Proposed Form of Tabulation for Determining the Value of ApCp per Day Due to
Fouling in an Average Port

FRESH WATER
122 IIM)R()l)V\.\Ml(;s 1\ Mill' ni-.SIGN Sec. -15.20

service. Iti'in (12), involving the history of opera- 1 \ . lilt he table a ship is a.s.sumed to l)e "stoppetl"
tion, appears to call for about nine proups each, if it is moving at 2 kt or le.s.s, relative to the sur-
for fresh water anil for s^ilt water, respectively. rounding water, slow enough for marine growths
Table lo.p is a proposal framework for carrying to attach thcm.selvcs.
the numerical values in these groups, to be V. For the approxiiiiati' mu'IIkxI given, the ship's
(leterinineil after further study and investigation. history need be divided into intervals no smaller
The following notes applj' to this table: than 1 day
^'I. All fouling efTects reckoned in accordance
I. Fresh water is defined as that which is suffi-
with the tables are additive.
ciently sweet for drinking purposes, even though
it may contaminated by microorganisms. This
l>e Concerning item (3) of the summary at the
water should be sufficiently free of salts to kill beginning of this .section, the information on
or prevent the growth of adhering marine life. fouling rates and fouling cj'des for specific ports
II. Salt water is defined as the water found in the appears limited to that given by G. I). Bengough
oceans and in salt seas, and includes brackish in reference (22) of Sec. 45.21. These data indicate
water. It may be expected that the fouling effects that certain ports and certain areas appear to be
in this water will vary approximately in proportion excellent for breeding and attaching marine
to the salinity or specific gravity, with a specific fouling organisms, and that other ports and areas
gravity for average sea water of 1.027, and a are relatively free of this nui.sance. Ba.sed on data
corresponding siilinity of 3.5 per cent. in the reference quoted. Table 45. h is a propo.'^ed
III. Warm water is that in which the temperature guide for determining the relative fouling rates
exceeds 77 deg F or 25 deg C. Cool water has a or the locality foulinc/ factor in the ports usually
temperature range of from 77 deg F, or 25 deg C, frequented, assuming the ship at anchor (or
to 41 deg F, or 5 deg C. Cold water is that in moving very slowly) and all other conditions the
which the temperature is less than 41 deg F or same. This factor is based upon an average rate

5 deg C. Seasonal variations, if any, are taken of fouling in an average port, assumed as unity
care of by the variations in water temperature. (1.0).

TABLE 'IS.!! Pkoi'oskd Form ok TAnn.ATioN to I'kiimit Selection ok thk IvOcauty Fouung Factok
The liBt taken from G. D. Bengough, "Hull Corrosion and Fouling" [NIOCI, 1942-1943, Vol. 59, Talilc
of port* i.s 5,
|i. 193), with the two left-hand groups interchanged.

LocALmr Fouung Factors

(Less than 1.0)

Sec. 45.20 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 123

The daily increments, when taken from the operating in all seasons and in all waters of the
proper "box" of Table 45.g, have to be multiplied Avorld. Nevertheless, therea definite demand
is

by the number of days in each operational con-
dition and then added to give the ApCp for the
effects of items (1) and (2) in the summary. The
then applied to this sum
locality fouling factor is
(by multiplication) to cover the effect of item (3)
The upper row of boxes in Table 45. h is left open
until such time as data are available to determine
values of the locality factor which are reasonably
correct,and until such time as additional ports
in the Western Hemisphere can be listed.
As for item (4) of the summary, it is perhaps
not wise to introduce a set of ship-size and ship-
speed parameters into the fouling roughness pre-
diction procedure until the effect of these param-
eters is fully proved for roughnesses in general.
If and when so proved, the variation in A^Cf
with Reynolds number R„ will probably resemble
the variations in ACp shown by the lines C-C
and D-D of Fig. 45.E.
Judging from the work done recently on this
project, it appears hopeless to expect that a single
rule, table, graph, or reference, and certainly not
a rule of thumb, will furnish adequate prediction
data for fouling on ships of all sizes and types.
for a simple guide which will give the answer
in one operation, as it were.
As an interim measure a set of graphs prepared
and published by E. V. Lewis [The Log, May
1948, pp. 50-52] serves as a means of determining
by inspection a suitable value of AfCf{10^) for
any one of three given operating conditions.
Lewis' data are reproduced in Fig. 45.K, supple-
mented by data derived from the trials of three
ships, the U. S. Putnam (DD 287), the
destroyer
U. S. battleship Tennessee (BB 43), and the
Japanese destroyer Yudachi. The two former sets
of data were used by Lewis; the latter data were
not. According to information received subsequent
to the date of the reference [unpubl. Itr. of 15
Aug 1955], curve B was actually based on the
British Admiralty peace-time standard for ships
operating in tropical waters, involving a 0.5 per
cent per day increase in friction resistance [INA,
1943, Vol. 85, p. 2]. Curve A was based on the
British Admiralty standard for temperate waters,
with a rate of 0.25 per cent per day increase in
Rp , raised somewhat and given some upward
curvature because of the shape of the curve for

Line B is for ships

which enter a numbei
of ports where severe
foulincj

encountered
2J
Line A is for ships
on overoqe vo^aqes - n
between tcmperote
ports with Qveraqe
rotes of fouling .

Line C is for ships having

unusuall'y short stoys in port
or trodino reoulorlij between ^—
ports free from foulino or ports
havinq a scourinq action
I I \ L_l I L
6 7 8 9
Months Out of Dr\jdock

Fig. 45.K Graphs op E. V. Lewis fob Specific Fouling Resistance Allowances, with Curves fob Thbee
Ships
124 MVDRODVNAMICS I.\ SHIP DESIGN Sec.4-y.20

the battlciihip Tennessee. Curve C was dniwri what may be expectetl of hot jjlastic paint in the
midway between B and the baseline as a rougli way of fouling roughness only, involves a fouling
fi:uess, some scattcretl supporting data.
with rate that limits the roughness to a value which,
Lewis' graphs A and C indicate a progressive in 4 years,would be e(|ual to that expected of
increase in SrCr per day for the early months "commercial" anti-fouling paint in only 'J months.
of the perioil between tioikings while graph li, However, the inilial roughness of the hot plastic
for the heaviest fouling, indicat<'s a linear increase paint is extremely high, so that this paint is at
with time. The graphs for the three combatant a di.^^ad vantage compared to the "commercial"
vessels show a slight increase in rate with eliip.sed anti-fouling paint until sucii time as tiie latter
time for the entire interval, and a rate that has acquired considerable roughness due to its

increases as the next docking time approaches. increa.sed rate of fouling. It is estimated that, for
Fig. 45. L is a duplicate of the three Lewis the average application, and as the ship comes
graphs with the fouling-efTcct predictions for the out of dock with a new coat of paint, the ScCf
ABC ship of Part 4, under the conditions set of the hot-plastic paint exceeds the AcCy of the
fourth in items (18) and (19) of Table 64. c and commercial anti-fouling paint by the order of
item (20) of Table 64. d. This ship is expected to 0.5(10"^). For the purpo.se of this discussion, the
have what Lewis terms "average voj'ages" augmented AcCy for the hot-plastic paint is

except that at one end of the route the ship considered in the nature of a fouling roughness.
spends an appreciable time in a fresh-water river. To make up for this increiused resistance of the
The fouling rate may be expected to lie somewhat hot-plastic coating in thefirst few months out

below that of line A. of dock, must have a much smaller fouling

it

The broken line with long dashes of Fig. 45. L, allowance ApCy for the remainder of the interval
for the ABC ship, involving a fouling rate that between dockings. Fig. 45. L indicates that the
increases slowly with time, applies to the hull two predicted ABC ship curves cross each other
with a final bottom coating of anti-fouling sclf- at 5.4 months out of dock. If the hot-plastic
leveUng paint {7wt a plastic type). paint is to pay its way, so to speak, the interval
The dot-dash line of the figure, representing lictween dockings must be long enough so that

10

bne B is for ships which Line A is for ships on overoqt Line C is for ships hovinq
enter a number of ports vofoqes between temperote unusuoll^ short stoys In port
-where severe fouhrx] ports with overoqe . ortrodincj requlorlij between _a5
is encountered rates of fou 11 no ports free from fouling or ports,
havino a scourinq action

6 7 5 9^ 10 M
Months out of Drydock

Fm. 4.1.1, I'liKKirTKn Si-Kcmc T'oiiUNn Ukmistantk Ai.i/iwanck.s koii .MK" Siiir, with Two Kinhs ok I'mnt
Sec. 45.21 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 125

the time product of the additional A^Cf for the (10) Taylor, .1. L., "Statistical Analysis of Voyage Ab-
stracts," INA, 1928, pp. 259-269
first 5.4 months is less than the time product of
(11) Roop, W. P., "Frictional Resistance of Ship Models,"
the additional ApCp for the last 4.8 or more
SNAME, 1929, pp. 45-64
months that would have been involved if the (12) Davis, H. F. D., "The Increase in S.H.P. and R.P.M.
hot-plastic coating had not been used. The due to Fouling," ASNE, Feb 1930, pp. 15.5-166
respective areas on the plot are indicated by (13) Holm, W. J., "Tactical Horsepower of Submarines,"
USNI, Dec 1931, pp. 1616-1620. Discusses the
different angles of hatching.
limitations imposed on speed and rpm (hence
Needless to say, what needed is an anti-
is
speed) of submarines driven by Diesel engines due
fouling paint with the smoothness of a self- to restrictions on maximum mean effective pressure
leveling coating and the anti-fouling effectiveness developed in the engines. Makes out an argument
of hot plastic. The vinyl resin paints show promise for reducing the pitch of the propellers to suit a
condition of partly foul bottom and shows that
along both these lines.
a pure electric-drive installation would be superior
45.21 References Relating to Fouling as Af- in point of useful horsepower developed for whole
fecting Ship Propulsion. There are listed here- period between dockings. Gives curves of Ps rpm, ,

under the principal references relating to the and speed of submarines for various months out of
fouling of ships as affecting resistance and pro- dock (in tropical waters).

pulsion. Among these sources from the literature, (14) Smith, W. W., Discussion, SNAME, 1932, p. 305

called particularly to
(15) "Effect of Fouling of a Ship's Bottom Upon Power
the reader's attention is
and Cost of Operation," Nat. Council Am. Ship-
the pamphlet by Dr. J. Paul Visscher, numbered
bldrs.. Bull. 246, 23 Aug 1932; also Naut. Gaz.,
(9) in the and to the book "Marine Fouhng
list, 3 Sep 1932; MESA, Sep 19.32
and Its Prevention," prepared by the Woods Hole (16) Prandtl, L., and Schlichting, H., "Das Widerstands-
Oceanographic Institution and published by the gesetz Rauher Flatten (The Law of Resistance for

U. S. Naval Institute in 1952. Each chapter of Rough Plates)," WRH, 1 Jan 1934, pp. 1-4
(17) Pitre, A. S., and Thews, J. G., "Fouling of Ships'
this book is terminated by a generous list of
Bottoms; Effect of Physical Character of Surface,"
references, but unfortunately none of these
EMB Rep. 398, Apr 1935
chapters discusses the quantitative effect of
(18) Kempf, G., "On the Effect of Roughness on the
fouling on ship resistance. Resistance of Ships," INA, 1937, pp. 109-119,
137-158, eap. pp. 117-119

(1) Young, C. F. "The Fouling and Corrosion of Iron

T., (19) Stevens, E. A., Jr., "The Increase in Frictional

Ships: Their Causes and Means of Prevention, with ResistanceDue to The Action of Water on Bottom
the Mode of Application to Existing Ironclads," Paint," ASNE, Nov 1937, pp. 585-588
(England), 1867 (20) Gawn, R. W. L., "Roughened Hull Surface," NECI,
(2) Lewes, V. B., "The Corrosion and Fouling of Steel 1941-1942, Vol. LVIII, pp. 245-272 and D143-
and Iron Ships," INA, 1889, Vol. XXX, pp. D152a; "Roughened Hull Surface," SBSR, 11 Jun
362-389 1942, p. 608

(3) McEntee, W., "Variation of Frictional Resistance of (21) Baker, G. S., "Ship Efficiency and Economy,"
Ships with Condition of Wetted Surface," SNAME, Liverpool, 1942, pp. 1-14

1915, pp. 37-42 (22) Bengough, G. D., "Hull Corrosion and Fouling,"
(4) McEntee, W., "Notes from the Model Basin," NECI, 1942-1943, Vol. 59, pp. 183-206 and
SNAME, 1916, pp. 85-90 D123-D136
(5) Smith, W. W., "The Effect of Wind and Fouling (23) Taylor, D. W., "The Speed and Power of Ships,"

Resistances on U.S.S. Neptune," SNAME, 1917, 1943, pp. 37-38

pp. 41-72 (24) Bengough, G. D., and Shepheard, V. G., "The Corro-
(6) Williams, H., "Notes on Fouling of Ship's Bottoms sion and Fouling of Ships," INA, 1943, pp. 1-34
and the Effect on Fuel Consumption," ASNE, (25) "Fouling of Ships' Bottoms: Identification of Marine
May 1923, Vol. XXXV, pp. 357-374. Abstracted Growths," Jour. Iron and Steel Inst., Great
in SBSR, 16 Aug 1923, pp. 180-181 and 190-192. Britain, 1944

(7) Gardner, H. A., "Toxic Compositions to Prevent (26)
the Fouling of Steel Ships and to Preserve Wood
Bottoms," Paint Mfrs. Ass'n. of U. S., Sci. Sect.
No. 259, Jan 1926, pp. 232-270
(8) Telfer, E. V., "The Practical Analysis of Merchant (27) Harris, J. E., and Forbes, W. A. D., "Under-Water
Ship Trials and Service Performance," NECI,
1926-1927, Vol. XLII, pp. 63-98 and 125-143
(9) Visscher, J. P., "Nature and Extent of Fouling of (28)
Ship's Bottoms," Bu. Fisheries, Dept. Commerce,
Document 1031, 1927, Vol. XLIII, Part II I
"Docking Report Manual: Instructions Regarding
the Docking Report and Guide to Fouling Organ-
isms," Bureau of Ships, Navy Dept., Washington,
1944
Paints and the Fouling of Ships," INA, 1946, pp.
240-267
Graham, D. P., "Some Factors in the Use of Plastic
Ship-Bottom Paints by the U. S. Navy," SNAME,
1947, pp. 202-243
126 IIVDRODYNAMICS IN SHIF' PFSIGN Src.4^.22

(29) W'win. v.. v., "How to Dotcrmiiio KfToolji of Ship own (',• value, depending upon its R, . The ship
Bottom Fouling." TIip I/Jg, May HMK, pp. 50, 52 friction drag would then be a summation of a
(30) Bamnby, K. C, "Kronomic Con«cqueniH«« of Foul-
bare-hull drag plus a separate friction drag for
ing," IN A. 1950, p. J 15
(31) Toild, F. "Skin Friction ncnintanoo and tho
II,,
each appendage. These (V values would be high
KfliTtn of HouKhnoss," T.MB Hop. 729,
.»<urf.i.c becau.se of the short lengths and the small HJh.
Sop 1950. Till- gniph nt the end of thin re|)ort Occasionally there may be a special appendage,
iihows that X-i'y for various c-oatings is approxi-
exposed to undisturbed flow, which extends for a
mately roniitaiit over the range of W, roveretl by
considerable distance from the hull, somewhat
the normal ship s|)ee<l range, .\llhough not brought
out by this report, the ^yCf for moilerate fouling likea deep drag pipe on a .self-propelled dredge.
is found to vary in nuieh the same way. Such a one may reijuire this treatment. In the
(32) Courh, It. H., "Preliminary Report of Friction Piano main, however, ship appendages lie partlj' within
Hcsistnnco Test.s of Anti-Fouliiig Ship Bottom
the hull boundary layer, they do not generate
Paintfl," T.MB Hep. 789, Aug 1951. Figs. 2 and 3
their own layers exclusively, and the average
of this reiHJrt indieate that at some low value of
the HcynoKIs number, probably in the vicinity of velocities over them are lower than the ship speed.
3.5 million, the .irO- values for G types of bottom It is found acceptable, anti it is customary, to
coatings for varying from yellow zinc
."hip hulls, use the ship value of R„ for appendages having all
chromatc to Norfolk hot plastic, would probably appreciable lengths and wetted areas, hence the
Ix- in the vicinity of zero. .\t /f, values of from 25
ii.sual summation of all wetted surfaces into a
to 30 million the SfCp values for each of the G
coatings become practically constant and remain single value of »S'. The appendages which are
so up to a Reynolds number of about 40 to 45 short enough to give z-Rcyiiolds numbers less
million. than about 15 million, especially those which are
(.33) Kielhorn, W. V., "Military Biological Oceanogra- thick in proportion to their length in the direction
phy," rSNI, S<-p 1951, pp. 947-953, esp. pp.
of flow, are considered to have no separate
947-94S and 951
(34) "Marine Fouling and Its Prevention," Report 580
friction drag. Their pressure drags are predicted
of the WoimIs Hole Oceanographic Institution, as described in Chap. 5.5.

published by I'SN'l, Annapolis, 19.52 For the actual friction-drag calculations for a
(35) AmLsberg, II., abstract of a report by Prof. Aertssen ship, a .series of values of .shii) speed l' is .selected,
on the ext<'nsive full-scale test.s conducted in 1951
extending from the lowest speeii of interest to
and 19.52 on tho Tervaele, formerly the Pomona
Victory, including the results of fouling on several
beyond the maximum-.speed point. This enables
voyages, Ilan.sa, 9 May 1953, p. 793. the plotting of curves of Ry and Py on V. Using
the selected speeds and the waterline length of
45.22 The Calculation of the Friction Drag of the ship, values of R„ are taken from Tables 45.
a Ship. The friction ro.si.stancc of ii .ship under or 45. b for either standard fresh or sixlt water,
analysis or design is calculated by the general respectively. If the water is not standard, the
Eq. (45.ii) of Sec. A'^.l, Ry = <3r.S(C, -|- ^JAfV). /i'„'s are calculated.
Here CV is the flat, smooth-piatc .specific friction The values of the flat, smooth-plate, turliulcnt-
resistance at a given li, , 2ACV is (A, -|- Aj -}- flow coefficient Cy for the A'FfC 1947 ^Schoen-
Ap + A., -f- Af + Af)Cr and A, and Aj are
,
herr) meanline are picked for the given values
the allowances for transverse and loiiKitndinal of /?„ from Table 45. d. In Tables 45. c and 45.
curvature, respectively. the numerical values of Cy are listed in terms of
Beginning with the ram pres.sure q, ecjual to thousands, convenience llious. The
called for
0.5pV\ Tables 4l.d and 41.e give values of q values of Reynoldsnumber are given in millions.
in lb per ft" for standard fresh and .salt water, The tabulated values of Cy are therefore to be
respectively, at dcg dcg (", over a very
.">!) 1'', I.") multii)lied by 10"' and tho.se of /e, by lO".

large range of ship speeds. For other friction formulations listed in Sec.
Tlur wetted surface .S isdctcrinincd as described l.')..S the Cy values are calculated for the desired
in Kec. 4.'>. 12 preceding. If eaih api)endage whiih R„ values or are picked from other tables.
hud an appreciable wetted area moved through Incrca-scs to be made to take care of curvature,
the wuti-r i»y it.self, it would theoretically create either lotigitudiiuil or traiisvcr.se or both, are
it* own boundary layer, independent of the others applied at this stage.
ttrxl of till! hull proper. It would then have its 'J'he total rotighnc.ss allowance -Af ',• is .selected

own Heynolils number, ba.scd upon il.s length in on the ba.sis of the general rules laid down in
the dirci'tion of inotieui. It wouli! al.su have its .Sees. 45. IS and I.".. JO.
Sec. 45.23 FRICTION RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 127

There follows an example of the procedure be coated with an anti-fouling paint that has
described, applicable to the 20.5-kt or trial-speed selfrleveling properties, a conservative value of
point for the ABC design of Part 4. The basic AcCp is the highest one listed in Table 45.f, or
data are as follows: 0.12(10"'). For 12 days out of dock, or 0.4 month,
the fouling allowance ApCp from the dasshed-line
(a) Ship length (wetted length on
waterline) 510 ft
curve of Fig. 45. L, applying to the ABC ship, is
about 0.04(10"'). Adding all these, SACp is
(b) Speed (to be achieved with clean
bottom) 20.5 kt
(0.02 + 0.08 + 0.12 + 0.04) (10"') = 0.26(10"').
Then {Cp + SAC;,) = (1.451 -|- 0.26) (10"') =
equivalent to 34.62 ft per
1.711(10"').
sec
It will be noted that, in the preliminary-design
(c) Wetted surface, with all append-
ACp (actually SACp) was taken
stage of Sec. 66.9,
ages, from Sec. 45.13 47,875 ft'
as 0.4(10"'). When instructions were prepared to
(d) Plating has lapped riveted seams
test the models of the ABC ship, quoted in Sec.
and flush butts
78.6, the corresponding ACp value was taken as
(e) Coating is "commercial" anti-
0.3(10"'). These compare with the final estimate
fouling, with self-leveling
of 0.26(10"').
properties
The ARp value of F. Horn is equivalent to a
(f) Mass density p, water
for the salt
Cf. addition of 0.0606(1.711)(10"') = 0.104(10"').
in the 20-deg latitude of item
Taking account of this curvature correction, the
(16) of Table 64.c, at 68 deg
F, from Table X3.e (involves
revised {Cp + SAC^) value is (1.711 + 0.104)
(10"') = 1.815(10"').
no correction for latitude, as
Then, by Eq. (45.ii),
described in Sec. X3.3) 1.9882 slugs
per ft'

(g) Kinematic viscosity for tem- ;',

Rp = qS{Cp + ACp) =
I
V'SiCp + ACp)
perature of 68 deg F, from
1.9882
Table X3.h 1.1372(10"') (34.62)'(47,875)(1.815)(10-')
ft' per sec
(h) Time out of dock 12 days = 103,531 lb.
(i) Ocean water salt

(j) Average sea-water temperature,

As a matter of interest the {Cp + SAC,?)
values taken by inspection from Fig. 45. E, using
from item (18) of Table 64.c, 68 deg F.
only the R„ value derived here, are:
The Reynolds number E„ , based on the water-
line or wetted length, is
(1) Taking account of the ATTC 1947 allowance
for clean, new from curve B-B, 1.85(10"')
vessels,

=
LV ^ (510)(34.62)(10')
= (2) Considering the roughness allowance proposed
Rn 1,552.6 million
V 1.1372 by L. A. Baier, from curve D-D, 1.85(10"')
(3) Considering the roughness allowance proposed
From Table 45. d the value of Cp considering
,
by J. M. Ferguson, from curve C-C, 1.81(10"').
the ship wetted surface as a flat, smooth plate of
These compare with the value 1.815(10"') derived
ship length L in turbulent flow, is 1.451(10"').
in the foregoing.
Data are not available (1955) for determining
the allowances for longitudinal and transverse 45.23 Allowances for Friction Drag on Straight-
curvature in the forms A^Cp and AjCp , respec- Element and Discontinuous-Section Hulls. The
tively, of Eq. (45. ii) in Sec. 45.7. However, in transverse curvature at an unrounded chine is
Sec. 45.14 the value of ARp due to curvature in always sharp. It may be severe if the chine angle
the hull of the ABC ship has been calculated by (defined in diagram 3 of Fig. 27. A) is of the order
F. Horn's method and found to be 0.0606. of 80 or 90 deg, as on short sailboats and motor-
Considering the plating roughness ApCp , a boats, especially those which run at low F„ or T,
reasonable value for the ship, when new, is values. The Reynolds number is then low, the
0.02(10"'), from Table 45.f of Sec. 45.18. Similarly, Cp high, and the added friction due to convex
a liberal value of the structural roughness AsCp is, curvature is also relatively large. Coves or regions
from the same table, 0.08(10"'). As the vessel is to of concave transverse curvature are rarely to be
 128 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SlIII' Dl SICX Srr. ^.21

found on hulls of this kind, so that there is no 45.25 Friction Drag of a Craft Moored in a
comjiensation for the convcx-furvature effects. Stream. .\ friction-drag problem ari.ses in con-
I^ndweber's transverse curvature correction, de- nection withmooring of i)()ntoon-bridge
the
scribed in Soc. 45.14, becomes rather absurdly and lightships where swift
floats, barges, lighters,

large for sharp chines, or even for these chines if currents prevail and adefpiate ground tackle must
they are assumed to be rounded to a small be provided. In flood conditions this situation is

radius. In these cases the increase in 7?^ is known intensified. In these cases the Froude number F^
to be positive, but it is difficult to estimate. or Taylor quotient T, is usually small and most
On discontinuous-section forms, coves are of the drag is due to friction. The friction drag due
generally associated with chines in pairs, so that to current may be a maximum when the wind
the increased friction drag caused by the convex drag is zero.
chine is partly or wholly offset bj' the decreased The fact that a vessel is andiorcMl or held
friction in the concave area. For discontinuous stationary in a moving stream, rather than ])vill('(|

sections of not abnormal shape, such as those or pushed at the same relative speed through
illustrated in Figs. 76.E and 76. F, it is acceptable stationary water, has no appreciable effect upon
to compute the entire wetted surface and to its friction resistance. It does not alter the method
consider that it bfloiiR.s to a hull of normal form. of calculating the friction drag, provided the
45.24 The Friction Resistance of a Planing flowing water contains no great amount of large-
Hull. A planing hull that benefits bj' dynamic scale turbulence. It is to be remembered, however,
lift rises out of the water as the F„ incrca.ses and that a stationary surface vessel near the center
loses wetted surface by this process. If friction of a fast-moving stream, of not-too-large cro.ss
drag is to be taken into account it is then neces- section compared to that of the vessel, has a
sary, either on a model or on the craft itself, to relative velocity in the center which is greater
determine the length, shape, and position of the than the average velocity of the stream. This is
wetted portion of the bottom and to compute the because the velocities in the boundary layer
actual wetted area. Only those regions over (or along the banks and over the stream bed are le.s,s
under) which the water moves at the same order than the average velocity. The same phenomenon
of relative speed as the planing craft are included occurs in a pipe where there is a boundary layer

Those wetted by thin

as effective wetted areas. all around the inside wall surfaces and the center-
spray sheets moving forward or predominantly line velocity exceeds the average velocity [Rouse,
sideward are excluded. Furthermore, unless the H., EMF, 1946, p. 197]. If the bed clearance under
model runs at the same trim as the full-scale the vessel is small, as for a deep vessel moored in
craft, either by the action of forces from its own a shallow river, the relative water velocity under
propulsion devices or equivalent forces applied the bottom is probablj- greater than the average
during the test run, the wetted surfaces are not current velocity.
comparable. Subject to the foregoing, and assuiuing that
It is often feasible to locate, by photographs the ship axis lies in the direction of stream flow,
or visual observation, on either the model or the the computation procedures of Sec. 45.22 suffice
full-scale craft, the forward end of the wetted for calculating the friction drag.
surface along the keel. It is usually easy to "spot" If the craft is moored at both enils and does
the corresponding points along the chines. Having not lie in the direction of the stream, friction
these three points fixed reasonably well, the wetted resistance plays only a small part and the forces
surface is readily outlined and its area determined. on the moorings must be determined by other
A length is necessary to fix the approximate methods [TMB unclassified Rep. R-332, "Wind
values of F. and /?, in the planing condition. This Tunnel Tests to Determine Air Load on Multiple-
ifl usually taken as the mean wetted length Lws ,
Ship Moorings for Destroyers of the DD 692
the arithmetic mean of the wetted keel and the Class," by M. K. Long, Doc 191.-)].
wetted chine lengths. 45.26 Selected Bibliography on Friction Re-
These matters, including a method of predicting sistance. For convenient reference there are
the wettctl length and wett«!d area, an; discus-sed listed in this section a incxlerate lunuber of the
in detail in Sees. 53.6 and 77.27, to which the multitude of any nuKlern bibliography on
titles in

reader is referred for specific information on this Textbooks are listed in the In-
friction resistance.
type of water craft. troduction of Volume I and arc not imludcd here.
Sec. 45.26 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 129

The reader's attention is invited to the fact and of the Law of Resistance in Parallel Channels,"
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, London, 1883, Vol. 174,
that the references hsted in this bibliography do
Part III, pp. 935-982
not duplicate those hsted in Sec. 45.21, relating Prandtl, L., "Uber Flussigkeitsbewegung bei sehr
(7)
to fouling as affecting ship propulsion. There is kleiner Reibung (On Fluid Motion with Very Small
available in the Library of Congress at Wash- Friction)," Verhandlungen des III Internationalen

ington a long and comprehensive bibUography Mathematiker-Kongresses, Heidelberg, 1904 (Pro-

ceedings of the 3rd International Mathematics
entitled "Skin Friction and Boundary Flow,"
Congress, Heidelberg, 1904)," Leipzig, 1905, pp.
prepared by Dr. A. F. Zahm [SNAME, 1932, p.
484-491; reprinted in "Vier Abhandlungen zur
309]. Hydrodynamik und Aerodynamik," by L. Prandtl
The titles in the present selected bibliography and A. Betz, Gottingen, 1927. These contain
are divided into three groups, described briefly as: Prandtl's original statement of the boundary-layer
theory.
I. Classicaland historical (8) Blasius, H., "Grenzschichten in Flussugkeiten mit
II. Development of friction-resistance formula- kleiner Reibung (Boundary Layers in Liquids of
Small Friction)," Zeit. fiir Math, und Phys., 1908,
tions
Vol. 56, p. Iff
III. References of modern application.
Stanton, T. E., MarshaU, D., and Bryant, C. N., "On
(9)
the Conditions at the Boundary of a Fluid in
I. Classical and Historical Turbulent Motion," ARC, R and M 720, 1919-

There are hsted in this group a number of the 1920, Vol. I, pp. 51-67
(10) Stanton, T. E., "Friction," London, 1923
papers which form landmarks, as it were, in the
(11) Bruckhoff, "Reibungskoeffizienten (Friction-Resist-
early development of the theory of friction resist-
ance Coefficients)," WRH, 22 Aug 1923, pp.
ance, as applied to bodies and ships moving in 435-438
both air and water. Included are a number of (12) Shigemitsu, A., "Skin Friction Resistance and Law
references which describe the development of the of Comparison," INA, 1924; abstracted in SBSR,
17 Apr 1924, pp. 454-455
theory, and its practical applications, in much
(13) Burgers, J. M., and van der Hegge Zijnen, B. G.,
more detail than can be given here. "Preliminary Measurements of the Distribution of
the Velocity of a Fluid in the Immediate Neighbor-
(1) Stokes, G. G., "On the Steady Motion of an Incom-
hood of a Plane, Smooth Surface," Verh. d. Kon.
pressible Fluid," Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc, 1842
Akad. v. Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, 1924
(2) Bazin, H., "R6cherohes hydrauliques (Research in
(14) "Skin Friction Committee's Report," INA, 1925,
Hydrauhcs)," Mem. divers savants, Sci. Math, et
pp. 108-123, esp. pp. 115-116
Phys., Paris, 1865, Vol. 19
(15) Hansen, M., "Velocity Distribution in the Boundary
(3a) Froude, W., "On Some Difficulties in the Received
Layer of a Flat Plate," NACA Tech. Memo 585,
View Rep. for 1869
of Fluid Friction," Brit. Assn.
Oct 1930
(publ. in 1870), pp. 211-214. On pages 212-213
(16) Millikan, C. B., "The Boundary Layer and Skin
Froude gives an amazingly clear and straight- ASME,
Friction for a Figure of Revolution,"
forward exposition of the physical phenomena of
APM-54-3, 1931, p. 33
fluid friction, as it was known at that time. Much
(17) "The Prediction of Speed and Power of Ships by
of his statement applies to the knowledge of the
Methods in Use at the Experimental Model Basin,
physics of fluid friction, as known 85 years later.
Washington," Bu C and R Bull. 7, 1933. Pages
(3b) Froude, W., "E.xperiments on Surface Friction,"
18-20 describe the modified Gebers formula in use
British Association Reports, 1872 and 1874
at the Experimental Model Basin, Washington, in
(4) Froude, W., "On Experiments with HMS Greyhound,"
the period 1923-1947.
INA, 1874, pp. 36-73 and Pis. Ill through XIII
(18) Payne, M. P., "Historical Note on the Derivation of
(5) Tideman, B. J., "Memoriaal van de Marine II.
Froude's Skin Friction Constants," INA, 1936,
Afdeeling 9e Aflevering," 1876-1880. The paper
pp. 93-109
"Uitkomsten van proeven op den
carries the title
Wederstand van
Scheepsmodellen (Results of (19) Lackenby, H., "Re-Analysis of WiUiam Froude's
Resistance Tests with Ship Models)." There
Experiments on Surface Friction and Their Exten-
sion in the Light of Recent Developments," INA,
appears to be no Enghsh translation of it but a
note at the bottom of page 374 of Volume III 1937, pp. 120-158. On pp. 136-137 there is a list
of 16 references.
of PoUard and Dudebout's "Theorie du Navire,"
1892, states that Tideman's paper was translated (20) Millikan, C. B.,"A Critical Discussion of Turbulent
(intoFrench) by M. Dislere, Ingenieur de la Flows in Channels and Circular Tubes," Proc.
Marine, in the Memoires du Genie Maritime, 6th Fifth Int. Congr. for Appl. Mech., Sep 1938;
Book, 1877. published by Wiley, New York, 1939
(6) Reynolds, Osborne, "An Experimental Investigation (21) Davidson, K. S. M., PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 76-82
of the Circumstances which Determine whether and Figs. 22-23
the Motion of Water Shall be Direct or Sinuous, (22) Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1943, pp. 31-35
130 II^l•)ROl1^^• xMics i\ ship nrsir.x Sec. -15.26

(23) T.kIJ, F. II., -Tlio Fuiulam.Mitals of Slii|> Kri.liormI stieg Turbulent Boundary leaver in Plane
(Tlic
Uesistaiioe." IMK, I'JU Flow at Incrca.sing and Decreasing Pressures),"
(2-1) Rouse. II., 1:MF, 10U>. iH-RinninK on p. 150. This Ingenicur-.Vrchiv, 1931, II, p. 321(T
book traff-s the tccliiiirul ilevclopmoiits of many (30) Dat«man, H., "General Physical Properties of a
friction furmiiliLH, altlioiigh from the point of view Viscous Fluid," Chap. Ill of "Hydrodynamics,"
of bydniuiicd rnlhor th.in naval architecture. Bull. 84, Nat. Res. Council, Feb 1932, pp. 89-152.
(iS) Tjxld, F. H., "The Dotorminalion of Frictional This chapter contains much historical data and
Rcsistanro; .\ Review of PremMit Knowledge and an enormous number of references, |>ertaining to
Metho<ls," SHMl^H, Jan 1947, pp. 15-19 all phases of this subject.
(2ti) .•Vcevwio, M.
"Skin Friction Resintance," Spec.
L., (37) Schoenhcrr, K. F,., "Resistance of Flat Surfaces
I*ubl., Canal do Expcriencias llidrodinflmira.'i, V.\ Moving Through a Fluid," SXAME, 19,32, pp.
Pardo, Madrid, 194S. Only the Conclusions of this 279-313. On page 297 of this paper there a list is

pa|>er are published in 5th ICSTS, 1940, pp. 93-98. of 30 references, listing certain published papers
(27) Van Lammercn, \V. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning, of the period 1839-1931.
J. G., RP^N^, 194S, Ix'ginning on p. 32. On pages (38) Eisner, F., von Kdrmdn, T., Kempf, G., Schoenherr,
111 and 112 there are a number of references K. "Rcibungswiderstand (Frictional Resist-
E.,
additional to those given here. ance)," IIPSA, 1932, pp. 1-87
(28) Rouse, H., EH,
1950, pp. 75-115 (39) Schlichting, H., "Zur Entstehung der Turbulenz l>ei
(29) Schoenherr, K. E., SNAME, 1932, beginning on der Plattenstriimung," Nach. Ge.sell. d. Wis. z.
p. 279; MIT Symp., 1951, beginning on p. 101. t'.Ott., MPK, 1933
(40) Xikuradso, J., "Striimungsgesetze in rauhen Rohren,"
II. Deiclopmcnl of Fridion-Iicsislance Formulations VDI-Forschungsheft, 361, 1933. English trans-
lation available as NACA Tech. Memo 1292, Nov
This group comprises references which led to
1950.
the preparation and use of certain formulations (41) Prandtl, L., and Tietjens, O. G., "Applied Hydro-
widely iisetl within the last qiiartcr-conturj' for and Aeromechanics," McGraw-Hill, Xew York,
anal^'tic and design work. 1934
(42) Prandtl, L., and Schhchting, H., "Das Widerstands-
(30) Gebers, F., "Das Aehnlichkeitsge.setz fiir Flaehen-
gesetz rauher Platten (The Resistance Law for
widerstiind in Wiisser guradlinig fortbewegter,
Rough Plates)," WRH, Jan 1934, No. 1; luiglish
IHjIiticrter Platten (The Law of Similitude for the
version in T.MB Traiisl. 258, Sep 1955
Surface Resistance of Smooth (Polished) Plates
(43) ITiraga, Y., "Experimental Investigations on the
Moving a Straight Line in Water)," Schiffbau,
in
Frictional Resistance of Planks and Ship Moilels,"
1921, Vol. XXII, Xos. 29-33, 35, 37-39. A complete
ZOsen Kiokai (The Society of Xaval .\rchitects of
translation is found in NAC.\ Tech. Memo 30S
Japan), Dec 1934, \'ol. LV
of Apr 1925. This paper gives the result-s of extended
(44) Schlichting, II., ".Vmphtudenverteilung und Ener-
tests on friction planes at the Vienna model basin.
gicbilanz der kleinen Striingen bei der Platten-
It summarizes and compares all previous work on
stromung," Xach. Gesell. d. Wiss. z. Gott., 1935,
friction resistance of planes, and recommends an
Vol. I
expression for friction resistance of the form
(45) Lamble, J. H., "On
the Effects of Changes in 'Degree
/?>• = (a constant) (wetted surface) F*""/L",
of Wetting' and 'Degree of Turbulence' on Skin
where n is 0.125.
Friction ResisUmce and Wake of Models," IN.\,
(31) Kempf, G., "FlSchenwiderstand (Surface Resist-
1936, p. 125fT
ance)," WRH, 22 Oct 1924, pp. 521-528. This
(46) Bakhmeteff, B. A., "The Mechanics of Turbulent
paper discusses and gives the results of friction
Flow," Princeton U. Press, 1936
testa on long, towed, floating cyUnders.
Kempf, G., "Xew Results Obtained in Measuring (47) Schultz-Grunow, F., "Ermittlung des hydraulischen
(32)
Heibungswidcrstandes von Platten niit m.ls-sig
Frictional Resistance," IXA, 1929, pp. 104-121
rauher Oberflaehe (The Determination of the
and Pis. VI-IX. Describes tests made witli "meas-
uring plates" in the side of the steamer Hamburg Hj'draulic Friction Resistance of Plates Having
and in the bottom of long, shallow, pontoons Moderately Rough Surfaces)," Schiffahrl-stech-
nische Forschungshefte, Oct 1936, Heft 7
towed in the Hamburg Model Basin.
(33) HopiK.', H., "Xeue Messungcn der VVasaerreibung am (48) Schlichting, II., "E.xperimentelle Untersucliungcn
SchifTskorpcr (New Measurements of Water zum Hauhigkeit.sproblem (Experimental Investi-
Friction on Ship Hulls)," WRH, 7 Mar 1929, pp. gation of the Roughness Problem)," Ing.-.\rchiv.,
91-03 1936, Vol. VIII, Xo. 1

(34) Kempf, "Neue Ergebnisse der Widerstands-

G., (49) Kempf, G., "(*biT den Einlluss der Rauhigkeit auf
forechung (New Rcsultfl in Resistance Investiga- den Widerstjind von SchifTen (On the Induencc of
tions)," WRH, 7 Jun 1929, pp. 2.34-2.39 and 22 Roughnc.'i.s on the Resistiince of Ships)," RT(^

Jun 1929, pp. 247-252. Figs. Oa and Ob on p. 237 1937, Vol. 3S, pp. 159-176; '225-234. In this paper
«bow mcamired roughness profllca of two typical Kempf describes and gives the rcsulLs of friction
plate imrfaci.fl. tests oti long, towed, lloating pontoons.
(SS) CinischwiUi, K., "Die turbulcntc RoibungMchicht in (50) Kempf, G., "On the lOfTcct of RoughncsM on tin-

I'bcncr Slrrimung Iwi Drurknbfoll und Druckuii- ResiNlAnrc of Ships," INA 1937, pp. 109 119.
Sec. 45.26 FRICTION-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 131

Fig. 3 on 115 gives friction coefficients of ships

p. (63) "Uniform Procedure for the Calculation of Fric-
and of the HSVA pontoon with different rough- tional Resistance and the Expansion of Model
nesses (see also RPSS, 1948, pp. 48-49). Fig. 5 on Teat Data to Full Size," SNAME Tech. and Res.
p. 119 gives the effect of density of roughness on Bull. 1-2, Aug 1948
resistance. (64) Todd, F. H., "The Determination of Frictional
(51) Schultz-Grunow, F., "Der Hydraulisohe Reibungs- Resistance," TMB Rep. 663, revised edition.
widerstand von Flatten mit massig rauher Ober- Mar 1949
flache, insbesondere von Sehiffsoberflachen (The (65) Landweber, L., "Effect of Transverse Curvature on
HydrauUc Friction Resistance of Plates with Large Frictional Resistance," TMB
Rep. 689, Mar 1949
Roughnesses, such as Those on Ship Surfaces)," (66) Schlichting, H., "Lecture Series, 'Boundary-Layer
STG, 1938, Vol. 39, p. 177ff Theory,' Part I— Laminar Flows," NACA Tech.
(52) Schultz-Grunow, F., "Der Reibungswiderstand mas- Memo 1217, Apr 1949
sig rauher Oberflachen, insbesondere von Sehiff- (67) Schlichting, H., "Lecture Series, 'Boundary-Layer
soberflachen (The Friction Resistance of Moder- Theory,' Part II—Turbulent Flows," NACA
ately Rough Surfaces, especially Ship's Surfaces)," Tech. Memo 1218, Apr 1949
Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 1938, Vol. 82, pp. (68) Landweber, L., "A Review of the Theory of the
756-758. There is an English translation of this Frictional Resistance of a Smooth Flat Plate with
paper in the TMB library. Turbulent Boundary Layers," TMB
Rep. 726,
(53) Homann, "Der tJberganz zwischen den Stro-
F., Sep 1950
mungsgesetzen fiir glatte und rauhe Flatten (The (69) "Progress Report on Research in Frictional Resist-
Correlation Between the Laws of Flow for Smooth ance," TMB Rep. 726, Sep 1950
and Rough Plates)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., (70) Todd, F. H., "Skin Friction Resistance and the
2 Apr 1938, pp. 405-406 Effects of Surface Roughness," TMB
Rep. 729,
(54) Schultz-Grunow, F., "Neues Reibungswiderstand- Sep 1950
gesetz fiir glatte Flatten (New Frictional Resistance C71) Rotta, J., "Beitrag zur Bereohnung der Turbulenten
Law for Smooth Plates)," Luftfahrtforschung, 20 Grenzschichten (Contributions to the Calculation
Aug 1940, Vol. 17, No. 8, pp. 239-246; English of Turbulent Boundary Layers)," Max Planck
translation in NACA Tech. Memo 986,
Sep 1941 Institut fiir Stromungsforchung, Gottingen, 1 Jul
(55) Sawyer, J. W., "Surface Finish Literature," Machine 1950; TMB Transl. 242, Nov 1951. Assumes that
Design, May and Jun 1955. "the kinematic viscosity and the geometrical con-
figuration of the wall (wall roughness) only
III. References of Modern Application influence the velocity profile near the wall in a
layer Sw which is very thin compared with the
The references of this group are selected to
boundary-layer thickness and that with proper
describe the extensive research and experimenta-
normalization the flow quantities in the remaining
tion conducted since about 1940 on the develop- zone of the boundary layer appear to be almost
ment of the boundary layer and the characteristics independent of viscosity and wall roughness."
of viscous flow. (72) Laufer, J., "Investigation of Turbulent Flow in a
Two-Dimensional Channel," NACA Tech. Note
(56) Prandtl, L., "The Mechanics of Viscous Fluids,"
2123, Jul 1950 and NACA Rep. 1053, 1951
Aerodynamic Theory, Vol. Ill, Durand Reprint- Todd, F. H., "Skin Friction Resistance and the
(73)
ing Comm., Pasadena, 1943 Effects of Surface Roughness," SNAME, 1951,
(57) Dryden, H. L., "Some Recent Contributions to the
pp. 315-374
Study of Transition and Turbulent Boundary
(74) Baines, W. D., "A Literature Survey of Boundary
Layers," Proc. 6th Int. Cong. Appl. Mech.,
Layer Development on Smooth and Rough Sur-
Paris, 1946
faces at Zero Pressure Gradient," Iowa Inst.
(58) Carrier, G. F., "The Boundary Layer in a Corner,"
Hydraul. Res., St. Univ. Iowa, 1951
Quart. Appl. Math. 1947, Vol. 4, p. 367
(75) Schubauer, G. B., and Klebanoff, P. S., "Investiga-
(59) Dryden, H. L., "Some Recent Contributions to the
tion of Separation of the Turbulent Boundary
Study of Transition and Turbulent Boundar}'
Layer," NACA Rep. 1030, 1951
Layers," NACA Tech. Note 1168, 1947
(76) Townsend, A. A., "The Structure of the Turbulent
(60) Schubauer, G. B., and Skramstad, H. K., "Laminar
Boundary Layer," Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc, Apr
Boundary-Layer Oscillations and Transition on a
1951, Vol. 47, Part 2, pp. 375-395
Flat Plate," Nat. Bur. Stds. RP 1722, Feb 1947
(61) Schubauer, G. B., and Skramstad, H. K., "Laminar-
(77) Granville, P. S.,"A Method for the Calculation of
Boundary-Layer Oscillations and Stability of the Turbulent Boundary Layer in a Pressure

Laminar Flow," Jour. Aero. Sci., Feb 1947, Vol. Gradient," TMB
Rep. 752, May 1951
14, or "Laminar Boundarj'-Layer Oscillations and (78) Krzywoblocki, M. Z., "On the Foundations of
Transition on a Flat Plate," NACA Rep. 909, 1950 Certain Theories of Turbulence," Jour. Franklin
(62) Wieghardt, K., "Increase in Frictional Resistance Inst., 1951, Vol. 252, p. 409ff

due to Turbulence Caused by Surface Irregu- (79) Kempf, G., and Karhan, K., "Zur Oberflachen-
larities," 1948. The English translation is known reibung des Schiffes (On the Surface Friction of
as A.C.S.I.L. Translation 380 (ACSIL/ADM/ Ships)," STG, 1951, Vol. 45, pp. 228-243
48/85). (80) Allan, J. F., and Cutland, R. S., "Skin Friction
132 IIYDRODVN AMK.S IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 45.26

Hosistancp Derived from Wiiko Mi'iisurriiioiil," (94) llama, I'. "Boundary-Layer Characteristics for
R.,
Proo, tHTond Int. Conf. Naval Engre., Ostcnd, Smooth and Rough Surfaces," S\.\ME, 1954,
1051 pp. 333-35.S. There is a list of 41 references on
(81) Hughes, G., "Kriclional Resistance of Smooth Plane pp. 349-.351.
Surfaces in Turbulent Flow New Data and a — (95) Sehubauer, G. B., "Turbulent ProccBsee asObserved
Sur\ey of KxistinR Data," INA, 10")2, pp. 1-20 in Boundary Layer and Pipe," Jour. Appl. Phys.,
(82) Karlian. K., "Der Kinllus von SandniuhiRkpit auf Feb 1954, \o\. 25, pp. 1S8-196
den Hoilmngswiderstand (The Influence of Sand (96) Talen, H. W., "Collective Research on Paints for
Roughnefw on Friction Resistance)," Scliiff und Ships' Hulls," Int. Shipbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol. 2,
Hafen, Jan 1952, pp. 8-10 No. 13, pp. 401-409
(83) Lap, .\. J. W., and Troost, L., "Frictional Drag of (97) Sasajima, H., and Voshida, E., "Frictional Resist-
Ship Forms," SNAME, North. Calif. Sect., 29 ance of Wavy Roughened Surfaces," Int. Ship-
Feb 1952; also SNAME Member's Bull., Jun bldg. Prog., 1955, Vol. 2, No. 13, pp. 411-450
19,S.3, pp. 18-22 (98) Ilogner, K., "Influence of lOdges on the Boundary
(84) Baker, C. S., "Scale Effect on Ship and Model LayiT," M<''m()ires sur la Mf-canique des Fluides,"
Resistance and Ita Estimation," L\.V, .\pr 1952, Tech. Min. Air, Paris, 19.54, pp. 129-134.
I'ubl. Sci.
pp. 41-«3.3
The paper is in French but there is an English
(85) Locke, F. W. S., "Recommended Definition of Tur-
summary in Appl. Mech. Rev., Nov 1955,
bulent Friction in Incompressible Liquids,"
number 3444, p. 480. This states that "Near the
Bu.Ver (Navj- Dept.) Research Div. Rep.
longitudinal edges (of a thin friction plane) the
DR-1415, Jun 1952 viscous stress is approximately double that in the
(86) Laufer, J., "The Structure of Turbulonio in Fully
central region."
Developed Pi|H> Flow," NBS Rep. 1974, Sep 1952
(09) Schlichtiiig, H., "Boundary Layer Theory,"
(87) Krzywoblocki, M. Z., "On the Fundamental.'! of the
McGraw-Hill, New York, 19.55 (in EngUsh).
Boundary Layer Theory," Jour. Franklin Inst.,
This is the English-language edition of the German
Apr 19.i3, Vol. 255, p. 2><m
book entitled "Grenzschicht-Theorie," by H.
(88) Allan, J. F., and Cutland, R. S., "Wake Studies of
Sehlichting on the same subject, published in 1951.
Plane Surfaces," NECI, 1952-1953, Vol. 69, pp.
See Appl. Mech. Rev., Jan 1956, p. 33.
245-266, D6.5-D78
(100) Sehubauer, G. B., and Klebanoff, P. S., "Contri-
(89) Minutes of the .\merican Towing Tank Conference,
MIT, Cambridge, (Ma.ss.), 4-6 May 1953, pp. butions on the Mechanics of Boundary-Layer
9-14 and Appx. XX Transition," N.\CA Tech. Note 3489, Sep 1955

(90) Landwcber, I.., "The Frictional Resistance of Flat (101) Allan, J. F., and Cutland, R. S., "Invcstig.ation of
Plates in Zero Presyfure Gradient," SX.\ME, 19.53, the Resistance on an 18-Foot Plank," lESS,
pp. 5-32. On page
20 this paper lists 25 references, 195.5-1956, Vol. 99, Part1, pp. 9-56. This paper

of which a number are given here. describes a series of investigations carried out
(91) Morris, H. N., "A New Concept of V\o\\ in Rough with an IS-ft plank in order to determine its

Conduits," ASCE, Hydraulics Div., Jan 1954, resistance with a smooth with a rough
surface,
Vol. SO, Separate 390. .\ list of 20 references on surface, and with a surface arranged to represent
friction flow in conduits, pipes, jiiid chimnels is a ship hull with plate edges, rivets, welds, etc.
found on p. 390-123. The results of an examination of the surface
(92) Gertlcr, M., "An Analysis of the Original Test Data finish of the smooth plank and a description of the
for the Taylor Standar<l Series," T.\IH Rep. SOO, instrument used are given. Tests to obtain an
Mar 19.54, Gov't. Print. Off., Wa.xhington, D. C. exact mea.sure of the roughness of the rough
(93) Hughes, G., "Friction and Form Resistance in plank are also described and the results presented.
Turbulent P'low, and a Proposed Formulation for On page .56 there is a bibliography of 11 items. .\
Use in Model and Ship Correlation," IX.\, 9 .Vpr summary of this paper is found in SBSR, 27 Oct
1954 1955, pp. 541-542.
 CHAPTER 46

Reference Data on Separation, Eddying,

and Vortex Motion
46.1 General 133 46.7 Vortex Streets and Related Phenomena . . 141
46.2 Separation Criteria 133 46.8 Vortex Streets and Vibrating Bodies . . . 141
46.3 Detection of Separation; E.xtent of the Zone . 136 46 9
. Practical AppUcations of the Strouhal Num-
46 4
. Predicting Apparent Flow Deflection Around ber to Singing and Resonant Vibration . . 143
Separation Zones 139 46.10 References on Eddy Systems, Vortex Trails,
46 5
. Estimate of Separation Drag Around a Ship . 139 and Singing 144
46.6 Separation Phenomena Around Geometric
and Non-Ship Forms 140

46.1 General. Summarizing from Sees. 7.4 objects, or bodies in air.Here the medium under
and 7.19 of Volume I, it appears that the following pressure surrounds the body on all sides, and the
factors are involved in a prediction of separation: undisturbed pressure is very nearly the same in
all directions and at all points around the body.
(a) Longitudinal surface slope with reference to
For a body operating at or near the surface of the
the relative direction of motion of water and ship
water, where the separation phenomena appear
at a distance, in both horizontal and vertical
to be governed largely by the hydrostatic pressure
planes
and the transverse pressure gradient dp/dy, both
(b) Rising-pressure gradient in the direction of
the pressure and the gradient are nominally zero
motion of the water past the body or ship surface
at the air-water interface and they increase
(c) Nature of flow in the boundary layer ahead
hnearly with depth. Many aspects of separation
of the separation zone, whether laminar or
appear to vary in the same way.
turbulent; particularly, the magnitude of the
46.2 Separation Criteria. Despite the numer-
transverse velocity gradient dU/dy just forward
ous factors involved, listed in Sec. 46.1, separation
of the separation point
appears to be the result, principally, of inadequate
(d) Roughness of the solid surface ahead of the
lateral pressure, inadequate transverse pressure
separation zone
gradient, and inadequate normal force to accel-
(e) Relative velocity of ship and water, at least
erate the surrounding liquid inward toward the
insofar as the size and shape of the separation
surface of a body which has a local slope greater
zone and the media which fill it (water or air or
than a certain amount in any given plane. This
both) are concerned
critical slope may and usually does vary with the
(f) Hydrostatic pressure at the point or in the
plane or stream surface in or along which the
region under consideration. It seems that atmos-
flow occurs. For the transom stern shown at 1 in
pheric pressure can be neglected.
Fig. 46.A, there is a determining slope for flow
(g) Projections, recesses, and discontinuities in
along the waterline and another for flow under
the ship surface.
the bottom, the latter generally paralleling the
Not too much is known quantitatively about buttocks.
the individual effects of the items listed. However, It is probable, although not certain, that the
by taking the fragments of knowledge in combina- critical slopesshould be measured along stream
tion it is possible to make estimates of probable or other surfaces of equal ambient or hydrostatic
performance in ship scale and to formulate certain pressure. Knowing the position of these surfaces,
rough design rules. and the critical slopes, the naval architect might
Caution is necessary when interpreting or then predict the locus of the points marking the
making use of published data on separation forward or upstream edges of a separation zone.
which have been derived from tests on models. Around the stern of a ship, for example, at
133
134 l!^ DRODN \ WIK.s I\ Mill' 1)1S|(;\ Sec. -16.2

Lookinq Foi^ward

Wave Vyaterline
VWave NWalerline Not Shown

Outlines> of
Separ-alion Zone
ana Estimated

Tic. 46.A TypicAL Sktaration-Zone Areas on Ships, as Projected on a Transverse Plane

small distances below the air-water interface, ma.y be ten or more times that amount. Despite
the equal-pressure surfaces would lie generally the gently sloping buttocks, separation of the
parallel to the free-water surface, as at 2 in Fig. layers close under the wafer surface oc(^urs at
4G.A. This would be true whether the air-water extremely low speeds. This .sej^aration is, further-
interface is essentially flat at low speeds or is more, marked by a large number of vertical-axis
deformed by waves at higher speeds. \-ortexes, easily visible when the water surface
This is a strong probability that other factors is almost glassy smooth.
enter into the formation of a .shallow separation For reference purposes a separation zone in the
zone abaft the stern. If so, these factors will have run starts at separation points V.j. and ]•>« along
to be determined and studied before reliable the surface waterline, on the port and starboard
predictions can be made. G. Birkhoff offers the sides, respectively. If the wave profile in way of
suggestion that: the run is known, it is more accurate to position
"Pcrliaps, tlic rciison wliy a free nurfaoc affects flow these points along the waveline. The ,sei)aration
separation at the stern is, that it inhibit.s vertical turbu- zone is usually bountled by reasonably fair
lence at the surface. Such a reduction in turbulence is streamlines and stream surfaces, leaving the ship
known to affect flow separation in other cases" (SN.\ME,
hull at the locus of the separation points. The
1954, p. 396|.
zone extends far enough astern so that all (he hull
It might be addcil llial tiie presence of the ship and the customary appendages abaft the .S('i)ara-

components
hull also suppre.sstjs tho.se velocitj' of tion-point locus lie within them. On a moving
turbulence which are normal or nearly normal to boat or ship the extent of the separation zone
the solid surface. on the water surface is readily indicated by
It may be for one or butli of I he rcji.sons oul- sjjrinkling thewater in the vicinity with wocmI
lincd in the two i)rcccding paragraphs that .separa- chips. Those separation zone swirl around
in the
tion occur.-^ in the upper surface layers under and and follow the .shij) while tho.se outsich^ tli(> zone
Ix-hind the run of u .sjiiling yacht. Such a crall, arc rapidly carried astern.
having what is considered a line, fair form iiml ( Icncrally, as plotted on a IjihIv plan .iml as
favored with a [icrfcclly normal curve of s<'ction indicated in diagram '1 of i'"ig. •It'>..\, the width of
areiw, may liave a buttock slopi! i« of only a few till- separation zone for a ship with ,a pciinted
dcgrcca, yet the watcrline slope j „- near the .snrf.uc niii is considerably greater lii.an its dcpili The
Sec. 46.2 DATA ON SEPARATION, EDDYING, AND VORTEXES 135

zone is deepest at the centerline and it diminishes 165 deg. This may be either at the after end of a
in depth toward Ep and Eg . The transverse blunt entrance, indicated at the right in diagram 1

extent of the zone is rather easily determined by of Fig. 46. B, or at a discontinuity in the run,
attaching tufts to that portion of the model and pictured at the left in diagram 2. Considering the
watching the behavior of these flexible indicators pointed stern of diagram 2 as a form of transom
in the moving water of a circulating-water channel. stern, separation is definitely to be expected at
A considerable amount of non-systematic but the corners Ep and Eg in diagram 3 of Fig. 46.
reasonably reliable modern data indicates that if the values of the corner angles lie between the
the slope of a ship waterline at which separation limits of 90 deg and about 165 deg.
begins, at the air-water interface, is of the order There is, unfortunately, a serious lack of in-
of 13 to 15 deg. This is reckoned with respect to formation upon which to base an estimate of the
the relative direction of motion of the ship and rate at which the critical slope in a flowplane that
the water and is based upon a surface along the is generally horizontal increases with hydrostatic
ship's side that is more vertical than horizontal. pressure, at levels below the free surface. In the
The critical slope given here is somewhat lower absence of analytic studies or systematic experi-
than the values of 18 or 20 deg previously quoted mental data it may be said tentatively that the
in the literature but it has been well checked on separation-free slope increases at the rate of
ship models. It may be assumed that a separation- 0.6 deg per ft submergence, on a full-size displace-
free horizontal slope in the run, at the water ment-type vessel, up to an estimated critical
surface, is in the range of 11 to 12.5 deg, as shown slope of about 36 deg at a depth of 40 ft. The
in diagram 1 of Fig. 46. B. limiting waterUne slope for freedom from eddying
abaft a skeg, placed ahead of a single propeller,
is given by W. P. A. van Lammeren as 20 deg

[RPSS, 1948, p. 94]. The corresponding depth is

No Separation at Surfaoa
if lf^ is Leas Than 12.5 No Separation at Surface
y not stated but it is at least as far below the
surface as the tip submergence.
f Cornar Angle is more The indications are that there is a corresponding
than 165 deq variation on the model of such a ship, so that the
1 separation zones and their boundaries are geo-
Discontinuity metrically similar. This is to be expected of a
pressure phenomenon which is a function of F^,

when the model is run at corresponding speed.

Fining the trailing edges of sternposts, skegs,
'Separation at Surface Definitel\y Occurs at Ep
if Corner Anqle less than about 160
is
and rudders to conform to these critical or limiting

or 165 deq, provided W/aterline. Slope horizontal slopes is not always achieved, hence
Anqle Does Not Exceed 12.5 deg 2 separation abaft them is by no means unusual.
In some ships with full runs, like the Magunkook
Waterline/
of Sec. 23.1 of Volume I, separation has been
known to occur abaft the whole underwater hull.
In many of these cases there is not only a greatly
increased drag but a seriously diminished rudder
1^^.^ Transom effect.
r"^ Corner Anqle / 3
Separation at Surface Definitelvj Occurs at Ep and Es if
On the stern contour or profile, the separation

Tronsom Corner Angle has a Value Between 90 and 165 deg zone begins at the point Ek , marked on diagrams
1 and 2 of Fig. 46.C. When the flow is predomi-

Fig. 46.B Sketch Indicating Typical Separation nantly in the vertical plane, as it is under the
Criteria for Waterlines run of the wide, flat barge of diagram 1 of that
figure, the maximum separation-free slope appears
Regardless of the waterline slope with reference to be of the order of 14 to 15 deg [Dawson, A. J.,

to the longitudinal ship axis or direction of motion, SNAME, 1950, p. 9]. This is for a region not more
separation is almost certain to occur at any dis- than 2 or 3 below the waveline on a ship-size
ft
continuity along that line, where a sharp knuckle craft. When is both inward and upward,
the flow
exists with a horizontal obtuse angle less than as under the canoe or whaleboat or "cruiser"
136 HYDRODVNAMIQS I\ SHIP DESIGN Sec. 46.3

Borge Form with Wide Beom (d) The slope of the flowlines, with reference to
J_ the horizontal, for a considerable distance below
THy Buttock Slope Ig T the lower edge of the transom, say at least 1.0
1^ " —^,__^_ 14 de<) or lets
and possibly 2.0 times the transom immersion Hv
than 3 ft for ig Limit Given
I
If the buttock slopes are nearlj' constant for a
considerable portion of the length, say 0.3L,
ahead of the transom, it may be assumed that
tlie flowline slojie equals the buttock slope. If
this is not the case, as on the transom-stern ABC
ship hull of Part 4, the actual flowline slopes at

Hy left& than "^^ <:r Buttock Slope Lg the transom edge may be appreciably larger than
5 ft for tg Limit Giv»n^^ ^^ I Zt6*a or leas the buttock slopes.
I p

Fio. 46.C Typical Separ-^tion Criteria for Buttocks Further information as to the application of
these criteria to a transom-stern design are
Stern of diagram 2 of Fig. 46. C, the separation-free included in Sec. 67.20.
buttock or profile slope near the surface niaj' be as Notwithstanding the long and extensive use of
great as 25 deg with the liorizontal. However, tunnel sterns for shallow-water craft, and the
separation may normally be expected bej'ond the fitting of twin skegs with tunnels between them
range of 22 to 25 deg, assuming a full-scale depth on large vessels, there is little systematic quanti-
not more than 5 or G ft below the wavehne. tative information about the tunnel-roof slopes
A special case is presented by the immersed- at which separation would occur under the
transom stern described and illustrated in Sec. conditions represented by the.se various designs.
25.14 of Volume I, where separation is known to Sees. 67.16 and 67.17 describe the design of the
e.xist in the region abaft the transom. The quanti- tunnel roof for the alternative arch-type stern
tative information usually desired is the speed at of the ABC
ship of Part 4, and Fig. 78. F reveals
which the transom will clear in service; in other that, at a nominal submergence of about 12 ft
words, the speed at which the transom surface in the steepest region, there was no separation
is entirely free of water contact. This depends for a maximum tunnel-roof slope of about 18.5 deg.
upon a number of factors, not yet evaliiated in In those tunnel-stern craft having tuiuiel roofs
adequate fashion: above the at-rest WL, the nominal submergence
(a) The transom corner angle, illustrated and and the hydrostatic pressure at the top are
defined in Fig. 25.1 on page 379 of Volume I and negative. Only rarely do tunnel-roof slopes

in Fig. 4G.Ii. The sharp corners define the trans- exceed 20 deg, at or near the at-rest WL, but it is
verse extent of the stern separation zone, regard- doubtful that the critical slope for separation is

less of the speed at which the craft is running. as large as this. So far as known, at the time of

(b) The transom edge angle, at the lower edge writing (1955), very few craft of this type have

of the tran.som. This is a measure of the dis- been tested in model scale in a circulating-water
continuity in a buttock line in the vertical plane. channel.

As illustrated in Fig. 25.1, the edge angle defines It is realized that the slopes mentioned in the
the lower edge of the separation zone if it has a preceding paragraphs are not always tiiken along
value of about IGO deg or less, if the lower edge lines or surfaces of constant pressure, as was
ia not rounded, and if the buttock slope ahead pointed out at the beginning of this section.
of the transom is not too large. However, no better method of defining po.ssible

(c) The submergence llu of the deepest portion separation zones ajjpears to be available at this
of the transom. By one line of reasoning this time.

should be reckoned below the waveline at the 46.3 Detection of Separation; Extent of the
outer transom corners, but for wide transoms, Zone. In smooth water and at close range, such
where Bu = 0.5/i or more, the pressures and flow as abaft a punt or skiiT,
the square stern of
conditions are certainly not the same all the way .separation can be "spotted" with a little practice
acroHS the stern. For design purpo.scs it is almost l)y noting the vertical-axis vortexes or whirls at
necessary to u.se //„ , the nmximuin immersion ami near the surface. At longer range, and on
belrjw the at-rcst \VL. larger craft, the .scparalion zone is made clearly
Sec. 463 DATA ON SEPARATION, EDDYING, AND VORTEXES 137

visibleby larger eddies, by chips, boxes, or blocks the water flow outside, this — Ap indicates the
of wood thrown into the zone, or by floating refuse presence of separation drag on a portion
if it is

caught in it. As mentioned previously, these are of the hull which faces aft. The — Ap's
mentioned
whirled around in the eddies or drawn back here are not to be confused with those which
toward the hull, and dragged along with the ship. may be developed because of potential flow
The floating objects outside the separation zone around certain portions of the ship, described
disappear rapidly astern. Special vantage points in Chap. 4.
are necessary in many ships from which to make By far the most satisfactory method of detect-
these observations, because the entire waterline ing separation, determining the extent of the
or waveline in the run is not visible from the zone, and observing the nature of the flow is to
topside. test a model. This can be towed in a basin, using
Under water, where the eddies can not be seen, a water box and mirrors for viewing the under-
separation zones are often detectedby the marine water portion, or it can be run in a circulating-
growths which flourish in these areas of low water channel and viewed through large observa-
relative velocity. When the separation zone is tion windows. Colored threads, strings, and tufts
free of large air bubbles, paint surfaces that show are attached directly to the model surface or to
little signs of wear may be indicators of stagnant slender pins driven into the model so as to lie at
regions. If there are, in an area suspected of a distance from that surface. The tufts may be
being in a separation zone, any sea connections attached to appendages, or mounted ahead of and
which can be shut off from a system and used as abaft propellers on wire frames which will not
pressure orifices, an observed head at or close to affect the flow appreciably. Tufts which wave,
the sea connection which is less than the actual which curl this way and which actually
that, or
hydrostatic head is an indication that a — Ap point forward are unmistakable evidence of
exists there. Regardless of the exact nature of unsteady flow, of approaching separation, or of

Fig. 46.D Fish-Ete View of a Ship Model with Some Partly Reversed Tufts
188 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. -16.3

tlic roviTsed (low uf fully tk>vi'l<>i)eil scpaiatioii, axis vortex, giving How
tiic alongside the hull a
respectively. definite upward component of velocity to the
The fish-oye view of Fin. It'U, taken in the left of the ink tube and a marked downward
TMH eireiilating-water eluiiinel, siiows partially component to the right of it. The flow picture in
rcversetl tvifts in a separation zone at about the Fig. 4G.F is not clear and complete because the
designed waterline (marked by the heavy black forward ends of some of the tufts shown are
stripe)and abreast the propeller. The disturbed attached directly to the model and others are
under surface of the water in this region also fixed to the outer ends of pins projecting from its

indicates tiie presence of eddying flow in the surface.

separation zone. High-speed flash (and motion-picture) photo-
Strings or tufts are attached to thin wands like graphs, of which Figs. 78. E, 78. F, and those
fishing rods, and colored dyes are ejected from reproduced in TMB Report 810 are further
long, thin tubes, both moved bj' hand to any examples, provide a permanent record of the
position desired around the model. Fig. 46. steady continuous flow hoped for over all parts
pictures the trail of india ink flowing from such of a ship or of the reversed- and varying-flow
a tube (visible at the extreme right). Part of the characteristics of separation zones. If minute air
flow from the orifice position passes outboard of bubbles are injected into the water, it is possible
the offset rudder while a small part of it un- to detect sw'irling bubbles in a separation zone
e.xpectedlj- swings inboard of the rudder. formed by a projecting strut-arm pad as small
The predominant characteristic of the flow as 0.3 inch wide and projecting only about O.OG
revealed by the ink in Fig. 40.F is its slowness and inch from the fair surface of a model.
what might be called it.s uncertainty. The tufts Vortexes which are not steady or stationary
reveal the presence of a very large longitudinal- are detected by dye injected in the vicinity, are

I'll;. Iti.l-; Ki.mi-ICvK Vikw dk a Shii' Mohki. With Thau, ok Isiua Ink to ItKVKAr. I'l.ow I'm-ikun
Sec. 46.5 DATA ON SEPARATION, EDDYING, AND VORTEXES 139

Fig. 46.F Elevation of Ship Model Afterbody in Cikculating-Water Channel with Ink Trail, Tufts on
Surface, and Tufts on Pins Projecting from Surface

observed by eye, or are recorded by high-speed models for which resistance and propulsion data
motion photographs. Aggravated air-leakage situ- were presented by R. B. Couch and M. St. Denis
ations reveal themselves in the channel by air [SNAME, 1948, pp. 360-379], the flow close to the
bubbles drawn into the — Ap regions around a hull and into the propeller disc was in many cases
model, its propulsion devices, or its appendages. very nearly horizontal, if not actually downward
The circulating-water channel lends itself to in some regions. Fig. 46. F shows exactly this
the simultaneous recording of pressures at many type of flow, above the ink "trail." The downward
small orifices in a model surface, so that pressure flow was unexpected because the general buttock
contours may be plotted for any given conditions was distinctly upward, at
slope in these regions
and the areas of — Ap may be definitely traced. an appreciable angle to the horizontal. The
46.4 Predicting Apparent Flow Deflection phenomenon may be explained, at least in one
Around Separation Zones. The detection meth- way, by the presence of separation zones abaft
ods described in the preceding section are most the DWL and the near-surface WL's, and by
useful in studying the apparent deflection or downward deflection of the water passing under
diversion of flow around separation zones, dis- the stern. Normally, this water keeps on rising,
cussed in Sec. 7.10 on page 134 of Volume I. all the way to the stern, but with a separation
Prediction of this deflection is, in the present state zone extending nearly to the top of the propeller
of the art, based largely upon a background of aperture, as in Fig. 46. F, the under-the-bottom
experience, built up by watching flow tests, water and the eddying water obviously can not
studying and analyzing the photographic records, both occupy the same space.
and thinking about the problem. Another explanation of the downward flow is
Since pressures from external regions are not, that it is due to the presence of a large vortex
as a rule, transmitted through separation zones rotating about a longitudinal axis, streaming off
to the ship hull, there may be little information the region of the bilge at about the after quarter-
of direct value to resistance studies in a knowledge point in the manner outlined by the sketch of
of the potential-flow pattern, with its changing Fig. 25.F in Sec. 25.6 of Volume I.

velocities and pressures, outside the separation 46.5 Estimate of Separation Drag Around a
zones. However, for the prediction of flow into Ship. Sec. 7.8, supplemented by Fig. 7.H on
propulsion devices, and for special appendages page 130 of Volume I, explains how the specific
and attachments to be carried by a ship at some separation-drag coefficient may be approximated
distance from the side, knowledge of these by noting the sensibly constant specific pressure-
"outside" flow patterns is a must if the special from model tests at
resistance coefficient derived
design is to be logical and the service performance low Froude numbers, below the hmit at which
is to be predicted. wavemaking resistance manifests itself [Davidson,
For example, in the case of the ten tanker K. S. M., PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 76; SNAME,
110 11M)RI)1)V.\AM1C;S l.\ Mill' Dl.SlGN Src. 16.6

Now York Sect., 'Jf. Apr 1951, p. 7, Fig. 1]. Tliia the u.seful —Ap's. For cxaiiiplc, air drawn down
lonstaiit specific r»'sistaiirc is n-rkoiuHl iibuvc ull to fill the .separation zones behind the arms, legs,
nllowniucs for i)oth transverse and longitudinal and feet of swimmers, as revealed by special
iur\ature and for plating, stnictural, and coating high-speed photography, may be helpful or
roughneSv<«\s which are applieil to tlie flat, smooth- detrimental, depending upon whether drag or
plate, turlnilent-flow friction line. propelling forces are involved.
In the usual case the +Ap's and — Ap's caused B. Perry reports the results of drag measure-
by out wan! deflection of the water at the bow, ments on surface-piercing bars of rectangular
by speetling up between the forward and after and circular section, and gives excellent photo-
neutral point.*, and by closing in astern, are not graphs of the air-filled holes alongside of and
of such sign and magnitude as to balance each abaft these bars [llydrodyn. Lab., CIT, Rep.
other, when integrated over the transverse E-55.1, Dec 1954]. He reports an effect of surface
maximum-area .'icction. This is especially true if tension in the formation and behavior of the
the vesj^el has a bulb of appreciable size at the .spray roots at the water surface. Sometimes these
bow, or if the separation zone at the stern is large roots form a sort of closure over the separation
enough to interfere with the closing in of the zone which prevents the admission of air to it.
potential flow along the run. Some of the low- Neglecting the free-surface and lower-end
speed specific pressure probably
resistance is efi"ects. Perry reports that tlie drag of the \-ertical

always the result of this action. The remainder, bars per unit depth, at a submergence be h, may
and greater part, is chargeable to separation at derived from the drag of similar bodies well
the stern, especially if the criteria of Sec. 46.2 submerged and trailing water-vapor cavities
indicate a sizable zone of — Ap, when projected abaft them. The referenced report gives drag
on a transverse plane. Areas of this kind are coefficients for bars of circular section, for rec-
illustrated by the hatched portions of diagrams tangular bars with one flat edge leading, for
1 and 2 of Fig. 46. A. wedge-shaped bars with the apex leading (and
There are insuflicient data from model tests, for various included angles), and for all three
and practically none from ship trials, to afford kinds when placed at an angle to the flow.
an indication of the numerical values of — Ap or 46.6 Separation Phenomena Around Geo-
of the pressure coefficient — Ap/5 to be found metric and Non-Ship Forms. It is often useful,

in shipseparation zones. Tests in air on geometric in the design of bo.x-typc or non-ship-shaped water
forms indicate separation-zone pressures varying craft,and in tlic design and application of append-
from —\Aq behind a 2-diml flat plate to —1.15(7 ages, to have information as to the nature of the
behind a 2-diml circular cj-linder, with its axis separation to be expected around them. Some of
normal to the stream, to — 0.4g or le.ss for a these data are given in the illustrations on Chap. 7,
sphere and a circular flat plate, depending upon and references to other data arc furnished in
the /?. of the test. There is little doubt that these certain sections of Chap. 42.
values are much too high for separation zones at Research on this phenomenon has been under-
the stern of a ship. In fact, it is not yet known way for many years but the data have not yet
whether the — Ap in those zones is a function of been collected and presented in systematic
q or perhaps of the hj'drostatic pressure -p,, . fashion. Over three-quarters of a century ago
It is pointed out in Sec. 7.3 of Volume I that the following quantitative data were given by
aeration, defined as the natural or deliberate W. Froude as the result of towing tests on a
admission of air to a separation zone where the cylindrical pitot tube 0.125 ft in diameter and
— Ap's cause added drag, acts to diminish that projecting 1.75 ft below the free-water surface.
drag. \Vhen di.scussing separation drag, therefore, The test was made at a speed of 15 ft per sec,
it is most necessary to know the extent to which corresponding to about 9 kt. An air-filled hole,
atmaspheric air has been admitted to or has found called by Froude a "ga.sh," extended for about 3
its way into a — A/j region that is under a pressure ft abaft the tube, at which point the ga^sh closed

le.ss than atmo.spheric. In certain regions —Ap's by the gradual meeting of the side streams which
arc wt up deliberately, for propulsion purpo.ses, boundeii it.

as on the ijacks of the blades of screw propellers. ". . . from lliis point to alxiut 7 or S feel furlliiT stcrnwarda
It important to know to what extent, if any,
iH there ro.sc vcrlicnlly a rentriil wall of wat<T, the crest of
air has leaked into the.sc regions and diminished which, ill its niilc elevation, hail a paraliolic form (aa far
Sec. 46.8 DATA ON SEPARATION, EDDYING, AND VORTEXES HI
as could be estimated by the eye), the highest part of the with some additional material worked up by
ridge being certainly over 2 feet above the natural water- T. von KArmdn, is given by G. de Bothezat in
level . . ." [Brit. Assn. Rep., 1874 (dated 1875), pp. NACA Rep. 28, 1918, Note IV, pp. 149-158.
255-264]. (5) Relf, E. F., and Simmons, L. F. G., "The Frequency
of the Eddies Generated by the Motion of Circular
Two references on this subject, listed in Sec. 7.2 Cylinders through a Fluid," ARC, R and 917, M
of Volume I, are repeated here for the convenience 1924
of the reader. These embody a multitude of (6) Zahm, A. F., "Flow and Drag Formulas for Simple

photographs taken through the water of a basin,

Quadrics," NACA Rep. 253, 1927
(7) Lagally, M., "Die reibungslose Stromung in Aussen-
showing the air-filled separation zones abaft towed gebiet zweier Kreise (The Frictionless Flow About
vertical rods of finite lengths. They were made by Two Circles)," Zeit. fiir Ang. Math, und Mech.,
A. D. Hay and published in "Flow About Semi- Aug 1929
Submerged Cylinders of Finite Length," Bureau (8) Rosenhead, L., Proc. Roy. Soc, A, 1930, Vol. 129,
p. 115ff
of Ships, Navy Department, Contract NObs-
(9) Rosenhead, L., and Schwabe, M., "An Experimental
34006, dated 1 October 1947. Many other photo- Investigation of the Flow Behind Circular Cyl-
graphs of separation zones abaft box-shaped inders in Channels of Different Depths," Proc.
forms, made by A. D. Hay and
Runyon, are J. P. Roy. Soc, 1930
embodied in "Photographs and Resistance Meas- (10) Biermann, D., and Herrnstein, W. H., Jr., "The
urements of Semi-Submerged Right Parallelepipe- Interference Between Struts in Various Com-
binations," NACA Rep. 468, 1933
dons," Contract NObs-34006, dated I May 1947.
(11) Richards, G. J., "An Experimental Investigation of
Copies of these reports are in the hbrary. TMB the Wake Behind an Elliptic Cylinder," ARC,
46.7 Vortex Streets and Related Phenomena. R and M 1590, 1934-1935, Vol.pp. 387-392
I,

Large vortexes, in pairs or in echelon, may be (12) Prandtl, L., and Tietjens, O. G., AHA, 1934, text on
pp. 130-136, diagram on p. 132, photos in Pis. 24,
and usually are shed from non-faired appendages
25,26
or blunt-ended objects, such as submarine
(13) Tietjens, O. G., and Prandtl, L., HAM, 1944, Vol. I,
periscopes or thick propeller-blade sections. diagram only on p. 225
Similar vortexes may be shed abaft faired append- (14) H., HD, 1945, pp. 680-681
Lamb,
ages such as struts which are yawed slightly with (15) Rouse, H., EMF, 1946, pp. 239-241
(16) Wright, E. A., SNAME, 1946, Fig. 3, p. 377
respect to the flow. The vortexes in pairs appear
(17) Rouse, H., EH, 1950, pp. 129-130
at very low speeds and those in echelon at the
(18) Rouse, H., and Howe, J. W., BMF, 1953, frontis-
higher speeds. Schematic diagrams of these vortex piece and Fig. Ill on p. 187.
groups are given in Figs. 7.M, 14. W, 14.X and
23.E of Volume I, and in Figs. 40.A and 41. D of The reader who wishes to delve more deeply
the present volume. into the analytic aspects of this matter is referred
The mechanism by which, at certain combina- to L. Landweber's treatment of this phenomenon
tions of forward speed and appendage diameter on TMBReport 485, dated July 1942.
or thickness, the alternating circulation associated 46.8 and Vibrating Bodies.
Vortex Streets
with the shedding of these eddies produces The right-hand diagram of Fig. 46. G, adapted
alternating transverse lift forces of considerable from H. Rouse [EH, 1950, Fig. 93 and pp. 129-
magnitude on the moving body, is explained in 130], gives quantitative data concerning the
Sec. 14.22. vortex trail generated abaft a stationary 2-diml
For other treatments the reader is referred to circular cylinder in a uniform stream of velocity
the following: U„ It indicates that the whole system of alternate
.

(1) Ahlborn, F., "tjber der Mechanismus des hydro- vortexes left behind by a moving body in a
dynamischen Widerstandes (On the Mechanism flowing stream, corresponding to this cylinder,
of Hydrodynamic Resistance)," Hamburg, 1902
follows with what may be termed a wake
it
(2) Benard, H., Comptes Rendus (in French), 1908:2,
velocity. For the cylinder shown the value of this
Vol. 147, pp. 839-842 and 970-972; 1913, Vol. 156,
p. 1225; 1926, Vol. 182, p. 1523; 1926, Vol. 183 velocity is about 0.14 of the body speed, so that
(3) Von Kdrmdn, T., Nachr. Ges. Wiss., Gottingen (in the absolute downstream velocity of the system
German), 1911, p. 509; 1912, p. 547 of vortexes is about 0.86 1/» The transverse
.

(4) Von Kdrm^n, and Rubach, H., "tJber den

T.,
spacing a between the rows of alternate vortexes,
Mechanismus des Flussigkeits- und Luftwider-
for the case of the cyUnder illustrated, is about
standes (On the Mechanism of Resistance in
Liquids and in Air)," Physikalische Zeitschrift, 15 1.3D. The longitudinal spacing h between vor-
Jan 1912. An English translation of this paper, texes in either row is about 4.3D.
142 U\l)Rt)l)\.\AMlC.,S IN Mlli' ULMGN Sec. -16.8

Wohe Velocitv Absolute Velocitv

of Vortex Troil of Vortex Troil
eh - 0.14 U„ h»-0.66U,

llnstont-'
I I

3.0 o
''
a -1. 3D "- I

4.0*^ 1 Dro(j*

Outside of Vortex
Moves in Some
f- Frequency of ^heddint^ Eddies Direction os 5treor
IQ
3.0 4.0 5.0 6.6
Ua,D
5cole of Lo^iQ iJ

Fig. 46.G Giidance Sketch and EDDV-FREqiEsrv Relation.'? for Vorte.x-Tb.mi. Probi.e.ms

If the vortex trail is being generated l)y a pU^Tr/'2. The absolute downstream velocity of
l)lunt-ended body instead of a 2-diml lireiilar the vortexes as a group is aliout 0.8Gt/„ . The
cylinder normal to the flow, the dimen^5ion D strength of the vortex circulation F,/ is about
corresponds to the effective diameter or width of 2.86(0. 14 i7 J = 2.8(4.3/)) (0. Mr J or about
the trailing edge. Unfortiniately, there is no 1.7C/„D.
known rule by which this effective diameter may The graphs in the left-hand diafz;r:un of Fig.
he determined for a trailing edge of any shape. 46. G give values of the relation.ships fO'/v and
Horause of the basic theorem of hydrodynamics JD/U„ in terms of the Strouhal number {D/U„
which requires that the circulation around any and the applicable Reynolds number f '
,D v. The
clo-scd curve within a fluid must remain constant example of Sec. 41.G explains the method of using
with time (FIIA, 1934, pp. 192-193], the circula- this graph to predict the eddy frequency for a
tion r(capital gamma) at any instant about the 2-diml rod of diameter D or for a blunt-ended body
2-fliml cylinder in Fig. 4().G must be cfjual to, of effective diameter D. As another example,
and mu.st be of oppo.site sign to the nd circulation assume that a cylindrical rod having a diameter
of all the vortexes previously formed [Rouse, H., of 0.1 ft forms part of
an experimental speed log
EH, 1950, p. 129]. At time zero, assume that on the ABC ship of Part 4, projecting 2 ft vertic-
there is no circulation anywhere in the system ally below the bottom of the ship. A.ssumc also
and that the uniform-stream velocity is zero. that the average velocity U in the boundary
This velocity may then be a.ssumcd to rise from layer in way of this rod is 0.951'' or 0.95(7„ At
.

zero to t'„ . At the same time, the vortex circula- 20.5 kt, f/„ is 34.02 ft per sec, whence
tion approaches a steadj' value of dzFy , likewise U = 0.95(34.02) = 32.89 ft per sec.
increasing from This increase in vortex
zero. The vortex circulation F,/ is about 1.7(t/)D =
circulation takes place in such manner that the 1.7(32.89)(0.1) = 5.59 ft' per sec. The cylinder
ulgebraic sum of all the vortex circulation from circulation Tuf2 is 2.8 ft' per sec, whence the
time zero e(|uals ±r,;/2 after the stream velocity maximum transverse lift force is pUr,i/'2 or
has reached a steady value of U„ . iSincc the cir- 1 .9905(32.89) (2.8) = 183.3 lb per ft length of span.
culation around the cylinder must be c<|ual to TluM/-Rcynolds number is ID or (32.S9)(0.1) 'i>

and of opposite sign to the net circulation of all about 0.257 million, whence from
(10'')/1.2817 or
the vortexes, the circulation around IIk- cylinder the left-hand diagram of Fig. 4(t.G the Strouhal
varies from \- F, /2 to — F(;/2. number //)'r = about 0.215, from which / =
The approximate magnitude of the lift force (0.215)(32.89) (0.1) = 71 hertz or 71 cycles per
per unit span of the 2-4linil body, acting in either .sec. If the virtual nuuss of the rod, including the
direction, i.s, by I0(|. (44. i), /> = pf ,F for the ad<ied ma.ss of the entrained wat«r, is such that it

general ciusc. For this parti<ular case, L = vibrates transversely lus a cantilever at a fre«iuency
Sec. 46.9 DATA ON SEPARATION, EDDYING, AND VORTEXES 143

approximating this figure, resonant vibration the effective diameter of the damaged trailing
will ensue, with a magnification of vibration edge is (FB,„d»)(0/'' = (70.86) (0.0625) (10^)/
amplitude and possible damage to the rod. 1.2817 = 0.3455 million. From the left-hand
The use of deflectors or longitudinal-vortex diagram of Fig. 46.G the corresponding Strouhal
generators, to serve as an auxiliary transfer number (S„ is about 0.21. Then since S„ = JD/U^
mechanism to get fast-moving water from the or, in this case, {J){t)/V^u^i« ,
the predicted fre-
outer portions of the boundary layers into the quency is / = S„(FB,ado)// = 0.21 (70.86) /0.0625
inner portions and thus to provide the kinetic = 238 hertz or 238 cycles per sec. This is well
energy in the inner portion necessary to defer above the low hmit of 10 cycles per sec and well
separation, is discussed in Sec. 36.27 of Volume I. below the upper limit of 700 cycles per sec for
However, the necessary quantitative data for audible singing, given in Sec. 70.46. Singing on
calculating the effect of these generators are not the damaged (and temporarily repaired) blade
available at the present time (1955). of the ABC ship is liable to occur unless a chisel
46.9 Practical Applications of the Strouhal edge is left when the damaged parts are chipped

Number to Singing and Resonant Vibration. As away, as diagrammed in Fig. 70.P.

an illustration of the application of the knowledge Two illustrative examples of the method of
presently available (1955) to the prediction of calculating the eddy frequency for 2-diml circular-
possible singing of a propeller blade, take the case section rods that may be subject to resonant
of the propeller designed for the transom-stern vibration are worked out in Sees. 41.6 and 46.8,
ABC ship in Sees. 70.21 through 70.38 of Part 4. respectively. As an indication of the range of
Assume that this propeller, originally manu- frequencies which may be encountered on high-
factured with the relatively fine trailing edges speed vessels where these hydroelastic interactions
depicted in Fig. 70. 0, has had its edges damaged are liable to pose troublesome problems, take the
by curling and nicking so that, as a temporary case of the very wide strut arms, with a chord
measure, the trailing edge from about O.bORu^^ length of 3.75 ft, mentioned by P. Mandel
to 0.78/?Ma>t has been chipped away and rounded [SNAME, 1953, p. 514].
off as shown by the broken line of diagram 1 of Assume that the proposed strut section is used
Fig. 70. P. It is estimated that the effective on a large ship, with a thickness-chord ratio of
thickness t at this edge is about 0.75 in or 0.0625 4.35. As indicated in Fig. 3 on page 408 of the
ft; see the discussion of this matter in Sec. 70.46. reference, the effective t (or D) along the trailing
In other words, the vortex trail expected to be edge is 2.5 in or 0.21 ft. Assume further a ship
shed by the trailing edge corresponds to that speed of 25 kt, equivalent to 42.22 ft per sec,
which would be shed by a non-vibrating 2-diml since at higher speeds the vortex trail might be
circular-section rod 0.0625 ft in diameter, moving replaced by a vapor cavity. As in Sec. 46.8, the
through the water at the same speed and occupy- kinematic viscosity taken as 1.2817(10"'')
is ft'

ing the same position as the trimmed-off trailing per sec and the mass density as 1.9905 slugs per ft''.

edge of the damaged blade. The (^-Reynolds number is then VD/v or

The basic data, for a designed ship speed of (42.22)0.21(10')/1.2817 = 0.6917 million. From
20.5 kt, are, from Sec. 70.26: the graph of Fig. 46. G the Strouhal number S„
is 0.292. Then / = S,y/D = (42.22)0.292/0.21 =
Diameter, maximum, of propeller, 20 ft
58.7 hertz or 58.7 cycles per sec.
Speed of advance V a 27.87 ft per sec,

In practice the strut problem is further compli-

Speed of rotation of propeller, 1.62 rps
cated by the fact that the strut-arm section may
Kinematic viscosity of salt water, 1.2817(10"'^) ft"
not lie with its meanline exactly in the line of flow.
per sec
Or if properly aligned for straight-ahead running,
Mass density of salt water, 1.9905 slugs per ft^.
even taking account of the twist in the inflow jet
The rotational speed of the propeller at the 0.64 which is induced ahead of the propeller position,
radius, halfway between 0.50 and 0.78i2Max , is the strut-arm section may run at an appreciable
27r(20/2) (0.64) 1.62 = 65.15 ft per sec. The blade- yaw angle when the ship makes a turn. It is
section speed at that radius is the combination of probable that, if the yaw angle becomes large
the rotational speed and the speed of advance, or enough so that the separation point on that side
TBiade= [(65.15)' + (27.87)T' = 70.86 ft per sec. of the trailing edge which is yawed outward
The d- or diameter Reynolds number R^ for moves aft and becomes essentially fixed at the
lit HVDRODN \ XMK.S IN" SIIIP DFSir.X Srr. 46.10

trailiiiK imIho, ''"' vortex street is riu loiiKer I'nnueil. (h) {'oo|HT, R. D., and I.ut/.ky, M., "E.\ploratory Investi-
riic nlloninting ciroiilatioii ecnsos, as docs the gation of the Turbulent Wakos Behind Blufl

alterHutiiig transvorst^ lift forces on the section.

Boiiies," TMB Rep. 903, Oct 1955.

Further research and experiment arc needed The references which follow apply particularly
along these lines. to the singing of the blades of screw propellers:
The hyilroelastic interactions in the case of the
Richardson, E. G., Proc. Phys. Soc., 1924, Vol. 30,
(1)
strut, involving the addc<l nia.ss of the entrained p. 1.53(T; also 1925, Vol. 37, p. 17811
water for transverse or flatwise vibration of the (2) Gut.sche, F., "Das Singcn von SchifT.ssehr.iuben (The
stmt arm, the damping efTects of the strut .section, Singing of Ship's PropolliTs)," Zeit. des Ver.

when moving laterally, the ukmIc of motion of the Deutsch. Ing., .3 ,Iul 1937, Vol. 81, pp. SS2 S.S3.

wliole strut a-ssemhly, including the strut hub

There is available in the TMB
an un- library
published English translation of this paper, marked
and all the arms, and the elastic characteristics T.MB Transl. 123.
of these parts, are not considered here. (3) Hunter, 11., "Singing Propellers," NECI, 1936-19.37,
46.10References on Eddy Systems, Vortex Vol. LIII, pp. 189-222, D73-DI20
Trails, and Singing. There is given in Sec. 4G.7 (4) "The Problem of the Singing Propeller," SBSR, 12
Aug 1937, pp. 205-207; 2 Sep 1937, pp. 298-300;
a short list of references relating directly to the
7 Oct 1937, pp. 450-452
vortex-trail or eddy sj'stems abaft the trailing
(5) Hunter, II., "Singing Propellers," E. and F. N. Spon,
edges of bodies of varied type and shape. The list London, 1937
in the present section covers a somewhat broader (0) Hayes, II. C, and Klein, E., "Methods and Means for
field. It is by no means complete but it is adequate Determining the Natural Modes of Vibration of
Mechanical Structures," ASNE, 1938, Vol. .50,
for the beginning of an extended study of the
pp. 519- .520. The paper is devoted to a study of
subject. References to photographs of flow the vibrating modes and frequencies of screw-
patterns involving eddies and vortexes are listed propeller blades.
in the text of Sec. 42.2 and in Table 42.b of that (7) Conn, J. F. C, "Marine Propeller Blade Vibration,"
section. These are in addition to the references lESS, 1938-1939, Vol. 82, pp. 225-255, 292-374
(8) Shannon, J. F., and Arnold, R. N., "Statistical and
listed in Sees. 7.11 and 14.22 of Volume I.
Experimental Investigation of the Singing Pro-
(a) Hclraholtz, H., "l)l)cr Integrale dcr Hydrodynamis- peller Problem," lESS, 1938-1939, Vol. 82, pp.
chcn GieichungPii welclie den WirbGlwogungen 250-291, 292-374. On pp. 289-291 the authors list
Ent.sprochen (On Integrals of tlic Hydrodynamical 35 references.
I'Aluationa wliirli I'Jxjire.ss Vciitiw Motion)," ( 'lolle's (9) Kerr, W., Shannon, J. F., and Arnold, R. N., "The
Jour., IS')H, Vol. .'»5; iMiglish Iriinsl. by P. CI. Tait Prolilcnis of the Singing Proi)eller," Inst. Mech.
in London, Edin., and Dublin, Pliil. Mag., ,lan-.)un Engrs., London, Dec 1940, Vol. 144, pp. 54-90.
1807, Vol. .33 (-Ith 8me.s), pp. 4S.5-.51! Abstracted on p. 409 of SBSR, 25 Apr 1940; also
(b) Ahlborn, F., "Die Wirbelbildung ini \Vid<'r.stand.>!- SBMEB, Apr 1940, pp. 180-181.
mcchaDismuM des Wassers (Eddies in (lie Mechanism (10) Davis, .\. W., "Characteristics of Silent Propellers,"

of Ship Ucsi.stance in Water)," ST( I, 1!)05, pp. 07-81. lESS, 1939-1940, X'ol. 83, pp. 29-102. Abstracted
Eddies abaft tlie forward outboard corners and the in SBMEB, Apr 1940, pp. 105-169.
after face of a 2-tliml rod of rectangular section are (11) Baker,G.S., "Vibration Patterns of Propeller Blades,"
shown in Fig. 22 of the reference. A large separation NECI, 1940-1941, Vol. 57, pp. 43-66, Dl-Dr2
zone abaft a similar section at higher speed is shown (12) Work, C. E., "Review of Marine Propeller Noise
in Fig. 12. and Vibration Studies," U. S. Nav. Ord. Test
(c) Stanton, T. E., and Marshall, D., "Eddy Systems in Sla. Propulsion Memo 74, 7 Sep 1940
the Wake of Flat Circular Plates in Three Dimen- (13) Hughes, Ci., "Intlucnco of Shape of Blade Section on
sional Flow," ARC, II and M i:).5.s, liUl I'.I.12, Singing Propellers," IIOSS, 1941-1942, Vol. 85,
Vol. I; pp. 202-211 pp. 55-168. On page 130 the author lists 10 refer-
(d) Steinman, D. B., "Problems of .\eri)(iyniimic and ences.
Hydrodynamic .Stability," Proc. Third llydr. ("onf.. (14) Hughes, G., "On Singing Propillcrs," INA, 1945,
State Univ. Iowa, Studies in Eng'g., Hull. 31, 1947, pp. lS.5-210
pp. 1.30-104. The author lists 10 references on pages (15) Lewis, F. M., ME, Vol. II, 1946, p. 131
I03-lfr». (16) Hughes, W. L., "Propeller Blade Vibrations,"
(c) Stcinman, D. "Aero<lynamic Theory of Bridge
B., NECI, 1948-1949, pp. 273-.300, D51-D70
Oacillationa," Trons. ASCE, 1050, Vol. 115, pp. (17) Burrill, L. C, "Undenvater Propeller Vibration
1240-1247, 12.54-12.55 Tests," NECI, 1948-1949, pp. 301-314, D50-D70
(f) Den Ilartog, J. P., "Recent Technical Manifestations (18) Work, C. E., ".Singing Propellers," .\SNE, May 1951,
of von KdrinAn'a Wake," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., pp. 319-331
Wash., Mar 19.54, Vol. 40, pp. 1.5.5-1.57 (19) Lankest<!r, S. G., and Wallace, W. D., ".Some In-
(K) RiMhko, A., "On the Wake and Drug of HlufT BiMlies," vestigations into Singing Propellers," NECI, 7
Jour. Aero. Sci.. Feb 19,5.5, pp. 2, 124 132 Jun l'.t.55, pp. 2<)3 318.
 CHAPTER 47

The Inception and Effect of Cavitation on

Ships and Propellers
47.1 Scope of This Chapter 145 47.7 The Effect of Cavitation on Screw-Propeller
47.2 General Rules for the Occurrence of Cavita- Performance 152
tion on Ships and Appendages 145 Photographing the Cavitation on Model and
47.3 Vapor-Pressure Data for Water 146 FuU-Scale Propellers 1.53

47.4 Tables of and Nomogram for Cavitation 47.9 Propeller Cavitation Criteria 154
Numbers 147 47.10 Predicting Hub Cavitation and Hub Vor-
47.5 The Prediction of Cavitation on Hydrofoils texes or Swirl Cores 155
and Blades 149 47.11 Prediction of Cavitation Erosion 156
47.6 Cavitation Data for Bodies of Revolution 47.12 Propeller Performance Under Superoavitation 156
and Other Bodies 151 47.13 Selected Cavitation Bibliography 157

47.1 Scope of This Chapter. The phenomena
and mechanism of cavitation in its various forms,
and the factors associated with it, are described
in Chap. 7, Sees. 7.12 through 7.19, of Volume I.
The occurrence of cavitation on ships and pro-
head of 33 ft, gives an effective head of less than
70 ft before cavitating conditions are reached.
To demonstrate this, set down the pressure
equation for steady irrotational flow of an ideal
liquid, Eq. (7.i) of Sec. 7.12. Transposing p„ ,

pellers, as well as many of its practical features,

are discussed in Chap. 23, Sees. 23.9 through P = P- + liu- u'-) (47.i)
23.16, of that volume. Practical examples illus-

trating the calculation of the cavitation number For the condition described the critical mini-
are found in Sees. 41.3, 47.4, and 47.5. mum pressure p is equal to the absolute vapor
Treatment of cavitation in the present chapter, pressure e, say 0.4 psia. The ambient pressure p„
as associated with ships, propellers, and append- is that corresponding to the full absolute head of
ages, is limited to data of a quantitative nature, 70 ft, or 31.13 psi for standard salt water. The
of general interest to the naval architect and value of the term 0.5p(rho) for standard salt
marine engineer. A selected cavitation bibliog- water is 0.99525 slugs per ft^ Introducing the
raphy, containing many recent papers on the factor 144 to transform psi to psf then substitut- ,

subject, concludes the chapter as Sec. 47.13. ing and solving,

47.2 General Rules for the Occurrence of
0.4(144) = 31.13(144) + (0. 9952.5) (f7^ - C/')
Cavitation on Ships and Appendages. Cavitation
occurs when, for any one of several reasons, the whence
pressure in a particular region in the water drops
(31.13 - 0.4)(144)
to that of the water vapor, or to that of a com- (C/
=
U') =
0.99525
bination of water vapor and dissolved air or gas.
As the purpose of practically all moving ship = -4,446.2 ft' per sec'
appendages, as well as propulsion devices, is to
If F = C/„ is 30 kt, equivalent to 50.67 ft per
create useful forces by the development of positive
sec, so that Ul is2,567.4 ft" per sec", then
and negative differential pressures, it is natural
that the +Ap's should be made as high, and the U^ = Ul - (-4,446.2) = 2,567.4 + 4,446.2 =
— Ap's as low as can be accomplished without 7,013.6 ft' per sec', and
setting up harmful cavitation. Most such parts
U = 83.75 ft per sec.
depth of about
of a .surface ship operate within a
37 ft below the free surface. This hydrostatic This means that to keep clear of cavitating
head, when added to the atmospheric-pressure conditions the relative velocity of the water

145
H6 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 413
moving aft past a liwp part of the 30-kl ship, Concerning the ambient-pre.ssurc factor, it is
ixpn\sso<I as I'. + AT, can not cxcccti 83.75 ft not sufficient to consider the mean depth at
per sec. Since the ship speed V equals the velocity which a hydrofoil section or other movable body
V.
50.t»7
, the augment
= 33.08
W can not e.\cee<I 83.75 —
per sec without the onset of
operates, such as the depth to the axis of a screw
ft propeller. It is entirely' po.ssible for a blade
cavitation. For the equator of a 3-{liml sphere element, at the top of its path, to cavitate through
the augment ACisO.sr^ ; if r„ iso0.t)7 ft per sec, an arc or region of low hydrostatic pressure and
AC is 25.34 ft per sec. This is less than the limiting to set up objectionable vibration or other con-
value of 33.08 ft per sec, so cavitation would ditions from this cause. At the depth of the .shaft
not occur at the equator of the sphere at a depth axis, or at the bottom of its path, it might not
of 37 ft. For the maximum diameter of a 2-diml cavitate at all.
nxl, normal to its direction of motion, the aug- In real, viscous liquids like water, the over-the-
ment AT is l.OUa. or 50.G7 ft per sec. This surface litiuid velocities at the inner edge of the
exceeds the critical velocity, so at the given boundary layer are less than the ship speed V
depth cavitation would begin ahead of the or the velocity U^ relative to the imdisturbed
midsection of the rod. water. The potential-flow velocities are different
Aeration of the salt water raises its vapor than they would be o\-er the same body surface
pressure. This has the effect of diminishing in an ideal liquid, becau.se of the displacement

numerically the augment of velocity At/ at which thickness of the boundary la.ver, so that accurate
some form of cavitation takes place. At shallower prediction of cavitation is difficult. Fortunately,
depths on a large ship, or at the shallower drafts most appendages liable to cavitation are short,
and greater speeds customary on high-speed with boundary layers of insignificant thickness.
vessels, cavitating conditions are readily en- In any case a prediction disregarding the boundary
countered on the hull, the appendages, and the layer is usually on the safe side, if the prediction
propulsion devices. is to foretell the wor.st that may be expected.
Bubble cavitation ishastened by the presence Vapor-Pressure Data for Water. The
47.3

of microscopic or submicroscopic pockets of vapor pressure e of water drops rather rapidly

vapor or air or air and gas bubbles, and of cavita- with temperature, so much so that appendages
tion nuclei in the form of impurities, animal or and propulsion devices which cavitate in the
vegetable matter, or entities as yet unknown. The tropics under a given set of conditions may not

water nearest the .surface of the sea carries the do so in the polar regions under the same con-
ditions.
mo.st air in solution; this amount is augmented
if the surface is disturbed, as during a storm. \'alues of c for fresh water, o\'er a temperature

There are more minute impurities carried range from freezing to boiling at sea level, are
in
suspension in waters close to the land but there graphed in Fig. -17. A. They are listed in Table
may be more nuclei of other kinds in waters far
Temperature, deq C
from the land. 40 SO SO TO 80 90

From the maimer in wliicli citlici- Idihhlc or

Hheet cavitation appears to form in the water in
which ships operate, a cavitation criterion must 2M
take account of at least six factors:

(a) The ambient pressure p„ in the water

(b) The vapor, or the gas-air pressure of the
water at the temperature concerned
(c) The relative .speed U„ of the iinciislurlKd tio

water and the brxly or ship

(d) The shape and proportions of (he body or .ship
(c) The augment of velocity Af/ due to potential

and other flow over and around a body, a .ship,

or any of it.s parts
(0 The efTectivc angle of attack «, if the part
under conaidcration resembles a hydrofoil.
Sec. 47.4 SHIP AND PROPELLER CAVITATION 147

TABLE 47.a Vapor Pressure of FRESH WATER fob Various Temperatures

Degrees
148 in l)R()M^ \ \Mi(,s i\ Mill' 1)1 s!(;\ Src. 17.4

Table 47.b—Cavitation Numbeiis koh a Seiubs or Speeds in STANDARD SALT WATER

Veloc-
Sec. 41.5 SHIP AND PROPELLER CAVITATION 149

TABLE 47.b— (Continued)

Veloc-
ity,
ft per
sec
150 n nuonvNANfics i.\ ship ofsicx Sec. 47. f

V2Q(hthA-hv) .\iiy liydrufuil .section, no matter how well

"niis Nomoijroph Represents the E^ootion V,
'—^
shaped i( may be for straight-ahead (low, cavi-
Where q i» the Accelerotion Due to Grovity
tates when it makes too great an angle with the
h IS the Depth Below the Water Surface
h/\ is the Equivalent Head Due to the Atmosphere incident flow. The excessive angle of attack for a
Viy is the Head of the Water Vapor, lifting foil may be either i)ositive or negative.
about 0.57 ft at 59 de<3 F t-
In general it may be .said that for any hj-drofoil
V is the Speed of the Body
section designed to produce lift, the best shape is
cr (siqma) is the Covitatjon Index
of the Body one which, under the angle of attack to be
expected in service, produces a distribution curve
Depth in feet, of — Ap on the back that has the maximum spread
h of the greatest reduced pressure across the chord,
-200

To Estimotc the Speed without an excessivelj' low depression.

of Incipient Covitotion The technical literature contains data derived
for a Body. Lou Q from a limited number of cavitation tests made
Stroiahteaoe on the
on hydrofoils under 2-diml flow conditions. A
Given h- and (J-vqIocs.
m The Resultant Cavitation typical result, set down graphicall}' in Fig. 47.C
fifseed is the Intercept
on the Speed or V-Scole. 20 -o
it

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 ZO 10 O'^cl

Angles of Attock a. on Hvjdrofoil

5i
or
9 :

C^^IO

^^^^
-04 -OZ OZ 0.4 0.6 0.8 10
Nomogram for Relatino Submeroknce
Fjc. 47.B Lift Coefficient Cl
Depth, Cavitation Index, and Water Speed for
Incipient Cavitation Fig. 47. C
Cavitation Limits for Lift Coefficient
AND Angle of Attack on a Typical Hydrofoil
Since incipient cavitation is involved, the cavitation
index indicated here is the critical value. From the relation
<j " (po. — e)/(0.5pV"), the critical value diminishes as
the water s|K'cd incrca.ws. From Sec. 47.5 and Fig. 47. D,
[Uaily, .1. W., ASME, Jour. Ai)pl. .Mcrli., li)l!),

the pressure coeflicient En must diminish numerically Vol. 71, p. 209], shows that at negative angles
witli ffc« to avoid cavitation. of attack cavitation generally occurs on the face
and at positive angles of attack on the back.
foil scctioim, including many of tluwe u.sed Im- 'riici;c is usually a single angle of attack at which

propeller blade.s, and for an infinite span, it is cavitation occurs simultaneously on both surfaces
possible to calculate the ratio VlU^ for all part,s if the cavitation index is reducetl to a sufficiently
of the surface. From this ratio it is pos.siblc to low nuniljcr. diagram similar to that referenced,
.\

determine the pressure coeflicient or Euler number (•X(('l)l that it is tierived by an analytic procedure

E, at any point, and hence the absolute pressures I'm- a whole screw jiropeller, is given bj' J. F.
at all points for any given set of undisturbed- ShaiiniMi and R. N. Arnold |IFS8. 1!):?S li):?9.
velocity and initial-pressure conditions. Absolute Vol. 82, Fig. 18, p. 285|.
pressures approaching the vapor pressure c of As is the case for the lift, drag, and moment
the liquid are in<licatioiis of incipient cavitation. data on hydrofoils, described and presented in
Calculations for a great number and a wide Sec. 11. .5, the cavitation test data are of limited
variety of hydrofoil st;ctions, already made, arc design a|)plication unless aconnpanied by section
li»l«wj ill \\fA |{i|)(.il H'JI, nfiTciircd in Sec. drawings or tables of coordin.'ites of the foil. If it

44. .'5. is possible to know also the chcuibvise pressure

Sec. 47.6 SHIP AND PROPELLER CAVITATION 151

distribution across the — Ap side for some repre- plotted on a basis of the 0-diml ratio of the nose
sentative angle of attack, so much the better. radius Rle to the chord length c.

Taking a representative case, assume a hydro- If the cavitation number a in the adjacent
foil similar to that diagrammed in Fig. 47. C to liquid is smaller numerically than the pressure
be running in salt water at a depth of 8 ft below coefficient £'„ at the point of minimum absolute
the surface and at a speed of advance of 30 kt, or pressure on the hydrofoil, cavitation occurs there,
50.67 ft per sec. The hydrostatic pressure is, from hence the pressure coefficient at the lowest-
Tables 41.e or X3.a, 8(0.4447) = 3.56 psi. pressure point equals numerically the critical
Assuming a value of Pa of 14.7 lb per in", a vapor cavitation number acR
pressure of 0.4 lb per in' and a mass density p As an example of the manner in which the
of 1.9905 slugs per ft^, the cavitation index works diagrams of Fig. 47. D may be used, consider the
out as situation at the leading edge of a symmetrical
streamlined balanced rudder with an all-movable
V^-e _ [(3.56 + 14.7) - 0.4]144
1.006. blade. The rudder lies abaft a portion of the upper
q ~ 0.99525(50.67)'
blade of a screw propeller where the rotational-
From the lower diagram of Fig. 47. C
it is to be or tangential-flow component is such as to cause
noted that at this parameter the
cavitation the water in the inflow jet to meet the leading
hydrofoil will cavitate on the face or on the back edge of the rudder at a given waterline at an
at angles of attack greater numerically than Assume a nose radius of 0.25 ft,
angle of 10 deg.
— 2.7 or +4.5 deg, respectively. a chord length of 10 ft, a nominal depth of sub-
mergence /i of 15 ft, and a ship speed of 18 kt
(actually, the local velocity in the outflow jet
may be greater than Then from the nomo-
this).

gram of Fig. 47. B number a is

the cavitation
about 3.3 if cavitation is to begin at 18 kt. The
ratio of nose radius Rle to chord length c is
0.25/10 = 0.025. From the curve for a 10-deg
angle of attack in Fig. 47. D the pressure coefficient
E^ at the point of lowest absolute pressure, where
cavitation will first appear, is about —3.2. Then
<jcB is 3.2, and the differential pressure available

to create a gradient which will cause the water to

follow the rudder section closely is represented by
a cavitation number of only 3.3. The "lee" or
— Ap side of the rudder section in question is,
therefore, just on the verge of cavitation at the
given speed.
Contours for pressure minima in terms of
(1)Ap/q, (2) thickness ratio, and (3) lift coefficient,

for ogival and airfoil sections, respectively, are

given by K. E. Schoenherr [SNAME, 1934, Figs.
19-20, pp. 109-112]. These sections are suitable
"0 0.01 O.oa 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Ratio of Leadinq-Edae Radius R^e to Chord Lenoth c. for use on propeller blades.
47.6 Cavitation Data for Bodies of Revolution
Fig. 47.D Cavitation, Lift-Coefficient, and and Other Bodies. Cavitation may take place
Angle-of-Attack Data for a Stmmetrical Hydrofoil on many parts of a ship and its appendages which
do not even remotely resemble the hydrofoils
Fig. 47. D, adapted from a set of graphs given discussed in the preceding section. A considerable
by P. Mandel [SNAME, 1953, Fig. 7, p. 471], number have the forms of bodies
of these parts
gives the average pressure coefficient E„ , at the of revolution, or they can be simulated by 3-diml
point of minimum absolute pressure, for a large axisymmetric forms, such as certain types of
number of 2-diml symmetrical hydrofoils at four bulbs incorporated into the forefoot.
different angles of attack. The £^„-values are Cavitation data are available for a great
152 m DROOYNAMias I\ SHIP DESIGN Sec. 47.7

variety of londiiiRends of ivlimlrical bodies,

tested in n variable-pressvirc water funnel at
zero yaw angle. The princi|)al source of these data,
"Cavitation and Pressure Distribution: Head
Forms at Zero Angle of Yaw," by H. Rouse and
J. S. McNown [State Univ. Iowa Studies in

Eng'g., Bull. 32, 1948], gives the magnitude and

the meridional-distance distribution of pressure
coefficient about a series of fourteen head shapes,
covering most practical applications. In addition
there are recorded the shapes, axial positions, and
dimensions of the cavities or of the envelopes
("pockets") of tiie regions in which vapor bubbles
were formed around the bodies carrying these
heads.
Diagrams 1, 2, and 3 of Fig. 17. E give the
cavitation data for a hemispherical
"pocket"
head, a 1-caliber ogival head, and an ellipsoidal
head having a major-axis to minor-axis ratio of 2,
adapted from the referenced report. The several
curved lines represent the boundaries of axial

, Leng th ond Fbsition o f Covitotion 'Fbck e t" or Covit^

I
for Covitotion Number tf • 0.20\ H
-\ 037D

T Covity Boundaries,.
I
ore Indefinite

Bod\( of Revolution with Hemispherical Head

No Covitotion for rf >0.50

Covitotion Number tf • a g

Apprommote Shape of Rjcket' or Covity

u- '

1
Sec. 47. SHIP AND PROPELLER CAVITATION 153

the New King's College Cavitation Tunnel,"

NECI, 1953-1954, Vol. 70, pp. 121-150, DISS-
DISS; SBMEB, Apr 1954, Fig. 4, p. 284
(8) "Comparative Propeller Tests," 7th ICSH, SSPA
Rep. 34, 1955, Figs. 1-7 on pp. 170-176 and Figs.
11-14 on pp. 180-183.

Although it is not yet (1955) standard practice,

the characteristic curves of -q, Kt , and Kq of
diagrams similar to that of Fig. 47.F should be
accompanied by drawings or sketches showing
the location of the cavitating regions on the
blades (face or back or both), the type of cavita-
tion encountered (bubble or sheet), and other
features visible in a variable-pressure water
tunnel, for each value of the cavitation index or
for each set of test conditions. This is done for
the 1937 ASME paper of L. P. Smith, referenced
in Sec. 70.40; for the discussion by F. H. Todd
of the V. L. Posdunine paper in INA, 1944;
for the SSPA Report 6 by H. Edstrand; and for
the L. C. Burrill and A. Emerson paper referenced
in the preceding paragraph.
47.8 Photographing the Cavitation on Model
and Full-Scale Propellers. The visual observa-
tion of cavitation on screw propellers when
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 \.Z 1.4 1.6

Advance Coefficient J
mounted by themselves in variable-pressure
water tunnels, initiated by C. A. Parsons in the
Fig. 47.F Typical Open-Water Test Data For
early 1900's and carried on extensively since the
A Model Propeller, Carried into the Cavitating
late 1920's, has now reached the stage where
Range
excellent instantaneous photographs can be taken
and later reproduced in the technical literature.
also Vol. 60, pp. 448-452], and by L. C. Burrill
Many of these photographs are to be found in the
and A. Emerson on pages 140-147 of reference
more recent cavitation references listed in Sec.
(7) following.
47.13 at the end of this chapter.
The technical hterature contains a considerable
Fortunately for the marine architect there are
number of cavitation characteristic curves for
techniques and procedures, developed in the early
screw propellers, among which may be listed the
1950's, by which still and motion-picture photo-
following:
graphs may also be made of full-scale ship screw
(1) Schoenherr, K. E., PNA, 1939, Vol. II, Fig. 32, p. 182 propellersunder operating conditions. These
Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1943, Fig. 143, p. 116
(2) photographs are made through a transparent
(3) Edstrand, H., "The Effect of the Air Content of Water
on the Cavitation Point and Upon the Character-
window in the shell near the propeller. The
SSPA Rep. 6, 1946
istics of Ships' Propellers,"
present availability and use of powerful artificial

(4) Rouse, H., EH, 1950, Fig. 63, p. 930. These are typical lighting dispenses with the former necessity of
curves only, for which no hydrofoil data or test running the vessel in the sunshine and in the
conditions are given.
clear water which is usually found only in the
(5) "Comparative Cavitation Tests of Propellers," 6th
open sea. The motion pictures are stroboscopic in
ICSTS, 1951, published by SNAME, 1953, Figs.
16-19 on pp. 78-81; Figs. 23 and 24 on pp. 85-86 nature so that they give the impression of a
(6) Gawn, R. W. L., "Results to Date of Comparative particular propeller blade standing still or moving
Cavitation Tests of Propellers," SNAME, 1951, slowly in the ahead or astern direction.
pp. 172-213. These give the results of "interna- To facilitate subsequent analysis and for in-
tional" tests of selected model propellers in a number
formation during the observing periods the screw-
of variable-pressure water tunnels.
(7) C, and Emerson, A.,
Burrill, L. "Propeller Cavitation: propeller blades may be marked in advance with
Some Observations from 16 in. Propeller Tests in suitable identifying letters, numerals, and signs.
151 HVDROUVNAMIC.S IN 6H11' DESIGN Sec. 47.9

Examples of photoRraphs of this kind arc before, not a function of the depth of submergence
puMi.shctl by J. \V. Fisher ("Photonraphy at Sea or the associated speetl of advance [Schoenherr,
of Ship Propeller Cavitation," XKCI, 1951-1952, K. E., PXA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 175-17G).
\o\. (^18, pp. 1!) m ami D-1 through D-S). Other In 1932 E. F. Eggert developed a set of rela-
examples are emhotlietl in a paper by A. F. Weeks, tionships which enabled the propeller user or
entitled "Ship Propeller Cavitation Patterns," designer to predict, with reasonable accuracj',
presented at the XPL Sympasium on Cavitation the rate of rotation or the blade-section velocity
in September 1955 [SBSR, 3 Nov 1955, pp. at which the propeller thrust would begin to fall

5G9-570]. o(T from cavitation efTects ["Propeller Cavitation,"

It is to be expeetetl that the instrumentation SXAME, 1932, pp. .58-74]. Discussions of this
and procetlures for making shipboard cavitation relationship, embodj'ing somewhat different com-
photographs on screw propellers will improve binations of variables, arc found in:

rapidly. This will provide the naval architect with

(1) Schoenherr, K. E., P.\.\, 19;», Vol. II, p. 178
extremely valuable data which may be studied
(2) Taylor, D. \V., S and P, 1043, pp. 110-117
and analyzed at leisure. (3) Van Lammeren, W. P. ,\., UPSS, 1948, pp. 180-182.
47.9 Propeller Cavitation Criteria. An analj'-
sis of the loss of thrust due to cavitation on ship Still later W. P. A. van Lammeren worked out

propellers, when it first occurred on fast naval a relationship between the two 0-diml ratios
\essels some sixty or more years ago, led to the P/D)] and [(t,- (.4 c/.4o) (virtual P/D)]
[.//(virtual
establishment of a criterion proposed by S. W. which an excellent indicator of the point where
is

Barnaby, involving a maximum average unit the thrust breaks down on a screw propeller
loading on the propeller-blade area. The original [De Groot, D., NSP Rep. 89; Schip en Werf; Gth
figure emploj-ed was 11.25 lb per sq in, corre- ICSTS, 1951, published by SXAME, 19.53, Fig.
sponding to a pressure coefficient (based upon 30 and pp. 93-95]. ^\Tlen plotted in graph form
atmospheric pressure) of 11.25 divided by 14.7, or this appears as the simple curve of Fig. 47. d. The
approximately 0.765. This unit loading was graph is based on the tests of many model pro-
subsequently raised by Barnaby to 13.0 lb per pellers, all of which give results remarkably close
sq in, corresponding to a pressure coefficient to the line, independent of the tj'pe of blade
based on atmospheric pressure of 0.884. In section. It is thus possible to predict, before
neither case was there any allowance made for carrying out cavitation tests on model propellers,
the depth of submergence of the propellers. the rate of rotation at which thrust breakdown
Sub.sequently, different criteria were proposed by will take place.
D. W. Taylor, J. M. Irish, and others, ba.sed upon The indications given by the graph of Fig. 47.
a limiting tip speed for any propeller, independent arc still sufficiently precise for engineering
of- or related to the propeller loading but, as purposes if the actual or average P/D ratio is
Sec. 47.10 SHIP AND PROPELLER CAVITATION 155

used in place of the virtual P/D, and if the 47.10 Predicting Hub Cavitation and Hub
expanded area A e replaces the developed area Ad . Vortexes or Swirl Cores. The phenomenon of

W. H. Bowers, of the TMB staff, devised a cavitation abaft a rotating screw-propeller hub,
number of formulations whereby a quick approxi- and the production of hub vortexes or swirl cores,
mation could be made by a ship designer of the are discussed and illustrated in Sec. 23.14 on pages
rate of propeller rotation beyond which the thrust 337-339 of Volume I. This is an important
is affected by blade cavitation. One method of feature of the behavior of high-speed vessels
rapidly solving the equation given hereunder was because of the damaging effect of this cavitation
a circular slide rule devised by Bowers and L. W. upon appendages which lie in its path.
Sprinkle in 1947. It is not possible to describe Within the period 1945-1955 it has been
the exactmethod here but the criterion employed possible to produce and to photograph cavitation
by Bowers took the form, expressed in the symbols of this type in variable-pressure water tunnels,
of this book: circulating-water channels, and model basins. It
appears from observation of model propellers at
atmospheric pressure in the latter two types of
37,500(1 - Suf'^QiA + hn - hy) facility that the hub vortex is a rather unstable
affair, appearing and disappearing with apparently
(47.ii) no change in test conditions. There is reason to
PD believe that it is far more stable in the full scale.

where n is in rpm and all other linear dimensions On the basis of the swirl-core theory of Vi§kovic
are in ft.
it should eventually be possible to predict the
To illustrate the appUcation of this formula, presence of a swirl core and its approximate
take the case of the propeller designed for the diameter behind the taper end of the hub fairing
ABC ship in Chap. 70 of Part 4, and shown in of a screw propeller. Assuming that it is possible to

Fig. 78.L. The necessary basic data for the trial impart to the water in contact with the outside
speed of 20.5 kt and for an assumed typical blade of the hub, in way of the blade, a tangential

section at 0.8fiMa» are as follows: velocity equal to that of the hub surface, the
resulting centrifugal force at a smaller radius R
Real-slip ratio, Sr (actually Skt), from
may be balanced against the probable vapor and
Fig. 78.Nb 0.238
gas pressure in the water. For propeller hubs not
Atmospheric-pressure head Ha assumed 33.0 , ft
deeply submerged in sea water this lower limit
Hydrostatic head at 12 o'clock blade may be taken as somewhere between 0.5 and
position, hn equal to [26 — 10.5 —
,
1.0 lbper sq in. The ambient pressure pa> is the
(0.8)10], for 0.8i2M.x 7.5 ft
atmospheric pressure Pa existing at the time
Vapor-pressure head hr , assumed 0.8 ft
plus the hydrostatic pressure to the shaft axis,
Ph
Value of {Ha + hn — hv) = measured to the actual water (wave) surface over
(33.0 + 7.5 - 0.8) 39.7
the wheel.
Mean-width ratio, Cm/D 0.211
The equation of motion of a water particle in
Blade-thickness fraction to/D, from whirling around a vortex core,
a vortex coil, is
Fig. 78.L 0.049 ft

Pitch P, assumed as 0.982Z) at O.SKm.. ,

1 ap
from Fig. 78.L 19.64 ft pdR
Diameter D 20.0 ft
where U is the local velocity and R is the local

Substituting in Eq. (47.ii)

radius [Eisenberg, P., TMB Rep. 712, Jul 1950,
pp. 4-5; FHA, 1934, pp. 213-214]. From this

- 0.238)'*''''" there may be derived the relationship

37,500(1
<-')(ii)
(19.64)20 p at center of vortex core = p„ — (47.iii)

= 14,399
where F (capital gamma) is the circulation in the
whereupon n in rpm is above
119.7. This is well vortex surrounding the core, p„ is the ambient
coil,

the expected rate of rotation of 97.2 rpm from pressure in the undisturbed liquid at the same
Sec. 70.26. depth as the center of the core, and Rq is the
156 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. -17. 11

outer nulius of the vortex core iiiul tlio inner "A Review of Published Information on Cavita-
radius of the vortex coil. tion Erosion," (Admiralty Corrosion Committee
hub cavity or
Prciliction of the existence of a Rep. ACC/2C/54, N151/54, N316/54 (C.M.L.
swirl core by the root-vortex metliod
and its size Report RBS)], stamped 8 October 1954. On pages
may be found considerably more difficult. It 25-27 there are listed 56 references in the technical
—
involves a knowledge or an estimate of the — literature. The report is in five parts:
circulation at the root sections or of the pressure
I Historical Introduction
difTerences between the face and back of a blade.
II Theories of Cavitation lOrosion
It shoulii include any additional elTect of inter-
I I I Factors AffectingCavitaf ion Erosion Intensity
ference between adjacent blades.
1\' Methotis of Testing
Although the data on the longitudinal extent of
V Erosion Resistances of Various Materials.
a swirl core are somewhat meager it may be
assumetl from past observations on models and Tables VIII and IX list many alloys in a scale
ships that the core persists for at least several of relative resistance to cavitation erosion in
propeller diameters. This means that it will be fresh and sea water, respectively.
present in the vicinity of any other part of the Cast-steel blades with corrosion-resisting steel
ship likely to be placed abaft the shaft axis and cladding have been used with success in propeller-
the propeller. type turbines of water-power plants [.\SNE, Nov
The swirl core usually comes o(T the hub fairing 1940, pp. 547-549( but this type of construction
with the propeller axis but it Ls often otT.set
in line has been found not too successful on ship append-
from the trailing end of a blunt hull. Whatever attachment
ages, perhaps becau.se of inadecjuate
may be its exact position, it swings rapidly into to the ferrous material underneath,and perhaps
the line of the aiijacent flow when this is not because of harmful galvanic action between the
parallel in direction to the shaft axis. The diameter steel cladding and adjacent bronze propellers.
of the swirl core is increased if air gets into it. Good design and construction requires the
47.11 Prediction of Cavitation Erosion. The greatest practicable initial smoothness of all
and tests
results of metallurgical in\'e.stigations surfaces likelj' to be exposed to cavitation attack.
to date indicate that the materials which are Any projecting irregularity, including definite
most resistant to ca\'itation erosion are solid- waviness of a surface, may
be expected to initiate
solution alloys which have, in metallurgical cavitation if the pressures in the region approach
parlance, only a single phase. Single-pha.se alloys the vapor pressure of water. This is one important
have much narrower grain boundaries than reason why the curved backs of propeller blades
polypha,se alloys. Many corrosion-resisting steels and hydrofoil surfaces .should, if anything, be
are austenitic alloys of this type; among them the more regular and more smootii than the faces.
13Cr-87Fe alloy is a good example. Erosion of the surface may be expected to occur
A
metal intended to resist erosion by cavitation well downstream from a pronounced change in
should have high resistance to lifiuid corrosion, shape of the solid surface. Nicks and turned-over
under the conditions in which it is to be used, as regions along a leading edge are notorious offenders
well a.s high fatigue strength [Boetcher, H. N., in this respect. A sharp, deep nick in the leading
"Failure of Metals Due to Cavitation Under edge may leave a trail of erosion at the radius of
Experimental Conditions," Trans. AS.MI], II V!';- the nick, extending irregularly all the way acro.ss
.'>8-l, Vol. 58, Jul ID.iO, pp. \]-)-i-m)\. the blatlc.
Numerous tests of a wide varictj' of materials Pits and depressions in a surface, not forming a
have indicated a definite superiority in resistance l)art of the waviness previou.sly mentioned,
to cavitation erosion on the part of certain alloys. appear to have much less initial effect than cor-
A brief list of the.se allf)ys, with references to the resiKinding projections. However, holes through
pubhshed test data, is givrjii in Sec. 70.45. In the such as are sometimes drilled for
blades,
one series of tests (Stewart, W. C, and Williams, handling permit jets of water to .squirt
jiurpo.ses,
W. L., "Investigation of Materials for Marine through from the face to the back. The discon-
Propellers,"ASTM, 1910, Vol. 4f), pp. 8:i(3~8l5] tinuities thus formed in the flow may often be as
the best all-around material was found to be a damaging .'is a solid jirojection in place of the hole.
0(5.14 nickel- 28.10 co[)per- -'{.05 silicon alloy. 47.12 Propeller Performance Under Super-
There has recently been i.ssued a paper entitled cavitation. The general as])ects of the piTfnrni-
Sec. '17.13 SHIP AND PROPELLER CAVITATION L57

ance of screw propellers in the supercavitating Engineering (London), 1936, Vol. 142, p. 95ff.
Translated by E. F. Wilaey, U. S. Bureau of
range are described in Sec. 70.40 of Part 4. The
Reclamation, Nov 1936.
design comments given there are likewise general
(9) Bottomley, W. T., "Flow of Boiling Water Through
in nature. Orifices and Pipes," NECI, 1936-1937, Vol. 53,
While the references of that section contain p. 65ff

data relative to the variation in propeller thrust (10) Green, A. E., "The Mean Value of the Fluctuations
at high rates of rotation, there are no systematic in Pressure and Pressure Gradient in a Turbulent
Fluid," Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc, 1938, pp. 534-539
data which permit the ship or propeller designer
(11) Viskovid, "Rotation Losses at the Rear of Turbo-
I.,
to make reliable predictions of supercavitation Machine Runner Wheels," Escher Wyss News,
performance for high-power and high-speed craft. 1941, Vol. XIV, pp. 14-19
47.13 Selected Cavitation Bibliography. The (12) Freeman, H. and Observed Speeds
B., "Calculated

published literature on all phases of cavitation in of Cavitation About Two- and Three-Dimensional
Bodies in Water," TMB Rep. 495, Nov 1942
liquids, including cavitation erosion, is almost
(13) Edstrand, H., "The Effect of the Air Content of
staggering in its immensity. In December 1947 Water on the Cavitation Point and upon the
the David Taylor Model Basin prepared and Characteristics of Ships' Propellers," SSPA, Rep. 6,
issued, asTMB Report R-81, "An Annotated 1946
(14) Harvey,E., McElroy, W. D., and Whiteley, A. H.,
BibUography of Cavitation." This contains refer-
"On Cavity Formation in Water," Jour. Appl.
ences to most of the material published up to
Phys., Feb 1947, Vol. 18, pp. 162-172
that time, especially that relating directly to (15) Briggs, H. B., Johnson, and Mason, W. P.,
J. B.,
work in the marine field. Some important papers "Properties of Liquids at High Sound Pressures,"
not Usted, and some published since 1947 have Bell Tel. Lab. Monograph B-1507, publ. in Jour.
Acoust. Soc. America, Jul 1947, Vol. 19, pp. 664-677
either been referenced previously in this chapter
(16) Dieudonne, J., "Resultats Obtenus k la Mer avec des
or are set down here. These apply to material in Helices en Regime de Cavitation (Results from
Chaps. 7 and 23 as well as to that in this chapter Sea Trials with Propellers Operating in the Cavi-
and in Chap. 70 of Part 4. tating Region)," ATMA, 1947, Vol. 46, pp. 253-
The first three references help to fill out the 270. The data were taken on various torpedoboats
and destroyers at high speed.
historical picture:
(17) Walohner, 0., "Contribution to the Design of Ship
(1) Reynolds, Osborne, "On the Causes of the Racing of Propellers without Cavitation," AVA, 1947

the Engines of Screw Steamers," INA, 1873, pp. (18) Vennard, J. K., "Elementary Fluid Mechanics,"
59-60 1947, pp. 329-332

(2) Normand, J.-A., "Note sur I'lnfluence de I'lmmersion (19) Bell, L. G., "Some Model Experiments on the Effect

de I'Hfelice et de la Vitesse sur la Rupture du of Blade Area on Propeller Cavitation," INA,

Cyjindre d' Eau Actionne (Note on the Influence 1948, Vol. 90, pp. 79-91. There are some good
of Propeller Immersion and Speed on the Rupture cavitation photographs opp. pp. 86-87.

of Water in the Propeller Stream)," ATMA, 1893, (20) Eisenberg, P., "A Cavitation Method for the Develop-
Vol. 4, pp. 68-73 ment of Forms Having Specified Critical Cavita-
(3) Thornycroft, and Barnaby, J. W., "Torpedo
J. I.,
tion Numbers," TMB Rep. 647, Sep 1947
Boat Destroyers," ICE, Vol. CXXII, Part IV, (21) Macovsky, M. S., Stracke, W. L., and Wehausen,
1894-1895, p. 51ff
J. v., "Predicted Cavitation Characteristics for
(4) Wood, R. MoK., and Harris, R. G., "Some Notes on the TMB-EPH Strut Section Compared with
the Theory of an Airscrew Working in a Wind Those for the Bureau of Ships Standard Strut
Channel," ARC, R and 662, 1920 M Section," TMB Rep. 879, Jan 1948
(5) Brodetsky, S., "Discontinuous Fluid Motion Past (22) Plesset, M. S., and Shaffer, P. A., "Drag in Cavitat-
Circular and Elliptic Cylinders," Proc. Roy. Soc, ing Flow," Rev. Mod. Phys., Jan 1948, Vol. 20,
London, Ser. A, Feb 1923, Vol. 102, No. A718, pp. 228-231
pp. 542-553 (23) Rouse, H., and McNown, J. S., "Cavitation and
(6) Mueller, J., "tlber den gegenwartigen Stand der Pressure Distribution; Head Forms at Zero Angle
Kavitationsforschung (On the Present Status of of Yaw," IIHR, Studies in Eng'g., Bull. 32, 1948
Cavitation Research)," Die Naturwissenschaften, (24) Knapp, R. T., and Hollander, A., "Laboratory
Jun 1928, Vol. 22, pp. 423-426 Investigations of the Mechanism of Cavitation,"
(7) Taylor, G. I., "The Mean Value of the Fluctuations in Trans. ASME, Jul 1948, Vol. 70, pp. 419-435
Pressure and Pressure Gradient in a Turbulent (25) Gawn, R. W. L., "Cavitation of Screw Propellers,"
Fluid," Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc, 1936, Vol. 32, NECI, 1948-1949, Vol. 65, pp. 339-373, D105-
pp. 380-384 D124
(8) Van Iterson, F. K. T., "Cavitation et Tension Super- (26) Eisenberg, P., and Pond, H. L., "Water Tunnel
ficielle (Cavitation and Surface Tension)," Proc. Investigations of Steady State Cavities," TMB
Roy. Acad., Amsterdam, 1936. Abstracted in Rep. 668, Oct 1948
158 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 47.13

(27) IMakp, V. ('... Jr., 'Tlio Onst>t of CaviUtion in Flows with Free Boundaries," Jour. Rational
Liquiilii," Acouiitics Hea. I^^ib., Harvard Univ., Mcch. and Aii;dysi«, .-Vpr 1952, Vol. 1, No. 2
Tech. Hop- I.2, Sep 1919 (47) Serrin, J. B., Jr., "E.xi.-itence Theorems for Some
(2S) Crump, "Determination of Critical Prcssurc.i
S. F., 1 lytlrodynamical Free Boundary Problems," Jour.
for thp Inception of Cavitation in Krcsli and Sea Rational Mech. and .\nalvsifl, Jan 1952, Vol. 1,

Water as Innucnccii by Air Content in the Water," No. 1

TMB Rep. 575, Oct I'oW (tS) Harrison, M., ".\.n E.\pcrimental Study of Single
(29) Schneider, A. J. R., "Some Compressible EfTects in Bubble Cavitation Noise," Rep. 815, Nov TMB
Cavitation Bubble Dynamics," Doctoral disserta- 1952, revised edition
tion, Cal. Inst. Tech., 19-19 (49) Knapp, R. T., "Cavitation Mechanics and its
(30) Kiscnbcrg, P., "On the Mechanism and Prevention of Relation to the Design of Hydraulic Equipment,"
Cavitation," TMB
Rep. 712, Jul 1950. This report, IME, Jiunes Clayton Lecture, 1952, Vol. 166,
contains, on pp. 63-70, a
list of about one hundred pp. 150-163
of the principal references on the subject. (50) Olson, R. M., "Cavitation Testing in Water Tunnels,"
(31) Rouse, H., "Engineering Hydraulica," 1950, pp. 29-31 St. Anthony Falls Hydr. Lab. Project Rep. 42,
(32) Birkhoff, G., "Hydrodynamics," Princeton Univ. Dec 1954. There is a bibliography of 16 items on
Press, 1950 pp. 31-32.
(33) Konstantinov, W. A., "Influence of the Reynolds (51) Burrill, L. C, and Emerson, A., "Propeller Cavita-
Number on the Separation (Cavitation) Flow," tion: Some Observations from 16 in. Propeller Testa
TMB Transl. 233, Nov 1950 in the New King's College Cavitation Tunnel,"
(34) Birkhoff, C, Plessct, M., and Simmons, N., "Wall NECI, 1953-1954, Vol. 70, Part 2, pp. 121-150,
Effects in Cavity Flow —
I and II," Quart. Jour. D185-D188. There are photographs of hub vor-
Math., Part I, Jul 1950, Vol. VIII, pp. 151-168; texes or swirl cores abaft model propeller hubs in
Jan 1952, Vol. IX, pp. 413-421 Figs. 17(a) and 17(b) on p. 149; also cavitation
(35) Rattray, M., Jr., "Perturbation Effects in Bubble photographs of model propellers on pp. 149-150.
Dynamics," CIT Doctoral dissertation, issued as a (52) Tulin, M. P., "Sfe.i<ly Two Dimensional Cavity
CIT Hydrodyn. Lab. report under ONR Contract Flows .\bout Slender Bodies," TMB Rep. 834,
N6onr-24420 (NR-062-059), (undated but issued May 1953
in 1951) (53) Eisenberg, P., "A Brief Survey of Progress on the
(36) Oump, S. F., "Critical Pressures for the Inception Mechanics of Cavitation," Rep. 842, JunTMB
of Cavitation in a Large-Scale Numachi Nozzle 1953, revised edition; pp. 21-24 contain a list of
OS Influenced by the Air Content of the Water," 44 references
T.MB Rep. 770, Jul 1951 (54) Numachi, F., "Cavitation Tests on Hydrofoils in
(37) 6th Int. Conf. Ship Tank Supts., Washington, 1951, Cascade," ASME, Oct 1953, Vol. 75, pp. 1257-1269
published by SNAME, 1953, Subject 3, "Compara- (55) Knapp, R. T., "Present Status of Cavitation Re-
tive Cavitation Testa of Propellers," pp. 75-97 search," Mech. Eng'g., Sep 1954, Vol. 70, pp.
(38) Gawn, R. W. L., "Results to Date of Comparative 731-734; ASNE, Feb 1955, pp. 44-50. On p. 50
Cavitation Testa of Propellers," SNAME, 1951, of the latter reference there is a bibliography of
pp. 168-216 six items.

(39) Shalncv, K. E., "Cavitation of Surface Roughnesses," (56) Knapp, R. T., "Recent Investigations of the Me-
Jour. Theor. Physics, U.S.S.R., 1951, Vol. 21, pp. Damage,"
chanics of Cavitation and Cavitation
206-220 Russian)
(in ASME paper 54-A-106, presented November- in
(40) Trilling, L., "The Collapse and Rebound of a Gas December 1954 (copy in TMB library). The
Bubble," Jour. Appl. Phys., Jan 1952, Vol. 23, paper describes experiments in a variable-i)ressure
pp. 14-17 water tunnel in which a torpedo-shaped model,
(41) Gihnore, F. R., "The Growth
or Collapse of a run under cavitating conditions, was surrounded
Spherical Bubblea Viscous Compressible
in by a rather large annular cavity just abaft the
Liquid," CIT Ilydr. Lab. Rep. 26-4, 1 Apr 1952 forward shoulder. At water speeds above a certain
(42) Kcrmeen, R. W,, "Some Observations of Cavitation minimum this cavity was filled (or partly filled)
on Hemispherical Head Models," CIT Hydro. periodically with a reversed or reentrant flow
Ijib. Rep. E-35.1, Jun 1952 rushing forward as a thin sheet next to the model
(43) Wacsclynck, R., "Calcul dc la Pouss6c de rh61ice en surfuci'. In other words, the cavity accompanying
rt'gimo Cavitant (Calculation of the Thrust of the normal form of sheet c.ivitation was not a
Cavitating Propellers)," ATMA, 1952, Vol. 51, steady-state affair, even in its forward and middle
pp. 365-388. On page 382 there is a list of 10 portions, because of the water which alternately
references, some of them not given here. rushed forward into from the downstream end
it

(44) Garabcdian, P. R., Ix:wy, H., and Schiffer, M., of the cavity jinil was then swept aw.iy. Cavit.it ion
"Axially Symmetric Cavitational Flow," Appl. erosion on the aluminum model occurred under
Math, and Statistics Lab., Tech. Rep. 10, SUnford tiic region covered by the periodically advancing

Univ., 25 Apr 1952 and retreating reentrant flow. The author Ii.hIs 15
(46) Parkin, U. R., "Scale Effects in Cavitating Flow," references on p. 12.
CIT Hydro. Ijib. Rep. 21 8, 31 Jul 19.'')2 (57) Kermeen, R. VV., McGraw, J. T., and I'.iikin, H. li.,
(40) GilliarK, I)., "(Ini>|U('hi-KH of Axially Symmetric "Meclianism "f Caviljitiim Incepliim ;ind llic- lie-
Sec. 47.13 SHIP AND PROPELLER CAVITATION 159

lated Scale-Effects Problem," Trans. ASME, May (3) Scale-effect factors

1955, Vol. 77, pp. 533-541; a review of this paper is
(4) Effects on hydrodynamic performance
to be found in Appl. Meoh. Rev., Jan 1956, p. 29
(5) Cavitation damage.
(58) Daily, J.W., and Johnson, V. E., Jr., "Turbulence
and Boundary Layer Effects on the Inception of
The complete proceedings are to be found in a
Cavitation from Gas Nuclei," MIT Hydro. Lab.
volume issued by the NPL, Teddington, entitled
"Cavitation in Hydrodynamics," H. M. Stationery
Techn. Rep. 21, Jul 1955. On pp. 63-65 there is a
bibliography of 38 items; most of those relating
Office, London, 1956.
directly to cavitation are included in the list of (60) Tulin, M. P., "Supercavitating Flow Past Foils and
the present section. Struts," NPL, Teddington, Symp. on Cavitation
(59) On 14-17 September 1955 there was held at the in Hydrodynamics, Sep 1955; abstracted in SBSR,
National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Eng- 3 Nov 1955, pp. 570-571
land, a symposium on cavitation in hydrodj'namics. (61) Burrill, L. C, "The Phenomenon of Cavitation,"
The authors and titles of the twenty-one papers Second Nav. Arch. Congr., Trieste, 14-16 May
presented during this symposium are given in 1955; published in Int. Shipbldg. Prog., 1955,
SBSR, 25 Aug 1955, pp. 255-256. The subjects Vol. 2, No. 15, pp. 503-511. This paper contains
considered were: some excellent photographs of cavitating model
(1) Factors governing cavitation inception propellers, including one (Fig. 13) showing eddies
(2) Experiment techniques leaving a blade trailing edge.
 cnAriKR 18

Data on Theoretical Surface Waves and

Ship Waves
48.1 Purpose of This Chapter 160 •IS.

48.2 ThcoreticAl Wave Patterns on a Water

Surface IGO
48.3 Ilognor's Conlribiition to the Krlviii W:ivc
Systom 161
48.4 Summary of the Troohoidal-Wavc Theory . 161
48.5 Elevations and Sloix-.i of the Troclioidal Wave 1 63
48.6 Tabulated Data on Length, Period, Velocity,
and Frequency of Deep-Water Trochoidal
Waves 166
48. Orbital Velocities for Trochoidal Deep-Water
Waves 166
48.8 Data on Steepness Ratios and Wave Heights
forDesign Purposes 169
48.9 Formulas for Sinusoidal Waves 1 70
Spc. ^SA WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA lf)l

of 19.47 deg for a traveling pressure point, as
described in Sec. 10.6 on page 174 of Volume I
[Hovgaard, W., INA, 1909, Vol. 51, table facing
p. 260 and PL XXIV; Taylor, D. W., S and P,
1943, pp. 27-28].
48.3Hogner's Contribution to the Kelvin
Wave System. Owing to an apparent misunder-
standing of the exact nature of a wave-pattern
diagram which was published by Ijord Kelvin
L„,/4 between the crests of the transverse waves
and those of the divergent waves. The crests of
the former system lead the others, just as if there
were a first transverse crest formed at a position
Lh^/4 ahead of the pressure point. A planform
diagram of such a pattern, showing the variations
from the Kelvin wave system of Fig. 10. B of this
book, is given by Hogner, from which Fig. 48.
is adapted [Proc. First Int. Congr. Appl. Mech.,

in the papers referenced in Sec. 10.5 on page 170 Delft, 1924, Fig. 5, p. 149]. In a reworking of the
of Volume I, tlie planform illustrated in Fig. 10. entire analytic procedure, described by Hogner
of that section has for the past half-century been in the paper listed as the first reference in this
described in many text and reference books as section, he shows that the phase difference at the
the exact crest pattern developed by him. E. Hog- boundary planes is actually Lwfi, indicated in
ner brought out, in the 1920's, the fact that the detail by his diagram in Fig. 17 on page 46 of
figure given by Kelvin showed only "the envelope that reference.
curves of the crests of the two-dimensional waves These same phase differences, although ex-
from which he has constructed his three-dimen- pressed as 27r/4 and 27r/3, are derived by J. K.
sional waves" ["A Contribution to the Theory of Lunde [SNAME, 1951, p. 71]. In Fig. 6 of that
Ship Waves," Arkiv for Matematik, Astronomi reference he gives a diagram corresponding to
och Fysik, Stockholm, 1922-1923, Vol. 17, paper the solid lines of Fig. 48.A.
12, footnote on p. 42]. Kelvin's mathematical E. Hogner carries his analytic procedure to
formulas actually showed a phase difference at the point where he predicts the nature of waves
the boundary planes (marked "Line of Crest formed in the area beyond the boundary planes.
Intersections" in Fig. 10. B of Volume I) but He also substantiates his analytic derivation by
this was apparently overlooked by most of those photographs which reveal the patterns actually
who worked in this field in the 1900's and 1910's, formed on the surface of the water.
until Hogner brought it to fight. 48.4 Summary of the Trochoidal-Wave The-
Depending upon the assumptions made and ory. The notes which follow, adapted from G. C.
the approximations employed, Kelvin's earlier Manning [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 6-7],summarize
theory gives a phase difference, at the boundary the relationships described and presented in
planes lying at angles of 19.47 deg to the direction Chap. 9. They are illustrated, as far as practica-
of motion of the traveling pressure point, of ble, in the definition sketch of Fig. 48.B, which
is the elevation of a wave having a steepness
^Line of Crest Interaections Qs in Fiq lO.B
ratio hw/L^ of 1:7.
Broken Lines Depict Pattern of Fio. lO.B;
The principal assumptions of the trochoidal-
Full Lines Depict Norninol Crest Pattern wave theory, satisfying the requirements of
Qccordinq to E. Hoqn
equilibrium, continuity, and uniformity of pres-
sure, are:

(a) The motion is 2-diml, around circular orbits

in a vertical plane
(b) The liquid particles revolve in circular orbits
with uniform angular velocity u (omega)
(c) The liquid particles at the crest move in the
same direction as the wave is advancing
(d) There are equidifferent phase angles d6{theta,)
= u dt between successive particles whose orbit
Fig. 48.A Modification of Kelvin Wave System
centers lie at equidifferent distances dL^r along
According to E. Hogneb
a given horizontal line
The Kelvin system, corresponding to that in Fig. lO.B of
Volume I, is shown in broken lines. The (e) Liquid particles whose orbit centers lie in
modification
according to Hogner, with the transverse waves ahead of the same vertical line rotate about those centers
the diverging waves, is indicated in solid lines. in the same phase
162 UN m^Oin \ \\II( s 1\ sllll' Dl'SICN Srr. -IS.-I

Direction of h Wove LcnijtM Lyv

Wove Trovol
tval ^. Wove Veloclt^^
«
j

- I St«epnwa Rotio -^ of the Wove Drown a

^
-j- " Mommurtu-
or Celerity c T

RiM of Crest J^ '^Qve Slope

Orbitoi Velocity
"P^b^^ _^ ^ _'t- ..^h^

Cirtulor Orbit Fhth

Depth h An(]ular Velocitu In Orbit u

WoveLenqth Lw "
"T^ V^fave Celentij c -^^^ Orbital Veloci ty at S urfoce- cjRs" u)(-/)- 1Tc(x^j
*
Wove Period T^y -"y a ' ~C~ " o^ *°'e Frequencu- y- -
^
Fig. 48.B Definition Dr.\wing for a Trociioidal Wave

(0 The depth of the liciuid body is uiiliinitcd (5) L„- = 2-KC'/g

(g) The Uquid is ideal, without viscosity'.

= 0.1953c", in ft when c is in fps
The results of iiriniipal interest are, based upon
= 0.5571c", in ft when c is in kt
a wave length L „• , a wave celerity (velocity) c, a
wave period r«- , a wave height hw b, surface- , = 0.<il07c", in in wiien c i.s in mps
particle orbit radius 72.9 , and an acceleration of
= 0.1G97c', in m when c is in kt.
gravity g for sea level at 45 deg latitude of
32.174 ft per sec' or 9.80G65 m per sec": /.,.. = ff2l,-/(2,r)
(1) Lir = 2-kRrc , where R,ic is the radius of
= 5.r217'H-, in ft wlicn 7'„- is in .sec
the rolling circle for the graphic trochoidal con-
struction = 1.5(il7';',-. in in wlicn Y',,- is in sec.

(2) c = V gL „./2Tr
(6) /i„- = 2U, and Rs = h„-/2

= 2.2G3\/L^, in fpswhen L„- is in ft

(7) Till' (irliital vcldrily, as derived in See. 4.'^.7,

= 1 .249 VL ir , in mps wlien L » is in m is

= IMOVT^-, in k( wlioii /.„ i.s in ft f/o,b = 7r/i„/(0.4419 VZ^) = 7.109/i„-/V^

= 2A27VT^-, in kt when /,„• is in m.
= irc(/i„-/L„),

wiiere r,,,!, is in fps when /i „ and L^ are in ft

"- 2r^ "

and c is in fjis.

(8) The angular orbital velocity ui is, from (3)

= 5.1217',,. in fps
and (4) preceding, 27r/7'i,. ,
or
= 3.0327',, in kt
2ir
= 1.5G17',, in ini)ersec. l2wL,r

(3) T„ = \/2rLJg
= (9) Tlie line of orbit centers of the surface
0.4419\//y„-, in sec wh en /vn- is in ft
particles is at the distance 5r(/i„)V(-l^'ii) =
= O.SOOSvLic, insecwlien //„ i.s in m. tt/i" .?//>„. = 0.7854(/i„)V/.„. above the still-water
level. At any depth h, where the orbit radius is R,
i IT — — tli(! con^'spniiding distiineo is

(4) I'rr'(|Ufnry = rn—

i w 2ir 2ye«,
Sec. 4S3 WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA 163

(10) At a depth h below the surface, the radius fortable performance when steaming nearly ahead
R of the orbit centers at that depth is given by into a regular train of waves having a length Lw
of 1.2 times the length of the ship. Then L^ =
1.2(L) = 1.2(510) = 612 ft; \/Z^ = 24.75 ft.

By substituting Lw = 2vRrc this becomes The celerity c of this wave,

reckoned with
res pect to the undisturbed water, is equal to
72 =Rse-'""'"'
VgL^/2T = 2.263 a/L^ = 2.263(24.75) = 56.01
When h = L^,R = R^e'^' = 0.0019i?s . Thus ft per sec. This is equivalent to 33.16 kt. For an
the orbital motion is virtually zero in water as angle of encounter a (alpha) of about 180 deg,
deep as the wave is long, and for practical pur- representing a head sea, the speed of encountering
poses the assumed unlimited depth is not neces- the waves is this wave speed plus the speed of the

sary; see Table 48.f of Sec. 48.7. ship, reckoned with respect to the undisturbed
(11) The total energy in the wave per unit water.
breadth is approximately 0.125w{hw)^L,r By this . The period T^ of this wave is w2-KLwlg =
formula, a salt-water wave 600 ft long and 30 ft 0.4419 VLr. or 0.4419(24.75) = The
10.94 sec.
high has about 2,000 ft-tons of energy per ft of frequency /, corresponding to the number of
breadth. wave crests which would pass a given point in
(12) Of the total energy in the wave, half of it space in 1 sec, is the reciprocal of the period or
is potential energy and half kinetic energy. 0.0914 wave per sec.
(13) From the relationship The height hw oi the wave is fixed by the
assumption made in item (24) of Table 64. d,
hw 2R.S
Steepness ratio which stated that the height would not exceed
2TrR, ^kRrc
0.55 vL;^ For the wave in question this is
.

the rolUng-circle radius Rrc = /iiF/[27r (steepness 0.55(24.75) = 13.61 ft. The steepness ratio hw/Lw
ratio)].For a limiting steepness ratio of 1/7, as is then 13.61/612 = 0.0222 or 1: 45.

depicted in the diagram of Fig. 48.B, The velocity and period of this wave, as taken
from the tables of Sec. 48.6, are listed in that
Rrc = /iB^/0.8976 = \.\Uhw = 2.228Rs.
section. Its maximum slope and orbital velocity
(14) The value of the virtual acceleration of are found in Sees. 48.5 and 48.7, respectively.
gravity is. 48.5 Elevations and Slopes of the Trochoidal
Wave. Table 48. a gives the ordinates of a tro-
At the crest, {Rrc — Rs)g/RRc
choidal wave surface in terms of the wave height
At any intermediate point, Rig /Rrc
hw The ordinates are spaced at equidistant
At the trough, {Rrc + Rs)g/RRc
•

For a limiting steepness ratio hw/L^ = 1/7, the

TABLE 48.a Ordinates for Construction of a
value of the first is 1 .228^/2.228 = 0.55^; of the Trochoidal Wave Profile
last, 3.228£?/2.228 = lA5g. The data listed here are from PNA, 1939, Vol. I, p. 207.
(15) The maximum slope of the wave surface The stations are spaced equally along the horizontal plane
is sin"' {Rs/Rrc) or, in radians, irhw/L^ . It from crest to trough. The base line for ordinates ia at the
occurs at the point where the orbit radius Rg is
bottom of the wave trough.

normal to the radius Ri For the same limiting

.

steepness ratio of 1/7, where Rrc = 2.228fls ,

Statio

the sine in question is 1/2.228 = 0.4488, whence

the slope angle f (zeta) is about 26.7 deg, as com-
pared to 30 deg for the highest possible Stokes
irrotational wave of approximately the same
steepness ratio.
As an example of the use of the data in the
foregoing, an estimate is made of the charac-
teristics of a trochoidal wave Avithin the range of
size and proportions listed for the operation of the
ABC ship in item (24) of Table 64.d.
Assume that the ship would give its least com-
161 IIVHRonVX XMICS I\ SHIP DESIGN Sec. 48.5

Fig. 4S.C Expijvnatory Sketch for Surface Slopes of a Trochoidai, Wave

intervals along the horizontal plane between the as indicated at the right on Figs. 48. B and 48. C.
crest and the trough, in a direction normal to It is to be noted particularly that the slope
the crest and trough lines. indicated by Eq. (48. i) is that at the position of a
The expression for the wave slope j'(zeta) is surface particle lying at the extremity of a radius
based upon the fact that a normal to the wave 72s which lies at the angular orbit position 6.
surface at any surface-particle point passes For a w-ave traveling to the left, as in Figs. 48.
through a point at a distance Rrc above the and 48. C, this angle is reckoned counter-clockwise
instantaneous orbit center of the particle. In from the top center, starting at a crest at the left
diagram 1 of Fig. O.G on page 163 of Volume I, or advancing end of a wave. The horizontal
the line P,Ci is normal to the wave surface at P, ,
distance from the crest to the position of tlie
whence the wave slope f equals the angle PiCiOi . particle is therefore the offset distance of the
In the diagram of Fig. 48. C the line Vid is normal orbit center from the crest, namely (3()0 —
to the wave surface at Vt and the wa\e slope ^^
, 0/36O)(Li,), modified by the offset position in
is represented by either the angle VidOi or the the orbit, namelj' Rs sin 9.

angle MiPiN* . By simple geometry, indicated Thus for Of = 2ir/3 or 120 (l(•^^ with the surface
in Fig. 48.C, particle Ij'ing at Pi ,

P4M. sin = VM* Rs sin e«

u_
J4'>'< _ Ki,
/l.s a 111 P4
04
lan tan f
f^Q^ _,_ Q^^j^ i^^^ _ ^^ ^^^ g
(48.i)
C^O, -F O^M, Rrc - Rs cos fl«

J2s(0.8(iC)) 0.86C.«,
where 6 is measured from the top center of the
orbit and cos in the lower quadrants is negative. Rrc - /es(-0.5) Rhc + 0.5«a
The maximum wave slope occurs when the The value of (360 - ej:im)Lw is L,r/3 and
Hurfacc-parlicle orbit radius P3O3 or lis in the that of Rs sin 0, = O.SGC)/?., . The latter is meas-
diagram of Fig. 48. C lies normal to the line PaC'a ured toward the crest, so the particle position
whence desired, reckoned from the crest in the direction
of advance of the wave, is
= sin =
fii..
(c^) »-'Ct) <-->
Since lia is /»«-/2 and Rhc = Lw/2-k,
To determine the niaxininn) slope of the t)12-ft
ha wave of Sec. 48.4, for the .\B(" ship of Part 4,
2_ it is nece.s.sary to know the orbital radius Rs of
f M.. = sin' M8.iia)
/.„ a surfaic particle and the radius of the rolling
2ir circle A';,,- by which the trochoidai surface is
Sec. 48.5 WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA 165

TABLE 48.b Lengths, Velocities, and Periods of Trochoidal Debp-Water Waves

166 11M)R()1)\.\AMU.S IN Mill' DLSICN Sec. 48.6

T.\HI,I'; IS.c- I'khioii, Lbnctii, and Vki/icity of Tro(-hoii>ai. Dkki'-Watkii Waves

This tablo is iiuluxcxi l)y iiitof^al values of tlip wave [H-ritxl 7'if in wo. The table inrludos also the angular orbital
velocities and the frequencies nith which various waves pass a point in space.
Sec. 48.7 WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA 167

TABLE 48. d Velocity, Length, and Period of Trochoidal Dbbp-Water Waves

This table is indexed by integral values of the wave velocity or celerity c in kt.

Velocity,
168 iiM)K()n\ \ wjif.s IN siiii> nrsir.N' Sec. -Ift.?

L'AHLIJ 4i>.d— (Continued)

Velocity,
Sec. 4S.S WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA 169

§50
170 IIM)R()in \ \\ll( s 1\ MIIF' nrSIGN Src. 4S.9

'1'aIII.K IS.Il -OlUllNATKS VOR A SiNK-WaVK PhOKILE

Tlio tabic gives 17 ordinut^is for the hiilf-loiigtii of a
aitmsoidul nave, distributed at IG equal iutcr\-alB between
crest and trough, as projected on a horizontal plane.

/«

Ti6b

Fig. 4S.E Ratios ok Wave Height to Wave Length

FOR Charactemstic Waves Used in Ship Design

It has been the practice for manj'' j^ears to base

ship-strength calculations on a wave having a
steepness ratio of 1/20. Tliis is often referred to
as a "static" wave but it niaj' be considered as a
following wa\-e that luxs exactly the same speed
as the ship, and is not distorted bj' the presence
of the ship.
Because this wave is not as steep as tlie storm
waves which make trouble for small ships, and is
steeper than tho.se which make wavogoing

TABLE 48.g Niedermaib and Wueelock Wave-

Height Design Values

Wave length
Sec. 48.10 WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA 171

plex waves with sinusoidal components, such as

those forming the basis of Figs. 48. G and 48.H of
Sec. 48.11, diagrams 2 through 5 of Fig. 48.F give

Equal
°
An<jles
J 72 ll^nR()I)^ \ wtK.s in ship dksign Sec. IS. 11

jKJSotl of the WluvKick ^vll\t^•< of Kin. 48.10, train. This means that l>oth trains are moving in the same
having a height /iir = 0.")5 V/..H- .
general direction. The water depth is (WK) ft (KM) fathoms)
or more.
A set of tPiilativp standard wave conditions
for the dotorniination of the wavegoing perform- C.\SK III. This is intended to represent the conditionB
obtaining in shallow water within a strong wind or storm
anee of ships in lie design stage, adapted from
I

region, where relatively' large and steep waves are produced

an initial proposal by the author in November
by winds of short iluralion. The result is a single, regular
1950. is given in Table IS.i. train of waves, in wlii<-li the wave velcx-ities may vary
from 0.4 to 1.2 or more times the maximum spec<l of the
ship under consideration. The stet'pne.'w ratio may vary
TABLK IS.i Tentativk Sta.nti.^rd W.wk Conditions from 0.12.5(I/S) to 0.0025(1/11)) or less. The angle of
KOR DtrrKIUUNATION OK TIIK WaVKOOING PKnf-OR.\l- encounter of the wave Iniin may vary from to ISO <|eg.
ANPE OF iSniPS IN TUB DkSION StAOB The depth of water may diminish to 2.5 times (he maxi-
(1) Wind and wind effects on the ship are not considered mum draft, possibly to 2.0 times that draft.
here. The waves describc<l are assumed to be produced
by some wind of undefined nature.
(
Willi the lliicc v;Mi;il)lcs listed in '.V.^E 1 of
"In .short, the old rule still holds, and always will,
Table 48. i, namely the ratio Lw'L, the steepne.ss
that it is the waves of a storm, not its winds, that
the mariner has to fear: ." IBiRclow, 11. B., and
. .
ratio /(» />i,- and the angle of eneomiter a, and
,

Edmon.«on. W. T., "Wind Waves at Sea; Breakers even with the intervals deliberately made large,
and .Surf," l'. S. Navy llydroKraphic Ollice publi- the inimber of possible combinations is almost
cation H. O. (>02, Washington, 1947, p. 401. prohibitive, rndoubtedly certain combinations of

(2) Unless othenvise stated, the sizes and i)roportions of variables, especially those producing resonant
the swells and waves are averages or signilicunt values for motion, are critical. Study of those combinations
the water areas of the world, rather than uncommon only may ultimately be found sufficient. The wave
ma.\ima of one kind or another. They mux be local averages
velocities are extended to a low range beeau.se it
if the principal conditions are such that the ship can

travel only in that area.

is possible for a ship with its forefoot nearly out
of the water, as in the ballast condition, to en-
(3) The lengths of regular or uniform swells .'ind wmvcs in
counter short, steep waves who.sc impact coincides
deep water may in general be taken as a function of their
velocities and \'ice versa.
with the natiii:il l2-n()(l('il \-iiiration of the ship
sfriiclurc.
C.\SE I. This is intended to represent the conditions
48.11 Delineation of a Synthetic Three-Com-
obtaining in the general but not immediate vicinitj- of an
area where a wind hiis been blowing for some time in a ponent Complex Sea. As an inilicatiun of the
nearly constant direction. The result is a simjjli', regular appearance and the characteristics of a synthetic
train of swells, in which the wave velocities may vary complex sea, a graphic example is workefl out in
from 0.4 to 1.2 or more times the ma.ximum speed of the which three components or trains of regular
ship under consideration. This range is intended to be
sinusoidal waves are superpo.sed. The primary
large enough to cover the region of resonant pitching.
The steepness ratios of these swells, expressed as wave train is a.ssumed to travel in the direction of 90
height All- to wave lengthvary from 0.083(1/12)
I^w , may (\v^ true (east), while the secondary trains travel
to 0.04(1/25) or less. The angle of encounter a of the ship
with the direction of travel of the wavt; train may vary
T-VBLI;; 48. j Characteristics ok Tiiukk Com-
from (following sea) to 180 deg (head sea). The water
ro.VKNTs OK a Complex Synthetic Sea
depth is (JOO ft (1(X) fathoms) or more.
The data listed here apply to the superpositions of
CASE II. This is intended to represent the conditions
Figs. 4S.Ci anil 48.11..\l| the wave components are sinu-
obtaining in the general vicinity of one strong wind or
soidal form but their velocities of translation and periods
ill
storm area and in the immediate vicinity of another.
arc ealculateil from the fornuilius for trochoidal waves.
Due to a shift in storm center or other cau.ses, the wind in For a wave length L\y in ft, these are c " 2.201? v^Z/ic in
the latter an-a is blowing in a direction difTcrent from that
ft per .sec; 'l\y • 0.4419\//.,ir in sec.
in which it bli.'W in the former area. The result is one or
possibly two S4-condary wave trains impo.sed upon a Direction of tran.slatioii, true 00 deg 75 dru i:i5drg
itclceted primary train of swells of C.\SE I. When the Wove length, ft 4(1(1 240 120
wells arc of simple geometric form, this is known as a Wave height, ft s I

complex synthelii' two-comi>onent (or tliree-c(mipone.nt) Steepness ratio 1 /.W l/IO !/:«)

»ea. The secondary wave veliM-itics may vary from 0. Wave celerity, ft |M>r sec 45.20 :i5.()0 2l.7i)

to 0.8 nf the maximum H{M-ed of the ship under considera- kt 20.70 20.75 14.(i7

tion. In othiT words, they may exceed the primary swell Wave iwriod, sec S.840 0.SI7 4.S12
velority. Tin- flireclion of thi- wcondary (rain (or trains) Distance traveletl by wave in
nmy lie within (SO deg of tin? direction of the primary 3 sec, ft 135.7S 105.17 74.373
Sec.-fS.lI WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA 173

at 75 deg and 135 deg true. Their wave lengths other in the desired positions. The resultant
are 400 ft, 240 ft, and 120 ft, respectively, with pattern is built up on a fourth transparent sheet,

rather moderate steepness ratios of 1/50, 1/40, superposed on the other three, by adding the
and 1/30, in the order given. The corresponding elevations algebraically at a multitude of points
wave heights hw are 8, 6, and 4 ft. Other charac- throughout the field.

teristics of these waves are given in Table 48. j. To show how much of an "ilot" (French for
All components have sinusoidal wave profiles. "islet") [Pommellet, A., ATMA, 1949, Vol. 48,
Their elevations (or depressions) above the pp. 589-608] would be formed by three wave
assumed quiet water plane may therefore be crests piled on top of each other, it is assumed as
added algebraically to produce the elevations a starter that all three crest lines intersect at the
(considered as a + distance) or depressions time to . This intersection is the reference point
(considered as a — distance) of the resultant, or origin 0, taken to be fixed in space. The three
above or below the reference plane. contour patterns, when laid down at the proper
The first step in the graphic superposition is angles, are so placed that their crest lines cross the
to draw, to a convenient scale, three transparent origin. Contours of the composite pattern are
contour patterns for the three sinusoidal waves, then sketched at 1-ft intervals, with the result
having straight, parallel lines laid off normal to shown in Fig. 48. G. Those portions of the com-
the direction of travel at elevations to represent posite waves whose surfaces slope downward and
1-ft contours, including the crests and troughs. to the right have the contours indicated by heavy
The data for positioning the contour lines between broken lines, as though in shadow when illumin-
successive wave crests, for various equal sub- ated by a low sun at about 270 deg true (in the
divisions of thewave height, are given in Fig. 48. F. west).
The three patterns are laid down over each The validity of this method of superposition

' y' J 1 1 \ ON N
Fig. 48.G Contour Diageam for Three Superposed Sinusoidal Waves
174 11M)R01)V.\AM1C;S 1\ sllll' Dl.SlGN Sec. 48.11

wa-s puiiitctl "111 many years Franz ago by .\t the origin, tho hcigiit of tho water "i.slct"
(lorstiier, in his classic paper of 1802 on the ai)ove the undisturbetl level is 4 + 3 + '- = 9 ft.

trochoidal wave, referenced in Sec. 48.18: Close to this toward the WSW, is a deep
islet,

iiole, extending G.4 ft below the undisturbetl water

"Sine* this llutiry of \vavo« is h.-t.-x"*! ii|)on tho cquality
level. Within 14.5 ft of the origin, therefore, one
of hydroslntic prp.isurp, it motions of the
followH that all

»!it»^r which do not cluingc this uniformity of pressure,

(inds a difference in elevation of 15.4 ft. The
neither disturb the wave motion. This makes it possible steepness ratio of the wave near the origin is of
for several waves of various sizes to cross in difTerent the order of 1/18.7, as comjjared to steepness
dirwtions, and ronlinue their motion undisturbed, .\gain ratios of 1,'30, 1/40, and l/oO for the components.
genonU c.\|)crienco supplies ample verification. At the
The maximum wave slope near the origin is
e&ma time it explains the numerous elevations which
about 10 (leg.
frequently ap|)onr at the surface of tho wat<ir" llOiiKli.^h

tran.<lation, Univ. of Cal., 1952, par. 16, p. 14].

Oneither side- of this group of one high crest
two deep troughs, within 300 or 400 ft, the
.•mil

Assuming tliat a ship is traveling through tliis waver level is relatively flat, with crests and
synthetic complex sea on a course of 70 cleg true, troughs less than 1.5 ft in magnitude.
there results the profile in diagram 1 of Fig. 48.1. Following the composition of the synthetic
To emphasize the irregularities in surface eleva- three-component wave at to , each wave is then
tion, the profile ordinatcs above and below the shifted to the position it would occupy at the
undisturbed or quiet water level are magnified time <o + 3 sec, by the distance indicated in
6.308 times. Table 48. j. A new composite pattern is sketched,

,'//ti \

Fio. 48.H Contour Diackam m\\ Tiiuee Suruni'OBBo Sinuboidal Wavbh, 3 Seconos Latkr Than Fto. 48.0
Sec. -fS.JZ WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA 175

Composite Wave
Elevotion of Undisturbed Water Level ,15. 4 ft in Profile ot Zero Time tn
145 ft

Steepness Ratio of Wave ot

Origin is about 1/18.7 or 0.0535
Actual Wove Slope l/5,66 - ton"'O.I768
iOdeq.obt
Oriqin in Space in the Center of Fiqs 46.& ond 48 H

Sections Token ot 70 deq True Vertical Scale is 6.308 times Honzontol Scale

Profile ot to+3 seconds

Fig. 48.1 Profiles at 70 Deg True for the Wave Patterns of Figs. 48.G and 48.H

indicated in Fig. 48. H for a time 3 sec later.
point of origin in space remains at the center of
the figure, as before.
A vertical through the origin at a
section
direction of 70 deg true is drawn in diagram 2 of
Fig. 48.1, again with the vertical scale multipUed
6.308 times. The "islet" which was in the center
has moved toward the ENE, but it is now only
7 ft high. The trough at the origin is slightly
deeper than before, 6.5 ft. To the east, the surface
is depressed but flatter than before, while to the
west a large wave is building up.
The area depicted is not large enough to give
a reasonable indication of the variations to be
The three-component synthetic may be used as the
base and the two secondary trains added to it.
However, the three-component sea appears at
this time (1955) to be sufficiently irregular to
serve for ship-design purposes, as indicating the
kind of waves in which a ship is expected to travel.
48.12 Tabulated Data for Actual Wind Waves.
A table embodying average relationships between
natural waves in deep water and the wind causing
them is given by Vaughan Cornish in his book
"Waves of the Sea and Other Water Waves"
[F. T. Unwin, London, 1910]. Additional data
are given in his Cantor lecture before the Royal
Society of Arts, London, 1914. Cornish's table is

expected in resultant wave lengths and wave quoted by E. L. Attwood, H. S. Pengelly, and
periods, but within the confines of Figs. 48. A. J. Sims on page 202 of their handbook "Theo-
and 48.H the lengths vary from 210 to 220 ft in retical Naval Architecture," 1953. It is repeated,
one group, 270 to 280 ft in another group, and with some adaptations, in Table 48. k.
over 400 ft in a third. It is noted from this table that as the length
While the horizontal patterns of the waves in of wave increases the steepness ratio hw/Lw
these diagrams exhibit some systematic regular- decreases.According to the figures given, the
ities, a close examination of the contours reveals standard structural-design ratio of li^l^w = 20
that the surface is almost as irregular as one stUl used in many quarters can not fairly be
expects the ocean to be. applied to ships longer than about 470 ft.

In fact, C. O'D. Iselin points out that wind More comprehensive and more modern data
waves in nature are not symmetrical, and that on the relationships between the winds and
their dominant characteristic is the short length waves of nature are given in the tables of U. S.
of the crests of the individual waves, shown by the Navy Hydrographic Office publication H.O. 602,
plots of Figs. 48. G and 48. H ["Oceanography and 1947, especially Table 4 on page 18 and Table 15
Naval Architecture," SNAME, New Engl. Sect., on page 32. The latter embodies a third and
Jun 1954]. The plots could be made more irregular, necessary variable in this relationship, namely the
if desired, by adding two more trains to build up a duration of the wind which is generating the
five-component sea. Graphically, only three waves. Both these tables appear to take it for
components need be combined at once, since the granted that the wind is blowing steadily m one
176 iiVDRonvx XNfK.s i\ Mill' orsicv Srr. tS.n

TABLE -IS.k — AvKR-VGK KKt-ATinvsiiii' Bktwkks N Alt rm. Winhs and \\ avks
For the source of those diita, see tho arcompimying text. The Beaufort si-ale numbers and wind velocities do not
conform to tho latest U. S. Navy values as given along the top edge of Fig. 48.J. For this tabic it is assumed that the
waves travel at the same spocd as the vrind.

Description
Sec. 48.14 WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA 177

„n0
4 8
178 !iM)R()n\.\ xMic.s ix siiir i)i:si(;n' Sec. fS.lf

30-
a>
»0

-10
£^
•'
c
9 X>
o ^J?^-
i 10
^
,-"0
>-20
I ;:v

2:
10

Sectic-

FiG. -l.S.K
Ser.4R.I1 WIND WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA
Fig. 48.L One op a Pair of Stereoscopic Taken Abeam on the Aircraft Carrier
PhoiocjUaiiis
West of Cape Horn
camera horizontal, as was the case with the Oriskany
photographs of 1952. As many as three photographs
were made simultaneously at times. The reduction
was accomplished by the use of a Zeiss stereo-
comparator. A contour diagram of one pair of
exposures, together with a considerable number of (4)
sections through the diagrammed wave, are repro-
duced on page 1980 of the reference. Photographs
are to be found on three plates bound in a separate
volume of tables accompanying the text. (5)
(2) Laas, W., "Die Messung der Meereswellen und ihre
Bedeutung fiir den Schiffbau (Measurement of
Sea Waves and Its Influence in Naval Architec-
ture)," STG, 1906, Vol. 7, pp. 391-407
(3) Laas, W., "Die Photographische Messung der Meere-
179
Oriskany,
swellen (The Photographic Measurement of Ocean
Waves)," Institut fiir Meereskunde (Institute of
Oceanography), 1921; pubhshed b}' Mitler and Son,
Berlin. This report is mentioned in TMB Transl.
204, Nov 1949, p. 72.
Weinblum, G., and Block, W., "Stereophotogram-
metrische Wellenaufnahmen (Stereophotogrammet-
ric Wave Photographs)," STG, 1936, Vol. 37, pp.
214-250 and 259-276; TMB
Transl. 204, Nov 1949
Schumacher, A., "Ozeanographische Sonderunter-
suchungen (Special Oceanographic Examinations),"
Erste Lieferung, Stereophotogrammetiische Welle-
naufnahmen, Vol. VII, No. 2 of the Scientific
Results of the German Atlantic Expedition with the
research and experimental ship Meteor, Berlin, 1939
180 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SMIP DESIGN Sec. 48.15

Horizontal Reference Plane

Fig. 4S.M Nink Wave Phokii.ks Determined krom a Pair of Stereoscopic Photographs Taken from the
U. S. S. Oriskany

(6) Hidaka, K., "Stereophotogrammetric Survey of Waves The iclatioa Ijctween c^ and c„ is shown gra-
and Swells in the Ooenn," Memoirs, Marine Observa- phically in Fig. 48.x, adapted from \V. Taylor
1^.
tory, KoIh', Japan, 1941, Vol. 7, pp. 231-30S
[8and P, 194:^, Fig. 10, p. 12]. Other relation.ships
(7) Marusj<i, 'Stereophotogrammetric Apparatus for
A.,
the Study of Waves Generated by Ship Models,"
between shallow-water waves and deep-water
Inter. Shpbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol. 2, No. 15, pp. waves, taken from W. F. Durand [RPS, 1903,
537-53.S. (Jn page 53S there is a list of references. Table \', p. 77], ini' given in Table 48.1.

48.15 Comparison Between Waves in Shallow

Water and in Deep Water. Sec. 9.10 describes
how, when a decp-wator wave move.s into .shallow
water (not necessarily up a sloping beach), its
celerity decreases for a given wave length L,p ,

it becomes steeper, and its crests take on a more

peaked profile. Table 29 on page 104 of U. S.

Navy llydrogruphic Office publication H.O. G02

gives the decrease in lengths and velocities of
waves of different dimensions as they advance
over a shoaling bottom.
The stead}' tran.slational speed c* of a wave in
shallow water of constant depth h is, from Sec.
9.10 of V^olume I,

0. = „.{.a„h(g- (!).iv)

where c„ is the deep-water wave speed.

The .shallow-water wave velocity in a ll'Ulll of
water h may also be expressed as

(IK.iii)
-{fe)'-(!;:f"
The pericKJ of a shallow-water wave fron
Sec. 18.10,

l
^rLJe'""-' + 1) ]"°
Fio. 'IS.N Graph Showing Ratio Dbtwbrn Wave
L ffCe"*"" - 1) J \'i;M)crriK8 in SiiAi.utw and is Df.ep Water
Sec. 4R.17 WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA 18]

Table 48.1 Comparison Between Characteristics op

Shallow-Water and Deep-Wateh Waves
182 lUMRODV.NAMICb l.N Mill' DLSICX Sec. tS.lS

lO 10
Sec. 48.18 WIND-WAVE AND SHIP WAVE DATA 183

1802. Tiansl. by R. M. Kay and edited by Oswald vancement embodies the report of a
of Science, 1869,
Sibul,from an article in German edited by Gilbert, CommitteeconsistingofMr.C. W. Merrificld,F.R.S.,
Annalen der Physik, Vol. 32, 1809. Inst. Eng'g. Mr. G. P. Bidder, Captain Douglas Galton, F.R.S.,
Res., Univ. Gal., Waves Research Lab., Tech. Mr. F. Galton, F.R.S., Professor Rankine, P.R.S.,
Rep. Ser. 3, Issue 339, TIP U-24940, Sep 1952. and Mr. W. Froude. This Committee was appointed
The figures from Gilbert's paper of 1809 are to report on the state of existing knowledge of the
reproduced in this translation. Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of
(2) Cauchy, A. L., "Memoire sur la Thfiorie des Ondes Ships, and as to the application which it may be
(Memoir on the Theory of Waves)," 1815. Publ. desirable to make to Her Majesty's Government
in M6m. de I'Acad. Roy. des Sciences, 1827; also on these subjects. The findings of this Committee,
in "Oeuvres Completes ," Paris, 1882, Vol. I,
. . . on page 38, listed as sources of information on
1st series. waves the references numbered (5) through (12) of
(3) Poisson, S. D., "M6moire sur la Th6orie des Ondes this bibliography plus a paper by Cialdi entitled
(Memoir on the Theory of Waves)," M6m. de "Sul Moto ondoso del Mare" and some papers in
I'Acad. Roy. des Sciences, 1816. Liouville's Journal of 1866 by Caligny.
(4) Weber, Ernst Heinrich, and Weber, Wilhelra, (16) Bertin, L. E., "Memoir on the Experimental Study
"Wellentheorie auf Experimente gegriindet, oder of Waves," INA, 1873, Vol. 14, pp. 155-169. A
iiber die Wellen tropfbarer Fliissigkeiten mit considerable number of references appear in the
Anwendung auf die Sohall- und Licht-wellen (Wave footnotes of this paper.
Theory Based upon Experiments, or Concerning (17) Rankine, W. J. M., "Waves in Liquids," INA, 1873,
the Waves Non-Viscous Liquids with Applica-
of Vol. 14, pp. 170-178
tion to Sound and Light Waves)," Leipzig, Gerhard (18) Bertin, L. E., "Nouvelle note sur les vagues de
Fleischer, 1825. The experiments of the Weber hauteur et de vitesse variables (New Note on
brothers are described briefly and illustrated by Waves of Variable Height and Velocity)," Comptes
H. Rouse and S. Ince in their "History of Rendus, Acad. Sci., Paris, 9 Mar 1874, Vol.
Hydraulics," Chap. 7, Supplement to "La Houille LXXVIII, p. 676ff
Blanche," 1955, No. 3, pp. 145-146. (19) Rayleigh, Lord, "On Waves," Phil. Mag., Roy. Soc,
In the words of J. Scott Russell [Brit. Assn. 1876, Vol. 5, p. 257ff
Rep. 1844, p. 332], "The work is distinguished by (20) Bertin, L. E., "Les vagues et le roulis, les qualitSs
more than the usual characteristics of German nautiquos des navires (Waves and RolUng; The
industry in the collection of materials, and contains Wavegoing Qualities of Ships)," Paris, 1877, p. 37ff
nearly all that has ever been written on waves since (21) WooUey, J., "On the Theory of Deep-Sea or Oscillating
the time of Newton, and as a book of reference Waves," INA, 1878, Vol. 19, pp. 66-79
alone is a valuable history of wave research." (22) Gatewood, R., "The Theory of the Deep-Sea Wave,"
(5) Young, Dr. Thomas, "Natural Philosophy," (prior USNI, 1883, Vol. 9, pp. 223-254
to 1833), Vol. II, p. 64ff. The matter of wave (23) de Saint-Venant, J.-C. B., "Histoire succinct des
reflection is considered in this paper. recherches sur les ondes (Concise History of Re-
(6) Robison, and Russell, J. Scott, "Report of the
J., search on Waves)," Annales des Fonts et ChaussSes,
Committee on Waves," British Association Report, 1888, Vol. XV, 6th Serie, 1st semestre, p. 710£f
1837. Presented at Liverpool in 1838. (24) Flamant, G., "Expose sommaire de la thSorie
(7) Russell, J. Scott, "Supplementary Report on Waves," actuelle des ondes liquides periodiques (Summary
British Association Report, 1841 of the Theory of Periodic Waves in a Liquid),"
(8) Russell, J. Scott, "Results of Investigations on Annales des Fonts et Chaussees, 1888, Vol. XV,
Waves," British Association Report, 1842 1st semestre
(9) Russell, J. Scott,"Report of Committee on Waves," (25) Gaillard, D., "Wave Action in Relation to Engi-
British Association Report, 1844, pp. 311-390 and neering Structures," Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army,
Pis. 47-57 Prof. Paper 31, 1904. This paper was reprinted in
(10) Airy, Sir George B., "On Tides and Waves," Encycl. 1935 by the Engineer School, Fort Belvoir, Virginia.
Metropolitana, London, 1845 (reprinted in a (26) Cornish, V., "Wavesof the Sea, and Other Water
separate form) Waves," Unwin, London, 1910
F. T.
(11) Stokes, Sir George G., "On the Theory of Oscillatory (27) Kriimmel, O., "Handbuch der Ozeanographie (Hand-
Waves," Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc, 1847, Vol. book for Oceanography)," J. Engelhorn, Stuttgart,
VIII, p. 441flf 1911, especially "Der Bewegungsformen des
(12) Froude, W., "On the Rolling of Ships," Appendix 2 Meeres (The Motion Forms of the Ocean) in
entitled "On the Dynamical Structure of Oscillating Vol. II
Waves," INA, 1862, pp. 48-62 and PI. Ill (28) Cornish, V., Cantor lecture, Royal Soc. Arts (Lon-
(13) Rankine, W. J. M., "On the Exact Form of Waves don), 1914
Near the Surface of Deep Water," Phil. Trans. (29) Zimmermann, E., "Aufsuchung von Mittelwerten
Roy. Soc, 1863, Vol. 153, pp. 127-138 fiir die Formen ausgewachsener Meereswellen auf

(14a) Rankine, W. J. M., "On the Action of Waves Upon Grund alter und neuer Beobachtungen (Search
a Ship's Keel," INA, 1864, pp. 20-34 for Average Values for the Form of Fully Developed
(14b) Rankine, W. J. M., "On Waves Which Travel Along Ocean Waves, Based on Old and New Observa-
with Ships," INA, 1868, Vol. IX, pp. 275-281. tions)," Schiffbau, 28 Apr 1920, pp. 633-640;
(15) The Report of the British Association for the Ad- 5 May 1920, pp. 663-670
181 lIMJ^JDWAMlt..-) l.\ Mlir IM.SU.N Scc.-ifi.lS

CM) HopuT, E., "A ('oiitril)iilioii to tho Theory of Ship New York Academy of Sciences on 18-19 March
Wiivce," (in Knglish), Arkiv fOr Mntcmatik, 1948. Separate bibliographies arc to be found at the
Aatronomi och Fysik, Stockholm, 1922-102.S, end of most of the pa|KTs, particularly on pp. 3.50,
Vol. 17. Paper 12 375, 401, 441, 4(12, 474, 482, 500, 510, 521, and 54-1.
(31) Hognor, E., "Notes on Somo New Contributions to (44) "Gravity Waves: Proceedings of the NBS Semicen-
the Thi>ory of Ship Waves" (in English), Arkiv tennial Symposium on Gravity Waves, 18-20 June
fflr Matcnintik, Astronomi och Fysik, Stockholm, 1951," NBS Circular .521, 28 Nov 19.52, Govt.
1924-192"i. Vol. IS, Pai>er 10 Print. Off., Washington. Contains thirty-three
(32) Hogncr, E., "Uebcr die Theorie tier von eincm Srhiff papers by various authors; each paper with its
eneuRten Welleii uml ilcs Wellenwidprstnniies (On own list of references. Of particular interest are:
the Thi-ory of Waves ami Wave Resistance
Neumann, C. "On the Complex Nature of
1.
Causo«l l>y a Ship)," Proc. 1st Int. Cong, for Appl.
Ocean Waves and the Oniwtli of the Sea Under
Mech., lilft, 15124. pp. 1 17-100
the Action of Wind," Pap<T 10, j)p. (il (is
(33) Levi-Civita, T., "DV-lorniination rigniireu.'Je dea ondes 2. Deacon, G. E. U., ".\nalysis of Sea Waves,"
p«'rmanente.'! d'aniploiir (iiiif (RigorouB Deter-
Paper 23, pp. 209-214.
mination of Permanent Waves of Finite .\mpli-
tude\" Math. Ann., l'.>2.-., Vol. 'Xi, p. 2tiHT (45) Kculegan, G. H., "Wave Motion," Chap. XI of
(34) Von I>jiri!!ch, Graf, "Sturmsoc und Hrandung (Storm "Engineering Hydraulics," 1950, pp. 711-7()8. On
Seas and Breakers or Surf)," Bielefeld und Leipzig, pp. 76(i-768 the author lists 31 references on waves
1925. This book contains many excellent wave and wave motion. Some of them appl\' primarily to
photographs. hydraulics but there are a considerable number of
(35) Jeffreys. H., "On the Formation of Water Waves by general interest to the naval architect and to the
Wind," Proc. Roy. Soc, Series A, 1925, Vol. 107, physicist.

pp. 1S9-206 (46) Munk, W. H., and .\rlhur, R. S., "Forecasting Ocean
(36) Thorade, H. F., "Probleme der Wasserwellen (Prob- Waves," Compendium of Meteorology, American
lems of Water Waves)," publisheil in Probleme der Meteorological Society, Boston, 1951, pp. 1082-
Kosmischen Physik, Vols. 13, 14, II. Grand, 1089. This paper lists 25 references.
Hamburg, 19.^1 (47) Munk, W. H., "Ocean Waves as a Meteorological
(37) Patton, R. S., and Marmer, H. A., "The Waves of Tool," Compendium of Meteorology, .American
the Sea; Physics of the Earth," 1932. This is Meteorological Society, Boston, 1951, pp. 1090-
Vol. 5 of a work on Oceanography puljlished in 1100. There are 16 references with this paper.
Bull. 85 of the National Research Council, Wash- (48) Mason, M. A., "Surface Water Wave Theories,"
ington, pp. 207-228 ASCE, Hydraulics Div., Mar 1952, Vol. 78,
(38) Cornish, V., "Ocean Waves and ICindred Geophysical Separate 120. .\n excellent, readable, well-illus-
Phenomena," Cambridge Univ. Press (England), trated, iion-mathcmatic summary of the subject.
1934 There is a list of 68 references, of which the first
(39) Lavrent'cv, M. A., "Sur la Th6orie E.vact des Ondes dozen or so give the principal historic papers.
Longucs (On the E.\act Theory of I/Ong Waves)," (49) Sverdrup, H. U., Johnson, M. W., and Fleming,
translation from Recueil des Travau.x dc I'lnstitut R. H., "The Oceans: Their Physics, Chemistry,
Mathematiquc de TAcad^mic des Sciences dc la and General Biolog.v," Prentice-Hall, New York,
RSS d'Ukrainc, 1.04G, No, S, pp. l.'Mi9. Also, by 1952, Ch.'ip. XIV, pp. 516-537
the sjime author, "A Contribution to the Theory (50) Picrson, W. J., Jr., Neumann, G., and James, R. W.,
of Long Waves," translation from C. R. (Doklady) "Practical Methods for Observing and Forecasting
Acad. Sci. UR S.SS (N.S.), 1943, Vol. 41, pp. Ocean Waves by Means of Wave Spectra and
27.5-277. Both translations are available in the Statistics," prepared as Technical Report 1 under
library of the Bureau of Ships of the Navj' Depart- Contract Nl89s-86743, BuAer Project AROWA,
ment, library numbers 50655 and 50656, respec- July 1953. On pages 320 and 321 there is a bibhog-
tively. raphy of 39 items.
(40) Lamb, Sir Horace, "Hydrodynamics," Dover Publi- (51) Eckart, C, "The Generation of Wind Waves on a
cations, New York, 6th ed., 1945, Chap. IX on Water Surface," Jour. Appl. Phys., Dec 1953, Vol.
"Surface Waves," pp. 36;}-475. This book contains 24, No. 12, pp. 1485-1494. Review by W. H.
many references in the footnotes. Munk in Appl. Mech. Rev., Jun 1954, p. 279.
(41) Deacon, G. E. R., "Ocean Waves and Swell," The (52) Proudman, J., "Dynamical Oceanography," Methuen
Occasional Papers of the Challenger Society, 1946 and Company, London; Wiley, New York, 1953
(42) Bigelow, H. B., and Edmondson, W. T., "Wind (53) "Waves, Tides, Currents and Beaches: Glo.ssary of
Waves at S«'a; Breakers and .Surf," U. S. Navy Terms and List of Standard Symbols," 1953,
Hydrographic OfTice publ. H.O. 602, 1947. On Council on Wave Research, Eng'g. Found'n.,
page 177 there is a list of 17 selected references, Univ. Calif., Berkeley
iHjme of which are given here. (54) "Gravity Waves: Tables of I'\inctions," 1954,
(43) "Ocean Swrfaix' Waves," Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Council un Wave Research, luig'g. Found'n.,
.May 1949, \'ol. 51, pp. 343 .172. This is a collection Univ. Calif., Berkeley
of lifttxin paiNTH by eighte<-n autluirs, reporting on (55) Deacon, G. K. R., "Response of the Sea Surface to
a Oinferencc on (Jcean Surface Waves held by tho Winds," Jour. Inst. Navigation (Unit4.>d Kingdom),
Section of Oceanography and Meteorology of tho Jul 1954, Vol. 7, PI). 252-261
Sec. 48.19 WIND-WAVE AND SHIP-WAVE DATA 185

(56) "Ships and Waves," Proc. First Conf. on Ships and Pole Exp., 1893-1896, Sci. Results, Vol. V, Part XV,
Waves, Oct 1954, publ. by Council on Wave Christiania (Oslo), 1906
Research and SNAME, 1955. (6) Bjerknes, V., Solberg, H., Bjerknes, J., and Bergeron,
T., "Physikalische Hydrodynamik mit Anwendung
48.19 Bibliography on Subsurface Waves.
For auf die dynamische Meteorologie (Physical Hydro-
the reader who wishes to pursue the study of dynamics as Applied to Dynamic Meteorology),"
surface waves and the Hall Effect beyond the Springer, Berlin, 1933, and Edwards Bros., Ann
Arbor, 1943, pp. 387-391. This reference gives a
brief discussion of Sec. 10.20, the following refer-
table of themaximum velocity of subsurface waves,
ences are available: depending upon the thickness of the upper (lighter-
(1) Lamb, H., liD, 1945, pp. 370-375; "On Waves due to density) layer, and its sahnity content.
a Travelling Disturbance, with an Application to (7) Milne-Thomson, L. M., TH, 1950, Art. 14.42, pp.
Waves in Superposed Fluids," Phil. Mag. (6), 367-368, entitled "Waves at an Interface"
1916, Vol. 31, p. 3S6ff (8) Ippen, A. T., and Harlemen, D. R. F., "Steady-State
(2) Froude, W., "Remarks on the Differential Wave in a Characteristics of Subsurface Flow," NBS Circ. 521,
Stratified Fluid," INA, 1863, Vol. 4, pp. 216-218 June 1951
(3) Stokes, G. G., Trans. Cambr. Phil. Soc., 1842-1849, (9) Sverdrup, H. U., Johnson, M. W., and Fleming, R. H.,
Vol. 8, pp. 451-452 "The Oceans: Their Chemistry and
Physics,
(4) "The Mariner's Mirror," Apr 1943, Vol. 29, pp. 73-74 General Biology," Prentice-Hall, New York, 1952,
(5) Eckman, V. W., "On Dead- Water," Norweg. North pp. 585-602, on "Internal Waves."
 CHAPTER 49

Mathematical Methods for Dehiieating Bodies

and Ship Forms
49.1 Scope of This Chapter; Definitions .... 180 Graphic Determination of the Dimensionlcss
49.2 The Ueefulne-'ss of Mathematical Ship Lines . 180 Longitudinal Curvature of any Ship Line . 196
19.3 E.xisting Mathematical Formulas for Deline- 49.11 Mathematic Delineation and Fairing of a
ating Ship Lines 187 Section-.\roa Curve 19S
49.4 Mathematical and Dimcnsioriless Represen- 49.12 Ix)ngitudinal Flowplane Curvature .... 199
tation of a Ship Surface 189 49.13 Checking and Establishing Fairness of Lines
49.5 Application of the Dimensionlcss Surface by Mathematical Methods 199
Equation to Ship-Shaped Forms .... 191 Illustrative Example for Fairing the De-
49.6 Summary of Dimensionlcss General Equa- signed Waterline of the ABC Ship .... 200
tions for Ship Forms 192 Practical Use of Mathematical Formulas for
49.7 Limitations of Mathematical Lines .... 192 Faired Principal Lines 203
49.8 Value and Relationship of Fairness and 49.16 The Geometric Variation of Ship Forms . . 204
Curvature 193 49.17 Selected References Relating to Mathe-
49.9 Notes on Longitudinal Curvature Analysis . 195 matical Lines for Ships 204

49.1 Scope of This Chapter; Definitions. .M;itli- JOvcn for the L'-ilinil case it may be convenient
omatiiul nicthod.s for doliiR'atiiig the forms of to divide the intersection or outhne into two or
bodies uiid ships are those by which the shape of more parts, with a separate origin or set of coor-
the outer surface, adjacent to the Uquid, may be dinates for each part, positioned to suit the
defined wholij' or in part by mathematical mathematical formulas employed.
fonnulas and equations which express the coor- The term geometric shape defines a body whose
dinates in terms of given reference axes. These outline or surface is represented by some simple
may be the rectangular (x, y, z) or Cartesian mathematical formula. Examples are a cube, a
coordinates in one, two, or three dimensions, the sphere, a circular-.sectioa cylinder, a right circular
cylindrical coordinates about an axis, the polar cone, a symmetrical pj'ramid, a parallelepiped, or
or spherical coordinates about a point, or whatever an ellipsoid. To achieve simplicitj' it may be
may be convenient for the purpo.se. With a necessary to u.sc a particular system of coordi-
selected set of numerical values a.s.signed to the nates and to establish limits in one or several
symbols of these equations, all or part of the dimensions, as for the cube iti cartesian coordi-
surface coordinates or offsets may
be calculated. nates. For any geometric shape one such simple
Part of a bodj' surface may be geometric, such expression is usually sufTicieiit.
as a nose of hemispherical or ellipsoidal shape of a 49.2 The Usefulness of Mathematical Ship
tiixly of revolution, attached to a cylindrical Lines. Before embarking on a discu.ssion of the
rniddieb(xly or circular section. Some other part mathematical delineation of the lines or surfaces
of the surface, such as the tail, may be highly of bodies and ships, it is well to answer the question
irregular, impractical for mathematic representa- that arises immediately in the mind of the
tion with any .set of reference axes. practical naval architect and shijjbuilder: UTiy
Instead of covering a whole 8-diml body .surface, bother with mathematical lines when faired lines
the mathematical formulas may be limited to can be drawn .so quicklj' by experienced jjcrsonnel?
llio.sr> required for the delineation of 2-diml It is ca.sy to give two answers to this (jucstion.
ftatures. A typical ca.se is the fomiula for the In the first place, analysis of the lines of many
int<T.s<-ction of a plane with the .'5-<liml surface, actual ships, in the form available to the naval
Hwcli U.S the designed waterline on a .ship. Hero archite(!t at large, imlicates that they arc not
the reference,' axis almost invariably lies in the strictly fair by any criteria, graphical or mathe-
inlerticcting plane. matical. In the .second place, experienced per.son-

186
Sec. 493 MATHEMATICAL LINES FOR SHIPS 187

nel areby no means available in sufficient numbers, 49.3 Existing Mathematical Formulas for De-
especially in a national emergency, to draw all lineating Ship Lines. The use of mathematical
the ship lines that need to be laid down. formulas for calculating the offsets of ship lines,
There are several other good reasons, both or better, for delineating what may be called
practical and scientific. For a ship of a new type, mathematical ship surfaces, is not necessarily
or of a novel shape, it is still a draw-and-erase tied to the mathematical calculation of resistance
process, even for an experienced hand, to lay due to wavemaking and other causes, discussed in
down the lines of a 3-diml ship surface that will Chap. 50. To be sure, many of the calculations
have the proportion and shape characteristics for pressure resistance due to wavemaking have
selected by the designer. When these charac- been carried out for ship forms whose waterlines
teristics are achieved, the fairing process remains, and transverse sections could be expressed by
or the curvatures require to be checked, as mathematical equations. These equations may,
described subsequently in this chapter. Assuming however, be used for establishing the lines without
a perfect drawing, its dimensions, coordinates, a subsequent attempt to calculate any element of
and offsets still require conversion to numbers, so the ship resistance.
that artisans with rules and scales can build the It appears to have been in the minds of the
These numbers have to be "lifted"
full-size ship. earliest workers in this field that the use of
from the graphic drawing but they are a natural mathematical equations to derive the usual
product of the mathematic method. offsets would also serve to achieve the hull
The numerical values of those hull coefficients proportions and parameters desired by the
and form parameters which are not used to set up designer and to tell him whether his volume and
the mathematical equations may be calculated area centers would be where he wanted them.
before any mathematical lines are laid down on
"The who has given an}'
oldest writer on forms of ships
paper. The designer may likewise calculate the well-defined system of laj'ing down lines was probably
positions of the various centers of area and of the distinguished naval architect Chapman,
(Swedish)
volume in which he is interested, to insure that who proposed to use a system of lines composed of para-
boUc curves adapted to the intended size and proportions
they fall in the proper places. Actually, the hull
of the vessel" [Thurston, R. H., "Forms of Fish and of
parameters are selected by the hull designer
Ships," INA, 1887, Vol. 28, p. 418].
while the subsequent calculations and the drafting
work are performed by computing-machine opera- Chapman's work in the 1760's or 1770's was
tors and di'aftsmen. followed in the early 1790's by the first recorded
As an example of what can be done with mathe- systematic tests on models, conducted by Mark
matical lines in an intensely practical case, the Beaufoy and others. These models were geometric
shape of the large blisters added to the U. S. shapes and could be said to have had geometric
battleships of the New Mexico class in the early or mathematical lines. From the 1830's to the
1930's was delineated by D. W. Taylor's mathe- 1870's mathematical curves such as the versed-
matical method, to be discussed presently. In sine curve of diagram A of Fig. 24.G, the cycloid,
some respects this was a more difficult job than the trochoid, and the streamlines around a
laying down the lines of the whole ship in the Rankine stream form were proposed and actually
first place. worked into the lines of ships of that day by
Entirely apart from the shipbuilding aspect, J. Scott Russell, James R. Napier, W. J. M.
mathematic delineation is invaluable when pre- Rankine, and others. Arcs of circles and possibly
paring the lines of a series of models in which some of eUipses as well have been worked into ship lines
parameter is to be varied systematically from since time immemorial [Narbeth, J. H., INA,
model to model. 1940, p. 147].
The development of mathematical formulas John W. Nystrom, in the 1860's, expanded
and methods for representing the principal lines Chapman's use of the paraboHc trace and de-
or the surfaces of ships has been somewhat spas- veloped what he called the "Parabohc Ship-
modic and is still far from a logical or practical building Construction." He utihzed parabolas of
conclusion. A brief history is given here of the varied order, with fractional as well as integral
outstanding events in the development, together make up both waterlines and sec-
exponents, to
with a summary of the results achieved to date His method, described in the Journal of
tions.
(1955). '
The Franklin Institute [Jul-Dec 1863, Third
188 MYnROnVNAMICS IN Sllll' DI.SIC.N Src. 19.3

Sorii-.s, \ol. XIA I, PI). :U-. H.V.I aiul .SSO ;{•)(>. aniplilied prr)cedure, .separate fornnilas are u.se<l

with Pis. U ami 111), i-nablwl him to lak-ulatc the for waterlincs and sections. The curve familias for
fiimpU'to set of offsets for a ship body plan fine sections are 4th-tlegiee parabolas; those for

represent iiiR an underwater form with a numerical full sections are hyperbolas. The entrance and the
value of block cocfHcient C/, selectetl in advanre. run, extending from the bow and stern, respec-
He describes, on page 358 of the reference: tively, to the section of maxinnun area, are
treated because the origins of the
separately,
"... a vessel coiistrurtcil wholly by the paraluilir nictlicxJ;
pvery rrosa soctioti or friiini' is ii paniliolii; tlio friiinu mathematical curves are taken at the bow and at
ilruwiiiK or lio<ly plan is laid ilown direct from caleillation the stern. The families of curves representing
without refen'iiee to water-lines or diaKonals and without waterlincs and section-area curves are given bj'
exiTcise of tjisto."
oth-ilegree polynomials with five arbitrary param-
lie was able, with this mathcmatic method, to eters, of the type y = tx { ax' -\- bx^ -f- ex* -\- dx''.

use reversetl i)arabolas for hollow waterlincs, to It was apparently' Taylor's intention to give a
calculate both the horizontal and the vertical shape to the waterlinc curves that would inii)art
position of the center of buoyancy CB, and to a predctemiined amount of lateral or normal
draw a curve of displacement volume on a basis acceleration to the water flowing aroimd them.

of draft. His methods are explained in detail in Xo parallel body mentioned in Taylor's paper
is

the reference and are illustratetl by examples.

cite<l although there isno difficulty in separat-
of course

Xystrom even goes so far as to tell, on ]ian;e :).")S

ing (he hull at the section of maximum area and

of the reference, how: inserting any desired length of cylindrical prism

luuing the maxinunn-section shajje.
". . . to form the displacement so as to present the least
Taylor's method is entirely suitable for practical
possil>lc resistance wlien forced throiigli water. The
immer.sotl area of each frame (station) should increase or
ami shipyard u.se;has been used off
in fact, it

diminish in a certain found theoretically to lie thai

series, iiiiij nil drawing model and ship lines at
for
the sfiuarc root of the sections (areas) should be ordinates Wa.shiugton for the past 50 years. A number of
in a parabola, the exponent of which depends on the I'. S. naval vessels have been constructed to
desired fulness of the displacement (block coefficient)."
the.sc lines. The body plan of a modern design,

The words in parent lieses arc those of I lie prcscMit most of which was delineated by Taylor's metlKul,
author. is reproduced in Fig. 4i).C of Sec. 40.7.

Subsequent papers by Nystrom, all on the same l']laboraling u\wn the quotation in a preceding
general subject, appear in references (.S) and (4) l)aragiaph from D. W. Taylor's Um SXAME
listed in Sec. A\)M. paper, his met hod makes it |)o.ssible, by the u.se of
Shortly after the Wasliinglon Model Ha.sin was eqiiidilTerent or progressive values for the i)aram-

put in operation in I'.KK) I). W. Taylor developc^d eters, any desired mnnlicr of ship
to develop
a mathematic "method of deriving (luickly the forms in This was of inestimable value
a series.

lines of a nuxlel i)o.sse.ssing certain desired charac- in the preparation of lines for large groups of

teristics, and . . . practicable; anil easy methods of models such as the Taylor Standard Series.
sysU'malically varying characteristics of models Using this method the series became scientifically

. ISXAMI-:, IIKW, pp. 24:3-2C7]. This method

.
." .systematic, with the minimum of elTort on the
covered the delineation of waterlincs, section l)art not only of those who planned it but tho.se
lines, and section-area curves. A somewhat who had to draw the lines for each model.
difTcrent mathematic method of producing water- An excellent sui)i)lementary slalement by
lines, section-area ciu'ves, and body plans, closely (;. P. Weinblmn |TMli Hep. "•*'. ^n) I'-'ot), p. 7),

resembling llio.se of actual ships, was proposed by from which the following is jjaraphra.sed, .says
J. N. Warrington .shortly tlicnnrirr |S\A.Mi;, dial T;i\liir developed mathematical formulas,

1909, pp. 41I~J52|. mil uiili (he idea that they gave the lines of a
Another decade of development by Taylor, ship of mininnnn resistance but sim|)ly to obtain
following lii.s original concepts, produced tlu; lines po.s.se.s,sing desired shapes. This statement is

paper entitled "(Calculations for Ships' Kornis important. Contrary to .some attempts to a.scribe
and the I^ight Thrown by Model l']xpeiiments magic ])roperlies to certain analytically delined

upon Resistance, Propulsion and Uolling of Ships" curves like trochoids and sine curves, the principle
I'l'rans. Int. lOng'g. ("ong., Nav. Arch, and Miir. of .systemali/ation was the decisive argument for

Mng., San Francisco, Hll.'i). In this revised and llieir .'tdnptiiin.

Sec. 49.4 MATHEMATICAL LINES EOR SHIPS 189

Unfortunately, Taylor's method was described 49.4 Mathematical and Dimensionless Repre-
in a publication not conveniently available to the sentation of a Ship Surface. In the Weinblum
average naval architect. There are reprints of this references of Sec. 49.3 the problem of the dimen-
paper but they have been given only limited sionless dehneation of a ship hull is generahzed:
circulation. Since the equations of waterlines and
First, by considering the entire underwater
sections are not linked together into equations of
boundary as a surface, rather than as a series of
surfaces in which the hull is treated as a whole,
intersections of that surface by three sets of
it is considered preferable by those who have
parallel planes at right angles to each other, long
studied this problem to develop a broader system
customary in naval architecture. In other words,
of ship-hull equations than to make Taylor's
instead of defining the shape by offsets of water-
work of 1915 available to a more extended group
lines, of bowlines and buttocks, and of section
of readers.
lines, usually at equidifferent intervals from three
The broader purpose envisaged by Weinblum
given planes of reference, it is defined for the
some fifteen years later, explained in references
normal case by the from the centerplane
y-offsets
(8) and (9) of Sec. 49.17, of representing the whole
or the plane of symmetry for amj point on the hull
ship surface by single equations, was followed
surface having the coordinates x and z.
by his more recent work at the David Taylor
Second, by expressing the ^/-offsets and the x- and
Model Basin, published in the following TMB
0-coordinates not as dimensions in well-known
reports:
length units but as non-dimensional ratios of the
710 "Analysis of Wave Resistance," written respective offsets and coordinates to the length,
jointly with J. Blum, Sep 1950. This report is in breadth, and draft dimensions. These 0-diml
the category of must reading for anyone studying ratios are given presently.
the subject of mathematical ship lines. Third, by placing the origin of the coordinate
758 "The Wave Resistance of Bodies of Revolu- system in the surface waterplane, in the plane of
tion," May 1951 symmetry, and at midlength of the immersed
840 "Investigations of Wave Effects Produced by form or underwater hull. The length of this hull
a Thin Body—TMB model 4125," Nov 1952. is L, the waterline length. While the vertical
Written jointly mth J. J. Kendrick and M. A. measurements on an actual ship are usually made
Todd. upward from the baseplane, in the mathematical
886 "A Systematic Evaluation of Michell's system they are made downward because this is
Integral," Jun 1955, especially those portions the positive direction of the 2-axis of the ship,
having to do with ship lines. described in Sec. 1.6 and indicated in Fig. l.K.
Weinblum has developed mathematical expres-
In the discussion which follows it is assumed
sions, to be described presently, which: that:
(a) Are suitable for delineating an entire ship
(a) The ship is a simple one which may be con-
form of given characteristics, based upon an
sidered symmetrical forward of and abaft the
origin amidships. This improves upon the Taylor
midlength station
procedure of treating the forebody and afterbody
(b) The ship is symmetrical with respect to the
separately, mth origins at the two ends.
centerplane, as is customary for real ships. The
(b) Will produce a series of forms -with scientific
definition sketch of Fig. 49.A is an isometric
systematic variations in these characteristics
diagram of the outline of such a ship, correspond-
(c) Will provide a basis for the systematic investi-
gation of wave-resistance characteristics of ships.
Non-Dirnensional Distances
This will, it is hoped, lead eventually to forms of
low if not least resistance.
(d) Will provide a basis for the calculation and
prediction of the flow pattern and the pressure
distribution around a ship
(e) Will form a more general foundation for
research on other problems of naval architecture
involving maneuvering, wavegoing, and behavior Fig. 49. a Definition Sketch of a Simple Ship
in shallow water and restricted channels. Surface with a Single Origin
190 HVDROnVNAMICS I\ SIIIT nisicx .S>r. -IP.-)

ingsomewhat to tlic uiulinvator IukIv of a Xortli ±l(f. f) (49. iv)

American Iiuliaii eaiioe. where a transverse 0-diml j;-funclion of

Tj((, f) is
The general dimensional equation of the hull
the iiull. In this case it is a function of both f and f
surface is then
The general surface equations serve eciuallj' well

y = ±y(x, z) (49.i) as equations of the usual ship lines when one of

the set of coordinates is given a fixed value. For
where the plus and mmus signs represent identical
the surface waterline, where z or f is zero, the
transverse offsets to starboard and port, respec- ef mat ions become
tively, and the expression y{x, z) signifies a
transverse (/-function for the hull. In this case 7/ = ±2/(.r, 0) and ,; = ±T,(f, 0) (49.v)

it isa function of both x and z. For example, if whore and are zero,
For the niiflscction, .r {
X were 21"j ft forward of the amidships origin on
a certain vessel, and z were 20 ft below the origin y = ±2/(0, z) and r, = ±»,(0, f) (49.vi)
(the latter in the iilane of the designed waterline),
For a submarine hull which is not a body of
y would be some value such as ±14.2 ft, measured
revolution and is not sjTnmetrical above and
to starboard and to port, by virtue of the func-
tion ifc(/(.r, z). If the j/-function were 1.0 for
below any horizontal reference plane, there would
any combination of absolute values of x and z, be required two sets of surface equations, one for
then the starboard and port «/-ofTsets would be the upper and one for the lower portion. The

etjual throughout. When defined by suitable x- common origin for the two would lie in some
and 2-limits the craft would have the form of a convenient horizontal axis or dividing plane.
wall-sidetl box or parallelepiped. Again, however, this would break up the vessel

If the craft were un.sjnnmetrical fore and aft as an entity by splitting it horizontally. A pro-

about the midlength it would be necessary cedure would have to be devised which would
retain a single ship equation for use in analytic
normally to use two surface equations:
studies, say of underwater maneuvering.

yy = zkyrix, z) for the forebodj' (49.iia) Weinblum's general or ba.sic procedure for hulls
that are asymmetric with respect to the midlength
y^ = ±2/4 (x, 2) for the afterbody (49.iib) section is to split up the surface equation into a
is symmetric fore and aft and an
main part that
This procedure has the effect, however, of "asymmetric (skew) deviation" represented by
destroying the ship as an entit}-, with a single [TMH Kep. SSG, .lun 1955,
a .secondary e(|uation
origin and a single surface ec|uation. Carried to
p. 10].Procedures and eciuations for the situation
its logical conclusion it would break up the ship
where the section of maximum area is not at
into two di.s.similar half-bodies, one comprising
midlength, with unequal entrance and run
the entrance and the other the run, each with its
lengths, anil for other asymmetric variations,
own set of surface, area, volume, and moment
become somewhat involved. One such case is that
equations. To avoid losing the single ship equa- in which the maxinunn waterline beam does not
tion, which may later be introduced into opera- occur at midlength. The procedures involved are
tions involving wavemaking, maneuvering, and who wishes to
not discu.ssed here but the reader
wavegoing, Weinblum has developed a special may
study them consult page 9 and following of
proci'<lun' for asymmetry, to be dcscrilicd pres-
Weinblum's TMB Report SS(>, issued in June
ently.
1955, as well as his earlier paper [STCi, l'.)5l{, pj).
Ueturning to the simple ship, .symmetrical
180-215].
fore and aft, the next step is to convert the x-, y-,
Weinblum has pointed liial as more and onl
and z-fifTscta and coordinates to 0-tliml fonn.
more mathematical ami niatiiematical ex-
lines
When this m done they become pressions for ship form come into use, whether
analytical or general, it becomes necessjiry to use
KkBi) - ij(eta) = | r(7,eta) = (lO.iii) ratios or new symbols for (juantities formerly
f , ,
j^
expressed by abbreviations (SNAME, 19IS, j).
2 2
4l.'i]. A ca.se in i)oiiil is the u.se of the ratio IX"H,
The form of tiie general (>(|ualion
(l-<linil (l'.).i) with a reference jioint at the FP. Using the ship
beconiex, adopting W'cinbluin's notation, axes of I''ig. l.K, the distance of (he ( 'H from the
Sec. 49.5 MATHEMATICAL LINES FOR SHIPS 191

origin at midlength is expressed as the linear „ = [1 -f- (0.5757)(f - ^^)f](l - f) (49.xa)

distance Xb or as the 0-diml ratio Xb/{L/2), plus
With this surface function Weinblum produces
if forward and minus aft.
the half-body plan of Fig. 49. B, adapted from
49.5 Application of the Dimensionless Surface
Equation to Ship-Shaped Forms. The 0-diml
Fig. 4 on page 21 of TMB Report 886. This has a
marked resemblance to some actual ship forms.
shape or surface function t]{^, f) of the hull may
take a great variety of forms, even for boat- or
ship-shaped underwater bodies. The simplest are
the binomial forms

nik, 0) = 1 - r (49.vii)

'7(0, f) = 1 - r" (49.viii)

These produce what are called Chapman parab-

olas [Weinblum, G. P., TMB Rep. 886, pp. 13-
14]. With different numerical values of the
exponent n other than 1.0, but not necessarily
whole numbers, the shape function of Eq. (49.vii)
gives parabolic waterlines of varying curvature
and fullness, much like those described and dis-
cussed by J. W. Nystrom in the 1863 and 1864
Franklin Institute references quoted in Sees.
49.3 and 49.17.
The shape selected for the designed waterline,
in the simplest case, determmes the function of the
0-diml fore-and-aft distance ^ from the origin.
The shape selected for the midsection determines
the function of 0-diml keelward distance f from
the origin. Thus the shape defined by the ex-
pression 7/ = 1 — ^" of Eq. (49.vii) has an nth-
order parabolic waterline and wall sides. That
defined by = 1 — f "" has mth-order parabolic
t;

sections and square (plumb) ends.

It is possible to shape the waterlines and sec-
tions independently by using a surface equation
in the form of the binomial product

vii, f) = (1 - r)(i - n (49.ix)

A half-body plan of a hull developed by putting

n = 2 and m
= 2 is published by Weinblum
[TMB Rep. 886, Fig. 3, p. 20].
Introducing what he a fining function
calls

into the first binomial of the product [TMB Rep.

886, p. 21], Weinblum produces a 0-diml equation
of the form

'!(?, f) = [1 - r
— (a coefficient) (^" f)f](l - n (49.x)
192 livi)K()i)\.N \Mu:s i\ Mill' nisic;\ Sec. 19.6

l>y Ml). ('l'.).iiiV 'I'lic forimila for this operation is

.l(i) = 2 '

„(f, f) f/f (49.xiii)

f
Bdr,
(49. xi)
dx Ldt Section-area curve ecjuation with unit ordinate at
midlength
It corrr.spoiiils to Weinblum's E(|. (,2t)) on |)iigt'

84 of TMB Roport 710.

Somewhat unfortunately, in Appenilix 1 of hi.s

1915 paper, D. W. Taylor gave the name of

Midlength section-area coefficient
"acceleration" to the second derivative d'lj/dx'.
It might well have resulted in some further
development in the field of .ship form, in the four
^- = 7^ = 1'"^"'^)'^^ (^^•-)

decades following that paper, had he comhincd l.iiail wali'rplanc cnclliiMcnt

the first and second derivatives to obtain the
well-known radius-of-curvature equation, given in
Sec. 49.9 as Eq. (49.xxi). Much more might now
be known of the hydrodynamic cfTects of surface Prismatic coefficient
curvature and the best way of working curvature
into a hull.
49.6 Summary of Dimensionless General
Equations for Ship Forms. In Report 88(5, TMB Block coefficient
i.s.sued in June Weiublum derived and set
IO.j.j,

down for convenience a number of general 0-diml

equations not mentioned in the foregoing. These
are listed hereunder for convenience, as adapted 49.7 Limitations of Mathematical Lines. It
from pages 8 and 9 of the referenced report, is pos.sible to make
and profitalilc use of
excellent
accompanied by some explanatory notes. Wein- geometric shapes and mathematical equations for
blum's notation is modified slightly in some places, small "pieces" of ship .surfaces. Examples are
to bring it more nearly into agreement with the portions of cones for the local enlargements
ATTC and ITTC standards, but this sliould not around single shafts emerging from the trailing
inconvenience the reader. ends of skegs, the elongated barrels of bo.ssings,
All etiuations listed are developed from the where the conical axis need not coincide with the
basic hull ecjuation (49.i), namely y = ±y(x, z), shaft axis, and the basic portions of bulb bows,
and all are dimensionless. It is a.ssumcd that the such as the one illustrated in Fig. 07. H. There is
maximum section area occurs at midlcngth. a limit, however, where the expenditure of time
Coordinates and offsets and labor in this process is not justified by the
hydrodynamic improvement in the ship or by
{(ksi) = £ 7,(eta) = f(zeta) = (19. ill) other advantages enumerated previously. In
,

I ,
J general, the field of usefulness of the mathematical
2 2
line, as it is \nth the accurately faired line to be
Hull equation described presently, centers principally around
those traces of the hull which are parallel to the
r) = ±j){k, f) (49. iv)
direction of water fiow. Tli(> statements in Chaps.
Waterplane c<|uation 24, 25, 27, and 28 indicate that neither unfair-
nes.ses in the transverse sections, nor fore-and-aft
V = ±({. 0) (49.V)
corners and discontinuities, have too great a
Midlength section equation detrimental effect ui)oii resistance. It is unnec-es-
.•iary and futile as well as impo.ssible, to try to
i?=±7;(0, r) (I9.vi) mak(! a hyperliola of the 2()()th or the .WOth
order a perfectly acceptable midsection com-
lit
Centcrplane or profile equation
posed of a vertical side line, a horizontal bottom

= = line, and a circular-arc bilge corner. Where the

±7)({, f); f f ({,()) (I9.xii)
nuithematical lines offer an advantage, u.se them.
Arca-of-ucction equation Where they d(j not, furgcl them.
Sec. 49.R MATHEMATICyXL LINES FOR SHIPS 193

0.5 0.338 0.277 0.215 0.154 OOSZ. <£ 0.09E 0.154 0.215 0.277 a338 0.5
Waterline Positions are in Fractions of Draft; Buttock Positions are m Fractions of Half-Beam

Fig. 49. C Body Plan op Ship with Mathematical Lines Following the Taylor Method
From Sta. 2 through Sta. 14, both inclusive, the lines of the hull represented here are entirely of mathematical derivation.

The body plan of

Fig. 49. C, illustrating a
tentative forma multiple-screw vessel of
for
modern (1954) design, is a good illustration of
what can be done with D. W. Taylor's system of
mathematical lines. From Sta. 2 to Sta. 14, both
inclusive, the hull form is entirely of mathematical
derivation. Beyond those stations the reverse
curves and changes in curvature call for the
customary graphic layout and fairing procedure.
For information, the principal 0-diml form
coefficients of the hull of Fig. 49. C are:

Cp = 0.560 L/B =
Cx = 0.976
Cw = 0.684

Cn = 0.547

LCB = 0.5051L
19} HVnRODVNAMICS IX SHIP DESIGN' See. 49.S

time inuncrnorial tli:it tlio urulerwatcr surface
of a.'ihip liull should be fair in
water flow along it. This was achioveil by eye in
the hewing process or by bending fore-and-aft
structural members such as planks into reasonabl}'
fair elastic curves. It is entirely possible, indeed
probable, that the hewer of old usetl flexible
wooden .strips or battens bent around the hull to
check his fairing, as does the womlcn-mmlel maker
of today. If so, these were the forerunners of the
flexible strips or splines later emplo^'ed for drawin};;
fair to which the shipwrights anil ship-
lines
fitterswere to work.
It is often taken for granted that because a
heavj' sphne can not have an abrupt kink put
into it without splitting or breaking, it must
automatically produce a fair or smooth ship line.
Wliether carried to tliis extreme or not it is still
on the Kplinc. Since tlie draftsman endeavors to avoid
these concentrated loads in the process of fairing, the
the direct ion of
order of fairness will generally bo higher than 2."
Weinblum gives .several additional criteria for
fairness,among which may be mentioned:
(a) A small number of points of inflection in any
quadrant between two ship axes normal to each
other, preferably only one such point
(h) Freedom from flat regions
(() M(Mlerate changes in the first and .second
derivatives. Weinblum goes on to point out that
Ilie foregoing concepts of fairness, although
derived from experience and found u.seful in
practice, may fail completely to give indications
as to ship resistance, especially that due to wave-
making.
The uncertainties associated with the fairing

necessary, in order to achieve the maximum and the lack of fairness found in the
of ship lines

degree of what G. P. Weinblum calls "geometrical shapes of well-known ships were two reasons
smoothness of the ship surface," to use the which led to the study of longitudinal curvature

stifTest splinewhich can be bent into the desired described in Chap. 4 of Volume I. Others were
curve, and to supplement the elastic uniformitj' the comments of W. J. M. Rankine in the 1860's
of the spline bj' sighting along it before drawing and 1870's relative to the curvature of stream

the lijie.
forms developed bj' the source-and-sink process,
In the discussion which follows, adapted largely the procedures used to shape airship hulls, and
from the work of Weinblum, his term "smooth- the findings of aeronautical engineers in the shap-

ness" is eliminated. This makes it sj'nonymous ing of strutand similar sections.

with his term "fairness" and avoids confusion \\\i\i Rankine chose, for the waterline of a ship, a
the use of ".smoothness" to describe the condition streamline somewhat removed from the boundary
of a .solid surface along which viscous How takes of a source-sink stream form. Here, along the
place in a real liquid. chosen streamline or lissoneoid, as he called it,

It is difficult to describe or to specify fairness, the curvature was such as to produce only three
in a quantitative sense. Following
especially changes in differential pressure as litiuid flowetl
Weinblum, a curve may be called fair when its along it, from well ahead to well astern. Around

first derivative with respect to a selected ship the stream form itself there were five changes in
axis, say dy/dx, is continuous. The order of pressure undergone by a particle of liciuid in

fairness of such a curve may be further defined moving from a great distance ahead to a great
OS the order of the highest derivative which is distanceastern ("An Investigation on Plane
continuous. Thus a curve in which there is a
still Water-lines," Brit. A.ssn. Rep., 1803, pp. 180-182,
continuous .second derivative d'y/dx' and con- under Mechanical Science; Jour. Franklin Inst.,
tinuous curvature; is fair to the second order Jan-Jun 180-1, Vol. XLVII, Thinl Series, pp.
[Weinblum, (I. P., and Kendrirk, J., "On the 2l-2()]; see Sec. 50.2 and Fig. 50. A.

Geometry of the Ship, Part I," mii)iilil. TiMB For the no,so or en trainee portions of the hulls
rep.). The following is and
((uoted from pages 1(> of the U. S. Naval airships Ahron and Moron of
17 of the referenced report, with "smoothness" the 1930's, which were joined to parallel middle-
replaced by "fairness" and .some minor editing: bodies, an elli]isoi(l of revolution of the third
order was employed. Based upon a length of
"iSpline curvi.-a drawn in the pro|)cr way oliould be at
leant fair to tlio mpcoikI order or have continuoim curvature.
entrance a and a radius of middlebixly b, tho
This followH inuiie<liali;ly from the proportionality of tlic ecjuation of the forebody outline in a longitudinal
curvature of the eliuitic axis of a Hpline to the l>ending plane pa.ssing through the axis was
moment on the Hpline. The Kraph of the tending momi-iit
and therefore the curvature remain continuouH oven (JO.xix)
Ihougli horizontal conccnlrat4.-d loodii uro cxerU-d l>y wi-lKlit-t i'
+ // '
Sec. 49.9 MATHEMATICAL LINES FOR SHIPS 195

where x was the distance of any point on the The radius of curvature Kc of any curved line,

forebody surface reckoned forward of the forward from standard reference works on this subject,
end of the middlebody, and y was the radius from is expressed as
the airship axis to that point. When x equaled
zero, at the junction point of the entrance
the middlebody, the second derivative d^y/dx^
for the outline equaled zero, which meant that
and
MSI d^
(49.xxi)

dx'
the curvature was also zero. Since the straight
contours in the middlebody had zero curvature, The absolute curvature is l/Rc ', this is dimen-
those of the entrance joined them in what might sional because Re is dimensional. Strictly speak-
be called a continuous transition. A 0-diml curva- ing, an irregular curved line has no definite radius
ture plot of the outline of a longitudinal axial of curvature. However, at any selected point it
section would show no break at that point. has an effective Re equal to that of a circle, called
In Reports and Memoranda 256 of the (British) a circle of curvature, which coincides very nearly
Aeronautical Research Committee, dated June with the given curved line at the given point. It
1916, W. L. Cowley, L. F. G. Simmons, and is possible to plot the dimensional curvature of
J. D. Coales report as follows: ship waterlines on a basis of length along the

P. 167. "Previous reports and preliminary experiments fore-and-aft axis by using the reciprocal values
for the present report all showed that the air resistance of l//?(7. A. Emerson has done this by employing the
a strut was extremely sensitive to slight changes in the first and second differences of the waterline offsets
form and radius of curvature, especially in the neighbor-
at each equal to 0.025L
40-station intervals,
hood of the maximum ordinate. For this reason each strut,
[INA, 1937, Fig. 6, p. 178; unpubl. Itr. of 11 Jan
of a series in which one proportion only is to be varied,
must be made with fair accuracy in those dimensions 1952 to HES]. Plotting 0-diml longitudinal
which are to be kept constant." curvature is described in Sec. 49.10.
P. 170. "The results of the investigation appear to show Any of the foregoing methods involving dy/dx
that the air resistance of a strut depends very greatly upon
or ^y/dx is satisfactory only if offsets, slopes,
the shape of the fairing in the region in front of the maxi-
mum ordinate. In a round-nosed strut the change of curva- and rates change of slope are taken for at
of

ture and slope in passing from the nose to the fairing piece least 40 equally spaced stations along the length
should not be too rapid, a condition which causes the of a ship. No method is satisfactory unless the
maximum width to be some distance behind the center of waterline itself is carefully and accurately drawn.
curvature of the nose."
From Eq. (49.xxi) preceding it is apparent by
Notes on Longitudinal Curvature Analy-
49.9 mspection that Re approaches infinity as the
sis. For determining and analyzing the curva- second derivative d'y/dx^ approaches zero. This
ture of any fore-and-aft ship line, such as the is equivalent to saying that the absolute curvature
designed waterlines discussed in Sees. 4.4, 4.5, l/Rc approaches zero with the second derivative.
4.7, and 24.13, there are several methods besides Since the curvature of a straight line is zero, a
the semi-graphic one described in those references. suitable transition from a curved ship line to a
Assuming an origin of coordinates at any con- straight one, such as the parallel portion of a

venient point along the ship centerplane, with waterline, is marked by a diminution of d^y/dx'

abscissas x parallel to the x-axis and ordinates y toward zero at the junction ^vith the straight line.
measured transversely in the plane of the selected Proper transition is an acute problem in the
line, the slope of that line with reference to the laying of tracks for railway cars and trains. If a
X-axis is dy/dx. This may be measured as a straight section of track, called in railway parlance

natural tangent or as a function of an angle, a tangent, were joined directly to a curved section
where dy/dx = tan 6. of track having a constant radius, the transverse

The rate of change of slope, called by D. W. acceleration at the junction would be so great on
Taylor the "acceleration" a(alpha) in his 1915 a high-speed train passing from the straight to
mathematical-lines paper referenced in Sec. 49.3, is the curved section that the train would leave the
rails would be torn up. Railway
or the track

dx'
[I + tan' surveyors have developed several acceptable
(49. xx) methods for making this transition between
straight and curved portions of track. One of them
= 5- sec B
tic involves the use of a second- or third-order parab-
I9fi HVDRODVNAMKIS IN SHIP DKSir.N Sec. I'l.lO

ola, x' = aij or j-' = bij, «'ith its viTtex at tln' -Modern hull-<lcsigii procedure re(|uires that
eiul of the straiRlit soft ion of trai-k. For a ship, equally good transitions be made, if practicable,
it involves a similar curve with its vertex at the between the parts of fore-and-aft ship lines.

end of the straight or parallel portion of the ship Further, the finished lines should be as fair as
line. modern technology can make them. This calls
For a S-tlinil form, particularly a hotly of for the use of some method for guaranteeing a
revolution, perfect transition of this kind is longitudinal curvature that will eliminate Ap
achievtHl liy joiiiinft a parallel cyliiulrical portion disturbances along these lines or that will indicate
with half of an ellipsoid of revolution defined by the presence of localized i)re.s.sure dLsturbances
the relationship jjiven in Eq. (4!).xL\) of Sec. 49.8 if they can not be avoided. Unfortunately, it is

or by the identical relationship not ea.sy for a human being to realize how sharp
this transition may be along the .side of a ship,
—+^= 1 1 I'.l.wii) ecrtiiinly not as easily as it would be if he were
ill a train, jiniiifi around a geoinclrically similar
This is the c((iuition of the "i-dinil intersection of cUI'X'r.

the outer skin with a plane pa.ssing through the 'I'lir aerial \ iew of Fig. 49. E, taken of a moilern
a.\is, sketched in Fig. 49.D, and not of the ;{-(linil (ill.").")) nieicliaiit siiip and reproduced with the
permi.ssioii of the Kockums IMekaniska Aktiebolag,
Maim<'), Sweden, feature in a
illustrates this
rather extraordinary manner. It
almost possible is

lo discern the Velox waves generated by the

liiiward-shoulder pressure disturbance, where the
hollow in the entrance waterline shifts rather
(31

h —
»-Axis oi Body^''
'
aorLg abruptly to the parallel waterline amidships
through a convex transition region of rather sharp
curvature. Methods of taking care of this situation,
(49*XKi) for there is no limitation on the
cases where
^(l7-t^ extreme beam and no parallel waterline is neces-
Whani-O, -r£~0 Qndo-^O sary, are described in Sees. G7.2 and 67.3.
49.10 Graphic Determination of the Dimen-
Fig. 49.D Skktch of Airship Nose Outline of sionless Longitudinal Curvature of any Ship Line.
Third-Degree Eluptic Shape
Details of the graphic procedure mentioned in
Sees. 4.4, 4.5, and 4.7, for determining 0-dind
body surface. The origin of coordinates is on the longitudinal cur\'ature in waterlines, buttocks,
axis at the jvmction of the two portions; L^ is the and diagonals, are given here.
half-length of the ellipsoid, and Rh is its maximum ]?riefly, the 0-diml curvature of a designed
transverse radius, ec|ual to the radius of the waterUne of a ship is determined for any selected
parallel portion. This corresponds to the com- point along the length by the ratio
bination of no.se and niiddlebody portions of the Beam By at the section of maximum area
hulls of the airships Akron and Macon, mentioned
Length of 1-deg arc of the circle of curvature
in the .section preceding. The longitudinal section
drawn on I'^ig. 49. D indicates tlu; extremely where both linear dimensions are given in the
gradual transition from the parallel niiddlebody same luiit of measurement.
t(j the after portion of the entrance or no.sc. The value of Bx is taken directly from the ship
Upon double dilTerentialion with respect to r, lines; it is beam on the
the magnitude of the
Eq. (49.xxii) reduces to the value of d'y/dx' drawing being analyzed, not that of the .ship
indicated on Fig. 49.13 as E(i. 49.xxiii). In this it.self. Determining the value of the denominator

ca.se, as shown on the figure, when x = 0, in the ratio given is facilitated by drawing on
d'l/'tlx' = and l/lfc is *'. I'he combination of transparent film, by photograjjhic reiiroduction
third-order ellipsoid and cylinder described in or the equivalent, a .series of arcs of circles of
the foregoing gave most gratifying resistance and varied radii, comprising the range of curvature
propulsi(jn results when used on the large rigid to be expected in any body or shi]) lines to be
airships nicntioncd. analyzeil. ()|)posite eaeh such arc is marketl, in
Sec. 49.10 MATHEMATICAL LINES FOR SHIPS 197

Fig. 49. E Aerial View of a Ship, Showing Relatively Shabp Transition between Hollow Entrance
Waterline and Parallel Waterline Amidships

the same units as are to be used for measuring the number or location of the station is then tabulated
beam on the dramng, the length of a 1-deg arc and wdth it the dimension found opposite that
on from the relation-
the transparency, calculated circle of curvature. The process is repeated along
ship: Length = 0.017453i?c • the length until all stations or selected points are
Three such series of arcs, on two separate covered. When working from large-scale ship
sheets of film, have been prepared by the Society lines it is often difficult to determine just which
of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, which circle of curvature makes the best fit. The solution
can furnish film positives for the use of naval is to determine which circle is obviously too
architects. The radii of the circles of curvature slack, then which is definitely too sharp, and
vary from 0.2865 to 28.65 inches on one sheet select the mean between the two.
and from 25 inches to 500 inches on the other The 1-deg arc length found for each station or
sheet. A small section of the first sheet is repro- point is then divided into Bx and the ciuotient is
duced, but 7iot to full size, in the upper LH corner tabulated. The 0-diml curvatures are plotted on
of Fig. 49. F. The lengths of the 1-deg arcs on length, follomng the method of Figs. 4.H, 24. F,
these sheets are given in inches. The waterline and 67. C. They are reckoned as positive and laid
beams on the drawings to be analyzed are there- off above the axis for lines convex to the water;

fore also measured in inches. negative and below the axis for lines concave to it.
The transparent sheet is placed over the ship The method falls down for sharp corners and
line and moved aroimd until some circle of curva- discontinuities, as where an entrance (or a run)
ture on it fits the waterline at a selected station, waterline with finite slope meets the imaginary
indicated in the lower diagram of Fig. 49. F. The prolongations of the ship along the centerplane,
198 1IM)R()|)N\ \\ll( s |\ Mill' 1)1 s|(;\ Sec. 19.1

Port of Dio^rom on Film Overlay Carruinq

Circles of Corvotore of Venous Rodii

Parollel
Portion of Line

Lenqlh in Inches of o l-Deqree Arc on Eoch Circulor Arc

\ \
Circle of Curvoture

.Lenqth of
Rodiu» of Circle of This Rodius \ l-Deqree
Somewhat Smoller '^"' "<• "^^ » Beam Bi
IS \of Curvoture \
''«""* ts 5.49 in
than the Correct Value. ^ij Infinite \ '»

to Make It Visible 0.10 in

-^-

0-Diml
Curvature!
5.49/0O I

Fig. 49.F Instruction Plan foh Determining 0-Diml, Curvature ok any Ship Line

beyond the bow (or stern). It appears advisable tufire the maximum diagonal offset on the drawing,
in this ca-se to terminate the plot at a point where measured along the diagonal trace from its
the circles of curvature no longer fit, say at about intersection with the plane of symmetry. This is
0.02oB.r on each side of the centerline. equivalent to the waterline-analysis procedure
A drawing of any scale may be
legible waterlinc ifboth port and starboard diagonal i)lancs are
analj'zed, -provided the longitudinal and transverse swung upward about the centerplane inter.section
scales are identical. Although the circles of curva- so as to coincide at the plane of the watcrline at
ture are fitted by eye to the cur\-e underneath, that intersection.
this graphic method is extremely sensitive to 49.11Mathematic Delineation and Fairing of
sudden changes in curvature, unfairness, and a Section-Area Curve. Those working on tlie
inaccuracies in the ship line being analyzed. analytic phase of wavemaking resistance, develop-
For determining the 0-diml longitudinal curva- ing methods whereby tiiis resistance may be
ture of a bow line or buttock the procedure is calculated for certain .shij) forms, have endeavored
exactly the same as described for the watcrline. to determine the effect on ship resistance of the
However, instead of the maximum beam Bx , the distribution volume along the length. This
of
traiKWerse Uncar dinicnsi(jn in the numerator is distribution shown l)y the ortiiodox section-
is

luncc the maximum depth from the DWL to the area or /l-curvc, described in Sec. 24.12 and
lowest point of the buttock measured on the illustrated in Fig. 24. F. Indeed, the optimum
drawing. This corresponds to the existence of a form of .l-curve, for minimum resistance, has
mirror image of the ship above the DWL, and l)ecn found for a soit of geometric sliij) having
to measuring tht; traiisvcr.sc! dimension from the rectangular .sections througliout and moving in a
highest to the lowest point.s of the imagc-aiui-ship non-viscous licpiid ISN'.VMi;, lit").!, Kig. ;i.S, p.
combination. 582].
For any diagonal on the ship lines the transverse SupplcniiMitiiig this wiirk, P. (,'. I'icii has
linear dimension in thf numerator is taken as ileveloped malliriuatic section-area curves wliicli
Sec. 49.13 MATHEMATICAL IJNES FOR ,S?IIP.S 199

approximate very closely the A-curves of actual ordinate increments. Drawing the unrolled and
shipsand models [SNAME, 1953, pp. 580-582]. untwisted flowline is followed by a measurement
Having the equations of these curves, a ftirther of its 0-diml curvature.
development along the lines proposed by R. The process is not described in detail or illus-
Taggart, using methods similar to those described trated here because it does not take account of

in Sees. 49.13 and 49.14, should serve for the the untwisting necessary to get the actual model
mathematic fairing of the curves in question. flowplane into the single plane of the paper on
As a check on the fairing of any section-area which it is laid down. There can be a large
curve, whether represented by a mathematical curvature without twist, in the buttocks of a
equation or not, the dimensionless curvature short barge with steeply raked ends, or there can
may be determined as described for a waterline be large twist with small longitudinal curvature,
in Sec. 49.10. For the A/ Ax curve, the transverse, when water flows up and around the bossings on
linear dimension in the numerator of the 0-diml a twin-screw ship.
curvature ratio is taken arbitrarily as the height Undoubtedly a graphic method could be
of the maximum ordinate on this curve. It is developed for taking account of both twist and
measured on the plot, and is expressed in the curvature but this should await more definite
same units of measurement as the lengths of the knowledge as to the hydrodynamic effects of each
1-deg arcs on the circle-of-curvature transpar- of these features in creating differential pressures
encies. Assuming that the height/length ratio of on the underwater hull.
the section-area curve \i 1/4, following the con- 49.13 Checking and Establishing Fairness of
vention of Sec. 24.12, plots of 0-diml longitudinal Lines by Mathematical Methods. The measure-
curvature of all such curves are comparable ment and plotting of the 0-diml curvature of a
provided the stations on the section-area curve are selected ship's line, described in Sec. 49.10, serve
spaced along its length exactly the same as are any hne drawn
as a graphic fairness indicator for
the ship stations along the ship line. A 0-diml in the customary way with a ship's curve, spline,
curvature plot of the A/ Ax curve for the tran- or batten. R. Taggart has devised a mathematical
som-stern design of the ABC Taylor
ship, for the method of checking and establishing fairness,
Standard Series parent form, and for a merchant entirely independent of any graphic procedure
ship of good design are given in Fig. 67. X. [ASNE, May 1955, pp. 337-357]. Instead of
49.12 Longitudinal Flowplane Curvature. A D. W. Taylor's fifth-order polynomial y = a -\-
longitudinal flowplane around a ship hull is hx -\- ex' -\- dx^ + ex^ + fx^ he found it necessary
defined in Sec. 4.11 and illustrated in Figs. 4.P, to employ a sixth-order expression of the following
4.Q, and 24.L. This plane is admittedly arbitrary, form:
principally because it is assumed to stand normal
to every section line from bow to stern as it y = ax -\- hx^ + cx^ -\- dx* + ex^ + fx^ (49.xxiv)

crosses that hne. It is likewise somewhat arbitrary Furthermore, Taggart uses integrated relation-
to represent a square stream tube along the
ships instead of the differential relationships of
flowline at the hull as twisting so that one side of
Taylor to determine the unknown constants.
the tube, and the same side, lies always in the
The constant first term of the Taylor expression
flowplane.
is eliminated if an origin be selected along a
As the flowplane is almost never a flat one, in a
continuous part of the ship fine where y and x
strict geometric sense, it has to be untwisted and
are simultaneously zero. For the customary
straightened into the flat before its 0-diml longi-
waterline this calls for:
tudinal curvature may
be measured. This opera-
tion involves laying out, on paper, what would be (1) Separate origins at the bow and at the stern
the shape taken by the inner edge of a piece of (2) A maximum value of x where the entrance
sheet metal if twisted into the flowplane shape, or run encounters the middlebody
trimmed to fit the side of a model at the flowline, (3) A slope of zero in the ship line at this maxi-
and then untwisted into the flat. It is a somewhat mum value of x
tedious piece of 3-diml geometry, involving the (4) Offsetting the origin from the plane of sym-
slightly expanded station lengths as ordinate metry in the event the half-siding at the bow or
spacing and the developed lengths of the flowline stern has a finite value. For convenience the
between stations, measured on the body plan, as maximum value of x and the half-beam value of
 IIM)R()l)V.\AMI(;s l\ Mill' DlSU.N Sfc. -fO.H

If nrv Ixjtli plai'oti e<|nal tti 1.0. This pliut-.s tlu; are accurate to 4 significant ligures following tlie
data in O^liml fomi. decimal point. In the SXAME HD shwts the
Taggart's intrgnitiHl relationsliips are: 0-<iind values are given to only three significant
de<inud places. For the .VBC ship example
f, = ;/ th (l'.).xxv) worke<l out here, tlie 0-<lind li lix coordinates
I'
are tho.se listcxl in (he SX.VMIO |{D sheet for the

- (ransom-s(ern design, T.MB miMlel l.jO"), repro-

r
',
j xy ilx ( I'.l.wvi)
iluced as I'"ig. 7.S.,la in Pari I. They are lisle<l in

Col. B of Table I9.a.

r, -= / T-yiLr (ID.xxvii)
Jo
T.\HI,E W.-.i .MoinKicATioNs OF OrrsFn^ ••on
= l)K.SI(i.Sl-;i> \V.\TKKI.INK OK .\UC SlUP TO Sl'TP LiMITINf!
(\ .r'//f/j (lO.xxviii)
I CoNDrno.ss kor Mathematical I'aiiu.vg Pbocess
Col. F lists the 0-diml offsets used in this calculation.
These may be detennincd fiDin iiiiy curve l)y the
application of Simpson's rule. Tlie relationship
between the constants and the eocfficients a, b, Col. .\ Col. B Col. C Col. D Col. E Col. F
c,d, c, and / are given in Taggart's Fig. 3, cor- Original Ti/By li/Bx - New Offsets Col. E
ship from (fi/Bx)o "prime" from Fig. times
responding to Fig. 49.11 of See. 49.14. His explana-
stations RD sheet stations Hi.G 1/0.990
tion of the mathematical procedure Ls detuilwl
and complete, hence it is not repeatetl here. His 0.013
worked-out example is supplemented by a second 0.121 O.IOS 0.120.'> 1217
example in Sec. 49.14, covering the fairing of the ().2o2 .239 0.20(i5 2092
.:m> 0.3S3 0.-l2Gri 430S
designwl entrance waterline of the transom-stern
0.512 l)..V29 0.5850 5909
ABC ship, described in Part 4 of this volume. 0.079 O.GGO 0.72.S0 7354
49.14 Illustrative Example for Fairing the De- 0.794 0.7S1 0,8370 8455
signed Waterline of the ABC Ship. To illu.-trate 0.S82 0.SG9 0.9153 9245
Taggart's method, a sample calculation for fairing 0.943 0.930 S' 0.9f.lO 9707
9S0 n 9(i7 9' 9S35 9931
the designetl (2fi.l(l.]-ft) waterline abreast tlie
9 997
. 0.9S4 10' (I 9U(K) (K)00
entrance of the ABC ship is carried out according l.OOS 0.990
to the steps listed hereunder. Actually, the fairing 999
isaccomplished on that portion of the from DWL 0.983
the FP back to the position of maxinunn waterline
beam B^x Fig. 07. A in Part 4 this is at
From
Sta. 11. It not to be confused with the fore-
is
II. Locate on Ihe waterline ilrawing the origin
and-aft position of the .section of maximum area,
which is at Sta. 10.0. The successive steps are
O of the O-diml waterline which is to be used in
the mathematical analysis. This waterline Is to
described in .some detail:
have a lenglli C()rrcs|)onding to 1 station intervals 1

I. Draw the designed waterline from the I'P to on the ship, from the FP back to the position of
Sta. 1 1 as accuratel}' as po.ssible, considering the ^ii-.v and it is to jiass through the point where
,

2/ = when x = 0. Fig. 07.10 of Part 4 shows that

stage of the hull design, or use a waterline drawing
already made. It is helpful to continue the the DVVIi offset at the FP is 0.5 ft, wlu'ii con-
waterline for at least two stations abaft (he tinued forward as indicated by the diagonal
po.sitiiMi of li„x , as is done in Fig. 49.(1. Actually, broken liiu" in the upper right-hand corner of
the \)\\'\j in this figure is drawn with a vertical Fig. 19. Ci. However, it is a.ssumed here, t<i keep
Kcule much larger than the honzontal .scale, lo the numerical figures coiisisttMit, that the inuldeil
show the various features to better advantage. ofT.set a( (he FP on the shi)) corresponds exactly
Drawing thin or any other .ship line to a fairly (o 0.0i:{ times the half-beam, tabulated on Fig.
largo Hculo will i)r(Kluc(! the accurate olTsets 78. .la. In ab.solute dimensions on the ship this is
necdc-d to take full advantage of the mathematical 0.0i:{(7:i.08/2) = 0.47') ft. A stem of .semi-
mctluKi. It is preferable to make the scale largo circular .section, lying inside the cutwater shown
enough Ht) that the derive<l 0-<lind values of in I'ig. 7.{.B, would then have a molded radius of
li/Hx (or actual ofT.si-ls diviiled bv the half-beam) 0..'i|.") ft, from the large-.scale diagram <>f l'"ig.
Sec. 49.11 MATHEMATICAL LINES FOR SHIPS 201

^"1,000

13 I

5hip Centerlme-' -D Half-Sid nq~O.OI3 Byf

~^

Fig. 49.G Definition Sketch foe Mathematical Faieing op Designed Watehline Entrance of ABC Ship

49.G. The origin O is accordingly fixed at the V. The offsets of the DWL curve at the 10
FP from the ship
at a distance of 0.013(B„,x/2) "prime" stations are then taken off the diagram
centerhne. A line OC, drawn through O parallel of Fig. 49.G for the distances marked KL, MN,
to the ship centerline, then forms the basis for PQ, and so forth. They are converted into 0-diml
measuring the ^/-coordinates of the 0-diml DWL values by dividing the half- value of B^x into
which are to be introduced into the mathematical them, following which they are hsted in Col. E
formulas. of the table. Since the 0-diml ^/-ordinate at Sta. 11
III. The length of the 0-diml waterline diagram must equal 1.000 for the mathematical computa-
to be analyzed is the distance OC in Fig. 49. G, tion, when the 0-diml .T-abscissa also equals 1.000,
corresponding to the length of 11 station intervals it is made so by dividing the 0-diml ordinate at

on the ship. This distance is divided into 10 equal station 10' by itself. For this station, 0.9900/0.9900
lengths and new ordinates are erected, marked on = 1.000. All other 0-diml ordinates at the prime
Fig. 49. G as 1' through 9'.The ship station 11 is stations are divided by the same factor 0.9900,
at the "prime" station 10'. The distance OC is producing the final 0-diml computation ordinates
then the 0-diml a;-distance of 1.000. in Col. F of Table 49.a.
IV. The 0-diml value of B/B^ from D to E is, VI. If the 0-diml B/Bx values are already
from the referenced RD sheet, equal to 1.003. available for a given designed waterline, as they
The 0-diml value of CE, equal to DE - DC, is were for the ABC ship, it is somewhat simpler
1.003 - 0.013 = 0.990. The values of the 0-diml to plot a diagram like Fig. 49. G, embodying
ordinatesFG, HJ, and so on, at the ship stations, 0-diml B/Bx ordinates on a base of ship length,
are then found by subtracting the constant value rather than ordinates of ship beam to some
0.013 from the RD sheet values. They are hsted selected scale. The diagram then becomes simply
in Col. C of Table 49.a. a graphic means of picking off the 0-diml ordinates

VLf
202 llVl)R()l)V.\.\MiC;s IN Mill' Dl.SK.N Sec. f9.N

for the prime stations. Tliis is fiifilitiitttl, for tlic Fig. 49.1, produces the numerical values of the
ABC ship. t>y iimking the orilinatc Dli equal to constant terms «, b, c, d, c, and /. Carrying through
100.3 units to a convenient scale, namely 100 the Check Calculation of Original Curve at the
times the 0-tiiml value. The ordinate DC is bottom of Fig. 49.1 produces a series of cumu-
made e(|Ual to I..') units, and C'E then e(tuals lative prtMlucts, which are the mathematically
99.0 units. In the original drawing for Fig. 41). Ci faired O-iliml values of y for the "prime" stations
one such ordinate unit represented 1 ft length in r through 10' on Fig. 49.G. These arc to be com-
the horizontal scale. liarcd with the unfaired Onliml values for the same
\'II. The final (Mlinil coiiiputaliuii onliiialcs in ])rime stations in Col. F of Table 49. a for an
Col. F Table ID. a are then enleretl as ordinates
of indication of the modifications that were made
in the second column of Taggart's form for Calcu- in the fairing process. The faired values are laid
lation of Curve Coeilicients in Fig. 49.11, following down at the prime stations and the entrance
which the computation outlined in that form is portion of the designed waterlinc in Fig. 49. G is
carried through to obtain the numerical values
redrawn through them.
of the coefficients C, Cj Cj and C, , , ,
The procedure described in steps I. through \l.
Entering these coefficients in the forni for is then worked backward to find the O-diinl
Calculation of Constant Terms, at the top of 2/-ordinates at tlic ship .stations, tlio B 'By values

CALCULATION OF CONSTANT TERMS

For Desianed 26./63-ft Woterlme of Entrance of ABC Ship
Multipliers

Constant
Sec. 49.15 MATHEMATICAL LINES FOR SHIPS 203

CALCULATION OF MOLD" LOFT OFFSETS

For Two Frame Positions Alono Desiqned 26.163-ft Wbterline of Entrance of ABC Ship
Baseline Intercept ot Station Maximum- Ordi note Tanqeno^ at Station II.

Maximum Ordinate 36.175 ft Half-Sidinq 0.475 ft Length of Curve, X^ , 1 1.0 Stations

Frame
204 I1M)R()1)\ .\ \Mlc:s i.\ Mill' DISIGN Sec. 19.16

mntlipmaties, l\v tlic loiitniir or pmCilc dniwiiig variation may not work out so well hydnidynami-
of the liuU ill tlic i)hvnc of symuielry. This in- This situation wjus jjointed out by J. L. Kent
cally.

volves (usually) a straight kcol, a stem profile of Lackcnby paper [p. 310].
in his discu.s.sion of the

the selccteil tyjjc, and a stern profile to suit the One may visualize a ship form of low total
propeller anil nulder. resistance for its displacement, tiespite an LMA
Restrieting the calculations to these four lines position that appears by Fig. GG.L to be too far

ison the basis that if four sets of points are estab- forward for its speed-length (juotient and pris-
lished on selectetl frames in accordance with the matic coefficient. Stretching the entrance and
foregoing, they should be sufficient to insure contracting the run may be an easy way to
that the principal dimensions and shape, as laid achieve what appears to be a better po.sition LMA
ilown in any mold loft, will be as contemijlated and what should give a slight but definite im-
by the designer. Fig. •U).K illustrates the location provement in performance. There is no a.'vsurance,

of these four sets of jjoints on a schematic body however, in the present state of the art, that
plan. Calculation of offsets for shii)s of special becau.se of the geometric variation alone the
form may be made, of coui-se, for as many arldi- modified section-area curve, the modified designed
tional line.'? as are desired. watcrlinc, and other altered features will produce
The Geometric Variation of Ship Forms.
49.16 better hydrodynamic behavior.
Somewhat related to the use of mathematical 49.17 Selected References Relating to Mathe-
equations for ship lines is a combination of matical Lines for Ships, ("ortaiii rcfi'iciices which
mathematics and geometry for effecting a variation describe methods developed in the past for

of hull parameters and coefficients in a given ship delineating the forms of bodies and ships are
form. Perhaps the simplest procedure of this listed here for convenience. They begin witli the

kind is that in which the fore-and-aft position of work of F. H. dc Chapman in the ITfiO's, although
the maximum-area section is shifted along the his elTorts may not have been the first along
by holding the .same .sections and
i-axis. Here, these lines:
section areas, the stations in the entrance are Chapm.iii, F. on Sliip-Builciiiig,"
II. dc, ".\ Trcati.se
(1)
closed up and those in the run are opened out, translateti into Englishby the Rev. James Tnman,
or vice versa. Or, by closing up the sections in Cambridge and London, 1S20
both forebody and afterbody, a portion of parallel (2) Nystrom, J. W., Jour. Franklin Inst., Jul-Dec 1S63,
Third Series, Vol. XLVI, pp. 355-359 and 389-396,
middlcbodj' is inserted between them. The ship
with Pis. II and III
length remains the same in both ca.ses.
Jour. Franklin Inst., Jan-Jun 1864, Vol. XLVII,
(3)
A variation is that in which a .ship is lengthened Third Series, pp. 4(>-5I, accompanied by Plate I
by the addition of a middlebody. Usually the of the Nystrom scries of papers; also pp. 2-11-244

cut is made at the maximum-scction-arca position in the same volume

(4) Jour. Franklin Inst., Jul-Dec 1864, Vol. XLVIII,
but this isby no means mandatory. If tlie length-
Third Scries, pp. 261-261. This paper contains
ening is accompanied by a repowering and a some historical data on Cha|)inan'3 previous work
speed increase, the new portion inserted may not on mathematical lines (principally parabolas) in
be of uniform section. It may have a maxi-
well Sweden. Plate IV of the series, mentioned here, i»
mum-.scction area Ax greater than that of the bound out of place (opp. p. 236) in the volume
consulted.
original ship.
(5) Taylor, D. W., "On Ships' Forms Derived by Form-
Geometric variations are almost unavoiduljle ulae," SNAME, 1903, pp. 243-267
when laying out model series in which one param- (6) Warrington, J. N., "System of Mathematical Lines
eter is systematically varied, described by D. W. for Ships," SNAME,
1909, pp. Ml-1.')2

Taylor [S and P, 1943, p. 55) and others. More (7) Taylor, D. W., "Calculations for Ships' Forms and
the Light Thrown by Model Experiments upon
elaborate procedures arc explained and illustrated
Resistance, Propulsion and Rolling of Shi[xs,"
in detail by II. Lackenl)y in his paper "On the
Trans. Int. Eng'g. Cong., lOl."), Naval .\rrhitecturc
Systematic Geometrical Variation of Ship Forms" and Marine Engineering, San Franci.sco, 1915
(INA, Jul 19r>0, pp. 280-310]. (8) VVcinblum, G., "Beitriige zur Thcorio dcr Schiff-
When a geometric-variation jjrocedurc is applied soberfl.iche (Contribution to the Theory of the

to a given ship form to produce; a new one there is

Ship Boundary)," WRH, 22 Nov l'.r>9, pp. 462-
461); 7 1929, pp. 489-493; 7 Jan 1930, pp. 12-14.
Dec
seriouH question whether the water will t!ik(;
This paper illustrates a number of .ship forms whoso
kindly to the change. In other words, what lines were d('rive<l mathematically.
appoarH to be a good geometric or iiarametric (9) Woinblum, ('•. P., "ICxakt<; Wiuwerlinion und Spant-
Sec. 49.17 MATHEMATICAL LINES FOR SHIPS 205
flachencurven (Exact Watcrlines and Transverse- (c) Square moment of area about a longitudinal
Section Curves)," Schiffbau, 15 Apr 1934, pp. axis
120-121; 1 May 1934, pp. 135-142 (d) Square moment of area about a transverse axis.
(10) Benson, F. W., "Mathematical Ship's Lines," INA, (12) Lackenby, H., "On the Systematic Geometrical
1940, pp. 129-151 Variation of Ship Forms," INA, Jul 1950, pp. 289-
(11) Sparks, W. J. C, "A New Method of Approximate 316
Quadrature," INA, 1943, pp. 104-117. This paper (13) Thieme, H., "Systematische Entwicklung von
gives approximate methods for calculating the SchifBinien (Systematic Development of Ship
following from the values of a few ordinates taken Lines)," Schiff und Hafen, Jul 1952, pp. 241-245.
from a ship curve, based upon fitting a 5th-order On page 245 there is a list of 31 references,
parabola to that curve: (14) Taggart, R., "Mathematical Fairing of Ships' Lines
(a) Area or fullness coefficient for Mold Loft Layout," ASNE, May 1955, pp.
(b) Center of area 337-357.
 CM \1' i l-.K

iMatlicinaticiil Methods of Calculating the

Pressure Resistance of Ships
50.1 General 200 50.8 Comparison of Calculated and E.xperimental
50.2 Early Efforts to Aimlyze anil Calculate Ship Resistances 210
Hosi.stance 207 50.9 Other Features Derived from Analytic Ship-
50.3 Moiiorn Dcvplopmentsi in the Calculation of Wave Relations 217
Pressure Uc-iislancc duo to Wavcmakinp . 210 50.10 Ship Forms Suitable for Wave-Resistance
50-1 .\ii.sumption.': anil Liniitattonti Inherent in Calculations 219
Presont-Day Calculations 212 50.11 Necessary Improvements in Analytical and
50.0 Formulation of the Velocity-Potential E.\- Mathematical Methods 219
pression 214 50.12 Practical Benefits of Calculating Ship Per-
50.6 The Calculation of \Yavcni!ikingRcsiiitancc 215 formance 220
50.7 Components of the Calculated Wavemaking 50.13 Reference Material on Theoretical Resist-
Resistance 21() ance Calculations 221

50.1 General. 'I'lie iiiriuiiiiig and enterprising uf ^^'. C. S. A\'iglcy, describes liie theory "without
marine architect ha.s long felt a need for a story mathematical complications"
on the theoretical calculation of the wavemaking (b) The somewhat mathematical but nevertheless
resistance of a ship. He has known that mathe- xery readable paper presented by Professor Sir
maticians, physicists, and even some naval Thomas H. Havelock on two occasions in 1950
architects have been engaged on this project for in the United States, entitled "Wave Resistance
nearly a centurj' but that their work was on a Theory and Its Application to Ship Problems"
plane "sky-high" compared to his own. He has [SXAME, 1951, pp. 13-24]
realized, from looking at some of their simpler (c) The rather brief but more general (and less
graphs, that their results compared rather well mathematical) account written bj' G. P. Weinblum

with experimental data from model ba.sins, well and entitled "The Practical Use of Theoretical
enough to sustain a keen interest among workers Studies in Wave Resistance" [MESR, Oct 1951,
of their caliber. The forward-looking ship architect pp. 49-52]
and designer, imfamiliar with higher mathematics, (d) Weinblum's paper entitled "Analysis of Wave
has wanted to know about the.sc things but could Resistance," published as TMB Report 710 in
not understand the papers that were being September 1950. On page 2 he states that the
written. He has felt, and justifiably so, that if the purpose of the paper:
story relating to the calculation of wave resistance ". . . is to show to what extent theory has succeeded in
could not be made simple, it should at least be furnishing valuable practical re.iults and how the scope
made readable to him. Someone should take the of its applications can lie e.\t<'nded . . .

trouble to make it understandable to those who "There is common agreement that theory \\t\s furnisheti
a valuable description of general phenomena; it is less
had to spend their dajs fa.shioning and building
\\M known that it also has given us the proof of consider-
ships rather than covering sheets of paper with able practical value of how sensitive wave resistjinco can
mathematical ctjuations. be to changes, even small changes, in ship form."
Beginning in abinit 1950, several workers
prominent in the mathenuitical field .set out to
(c) The most interesting accotmt presentetl by
the mathematician-physicist-naval architect team
do just this. .Anumg their efforts may be men-
uf (!. MirkholT, \. Korvin-Kroukovsky, and
M.
tioned:
.1. Kotik "Theory of the Wave Resistance
ill (lii'ir

(a) The early paper of T. M. Havelock entitled of Ships," e.spcci.Mliy Pari |S\.\MK, liOl, pp. I

"Wave Patterns and Wave Hesistunrc!" (IN.\, •S.Jil '.VM\].

l'j;il, Vf.l. 7f;, pp. !:«) IIO] which, in the words The presciil cliiiptcr, piep.'ired by one ilelinitely

JOG
Sec. 50.2 CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESISTANCE 207

not in the mathematical part of the field, is an vesselsand to fire the heaviest weight of broadside
endeavor to present a somewhat different version from war vessels. With some few exceptions, they
of the story for the benefit of the practising marine left to nature the composition of the propelling
architect. It places emphasis on certain features power of the sails and the resistance of the ship
important in ship design. For the architect and into a speed through the water that would meet
engineer who have progressed this far in a con- the service requirements of those days.
secutive reading of the preceding chapters of The designers who first put their minds to a
Volumes I and II, it is possible to discuss the technical analysis of the ship-propulsion problem
calculation of the pressure resistance of a ship in appeared to have an instinctive feeling, as did
rather specific terms, eliminating the terms those who labored at the task until about the
involving viscosity effects as found in the Wein- period 1850-1870, that there was a ship form of
blum presentation listed in (c) preceding. minimum resistance waiting to be discovered.
For the period from about 1950 to 1956 the The fact that speed was a dominating factor in
matters discussed here have been under intensive this quest for the most easily propelled ship form
study by the Panel on Analytical Ship-Wave seems to have been overlooked, because the range
Relations, under Project H-5 of the SNAME of speeds at that time was still small. However,
Hydrodynamics Committee. those seeking this form of least resistance appeared
The present author takes the liberty of quoting to have a definite thought that, somehow or
directly from the first paragraph of Sir Thomas other, they could calculate or derive its shape by
Havelock's 1950 paper, found on page 13 of the analytic methods. Calculating its resistance was
SNAME 1951 reference previously cited: a thought and a task for the future.
Nevertheless, surface waves were recognized as
"It is impossible to give any adequate survey of this
work here, and fortunately it is not necessary to make the having an appreciable, if not a major effect on
attempt; there are e.xcellent summaries which have been ship resistance, so much so that J. Scott Russell,
published from time to time, and in particular I would W. J. M. Rankine, J. R. Napier, and others of
refer,for a comprehensive account with references, to
their times made use of certain properties (prin-
Wigley's recent paper, "L'Etat Actuel des Calculs de Re-
cipally the profiles) of trochoidal surface waves in
sistance de Vagues (The Present Position of the Calcula-
tion of Wave Resistance)," ATMA, Paris, 1949, Vol. 48, laying out the waterlines of their ships. They
pages 553-587." evidently hoped that a useful degree of wave-
resistance compensation could be achieved by
So far as known, the Wigley paper referenced plotting the profile of a trochoidal wave accom-
here has not been translated into English. panying the afterbody, turning this profile over
For the benefit of the naval architect who is on its side, and then making the waterline of the
giving this matter serious attention for the first ship's run a sort of complement to the wave
time, two features should be pointed out in profile. This was done, in the words of J. Scott
advance: Russell, to use "the lateral displacements of
wavy water to correct the effects of its undulating
(1) Regardless of what he may have thought of
surface, ." [INA, 1863, p. 226].
their work in the past, he should realize that
. .

It is to be remembered that the developments

practically all the analysts who have been
outlined in this section all took place before the
engaged on this problem, for the period 1925-1955,
first model basin was commissioned by William
have followed up their theoretical work with
Froude in 1872. It is apparent, further, from the
model experiments, in an effort to prove or to —
disprove —their theories fact that proposals such as those in the preceding
paragraph were made by eminent men of the
(2) They have strived to make it clear that they
period, that their reasoning was not equaled by
are engaged in a calculation of wavemaking
their observation of ship phenomena. It is a sign
resistance only. Other phases of pressure resistance
of real progress that the testing of ship models,
have been considered, but not included in their
predictions.
subsequent to this time, has been accompanied
by a greatly increased attention to and observa-
50.2 Early Efforts to Analyze and Calculate tion of hydrodynamic phenomena on ships, in

Ship Resistance. Until the period 1840-1860 the the full scale.
aim of ship designers and builders was to crowd Rankine, in the early 1860's, tackled the prob-
the maximum of carrying capacity into merchant lem of the flow of water around a ship from a
208 iiM)ii()iiv\ \Mi(:s i\ siiii' nisicx Sec. 50.2

purely analytic point of view. He slarled with contribution cinlKRlicii Kankine's invention of
a two-dimensional body in an unliniitotl liquid the concept of radial flow, later to be known in
and then brought it to the surface, so to speak. some (luartcrs as source-sink (low, and subse-
When he did so he realized that surface waves quently to be utilized to some extent in practically
would be formed but of these "principal vertical all attacks on the wave-resistance problem from
disturbances" he assumed them "to be so small, 1890 to the present. While it is reporteil that
compared with the dimensions of the bodj', as G. R. JvirchholT emploj-ed the artifice of sources
not to produce any appreciable error in the and sinks hydrodynamics as early as
in analytic
consoijuencos of the supposition of (licjuid) 1845 [Rou.se, and Ince, S., "History of
II.,

motion in plane layers" [Phil. Trans., Hoy. Soc,
London, 1S04, pp. 383-384].
Whatever may be said of Rankinc's sense of
values and of physical laws in this matter, he
did succeed in deriving mathematically an
infinite series of 2-diml and 3-dinil shapes for
which not only the boundarj' coordinates but the
velocity and pressure distribution could be calcu-
lated. It seems reasonable to suppose that
eventually he hoped to be able to calculate their
resistances to motion in a li(|uid. With the
assistance of Clerk Maxwell, as related previously
in Sec. 2.11, he devised graphic and geometric
methods of drawing the outlines of these oval
forms, called here Rankinc stream forms, as well
as the procedures for constructing the streamlines
around them. Rankine's endeavors [Phil. Trans.,
Roy. Soc, 18G1 and 1871] constitute, so far as
known, the first scientific attempt to take into
account the prime factors of velocity and pressure
around a ship hull. Tjiis important .scientific
Hydraulics," La Ilouille Blanche, B/19'}'), Chap.
9, p. 201], Rankine's search for the fundamental
velocitj' and pressure relationships in the sur-
rounding flow laid the groundwork for the u.seful
features of this concept today.
One interesting feature of Rankine's work,
seldom brought to mind in these years, is that
while he considered the oval shapes resulting
from his new procedure to be general forms of
waterlines, it was not at all his intention that the
blunt-ended "neoids" or stream-form outlines
generated by placing a source-sink pair in a
uniform stream be incorporated a.s waterlines in
actual ships. lie proposed instead that one of the
stream surfaces lying iji the litiuid outboard of
the oval form, comprising both hollow regions
and convex shoulders, be u.sed as the hull surface
at the ship waterline. To this shape of boundary,
represented by the trace Ls — Lb in diagram 1
of Fig. 50. A, or by any streamline farther removed
from the stream form, he gave the name "lis.sone-

—
Sec. 50.2 CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESISTANCE 209

oid," signifying a ship surface over which the the ship was matched by the length L„. of a
water might ghde easily [INA, 18G4, pp. 327-328]. trochoidal wave same speed,
traveling at the
Of these surfaces he said: with two adjacent crests opposite the bow and
stern, and with its trough amidships. Second, he
"The co-efRcients of those Lissoneoids which are of
proportions available for practical use (the length being assumed a hypothetical barge-shaped ship with
four times the breadth, and upwards) range from three- a given constant beam and a vertically curved
fifths to two-thirds,and differ but Uttle in any case from bottom, shaped to a nicety so that it fitted exactly
0.637, which is also the co-efficient of fineness for a curve
into the trough of the trochoidal wave and rested
of sines" [INA, 1864, p. 327).
everywhere upon the wave surface, like a sailor
The latter corresponded to J. Scott Russell's relaxing in a hammock. He took for granted, as
waterline curve of versed sines, reproduced in did everyone else at that time, that the friction
diagram A of Fig. 24. G in Volume I. It seems resistance along the ship's side varied as the
clear that Rankine, as a ship designer of that day square of the speed. Further, that the friction
as well as a mathematician and scientist of con- resistance along the under side of the barge-
siderable renown, did use shapes resembling shaped ship was balanced by a forward thrust or
lissoneoids for the waterlines of some ships. propelling force which, exerted by the water under
Rankine points out, in his 1864 paper, cited the run, just counteracted the friction effects
earlier in this section, that along a lissoneoid, upon the whole barge. This procedure appeared
clear of the stream form, there is a region of to be exceedingly clever, because it obviated the
maximum positive differential pressure +Ap necessity of estimating or computing those effects.
abreast the leading edge and another abreast the Rankine then transformed the curved-bottom
trailing edge, with only one region of maximum barge into a ship with a mean girth equal to the
negative differential pressure — Ap abreast the barge's beam, and with a run which was charac-
middle of the body. Around the neoid or stream terized by a waterline having the shape of a
form proper there are two points, one on each trochoid. Utilizing a few more transformations
shoulder, where the Ap drops to its maximum that read like a story of alchemy, Rankine
negative numerical value, while at amidships it evolved a formula for the total resistance of the
rises to a somewhat lesser negative numerical ship. Rewritten in the notation of this book, his
value. This means that, around and along a formula states that the total ship
neoid, the pressure changes the sign of its longi-
tudinal gradient (rises and falls) six times, Resistance = Cf;^- V'L{ ,, . I

2g Vgirth /
whereas along a lissoneoid it changes only four
times. This situation is shown schematically in
[1 + 4 sin^ in + sin* in]
(50.i)
diagram 2 of Fig. 50. A. The significance of these
changes was appreciated by Rankine, who felt
that the fewer the pressure changes along the
side of a ship the better.
With this background, and some previous woi'k
[1 -F 4 sin' ia + sin* in]

on waves [Phil. Trans., Roy. Soc, 1863], Rankine where Ir is the maximum slope of the trochoidal
developed two formulas, essentially similar, for waterline in the run and V is the ship speed.
calculating the resistance of a ship having a The third term in the brackets, sin* Ir , may
certain shape of waterline. They are described become small enough to be neglected in compari-
here at some length, not so much because of their son with the others. Based on the use of English
interesting historic value, or of their practical units of measurement, the friction coefficient
and physical worth, but because of the lines of Cp according to the knowledge of that time,
,

reasoning by which they were derived. It is of was about 0.0036 for the clean, painted surfaces
Uttle present importance that the hydrodynamics of iron ships ["On the Computation of the
was faulty or that they proved inadequate for Probable Engme-Power and Speed of Proposed
design purposes but it is important that the Ships," INA, 1864, pp. 316-333].
derivation was based on considerations of hydro- The terms to the left of the brackets, combined
dynamics rather than on the intensely practical with the first term within them, namely unity,
nautical knowledge of that day. gave the friction resistance only. The pressure
Rankine considered, first, that the length L of resistance was added by taking account of the
LMO IIM)K()1)\ NAMIC.S l.\ Mill' 1)1.,SU,.\ Sec. WJ
second ami third ti-iins in tlic luarkrls, hut in such in u.se in many quarters today, as may be noted
a manner that it ftiriiuHl a t|unntity cakuhitod in from Sec. .'JO.7 of this part of the book aiul from
the same way as tlie friction resistance and SX.VMI'] Technical and IJe.search Bulletin 1-2,
addetl to it. More is said of tliis uuusiud feature Marcli l'.).J2, page 3. If Rankine did not choo.se to
hiter. Rankine callwl the conil)iiiation of tlie emphasize those factoids which have since become
product of the length L, the mean girtli, and the important, he must at least be given credit for
terms within the lirackets "tlie augnientod outspoken discussion of the subject and profes-
surface." sional honesty, still highly prized. In the referenced
The year following the publication of this first 18(14 paper, on page 390, he headwl the section
formula, and after developing his ncoids and containing his expression for Eq. (50. ii) with the
Rankine derived from them a similar
lissoneoids, frank statement "Provisional Formula for Re-
formula but by a (|uite dilTerent approach, taking sistance." On page 296 of his later 1871 paper a
"into account not only the direct resistance caused similar heading reflected his increased confidence
by the longiludinal component of the friction, but in the formula by reading "Probable Law of

the resistance caused indirectly through the Resistance."

decrease of pressure at the bow, and diminution Despite his lack of knowledge of the laws of
of pressure at the stern, assuming the vertical friction resistance Rankine brought out the
disturbance (of the water surface) to be unim- following important points:
portant" (italics and comments in brackets are
(a) The use of the longitudinal instead of the
thase of the present author) [Phil. Trans., 18()4,
tangential components of the friction drag in the
p. 384). Rankine's reasoning here is not too clear,
direction of motion
especially as to the source of the reduced pressure
(b) The use of the velocity with whiili the water
at the stern in a region of potential flow, but
actually moved over the surface of the ship, as
there is no douljt that he was thinking intensely
contrasted to the overall speed of the .ship.
on the subject.
The second formula, given "as a probable During the period from 1858 to 1863, and prcjb-

approximation for lissoneoids" [Phil. Trans., ably at other times, Rankine (with J. R. Napier)
1864, p. 390], takes the following form when put used the formulas of Eqs. (50.i) and (oO.ii) "with
in the notation of this book: complete success in practice, to calculate before-
hand the engine-power required to propel propo.sed
« = C,|,S'r{l+4(^y] (.50.ii) vessels at given speeds" [Phil. Trans., 1863, p.
136].
where .S is the wetted surface with no obliquity Other engineers and scientists, working inde-
correction and AV, measured abreast the miiklle pendently on the problem in Great Britain,
of the bfxly, is the increa.se in the "velocity of endeavored to find formulas for calculating both
gliding" over the .speed of the vessel, due to the the friction and the pressure resistance [Phipjis,
potential flow around the .ship. G. II., Inst. Civ. Engrs., London, 8 and 15 .Mar
If the sin* i^ term of Eq. (oO.i) Ls neglected, the 1864; Jour. Franklin Inst., Jan-.Jun ISiit, \'ol.

expressions within the brackets in these two XLVII, Third Series, pp. .308-312].
equations become e.s.sentially similar in that both As with many other things of that period the
are indirectly functions of the beam. Increasing .ship-resistance formulas have long since been
the beam incrca.scs both sin" !« and (AV/V)' forgotten, at least in their original form, but their
and at the .same time increases the resistance. In purpose remains as valid as when it was expres.sed
fact, the inclusion of the.sc terms to the second nearly a (•(•ntur\- ago.
power may not be too distantly related to the 50.3 Modem Developments in the Calculation
conclusions derived many decades later, to the of Pressure Resistance Due to Wavemaking.
cfTect that under similar circumstances the cal- The early history of the analytit^ allaik on the
culatetl resistance due to wavemaking increiuses problem of ship resistance, sketchetl in Sec. 50.2,
as a function of tho.sf|uare of the beam [Il.uvclnck, shows (irst some groping and spasmodic efforts,
T. H., IN.\, 1018, p. Jdll. then the beginnings of an active campaign that
Despitr- the inr-on)[)lctc knowli-dge <if phy.sical in the period 1920-1955 has become .systematic
phenomena upon which they were i)a.se<l, I'](|s. and has shown increasing promi.se of practical
(.jO.i) and (.")().ii) bear a striking likeni-.ss to those re.sull.s.
Sec. 50.3 CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESLSTANCE 211

This campaign was initiated by J. H. Michell in matical methods. The

fact that it is invariably
1898 Mag., London, 1898, Vol. 45, pp.
[Phil. necessary to establish the velocity potential of
106-123] and carried on by T. H. Havelock, the flow around the ship means that there is
W. C. S. Wigley, E. Hogner, G. P. Weinblum, concurrently available a powerful tool for deriving
R. S. Guilloton, J. K. Lunde, and others, along most of the flow characteristics and hence many
somewhat varied and independent lines. It is useful features of ship performance.
based generally upon one or more of the following: For example, if the expression for the velocity
potential can be modified to take account of
(1) Utilization of the slopes of the ship surfaces
boundary-layer, propeller-suction, and other
with respect to the direction of motion
effects, if should be possible to determine from
(2) Utilization of source-sink combinations and
it any one or all of the following:
distributions to represent the disturbance pro-
duced by a moving ship (a) The direction of flow over the underwater
(3) Calculation of the wavemaking resistance hull surface at selected points [Guilloton, R. S.,
from the velocity potential derived for the flow INA, 1948, Vol. 90, pp. 48-63]
around the ship form. (b) The stream
function, which in turn should
enable a 3-diml plotting of the stream surfaces
This procedure involves considerable modifica-
in the surrounding field. This takes for granted
tions of Rankine's original work on point sources
the ultimate practicability (not now achieved)
and sinks and the later development of line sources
of expressing thestream function for the flow
and sinks by D. W. Taylor. The stream-form ship
around a 3-diml body which is not a body of
is not only brought to the surface from a region
revolution.
of unlimited liquid all around it, but the surface
(c) The complete pressure distribution over the
waves are now so large that the wavemaking
hull form
effects enter as a major factor in the resistance.
(d) The points in the field surrounding the hull
A distribution of radial flow from one or more where the local velocity is equal to the ship
sources and sinks which, in a uniform stream of
speed, such as are required for many types of
unlimited extent, produces a given body form,
instrumentation
requires extensive modification to produce the
(e) The effect of changes in the ship size, pro-
same form at and near a free surface. Further-
portions, and shape.
more, the secondary surface waves set up by the
moving pressure disturbances incident to this An example showing the effect of changing the
radial flow do not form a pattern which is sym- distribution of section area in the forebody is

metrical forward and aft with relation to the ship. given by J. V. Wehausen [SNAME, 1951, Fig.
Hence, although the schematic ship moves in an B and p. 26]. The general subject of wavemaking
ideal liquid, it does possess a pressure drag due to resistance as a function of the ship form, pro-
wavemaking. D'Alembert's paradox no longer portions, and dimensions is discussed by G. P.
holds here, where the body is so close to the Weinblum in TMB Report 710, dated September
surface that its motion produces surface waves 1950, pages 25-61. Embodied in this is the dis-
containing an appreciable amount of energy. cussion of a considerable number of detail features.
The calculation of this pressure drag, along In connection with (e) preceding, it may often
theoretical and analytical lines, has been the be simpler and quicker, especially with modern
primary aim of those who have done the recent computing machines, to introduce special con-
work on this problem. However, it became evident ditions into an equation and solve for the answer
at a rather early stage that these methods pointed than it is to endeavor to obtain the answer
the way to other achievements in calculation and experimentally.
prediction procedures. Some of them are de- Regardless of the line of attack employed for
by F. H. Todd [SNAME, 1951, pp. 78-79],
scribed deriving the wavemaking resistance, it forms one
among them the analytic work of W. C. S. Wigley of the three (or more) principal components of
on the bulb bow, described in Sec. 67.6. Before the total resistance, foUomng the W. Froude
proceeding to discuss the modern lines of attack subdivision of the early 1870's. The others are
in somewhat more detail, it may be well to friction resistance,eddy-making or separation
emphasize this fact, because it is often lost sight resistance, and the interactions listed in Sec. 12.1
of in discussions of theoretical amd mathe- of Volume I, if they are taken into account.
212 11M)R()1)^\ AMICS IN Sllir DlSKiX Src. •in.4

To l)o suri', ns is cxplninrtl shortly, the ciirroiit From th<? pressures developed on the ship surface,
(195o) mathoiimtioal theory Uoos not recognize or from the energ.v in the wave system, to calculate

the fact tliat the actual sliip moves in a real the ship resistance due to wavemaking.
hqiiid, tliat it is surrounded by a boundary layer
The actual assumptions made, as embodied in
of varj-ing and velocity, that it is
thickness
the Lunde 1952 reference, are quite definite and
generally accompanietl by a separation zone at
straightforward:
tlie stern, or that it is driven by propellers with

velocity and pressure fields of their own. Xo (a) The liquid is homogeneous, it retains its

more dcx-s the simple beam theory lake account continuity, and it is incompressible; that is, it is

of the complexities in the stmcturc of a modern not subjected to ehistic d(?formation

ship, yet it is contiiuially employed to predict (b) The li(|uid is ideal in that it is without
the stresses and strains in this stmcturc. If cor- viscosity
responding complications do not prevent everyday (c) The action has continued for a sufficiently
use of the simple beam theory, the jissumptions long time so that steady motion is established
implicit in the i)resenl-day applications of theo- everywhere
retical hydrodynamics to a prediction of ship (d) The wave height is small in compari-son to the
behavior should not hinder its use wherever wave length, with a wave slope and a wave
applicable. Continuation of the theoretical and steepness that are likewise relatively small
analytical development of the past 50 years for (e) The velocities due to wave motion are small
another half-century into the future, correspond- compared to the ship spceil
ing to the full century that the beam theory (f) Outside of the displacement thickness 5*(delta
lias been in use for ship structures, may well star) of the boumlary layer, which is relatively
bring to the hands of naval architects a flow thin compared to the beam or draft of the ship,
theory equally simple in application if not in the motion is irrotational and can be
liquid
character or exprossion. characterized by a velocity potential (/)(phi)
50.4Assumptions and Limitations Inherent which, when dilTerentiatcd partially, produces the
in Present-Day Calculations. The a.s.sumptioiis three comi)oncnt velocities along the body axes:
which must be made to obtain a solution of the
theoretical wave resistance of a ship by the most M = d(t>
T^ V = —
modern mathematical methods (1955) will, it is ax ay dz

believed, appear in a ch^arcr li^lit if the analytic

These velocities are as.sumed to be so small in
procedure is first explained. Paraplnasiiiff T. II.
comparison with the ship's velocity that their
Ilavelock, to whom we are principally indebted
squares and higher powers can be neglected,
for it, this procedure is described as follows
(g) The liquid motion around the ship can be
[Lunde, J. K., "On the Theory of Wave Resistance
represented by the combination of a uniform-
and Wave Profile," Norwegian Model Basin
stream flow parallel to the ship axis and a railial
Rep. 10, Apr 1952, p. 2]:
flow associated with the desired or necessary
(1) The first step is to neglect any wave motion combination of sources, sinks, and doublets,
produced on the free surface, as if the latter were placed anywhere within or on the hull boundary
covered with a sheet of ice which moves aside to (h) For rea.sons largely nuithematical, to keep

pemiit pa.s.sage of the .ship, and to con.sider only certain integrals determinate, it is a.s.sunu>tl that
the lii|uid motion jjrotluccd by the ship the ideal li(|uid ilocs exert a small friction force

(2) The second stop is to obtain the wave dis- proportional to the liquid velocity. The damping
turbance produced l)y this motion while ignoring coeflicieiit thus arbitrarily introduced is dimin-
the presence of the ship in its effect upon these i.shed to zero in the analysis as soon lus it has

waves .served its purpose. Actually, this procedure insures

(3) The third step, not yet po.ssible with existing that the surface waves always trail the ship,
theory, is to evaluate the influence of the ship (i) Other than as listed in (h) i)receding, the
on the waves so calculated effects of viscosity in the liiiuid are neglecteil and
(4) Finally, by a stjries of HUcce8.Hive approxima- the boundary layer as such is considere<l absent

tions whiili remain to be worked o\it, to determine (j) The pressure resistance due to wavemaking,
Ihc actual wave disturbance aroinid the ship. under the foregoing contlitions, can be consiilercti
 Sec. 50A CALCULATION OF VVAVEMAKINC RESISTANCE 213

equivalent to that encountered when viscous flow \* Lenc^th of Model, 16.0 ft :

is present, as on an actual ship. In other words, I Beam, 1.5 ft

the friction resistance and the resistance due to I

iBoundoru-Layer Displacement Thickness
16 is Greotly Exoqaeroted Here
wavemaking do not influence each other, at
1

least asa first approximation, and may therefore -4

be calculated separately.
(k) The ship form possesses easy waterlines and Condition 'A, with Mode.1 T
Symmetrical Fore and Aft Mid length
buttocks (with small slopes), so that separation
Direction of Motion
does not occur in any region around
1

its boundary

(1) The length-beam ratio is large and the beam- 1-^3 ft-^
B Shown
draft ratio moderately small I
—|lftl^ Modification on this Side

(m) Change of trim and sinkage due to the ship ^ ' ^ - • ^ ^ ^ ^ ^' 'i -I I
• •
—
motion do not affect the pressure resistance. This /. ti J Modification C Shown on This Side Z.
is a simplifying but not a necessary assumption.

The wave height, the particle velocity in the NPL Model l790B,with Wall Sides and Porobolic WL
wave, and the slopes of the ship waterhnes and
0.40
buttocks are limited in magnitude only by the
Graph A is for a-dimi Model
0.35
necessity of keeping the general expressions for in Condition A, Diaqrom 1

velocity potential and wave resistance in linear 0, Graph B for Conditit

form [Lunde, J. K., SNAME, 1951, p. 83]. OZS
Actually, the ship forms to which the analytic
O.ZO
procedure can be and has been applied are by no
0.15
means excessively thin and fine, as witness the
forms depicted in SNAME, 1951, Fig. 6 on page
18, Fig. 8 on page 20, Fig. 9 on page 21, Fig. 7 on
page 72, and Fig. 3.Q in Sec. 3.13 of Volume I of °°° 02Z 0.2A O.Zb 0.28
0.16 0.18 0.20
this book. Froude Number y-^oL
Change of trim, involving slope drag in addition
Fig. 50. BCalculated Resistance Data for
to hydrodynamic resistance, is not a sizable factor
Slender 2-Diml Ship Forms with and without
except in vessels intended to run at high speed- Allowances fob Boundary-Layer Thickness
length quotients. The pressure resistance due to and Separation
wavemaking, in the usual model-testing and ship-
powering technique, is considered to be inde- is small in proportion to the ship's transverse
pendent of the friction resistance, although there dimensions, indicated at 1 in Fig. 50. B, this is

are known to be interactions between the two, true only from the stem to that region along the
discussed in (d) of Sec. 12.1. run where the boundary layer thickens perceptibly
This leaves but two limitations of consequence. as the ship surface recedes from the water flowing
The fact that the run of the ship must be suffi- past it. When it recedes at too rapid a rate separa-
ciently tapering, both horizontally and vertically, tion occurs in a form such as to fill out or fair out
to avoid all separation means that the analytic the blunt endings.
method as now developed is limited definitely to The separation-zone effect can be allowed for
pressure resistance due to wavemaking. Pressure after a fashion by a method developed by T. H.
resistances due to separation and other factors Havelock and illustrated schematically at 2 in
have to be calculated separately. It is effective, Fig. 50. B, adapted from Fig. 1 on page 262 of
therefore, in determining only a part of what is INA, 1948. Here the ship form is enlarged by the
generally classed as residuary resistance. addition of an "appendage" at the stern which is
The major limitation of the analytic procedure estimated to be of the proper size and shape to
is that it to take account of the effective
fails produce a potential flow (and a surface-wave
change in form of the run, especially near and at system) about the ideahzed ship that is found
the stern, caused by the displacement thickness around the actual ship. Unfortunately, this
of the boundary layer and by whatever separation estimate involves a knowledge of and an abihty
zones exist there. While the displacement thickness to predict separation which is greater than that
211 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DI:SIC;N Sec. 50.5

roflotttHi in Clmp. I(> of this part of tlio hook, l>tit condition. For this purpo.se a .second 3-diml or
it is certainly a step in tlu- rinht liiicttion. image source B, with a velocity potential of
Curve A in iliagrnm 3 of Fig. 50. B gives values opposite sign, is added at a distance above the

of the expre.'vsion /^h ((0.5B)J]''J, on a basis of free-surface plane equal to the submergence of
Frouiie ninnl>er /•'. = \'/\/gL, for the eah-iihited source A below it.
waveinaking re.sistanec of the 2-din)l model in The velocity potentials of the two 3-(linil

diagram 1 of the figure, when moving ahead in sources, taken from Eq. (3.xiii) of Sec. 3.9 of
an iileal li<iuiii, with no boundary layer. Curve B Volume I, are expressed as
in diagram repre.sents the calculated wave-
'.i

making resistance Ii,r divided by [{0.oB)'V'\, for 'i>* = JT ^^ *o

/<"«
a symmetrical stern appendage corresponding to
Modification B in diagram 2 of Fig. 50. B. Curve
They arc added to form the velocity potential of
C gives similar data for Modification C. The the source mo\Ting under the flat free surface. A
effect of easing the waterline slopes in the run
general term
appears to be very large comparofl to the small
size of the appendages adiled.
*.s
Allowing for the boundary-layer elTect i.s

discussed brieflv bv J. K. Lunde [SXAME, 1951,

is then added to produce the elTect of all other
p. 83).
50.5 Formulation of the Velocity-Potential supplementary sources, whether they are "body"
Expression. Given the a-ssumjitioiis listed in Sec. sources below the liquid surface or image sources
in the air above it. Hence the velocity potential
.50.4 preceding and accepting the limitations
for a moving source may, to the first approxima-
stated there, one analytic procedure may be
tion, be written
outlined brief!}' as follows. Granting that the shape
of the underwater ship hull, as well as the motion
of the water around it, is defined by a given
combination of sources and sinks and a superposed
= *.+ .^« +«.,= - ^-^+ 2.<
Rs

uniform flow, the internal sources and sinks, In many of the references of Sec. 50. K! it will be
balancing each other in strength, can determine foiuul that these expressions are modilied by
the hull shape but they have no effect upon the having 47r in the denominator. This is solely
external resistance. This is caused solely by the because the 3-diml source strength ?h is defined as
image source(s) used to produce the .surface equal to the quantity rate of flow Q, instead of
boundary condition; that is, to keep the free as Q/47r. The latter corresponds to the notation
surface sensibly flat. By starting with the force in this book.
produced on a typical internal source by the Making use of the Bernoulli Theorem, ami
fluid velocity at that point resulting from the passing through a long series mathematic
of
image source, it is possible to arrive at an expres- transformations, much too complicated and
sion for the surface wave resistance. involved to be given here, an expression is derived
Expre.s.sed in more specific terms, one may start for the velocity potential which permits almost
with a .3-diml .source placed at some point in.side any finite number of sources and sinks to be used
the bow of the schematic ship, below the waterline. to rejjrcsent the imderwaler form of the ship.
Thi.s source is so placed that, in (Mimbination with 'J'liis velocity potential may, in fact, be expre.ssetl

others to be added later, and when superpo.sed on ill a number of dilTerent forms, depeiuling upon
a uniform-stream flow, it produces an entrance the plienomcna which are to be predicted or
for the ship of the desired size and shai)e. calculated from it. In any of its forms, however,
Moving by it.self at a steady speed clo.se under it must first .satisfy the continuity conditions.
the free liquid surface, the low source, called A Second, it nuist sivtisfy the various boundary
for convenience, not only diverts the liquid conditions corresponding to tlie .shape of the
flowing toward it at its own level but also produces tmderwater form and the shape of the free surface
a surface; wave above it. Following the procedure around the nioviiig shii) (this surface need not
dcHcribed at the beginning of Sec. .50.4, step (1) nece.ssjirily be fiat in the final form of the velocity
is to flatten out the bow wav«' above source A, pot.<'ntial; indeed it. is not fl.-il).

bringing the free Hurfmc back to its original al-rest In thewoi'ds of M. M Mmik, when spe;ikiiig of
Sec. 50.6 CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESISTANCE 215

vortex theory, one might say that any method "It is known that the total force between two sources
and two strengths m and m', respectively, is given
sinlcs of
actually used:
by where r is the distance between them
iiwpinm.' /r'^
". seems not to appeal readily to minds not thoroughly
. . [Lamb, H., "Hydrodynamics," 5th ed., Art. 144, p. 138.
trained mathematically, and gives rise to confusion This result is not given in the later edition]. This force is

among practical men rather than serving to enlighten an attraction if m and m' are of the same sign, and a
them" [Proc. First Int. Cong. Appl. Mech., Delft, 1924, repulsion when is, if one is a source
of opposite sign, that
p. 435). and one a sink. If we suppose a body to be at rest in a
uniform stream, we know that the resultant motion is
50.6 The Calculation of Wavemaking Resist- due to the stream itself together with the given sources
ance. Having achieved a suitable expression for and sinks in the region outside the body whilst the effect
of the body is equivalent to an internal distribution of
the velocity potential which meets the continuity
sources and sinks.
and boundary conditions, much easier said than "Now Havelock has shown that the resultant forces and
done, there are several ways of using it to obtain couples on the body may be calculated from the forces on
the answers desired. In the case of the resistance the internal sources and sinks due to attraction and
due to wavemaking, at least six lines of approach repulsion between external and internal sources and
sinks taken in pairs" [Havelock, T. H., "The Vertical
are open, defined briefly as follows:
Force on a Cylinder Submerged in a Uniform Stream,"
Proc. Roy. Soc, Series A, 1928, Vol. 122, p. 387ff].
(a) The most and obvious method, con-
direct
sidering that the pressure dragdue to wavemaking G. P. Weinblum adds the following comment:
is indeed developed as a pressure directly on the
"When the velocity potential corresponding to a
ship, is to integrate the longitudinal component
source-sink distribution is known, the horizontal velocity
of the resultant liquid pressure over the hull. is also known, and the resistance X (the total resistance
This is equivalent, as T. H. Havelock says Rt in standard notation)can be written down as the
[INA, 1934, p. 439], to obtaining "the combined integral of the product of the distribution and the hori-
zontal velocity over the region of the distribution" [TMB
backward resultant of the fluid pressures taken
Rep. 710, Sep 1950, p. 16].
over the hull of the ship; but this is by no means
the simplest method for purposes of calculation." (e) By the method of G. P. Weinblum, in which
(b) Introducing artificial viscosity as a damping the shape of the hull is expressed mathematically,
assumption (h) of Sec. 50.4, or in
effect, listed in as described in Sees. 49.4and 49.5. In general,
fact emplo3dng any artificial kind of liquid Weinblum's method differs from the others
resistance, means that the energy put into the mentioned here in that the velocity potential is
wave system has to be derived from the rate of developed on the basis of equations expressing
dissipation of energy in the liquid around the the hull shape in mathematic terms, rather than
body. This method, in the words of J. K. Lunde, upon an array of sources and sinks, or upon the
"... has certain important analytical advantages; slope of the hull surface with respect to the direc-
nevertheless, it is highly artificial ..." tion of motion.
(c) By a direct application of the method of (f) By the method of R. Guilloton, in which the
energy and work, it is possible to calculate the hull is represented as a summation of simple
pressure drag due to wavemaking if the wave geometric bodies, in the form of wedges, and the
pattern at a great distance to the rear of the ship IVIichell velocity potential is used to calculate the
is known. As the hquid has no viscosity, all the pressure disturbance of an elementary wedge.
energy put into the wave system remains there, The total velocity potential, obtained as the sum
and the wave pattern at that distance is free of of the component potentials, is then expressed
all the local disturbances produced by the ship. directly as a function of the hull shape as defined
This is, according to Havelock [INA, 1934, p. by a table of offsets [Guilloton, R., INA, 1940,
440], the "most natural method" under the Vol. 82, p. 69ff; 1946, Vol. 88, p. 308ff; 1948,
circumstances. Vol. 90, p. 48ff; SNAME, I95I, Vol. 59, pp.
(d) By utilization of the Lagally Theorem and the 86-128; Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., and Jacobs,
forces exerted between the boundaries of bodies W. R., ETT Stevens Rep. 541, Aug 1954, p. 4].
enclosing pairs of sources (or sinks) of equal (g) IMore recently, Guilloton has developed a
strength. J. K. Lunde explains this method as new approach to the calculation of wavemaking
follows ["On the Theory of Wave Resistance and resistance utilizing themeasurements of wave
Wave Profile," Norwegian Model Basin Rep. 10, profiles taken on towing models [Guilloton, R.,
Apr 1952, p. 17]: SNAME, Tech. and Res. Bull. I-I5, Dec 1953;
216 n\i)Rc)i)\N.\Mit;.s IN smv design .SVf. 50.7

INA, 1952, \'ol. ".II,

i>. 3i;?fr; RirkhofT, C, Kon'in- significance is dcscrilunl in the diagram. It is to
Kroukovsky, B. V.. ami Kotik, J., SNAMK, be noted that the fourth and terms of the
fifth

1954, pp. 359-.3961. Tlii.s nictliod has the disad- series are negative, indicating an everpresent
vantage that it is difficult to measure or record benefit from the interferences of all except the
the profile positions accurately. The profile bow and stern wave patterns. The general and
appears to shift in any one run, even when the physical reasons for this are explained in Sec.
model is moving at nominally constant speed. 10.14 and other sections of that chapter.
Further, the difTerences in profile positions for Furthermore, the last three terms contain a
successive speotls are small. sineand two cosines which vary with K(kappa) =
g/V, hence these terms have values which are
G. P. Weinblum gives a summary of most of
said to oscillate with speed. The oscillations give
more mathematical terms, in
these methods, in
rise to the well-known hum|)s and hollows in the
Appendix 2 of TMB Poport 710, September 1!).")(),
curves of resistance due to wavemaking. ilhis-
pages 89-94.
liated in diagram .3 of Fig. ."lO.B.
It has been shown liy Lumlr that all six
50.8 Comparison of Calculated and Experi-
methods lead to exactly the same result if carried
mental Resistances. As an indication of the cor-
out correctly. Further, that for a thin ship the
relation obtainctl between the calculated and
methods of Havelock and Guilloton give identical
experimental values of resistance derived from a
results.
model which resembles an actual ship. Fig. 50.D
The derivation of the resistance equations by
gives the (c)-curves, based on total resistance, for
anj- of these six methods, as well as the calcu-
the destroyer model devised by J. K. Lunde and
lation of the resistance for a range of speed, is

exceedingly involved. No attempt is made to

give it here but those who \\'ish to pursue this

matter further may find the work carried out in

several ways in the references quoted in Sec. 50.13.
One could wi.sh that the ingenuity of the workers
in the analytic field had been matched bj' those
in the experimental field, and that there were an i(k»ppa)
^'~^C}^^"'^'^''i^ ^Z"-^**^^ °^ Havelock
equal number of methods by which the resistance
'

" g/t* of HQvelod<^*~~'' I

'
—""""^ffeferertce - V of this

and other characteristics of a towing model could Referente - o/V of thie fioore f jqure

be determined. Further, that when so determined, PRESSURE RESISTANCE DUE TO WAVEMAKING

the values would all be equal! (l +II*III+Er+Y), where

rr
50.7 Components of the Calculated Wavemak-
ing Resistance. The matiifniatic cxiirc^sions for
Term I (S
2/ Y
V^
lofasu/ •
^^'' ""'sto't* D"E. to the Bow and the
Stern Wove Rjtterns. Assumed
resistance derived by the processes mentioned, to Exist Indepandenlivy
for shapes which lend themselves to this operation,
^ '^Ts io/O.SLW "^' Re»i»ton« Due to the Wove Rjt-
can sometimes be broken down into four or more
'

terns from the Two Curved Sides,

parts. These represent the components due to Existinq Indepsndentiv

separate wave systems formed at the bow and m

Term 15
(-/q^lJ / ^ coi^ 9 cos[2«.(0 5L)38ce]de, the
stem and along the sides, plus the interference
Pesistonce Due to the Interferenc
efTects between these components. Exactly the of the Bow ond the Stern
same unraveling process may be applied to the Wove Potterns

expressions for the surface elevation (or depres- Term E, (-) 2 (-fo5|_\ ) / ^ cos e sin [Z *i (05L)sec e] de the ,

sion) of the combined gravity-wave system. Resistance Due to the Inlerferen

As an example. Fig. 50.C gives the formula of Bow or Stem Wavt Fbtterns
derived by T. H. Havelock for the wavemaking With Entrance or Run Rittcm

resistance of the essentially 2-diml and sym-

Term "^ • '
Malpil^ '^"^'^ sin[2»i(a5L)sece]de, the
metrical form shown there, made up of two
Resistance Due to Mutual Interference
parabolic watcrlines having their vortexes at of the Wove RrtUirns of the
midlenglh |1XA, 1934, Ei|. (28), pp. 441-142|. fntronce and the Run

Thi.H formula consists of a constant factor times Fid. 5().{; TAnULATION OK TyI'ICAI, C-OMPONENTS
a V" term times the sum of five terms whose OK Wavemakino Resistance
Sec. 50.9 CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESISTANCE 217

Total Resistonces for Norweqion Model 41, Representinq c Destroyer Form.

Corresponding FVoporti'ons o nd Form, Coeflicients-

-^=10.21 3.418

Cp= 0.653 Cx-0.80?

F^°'f
Cg- 0.526

For Lines of This Form, see Fig. 3.Q,

Sec. 3. 13, Volume I

©I

Includinq Friction Re&istanoe,

Qs Derived
i 1
from
(— Anolvitic

Form Generated by Source Distribution C

I
J
Treatment of
1 1 ,—

^Totol Estimated Resistance for Ship, [Lunde, J. K., IImV 1949. pp. 'l66-l90].
Includinq Friction Resistance,
QS Derived from Standard Model Test

0.24 az(, 0.28 0.30 032 034 Q36 038 0.40 042 0.44 046 048 Q50 052 054 0.56 058 060 062 0.64 0.66
Froude Number f„- V/t/oL

Fig. 50.D Comparison of Total Resistances for Lunde's Destroyer Model, as Calculated and as Deter-
mined FROM Model Tests

depicted in Fig. 3.Q of Sec. 3.13 of Volume I naval architect are the features, other than the
[INA, 1949, Fig. 3, p. 188]. Except for the hump wavemaking resistance of a ship in deep water,
in the curve of calculated resistance at a Froude which the workers in this field have been able to
number F„ of about 0.30, much more pronounced derive by the use of analytic methods and mathe-
in the calculated data than in the experimental matics. Among these may be mentioned (with
data from a routine towing-model test, the agree- the source references):
ment is considered to be remarkably good. The Wavemaking resistance in deep water in
(1)
shift in the hump of the ©-curve at an F„ of
accelerated rather than steady motion. This is of
about 0.48, from its position on the theoretical fundamental importance in the design and
graph to that on the experimental curve, is con-
operation of model testing basins and in the
sidered due to the fact that the displacement
conduct of ship trials over measured-mile courses.
thickness of the boundary layer around the towed
Wigley, W. C."Ship Wave Resistance," Proc.
S.,
model gives it a greater effective length than its
Third Int. Congr. Appl. Mech., Stockholm, 1930,
actual physical length. At least, its effective
Vol. I, pp. 58-73, esp. Figs. 6-9 on pp. 68-70
length appears to be greater than that of its Havelock, T. H., Quart. Jour. Mech. and Appl. Math.,
counterpart in the real liquid. (Oxford), 1949, Vol. 2, p. 325ff and p. 419ff

Other comparisons are given by the following, Havelock, T. H., Proc. Roy. Soc, 1950, Series A,
Vol. 201, p. 297ff.
some of them original and some taken from the
Lunde, J. K., SNAME, 1951, pp. 40-44
technical literature:

(1) Weinblum, G. P., TMB Rep. 710, Sep 1950, Fig. 6 (2) Wavemaking resistance in steady motion in
on p. 22 and Fig. 7 on p. 24 an infinitely deep canal with veBtical walls.
(2) Shearer, J. R., "A Preliminary Investigation of the
Sretensky, L. N., Phil. Mag., 1936, Vol. 22, p. 1005ff
Discrepancies Between the Calculated and Measured
Lunde, J. K., SNAME, 1951, pp. 44-50.
Wavemaking NECI, 1950-1951,
of Hull Forms,"
Vol. 67, pp. 43-68 and D2I-D34 Wavemaking resistance in steady motion in
(3)
(3) Havelock, T. H., "Wave Resistance Theory and Its
restricted waters.
Application," SNAME, 1951, Fig. 6 on p. 18;
Fig. 7 on p. 19 Havelock, T. H., Proc. Roy. Soc, 1921, Series A,
(4) Birkhoil, G., Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., and Kotik, Vol. 100, p. 499ff
J., SNAME, 1954, Fig. 5 on p. 366. This is the first Havelock, T. H., Proc. Roy. Soc, 1928, Series A,
diagram mentioned in item (3) preceding. Vol. 118, p. 30ff
Weinblum, G. P., Schiffbau, 1934, Vol. 35, p. 83ff
Other Features Derived from Analytic
50.9 Sretensky, L. N., Phil. Mag., 1936, Vol. 22, p. 1005fE
Ship-Wave Relations. Of great interest to the Weinblum, G. P., STG, 1938, Vol. 39, p. 166ff.
L'18 IlVDROnVNAMlCS IN SHIP DllSIGN Sec. 50.9

(I) motion
Wnvt'iiiiikiiiK rcsislaiRo in stciuly in Weinblum, G. P, and St. Denis, .M., SNAME, 1950,
pp. 184-248.
sluillow water of uniform depth and unlimited
horizontal extent. (,10) Streamlines or lines of flow along the hull
Woinblum, G. P., TMB Rep. 710, Sep 1950, pp. 94-95 surfaces of ships in steady motion and quiet
I.umlo, J. K., 1951, pp. 50-55
SN.VME, water.
KinoshitA, M., "Wnvi- llfsisU'ini-e of n Spliore in a
Guilloton, R., "Stream Lines on Fine Hulls," I.\.\,
Sh.illow Sea," Jour. Zoisen Kiokai (Society of Naval
1948, Vol. 90, pp. 4S-63. Diagram 1 of Fig. 50.E,
.\rThitt'ols, Japan) 1951, Vol. 73.
adapted from Fig. 2 on p. .52 of the reference,
Lunde. J. K., Xonvcgian Moilel Ba.'sin Rep. 10, .\pr.
indicates what had been achieve<.l by Guilloton as
1952, pp. 4l>-59
of the dat« of this paper.
(')) Wavemaking rcsistanee in aci'i'leralcd niotiun
= ( — r/g)
(11) Lines of etjual prc,s.surc [f {d<t>/dx)
in .-^lialUnv water of uniform dcplli.
corresponding to each waterline] aroiuid the hull
Lumle, J. K., SNAME, 1951, pp. 55-57 (eon.xidiTs of a ship in steady motion in quiet water.
linear acceleration).
Guilloton, R., "Stream Lines on Fine Hulls," IN.\,
((») Wavemaking resistance for steady motion in 1948, Vol. 90, pp. 48-63. Diagram 2 of Fig. 50.E,

a sliallow canal of rectangular section. adapted from Fig. 3 on p. 54 of the reference,

depicts some of these lines on a so-called mathe-
Weinblum. G. P., T.MB Rep. 710, Sep 1950, p. 95 matical model.
Lumle, J. K., SN.VMK, 1951, pp. 57-59.

(7) Wavemaking resistance for accelerated mo-

tion in a shallow canal of rectangular section.

Lunde, J. K., SX.VME, 1951, pp. 59-60 (considers

linear acceleration).
Broken Lines
Represent
(8) Wave profiles along the side of and al)aft a
Approximate
moving ship. Troces of Some
Streamlines
Wiglcy, W. "Ship Waves," NECI, 19:i0-1931,
C. S.,
Guilloton's
Vol. 47, pp. 153-196 —^
Tontjents 1
Havelock, T. H., '"Ship Waves," Proc. Roy. Soc,
1932, Series A, Vol. 135, p. IfT; also Vol. 136, p. 465fT
Wiglry, W. C. S., ".\ Compari.son of E.\porimont Both Bod^ Plons Represent W.C.S. V/iqlev's Model 755, when
and Calculate<l Wavc-Profiirs and Wuve-Re.fist- Run at Froude Number of 0.274
ance . . .," Prop. Roy. Soc, 1934, Series .'V, Vol. 144,
p. 144ff
Wigley, W. C. S., "The .Vnalysis of Ship Wave Resist-
ance into Component!! Depending on Features of
the Form," Trans. Liverpool Eng'g. Soc, 1940,
Guilloton's
Vol. LXI, pp. 2-35 (NBS library number TA1.L7)
Lines of
HavelfK-k, T. H., SNAME, 1951, Fig. 8 on p. 20,
Constont
from the works of R. Guilloton FVessure ^(rel^l
Lunde, J. K., Norwegian Model Ba.iiii Rep. 10, Apr
wh.re^.-^||-
19.52, pp. 60-84.
Correspondino to Eoch WL C.

(9) Resistancr- of a ship niovinK anioiij;; \va\('s.

l'"i(;. .50. E Sthkami.ink.'a .\Nn T,inks of Co.v.stant
Lunde, K., Norwegian MfMlel Ba.sin Rep. 10, Apr
J. PllK.SSrKK .\.s DkKIVKI) .VN'.tl.YTICAI.I.V IIY R. Gfll.lAlTO.N
19.52,pp. 8-1-97. Con.'tiderH first-order cfTects only,
neglecting reflection or scattering of waves by the
dhip it-self, un well as heaving and pitching motion. (12) EITect of longitudinal distribution of dis-
IIavrl<«-k, T. IT., "The Resistance of a Ship .\mong placement and shajie of the section-area curve.
Waves," Proc. Roy. Soc, 1937, Series A, \'ol. 161,

p. 299fT Weinblum, G. P., T.MB Rep. 710, Sep 1950, pp. 38-50.
Mavelo<k, T. II., "The Drifting Force on a Ship In Fig. .'il on p. ."iS, the author gives some forelxxly
Among Waves, '
Phil. Mag., 1942, Vol. 33, p. 4fl7IT si'cl ion-area curves for Mhips of Ica.tt re.xlstjince at
and |i. •'>ti5fT variou.-< Froude numbers. In 60 he l''ig. 32 on p.

Havel.Kk, T. II Phil, Mag., S<.rie,M 7, 1910, Vol. 29, reproduces some similar full-length .1-curves from
p. 407fT G. Pavlenko.
Ilavclock, T. II. INA, 194.5, Vol. 87, p. 109(T Pieii, P. C., SNAMi:, 1953, pp. 5.S0-5S2.
Sec. 50.11 CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESISTANCE 219

(13) Effect of vertical distribution of displace- centerplane, as are the sinks, with offset distances
ment. which vary from pair to pair.
Weinblum, G. P., TMB Rep. 710, Sep 19.50, pp. 50-56. While the labor involved in the numerical
Covers influence of the midship-section coefficient, calculations increases with the number of radial-
shape of sections, shape of waterlines, section-area flow points or singularities, it is diminished
curve, bulb bows, and cruiser sterns. appreciably by the use of certain tables now in
be reduced further in
existence. It can possibly
50.10 Ship Forms Suitable for Wave-Resist-
the future by the generous use of computing
ance Calculations. The simplified ship of J. H.
machines.
Michell's 1898 paper was little more than a
A remark made by W. J. M. Rankine on page 83
friction form with somewhat convex sides. Many
of his 1866 book entitled "Shipbuilding: Theo-
of the forms subsequently used resembled deep
retical and Practical" applies to many phases of
canoes more than real ships. This was largely
predicting ship performance other than the one
because the slopes of the fore-and-aft lines of
discussed in this chapter:
these "ships" were small, and because the source-
sink distribution, when employed, was for many ". . . as for misshapen and ill-proportioned vessels, there
years limited to positions on the centerplane. does not exist any theory capable of giving their resistance

Possibly greater part the forms were by previous computation."

the of
selected because their boundaries could be defined
50.11 Necessary Improvements in Analytical
by mathematical formulas based upon the ship
and Mathematical Methods. All workers in the
axes. If the expressions were not to become too
field of theoretical and analytical wave-resistance
involved, appreciable limitations were imposed on
calculations now (1956) agree that there are
the shapes represented by them. Body plans and
appreciable discrepancies between the derived
other lines drawings of these forms are illustrated
and observed resistance data for most of the
by:
forms concerned. While these are hardly first-order
(1) Wigley, W. C. S., and Lunde, J. K., INA, 1948, Vol. 90, differences,and while the wavemaking resistances
Fig. 1, p. 97; also Havelock, T. H., SNAME, 1951, of models can not be measured independently,
Fig. 6, p. 18, and BirkhofT, G., SNAME, 1954, Fig. 5, the variations are large enough to indicate that
p. 366
all the hydrodynamic actions have probably not
(2) Guilloton, R., INA, 1948, Vol. 90, Fig. 2, p. 52 and
Fig. 3, p. 54. been taken into account. One of these is the slope
drag (or thrust), due to the position of the vessel
While they are not to be classed as ships, the on the back (or front) of a wave of its own Velox
thin friction forms and thick planes used in system. This may be the reason for the increased
friction-resistance tests in model basins lend resistance of the destroyer model of Fig. 50. D at
themselves admirably to the calculation of their Froude numbers above about 0.48, T, = 1.61.
wavemaking resistance. No matter how thin they Moreover, it is recognized at the outset that
may be constructed they are rarely free of wave- the major viscous effects are neglected, as are all
making at the higher speeds. the interactions listed as (d), (e), and (f) in Sec.
Of late years, the calculation technique has 12.1. It is entirely possible that the hydrodynamic
progressed to the point where combined radial actions mentioned previously are not recognized
and uniform flow can be utilized to produce hull in routine analytic and experimental studies of
shapes not unlike those of actual ships. Fig. 3.Q resistance and propulsion, let alone in calculations
of Sec. 3.13 of Volume I illustrates such a form of wavemaking resistance.
designed by J. K. Lunde and made the subject of Because of the severe limitations imposed by
rather extensive studies [INA, 1949, Vol. 91, many analytical methods, such as the necessity
Figs. 1 and pp. 186-187].
2, for retaining the same type of transverse section
To produce a 3-diml ship of this type, simple from stem to stern of the ship being worked upon,
enough from the naval architect's viewpoint but the use of I'adically different procedures is being
extremely complex when translated into radial- studied. One of these is the slender-body theory,
flow and uniform-flow stream functions, may widely employed by aerodynamicists but hitherto
require as many as 30 pairs of sources and 20 not applied to surface-ship forms. Without going
The sources of each pair are dis-
pairs of sinks. into details, this method is based upon the assump-
posed symmetrically about but offset from the tions that:
220 iivnuonN \ \Mi( s i\ siiii' nrsK;\ SVr. 10.12

(a) All trniisvcrso tliiiiciisiinis aio assiiin<'<l to !)(> contributions. Whether these c(juld have been
small in comparist)n with tlie length achieved by other methods or whether they had
(b) The wave system,
elevations of the Velox already been discovered by observation, deduc-
caused by the passjige of the slender body through tion, intuition, or experimentation is somewhat
the water, are as*!umed to be eonccntrated along beside the point. The fact is that they came out of
the j-axis, as if the wa\e system were shifted the analytic "machine" with negligible assistance
inward due to a transverse collapse of the body from other sources.
to zero beam. Among the conclusions aiul contributions may
Xntwithstaniling the modifications to simplify be liste<l:

the problem, the mathematical equations are still

(a) The combination tlivergcnt- and transverse-
formidable, the procedure has not yet (lOoti) been
wave pattern due to a moving pressure disturb-
refined, nor have the results received more than
ance, as developed by Lord Kelvin and as worked
preliminary experimental verification. However,
on by E. Hogner, T. H. Havclock, and others
the method ha-s the great advantage of lending
(b) Extensive knowledge of the phj'sical reasons
itself to performance predictions on ship forms
for the oscillatory \'ariations in the pressure
with any type or shape of transverse section, and
resistance due to wavemaking, resulting in the
with radical changes in transverse section along
well-known humijs and hollows of residuary-
tlie length, such as that which occurs at a transom
resistance and wavemaking-resistancc curves
stern. Furthermore, preliminary indications are
(c) The reduction in pressure resistance due to
tliat a great many actual ship forms fail within
wavemaking as the displacement volume is taken
the "slender-body" category.
away from the vicinity of the surface waterline
50.12 Practical Benefits of Calculating Ship
and moved farther down
Performance, ^'iewed from that point in the
progress cunx' which has been reached to date
(d) A greater appreciation of the necessity for
fairness in all ship lines, principallj' those parallel-
(195G), the most valuable promise which the
ing the water flow
analytical and mathematical method now offers
(e) The phy.sical and theoretical explanation for
to the practical designer is its indication of the
the beneficial action of the bulb bow in the reduc-
relative influence of various shape parameters on
tion of pressure resistance due to wavemaking
the behavior of ship hulls. Wlien the progress is
(f) Knowledge as to separate contributions to
such that adequate mathematical expressions can
the wavemaking resistance made by the diverging
be .set up for ship and liquid motions, the influence
and the transverse waves of the Velox system.
of shape parameters and of particular
the.se
Fig. .50.F, adapted from J. K. Lunde (SNAME,
a.ssumptions and conditions will be made readily
1951, Fig. 7, p. 72], indicates this feature most
apparent and be expressed cjuickly in numerical
vividly for a rather wide range of Froude numbers.
or engineering terms. This is exactly the function
of the tide-predicting machine which, when it is
supplied with the basic information and its
wheels arc set going, rolls out the data for tide
tables with effortless ease.
If the miKlel-tcsting tcchnifiue is advantageous
becau.sc of its relatively low cost, (luick answers,
and ability to lake all physical actions into
account, the machinc-cahulating method promises
a saving in time and labor and a greater degree of
freedom in .setting up the basic conditions. The
factors in a mathematical expression can be given
any reasonable values, they can be given greater
or less weight, as appears to be called for, or they
can be omitted entirely. 020 (lis
— — — — —
?53o 535 SSS 545 535 SU 065
As to the indication of the influence of various Froudt Number /VsT
shape parameters of a ship hull, the analytic
Fio. 50.F Gkaimis Indicating Sei-ar.\te Contri-
ulljick hiia alremJy to it.s cre<lit a considerable iii'TiriNM Mai>k iiy tick Divkroino and tiik Transverse
number of importiinl and u.'seful conclusions and Wavks to thk ToTAr, Wavbuakino Resistanci3
Sec. 'iO.13 CALCULATION OF WAVEMAKING RESISTANCE 221

(g) The definite knowledge

under certain
that,
conditions, which are as yet unfortunately not
too well defined, small changes in the longitudinal
distribution of displacement, indicated by the
customary section-area curve, produce relatively
large changes in wavemaking resistance. Similarly,
that small variations in surface-waterline shape
may produce unexpectedly large changes in this
resistance.
The work done along these lines during the
period 1945-1955, at least in the United States,
has given a new impetus to the mathematical de-
lineation of ship lines, described in Chap. 49. In
William Froude, Brit. Assn. Rep., 1869, pp. 11-21.
(2) Of the work (and workers) which followed that of
Rankine, an excellent summary is to be found in a
paper by A. W. Johns entitled "Approximate
Formulae for Determining the Resistance of Ships"
[INA, 1907, pp. 181-197]. In this paper Johns
mentions the formulas of:
(a) Middendorf, published in 1879 and given by
Wilda in "Marine Engineering," 1906
(b) Admiral Fournier of France. His formula is
pubUshed in English, with comments, in INA, 1907,
page 190.
(c) D. W. Taylor, quoted and commented upon
briefly in SNAME, 1894, Vol. 2, page 14.3.
(3) Lorenz, H., "Beitrag zur Theorie des Schiffswider-
standes (Contribution to the Theory of Ship

particular, it has initiated studies of the problems Resistance)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 16 Nov
1907, No. 46
of fairing the Imes of ships, so that this may be
Rothe, "Bemerkungen zur Schiffswiderstandstheorie
—
done impersonally automatically, if need be in — (4)
von H. Lorenz (Note on the Theory of Ship
a manner which mil benefit the overall hydro- Resistance of H. Lorenz)," Schiffbau, 8 Jan 1909,
dynamic performance of the ship. Vol. 9, pp. 253-354; 2 Jan 1909, pp. 289-290.

The discussion of this chapter may well be The technical literature covering the modern
concluded by some comments of G. P. Weinblum,
(20th century) analytic attempts to calculate the
to be found on pages 2 and 3 of TMB Report 710,
resistance of ships and to predict other aspects of
pubUshed in September 1950: their performance, as set forth in this chapter, is
"Experienced experimenters are often somewhat amazingly extensive. There are listed here only
bewildered b.y the fact that the wave resistance may vary a few of the references which contain large
appreciably for different but reasonable types of hnes,
bibliographies:
although all the form parameters generally considered
as decisive are identical. From a theoretical viewpoint (5) Weinblum, G. P., TMB
Rep. 710, Sep 1950. Pages
be quite natural, since the wave resistance
this appears to 98-102 Ust 116 items, principally by authors. The
depends to a first approximation upon a complicated individual references are extremely sketchy.
function of the surface slope in the longitudinal direction, (6) Wilhamson, R. R., "Bibliography on Theoretical
on derivatives. On the other hand, the most commonly
i.e., Calculation of Wave Resistance," ETT, Stevens
used (hull) coefficients are integrals, which even when (unpublished and undated). This contains 62
kept constant still admit of very wide variations of the items, listed by authors.
slopes. We realize now why the solution of the basic (7) Lunde, J. K., "On the Linearized Theory of Wave
problem of themodel basins mentioned above to estab- — Resistance for Displacement Ships in Steady and
lish the resistance as a function of the form remains — Accelerated Motion," SNAME, 1951, pp. 25-85.
almost hopeless as long as the ship surfaces (or at least Pages 75-76 list 55 items.
their most important features) are not defined in a rigorous (8) Guilloton, R., "Potential Theory of Wave Resistance
way by mathematical expressions. Hence, our first task of Sfiips, with Tables for its Calculation," SNAME,
must be to find equations for the ship surface, continuing 1951, pp. 86-128. On
pages 120-123 there is a
the work of D. W. Taylor." section entitled "Bibhography," listing 91 items
in seven different categories. In spite of the com-
50.13 Reference Material on Theoretical Re- pleteness of this list it does not give the subjects or
sistance Calculations. Supplementing the re- titles of the papers.

marks (9) Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., and Jacobs, W. R.,

in Sec. 50.2 concerning early efforts to
"Calculation of the Wavemaking Resistance of
analyze and to calculate ship resistance, there are
Ships of Normal Commercial Form by GuUloton's
given here a few of the references which contain Method and Comparison with Experimental
interesting accounts of this work. They do not Data," ETT, Stevens, Rep. 541, Aug 1954. Pages
include the Rankme references mentioned in the 51-53 fist 29 items.
(10) Birkhoff, G., Korvin-&oukovsky, B. V., and Kotik,
text of Sec. 50.2:
J., "Theory of the Wave Resistance of Ships,"

(1) An excellent and most readable summary of the work SNAME, 1954, pp. 359-396. Pages 384 and 385
done prior to 1869 relative to the calculation of list 47 items. This list brings the bibliography on

ship resistance by formula is to be found in the the subject practically up to date (1955), except
report of the Committee of the British Association for the items to follow.
headed by C. W. Merrificld and counting among its (11) Sezawa, K., "Wave Resistance of a Submerged Body
members Professor W. J. M. Rankine and Mr. in a Shallow Sea," Paper 610, Proceedings, World
 HYDRODYNAMICS I\ SHIP DIISIGX Sec. "iO.n

Knginecring Congroxn. Tokyo, 1>J'J<.>, Vol. XXIX. Norwegian, with an English summary, hut it is
Part I. pa{pc>D 179 IVH). Tliin (mjK-r compriwH n IxMiig pul»lislii-<l as an S.\.\.ME Technical and
mathrnuktiral trt>:itinoiit, liirKoly to the exclusion Research Bulletin. On pages 110-124 of the
of a phyiiir.il iliHcussion. Tlio 'iHxIy" is iippan'iitly Norwegian version there Is a very comprehensive
a 2-iliml cylimlcr witli its iixIk [winiUol to tlie surf:ice of 1S5 references on this subject.
list

(ami to till- IkiI). Tlu'n? is sonu- iliscus-sioii of the i\ft) O. !;. Pavlenko, in his "Soprotivleniye Votiy Dviz-

rosdstaiicc of n moviiiR uiulerwatcr spliere. heniyu Sudov (The Resistance of Water to the
(12) Lundo. J. K., "On the Linej»rizo«l Theory of Wave .Movement of Ships)" (Moscow, 1953), devotes
Resistanro for a I'ressurc DLstribution MovihR at Sec. 13 of Chap. IV, pages 1S.3-1S(), to a ".Methoil
Constant Speo<l of Advance on the Surface of I)f«'p of Calculating (mathematically) the Resistance of
or Shallow Water." Skipsmcxlelltankens Meddelso, an .\ctual Ship," but he includes no example, and
Trondheini, No. 8, Jiin 1951 it is doubted whether this method is used in
(13) Unvrentev, V. M.. "The Effect of the Boundary practice in Russia.
Layer on the Wave-Making Resistance of Ships," (17) Inui, Takao, "Japanese Developments on the Theory
Section on Hydromechanics, Doklady of the of Wave-Making and Wave Resistance," 7th
Academy of Sciences, USSR, 1951, Vol. LXXX, ICSM, Oslo, 20 Aug 1954. This paper, with its
Xo. 6 illustrations and with many additional enclosures,

(14) Lunde, J. K., "On the Theory of Wave Resistance was published as Skipsniodelltiinkens Meddelelse
and Wave Xorgcs Tekniske Ilrigskole,
Profile," Nr. 34 (Norwegian Model Basin Report 34), /Vpr
Trondheini, Skiixsmotlelltankens Meddelse Xo. 10, 1954. In the Bibliography of this report, covering
Apr 1952. This is the printed version (in English) "Japanese papers on Ship Wave Motion and
of Lundc's M. S. Thesis at ICing's College, New- Kindred Subjects from 1929 to 1953," there are
castle, flnishcd in May 1945. There are copies in listed 75 additional Japane.se papers. Of this
thcT.MB library. group, 48 have been tran.slated into lOnglish in
(15) Lunde, J. K.. "The Linearized Theory of Wave Japan and an- to be published as T.MB translations.
Resistance and Its .Application to Shi|>-Shaped (18) Weinblum, G. P., "Problems in Ship Theory,"
Ikxlies Moving in Deep Water," Norwegian Ship Inst. Eng'g. Res., Univ. of Calif., 1 Nov 1955,
Model Basin Re|)ort 2i, Mar 195:5. This is in Series 82, Issue 1, pp. 11-13.
 CHAPTER 51

Proportions and Shape Data for Typical Ships

51.1 General Comments 223 51 5 . Designed Waterline Shapes and Coefficients . 228
51.2 Parent Form of the Taylor Standard Series. 223 51.6 Reference Data for Drawing Section- Area
51.3 References to Tabulated Data on Principal Curves 230
Dimensions, Proportions, Coefficients, and 51.7 "Standard" Body Plans 231
Performance of Ships 223 51.8 Single-Screw Body Plans 234
51.4 References to Tabulated Data on Yachts and 51.9 Twin-Screw Body Plans 236
Small Craft 228 51 10. Multiple-Screw Sterns 236

51.1 General Comments. The ship-design Ships" is out of print. Although the body plan
procedures of Part 4 are based on the development and profile of the parent form, and the section-
of each new design as a separate project, to meet area curves for the series are given in Fig. 28 on
the particular requirements set up for it, rather page 92 of PNA, 1939, Vol. II, and in the two
than upon copjdng or modifying existing designs, references mentioned, the complete data from
no matter how good the latter may be. Never- the 1943 edition of S and P are reproduced here.
theless, new design requirements often call for a Some editing has been done on the drawing but the
ship hull that resembles one which exists and for model and curve shapes and the numerical data
which there are proved performance data. It remain unchanged.
is useful to the designer, therefore, to have pro- Fig. 51. A embodies the lines of EMB model 632
portions and shape data which may be consulted (modified) and the original group of section-area
for reference and guidance purposes. curves, together with the principal proportions
The SNAME Resistance Data sheets were and form coefficients. Table 51.a lists the original
developed, prepared, and issued to fill part of this 0-diml offsets for the parent form of Fig. 51. A, in
need, especially for architects and engineers who an arrangement somewhat more convenient than
did not have access to the funds of information those of the references cited in the preceding
available in large ship-design and shipbuilding paragraph, although not as complete as those
organizations. Samples of these sheets, filled out given by Gertler in TMB Report 806. Table 5 Lb
with test data for two models of the ABC ship lists the 0-diml ordinates for the complete series
designed in Part 4, are embodied in Figs. 78. Ja, of ^4 -curves in the figure.
78.Jb, 78.Jc, 78.Ka, 78.Kb, and 78.Kc. The References to Tabulated Data on Princi-
51.3
body plans on SNAME RD sheets 1 through 100 pal Dimensions, Proportions, Coefficients, and
are rather small, so that the shape data are Performance of Ships. From time to time there
meager with respect to the data on proportions have been published tables of dimensions,
and model performance. Those on RD sheets 101 and performance data on ships of
characteristics,
through 160 are much larger. many types and sizes. Rarely do these data
While limitations on space preclude the repro- correspond, for any two tables hsting the same
duction of many large-scale lines drawings in the ship(s), and often they omit the very information
present chapter, there are given in subsequent which the inquiring marine architect desires.
sections a considerable number of references to Taken by themselves, the data are insufficient for
source material embodying such drawings. design purposes, and perhaps too meager for
51.2 Parent Form of the Taylor Standard Ser- statistical studies, but taken together they
ies. In view of the recent reworking by M. frequently permit analyses of performance that
Gertler of Taylor Standard Series data,
the are extremely useful.
embodied in TMB
Report 806 and described in For example, many of the ships of the period
Sec. 56.5, the resistance data from this series are from 1850 to 1900 and later were extremely
Ukely to be used long after the 1943 edition of narrow by modern standards, having L/B ratios
D. W. Taylor's book "The Speed and Power of of 10, 11, or more. Their B/H ratios were also

223
224 ll\DRl)l)\.\ A.MICS l\ SI 111' DISICN Sec. 51.3
Sec. 51.3 TYPICAL SHIP FORM AND SIIAPF, DATA 225

less than is now customary (1955). There is commission or in existence. The data are, never-
reason to believe that certain of these ships, if theless, of far more than historical value because
not the group as a had some wavegoing
class, they apply to ships that were actually built, and
characteristics superior those of modern
to that gave satisfactory service in eras when it was
vessels. Despite the augmented safety standards perhaps more difficult than at present to achieve
of the 1950's, it is possible that studies of a new the performance expected of them. Finally, one
and improved hull form could be furthered by may hope that listing these tabulated data may
data from these old vessels. bring forth corresponding information on modoi'n
It is true that many if not most of the ships ships.
listed in the tables referenced in the present In the early 1850's a project was initiated in
section are old, even ancient, and are no longer in Great Britain wliich had as its aim the collection

TABLE 51. a Non-Dimensional Offsets for Parent Form op Taylor Standard

Series, EMB Model 632 (Modified)

Stations in Forebody

Waterlines
226 I1M)U()1)\ \ \\ll( s 1\ sllll' l)lsl(,\ Sec. 5; J

S d

5 5

H
Sec. 513 TYPICAL SHIP-FORM AND SHAPE DATA 227

and analysis of characteristics and performance are listed hero for the convenience of those who
data for many if not all of the steamships then in wish to consult the data:
operation in the United Kingdom and Western John, W., "Atlantic Steamers," INA, 1887, Vol. 28;
(1)
Europe. In 1866 a committee of the British Table III on p. 164 gives hull data for 17 large
Advancement of Science) was
Association (for the ships of that day, 14 entries for each

formed to condense and to analyze the numerous (2) Wilson, T. D., "Steel Ships of the United States

data. It was composed of some of the leading

Navy," SNAME, 1893, Vol. I, pp. 116-1.39. The
data in this paper cover vessels in two categories:
engineers and scientists of the country, among
(a) Data on early unarmored steel vessels of the
them: U. S. Navy for the period 1883-1893. The principal
dimensions and general information for 2.5 vessels,
John Scott Russell, naval architect and ship isting 21 entries per vessel, are found on pp.
designer 128-131.
William Fairbairn, a distinguished engineer (b) Data on early armored vessels of the U. S.

versed in structural mechanics Navy, 1874-1893. Similar data are given for 14
ships, with 24 entries per ship, on pp. 132-135.
Thomas Hawksley, a civil engineer
(c) Data on early special-service vessels and
James R. Napier, a distinguished engineer torpedoboats, 1883-1892, 6 vessels, 21 entries
W. J. M. Rankine, a teacher, scientist, hydro- per vessel, pp. 1.36-1.37
dynamicist, and naval architect. (d) Additional data on dimensions, form coeffi-
cients, propellers, and machinery of 14 of the
The British Association Report for 1868 vessels in the foregoing three groups are to be
(published in 1869), pages 114-139, entitled found in the folded tables opposite p. 162 of the
"Second Report of the Committee on the Con- reference, 64 entries per vessel
(e) Outboard profiles and main deck plans,
densation and Analysis of Tables of Steamship
midship sections, machinery, shafting, and pro-
Performance," contains some two dozen pages of peller arrangements of certain of the vessels in
tabulated data for a great many steamers driven these three groups are to be found in the same
by paddlewheels and screw propellers. It em- reference. Pis. 6 through 41.

bodies information on the ships, their machinery, (3) White, Sir W. H., MNA, 1900, tables as follows:

and propulsion devices. What is more, it contains (a) Pages 100-101, 23 merchant steamships, 9
on inclining-experi-
entries per ship, with emphasis
data worked up by Scott Russell and Professor
ment data
Rankine in an effort to find, by analysis, some (b) Pages 104-105, 19 different warships,
formulation which would serve as an indicator of merchant ships, and yachts, 9 entries per ship,
good or superior ship performance. with emphasis on inclining-e.xperiment data
Incidentally, several pages of the British (c) Page 136, 9 different ships, including the

dispatch vessel Iris, 6 entries per ship, with

Association Report of 1868 are taken up with
emphasis on metacentric stability data
recitals of the difficulties encountered in obtaining
(d) Page 138, 10 .ships, all saihng vessels and
accurate and correct factual data on the many yachts, 6 entries per ship, with accent on meta-
ships studied. The problems of the present day, centric stability

in this respect, are by no means new. (e) Page 642, 4 warships, 5 entries per ship,
A two-page "Revised Table of Analysis,
giving L, B, H, W, and P,
(f) Page 649, 7 ships, 5 entries per ship, with
According to Mr. Scott Russell's Method," is accent on indicated power Pi .

given on pages 332-333 of the British Association

(4) Durand, W. F., EPS, 1903, pp. 415-425; hull data
Report for 1869 (published in 1870). This is for 78 ships, 8 entries for each; propeller and trial
embodied in a "Supplement to the Second data for 84 ships, 12 entries for each
Report of the Committee on the Condensation (5) Biles, J. H., "Cross-Channel Steamers," INA, 1903,

and Analysis of Tables of Steamship Perform- pp. 243-253. PI. XXXII lists hull and machinery
data for 45 vessels of this type, built in the era
ance," to be found on pages 330-333 of the refer-
1886-1903, with 24 entries for each. Pis. XXXIV-L
ence cited. The table lists 14 ships of the time,
give arrangement sketches of many of these vessels.
4 driven by paddlewheels and 10 by screw pro- (6) Peabody, C. H., NA, 1904, pp. 522-553; 45 ships of
pellers, mth
29 entries for each. 10 types, 13 entries for each
In the years foUomng the 1870's, many tabula- (7) Speakman, E. M., "Marine Steam Turbine Develop-
tions similar to the foregoing were published, with
ment and Design," SNAME, 1905, pp. 247-286.
This paper describes vessels driven by steam
accent on the dimensions, proportions, and other
turbines in the era 1894-1905. It gives, on PL 139,
characteristics rather than on the vessel's per- principal dimensions and general information for
formance. References to a number of these tables 50 vessels with 18 entries per vessel.
228 llU)R()l)\N.\.\ll{:s IN Mill' DI-.SIGN Src. 5l.i

(8) Steveim, E. A., Jr., "A Substiliito for tlip Adminilty of 12ocean iron-ore carriers, with about 100 entries
Formuln." SNAMi:, IOi:<. Vol. 21, pp. 40-54. In while Table 2 gives similar data for 9
]X!r vessel,

the text, arid cspeci.-illy in I'ls. ;{.">—10, the author Great Lakes iron-ore carriers, with about 92
gives n considcrnble amount of tabulated data on entries per ves.scl. Table 3 gives data on 1(X) or
n large numl>or of naval and merchant ve-tseU, more features for each of 6 oceangoing general
ranging from the battle-ihijis of that time to fa-ot bulk cargo carriers.
motor launches and navy launches intended to be (18) There is given, in Table 76.d of Sec. 76.4, a presenta-
CArrie<l aboard ship. tion of the principal characteristics of 14 Great
(9) Peakett, L., "On the Design of Steamships from the Ijikes bulk carriers of recent design
Chvncr's Point of View," INA, 1914, pp. 17.3-102. (19) Table 76.f lists tlie principal dimensions and other
The author presents, in Table I opposite p. 182, data for 10 icebreakers of recent design and
some particulars of 2S vessels of the Cunard fleet, construction.
from the Britannia of 1S40 to the Aquiiania of 1915,
with 7 entries of hydro<lyn.imic interest per vessel. 51.4 References to Tabulated Data on Yachts
These data arc also quoted in The Shipbuilder and Small Craft. Dixuii Kemp nivo.s a "TaMc of
(now SBMKB), Jan-Jun 1014, Vol. X, pp. 274-275.
Elements of Steam Yachts" compri.sing 22 vc.s.sels,
(10) Owen, W. S., PNA, 19.39, Vol. I, Table 4, p. 53; 13
types of vessels, 22 entries for each \vith from 25 to 2G items per vessel ["Yacht

(11) PluNinert, N. J., "Modern Tanker Design," SNAME,
1939, pp. 168-lSS: also SBMEB, Apr 1940, pp.
134-137. This paper lists the hull and machinery
data for 5 steam-driven and 7 dicscl-tirivcn tankers,
of the era 19.30-1939, with 32 entries for each.
(12) Bates, J. L., and Wanless, I. J., "Aspects of Large
Passenger Liner Design," SNAME, 1946, pp.
317-373. Tables 1, 2, and 3 on pp. 318-319 give
the general dimensions, form coefficients, and
machinery characteristics, respectively,
recent Atlantic liners (1930 to 1940), plus the
U. S. Maritime Commission projected design
Architecture," Cox, London, 1897, 3rd ed., pp.
317-318]. On page 319 of the reference he includes
a tabic of "Steam Yacht Performance" for 13
vessels, with 39 items per vessel. On page 52.5 he
presents a table listing 29 sailing yachts with
their displacement in tons, the total weight of
ballast in tons, the weight of this ballast in the
keel, and the ballast ratio. The amount of ballast
of si.x
as compared to the displacement varied from a
niinimiun of 0.301 to a maximum of 0.081.

1'3-S2-DM of a total of some 25

1949, with In the appendix of the book cited, on page 532,
entries per vessel. On p. 369 are given some addi- Kem]) gives the names and 10 design element.s of
tional data on the proposed Ferris superlincr of
35 sailing yachts of that day.
1931 and the Queen Mari/.
AV. P. Stephens, in a paper eiitilleii "Yacht
(13) Robinson, H. Rocske, J. F., and Thaeler, A. S.,
F.,
SNAME, Measurcmcnt:Originand Development" [SNAME,
1948, pp. 432-443. This paper contains
tabulated data for thirteen 13,000-t tankers, 1935, pp. 7-11], includes lines drawings and other
twelve 16,000-t tankers, and twelve tankers of design data on American ami Biiiisli yachts of
18,0(X) t and larger, with about 70 entries for each. the 1870's to the 1890's.
(14) Lavrent'cv, V. M., "Marine PropuLsion," Moscow, Cup
In his paper "The 'America's' Defenders,"
1949, p. 96. A translation of this table, with both
C. P. Burge-ss gave a great deal of design informa-
metric and English units, appears as Table 51. c.
Todd, F. IL, "Some Further Experiments on Single- tion, including lines drawings of the large J-cla.ss
(15)
Screw Merchant Ship Forms Series 60," SNAME, — yachts of that period [SXAME, 1935, pp. 43-87].
1953, Tabic 1, p. 518. Principal dimensions and No tabulated data are included in the paper.
some hull coefficients are given for the Mariner, Principal dimensions and fonn coeflicients for
the Schuyler Olis Bland, the U. S. Mar. 0)mm.
7 fishing ves.sels, 2 small freighters, 3 ferryboat.s,
C-Z class, the tanker Pennsylvania, and a Bethle-
1 fireboat, and 1 tug, 24 entries per vessel, arc
hem 400-ft design, in comparison with TMB Scries
57 models. There arc about 10 entries per ves.scl. given by D. S. Simp.son (SNAME, 1951, Table 5,

Other data on these vessels are given throughout p. 503]. The first entry gives the actual length of
the paper. each craft; all the others give converted data,
(10) De Rooij, G., "Practical Shipbuilding," published by
referred to a standard length of 100 ft.
II. Stam, Haarlem, Holland, 19,53. On pp. 13-29
and 3.30-3S2 there are given the principal dimcn-
51.5 Designed Waterline Shapes and Coeffi-
nions and characteristics, plus the general arrangts cients. The designed waterlines for the |)ad(lle
mcnt drawings, rif a large number and variety of steamer Mary Powell (afterbody only) and for
ship ty|X'H. The sinnlliT skf^trhes in the IxKik projHT the Taylor Slandard .Series parent form (EMIi
arc Huppleniented by a considerable number of
minlel ()32, modified) are shown to small scale in
large folded plates in the back of the book.
(17) Henry, J. J.. "M<«lem Ore CarrierH," SNAME, 19.5.5,
Fig. 24. G
on page .355 of Volume I. The half-
pp. 57-1 1. The bibliogriipliy with this piii)er
1
watcrline of Dunahl McKay's dipper .ship
lijrtii 24 ri'ferenccH. Table 1 givis the characteristics Flying Cloud, described in Sec. 24.13 on pages
Sec. 51.5 TYPICAL SHIP-FORM AND SHAPE DATA 229

TABLE 51 .0 Russian Tabulation of Ship Data

Translated and adapted from "Marine Propulsion" by V. M. Lavrent'ev, Moscow, 1949, Table S, page 96.
Supplementary columns at the right give the length and volume in ft and ft' units, respectively.

V, Speed, Power, Power Adm'ty.

Type of Ship meters meters' kt horses Coeff.
(metric)

Fast steamers 280.0 67,700 23.2 61,800 1.07 302 918.7 2,037,964
202.0 22,900 23.5 37,800 1.65 298 662.8 808,828
190.5 21,385 22.0 27,000 1.26 327 625.03 755,318

Large passenger ships 194.0 22,100 IS.O 17,200 ;s 287 636.5 780,572
193.0 23,200 15.0 9,800 0.40 315 633.2 819,424
170.0 17,250 16.5 10,600 0.61 305 557.8 609,270
136.5 13,170 13.5 4,800 0.36 308 447.9 465,164
121.4 10,340 11.5 2,500 0.24 322 398.3 365,209

Small passenger ship 69.5 2,200 10.0 1,050 0.48 190 228.02 77,704

Canal (river?) boats 92.0 1,915 20,0 5,600 2.92 220 301.9 67,638
83.8 1,695 20.0 5,400 3.19 211 275.0 59,867

Steam yachts 121.9 5,710 15.0 3,700 0.65 307 400.0 201,677
116.6 4,260 21.5 9,650 2.27 291 382.6 150,463

Large cargo steamers 170.7 24,800 13.5 5,460 0.22 418 560 875,936
152.4 21,115 12.0 4,000 0.19 359 500 745,782
131.1 12,400 11.0 2,500 0.20 316 430.1 4.37,968
105.2 7,985 n.o 1,700 0.21 357 345.1 282,030

Small cargo steamers 88.1 4,580 10.5 1,225 0.27 289.1 161,766
79.8 3,400 9.0 700 0.21 261.9 120,088
62.1 1,760 9.0 440 0.25 307 203.8 62,163
47.3 940 8.0 350 0.37 181 155.1 33,200
37.8 320 9.0 260 0.81 173 124.0 11,302

Small river steamers 32.0 130 12.0 225 1.73 263 105 4,592
26.0 66 12.0 220 3.33 172 85.3 2,331

Fishing boat 41.0 445 10.9 1.10 194 134.5 15,717

Towboats 40.0 390 11.0 350 0.90 262 131.2 13,775

35.0 340 12.1 520 1.53 203 114.9 12,009
15.2 48 9.1 150 3.13 91 49.9 1,695

Icebreaker 47.2 890 9.5 500 0.56 200 154.9

River freight str. with prop. 60.0 481 7.3 205 0.43 156 196.9

River passenger boats 62.0 325 9.9 503 1.55 114 203.4
40.5 100 11.1 250 2.50 157 132.9

River freight 85 219.9

Paddlewheel drive 50.0 300 10.3 620 2.07 98 164.1

40.0 212 10.5 300 1.42 179 131.2

Sternwheel drive 46.8 144 9.0 1.46 128 153.6

22.8 43 8.0 1.86 125 74.9

Bark (barca) 15.0 23 8.0 2.83

280 IIVDRODVNAMK.S IN SHII' DLSIGN Sec. 51.6

loK i||Hl9^4co '^tton of flaitmuni Biom

ptO<54 Lwi'n

17 16 15 M
L.J_i._L-l
^D 12 II 10
I

9
L
8 7

Fig. 51. R Desioned II.M.F-W.\TKni.i.sE oi-- the Ci.H'pkr Ship Flying Cloud

356-357 of ^'()lume I, is dopiited in Fi^. 51. B. Fig. 5 I.e. Table ol.d li.sts the parallel waterline
In Fig. 51. C there are drawn (he half-DWL'.s of data for over thirty ships and ship designs of
sL\ vessels typical of those for five different ship various tjTJes. The lengths and positions tabu-
tJTJes, operating at the speed-length or Taylor lated are not necessarily the optimum. Fig. GG..I
i|Uotieiit T, values indicated on the diagram. of Sec. G6.15 of Part 4 shows a range of oi)timum
The SXAME RD sheet numbers are given for length of parallel waterline while Fig. 66.K gives
four of the waterlines. the optimum fore-and-aft position of the midpoint
One feature of designed waterlines to which of this length, for use in design.
insufficient attention has been devoted in the 51.6 Reference Data for Drawing Section-
past is the length and position of the parallel Area Curves. Supplementing the lines, section-
portion of the waterline. This
is not to be confused area curves, and offsets of the Taylor Standard
with the amount and position of the parallel Series models, reproduced in Fig. 51. A and in
middJebody, indicated for three of the DWL's on Tables 51.a and 51.b, there are listed hereunder

- -Porollel Middlebod"^ i-

Cruiser A

20 19 IS 17 16 IS 14 13 12 II

Flo. 51. C Dekio.s'eu Halk-Watkki.ink.s <tt >i\ \ ks.ski_s <> Imvk 'I'^ cks oh Ci.a.s.sem
Sec. 51.7 TYPICAL SHIP FORM AND SHAPE DATA 231

several references to diagrams by which section- J. G., "Resistance, Propulsion, and Steering of
Ships," 1948, pp. 92-93.
area curves for new ship designs can be drawn,
corresponding to selected form coefficients or The SNAME Resistance Data sheets, one of
parameters: which is illustrated in Fig. 78. Ja of Sec. 78.16 of
Part 4, contain section-area curves, area ratios
(1) Gertler, M., "A Reanalysis of the Original Test Data
A/Ax and values of dA/dL for the models of
for the Taylor Standard Series," TMB
Rep. 806,
,

Mar 1954, Gov't. Print. Off., Washington. The data some 160 typical ships of many classes.
mentioned in the preceding paragraph are found on 51.7 "Standard" Body Plans. At various
pp. 2-6 of this report. In addition, on pp. 6-8 there times so-called "standard" body plans have been
are graphs, tables, and instructions bj' which any
used for reference and comparison purposes. Some
section-area curve belonging to the family of the
of these were drawn with fixed proportions, in
Taylor Standard Series can be reproduced mathe-
matically. which the maximum (or midsection) waterline
(2) Bates, J. L., "Shipbuilding Encyclopedia," 1920, beam was always twice the draft. All underwater
Figs. 26, 27 and abovewater sections were distorted to comply
(3) Vincent, S. A., "Merchant Vessel Lines," MESA, Mar with this proportion. Each half-beam and the
1930, p. 138. These have since been improved upon
whole draft were divided into ten equal spaces.
but no published or unpublished revision is available.
(4) Schiffbau Kalender, 1935, p. 160 Thus the "standard" offsets or heights for a given
(5) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning, position on one ship could be compared with

TABLE 51.d Reference Data on Amount and Position op Parallel Designed Waterline

Reference
o<JO llM)li()l)^\ wdcs i\ siiii' nrsicN Sec. ^1.7

^1 i

5 S

lO '^ ^
o
1

I!
•So"
S Io "'

c X fee r. >
B--^3
.

_ e 1 a
•- a* S

g o 3 "O £ O O aw
o a H
2 g5 8 8S8 o o
— <N « O *
CO 00 00 00
^2
J! In

go
S lO lO O C<5 O
o to t^ CO *
" t^ to 00
m c^ e^ c<

ch
CO 0> 05
c<5 CO ro
N
N « O O
to CO CI

si
1.2
OS l>. C-1 05
CO u? to to u?
M

o
•O
•*
C->
o
C-l
r^
CO
OQN'Oio
lOO O -t t^ ocoio
(N to to
lOTt"
N U5
lo -^ »o -^ co-^iO-n^co cs-^co coo

00 <0 to 00 00 00
to^ ^N oi
« ^ 00
^ N to
^ 0> CO !>
•-<
CO
i/> oi ^ CO

„a
Sec. 51.7 TYPICAL SHIP-FORM AND SHAPE DATA 233
231 IIVDKODVNAMU.S IN SI 111' 1)1 SICN Sec. 1I.S

tliose for tlic corresponding position on another 51.8 Single-Screw Body Plans. There are
ship. Tracings of tlie "standard" body plans could available in the technical literature a few large-
be superposed against a \vindi)\v or over a light scale l)ody plans of nuidels and ships which have
table to compare the section shapes, section-line acquired prominence in one way or another,
and other features.
slopes, offsets at given stations, either because many tests and trials have been
However, for hyilrotlynainic analysis, and fur made on tliem, or beca\ise of outstanding good
shipniesign purposes as well, tlie.se "13 to 1" body |)erfonnance. Among these may be mentioned:
plans do not show the section shapes in their
(1) G. S. Baker's modol 56C, of which a body plan is
true form nor the section-line slopes at their roproduccil in SBSR, 3 Aug 1916, Fig. 13, p. 107;
proper value. It is not possible to coinparc flow also in SNAME, 1930, Pi. lOS. EMB model 2933
patterns by this method since on vessels of the was built to these lines imd tested at Wiushington.
same type the beam-draft ratios may vary from The d:iUi are available in S.\AME UD sheet 100.
(2) German motorship San Francisco of tlie 1930'8,
2 to 4, or from G to 10, by ratios that approximate
owned and operated by the Hamburg-.Vmerican
2 to 1 or more. Line, on which a German scientific party mado
Propeller tip clearances, bossing termination many measurements and observations at sea in 1934.
angles, and similar features can not be judged or A body plan of this vessel, with no appendages

compared easily on these "2 to 1" body plans. shown, is published by G. Kempf [SN.\ME, 1936,
Fig. 1, p. 197]. On
pages 197 through 199 of this paper
Most of the tip circles would be ellipses if drawn there are to be found the original observed data
properly, and the slopes of bossings and struts from ship and model tests, including open-water
would be the same as their true values only if tests of the model propeller. Dimensions and other

the B/H ratio of the ship were 2.00. data of ship and model are given in Table 1 on
A more rational and useful scheme is to draw page 196 of the reference.
(3) Passenger and cargo vessel Panama of 1939, designed
all the "standard" body plans to the same abso-
by George G. Sharp, for which a body plan was
lute width, using as a reference the waterline published by Marine Engineering and Shipping Age
beam at the midsection or at the section of maxi- [May 1939, p. 206).
mum area. When tracings of these body plans
are superposed, the waterline offsets for a series
of 10, 20, or 40 stations are directly comparable,
as are the drafts and the underwater shapes when
referred to the beam.
The staff of the old Cramp shipyard at Phila-
delphia prepared and kept on file a set of three
dozen or more of these "standard-width" body
plans. Table .51.e lists these plaii.s, ^nth the names
and principal dimensions or characteristics of
the proposals, designs, and ships involved. All
were drawn on tracing cloth, with a standard
waterhne beam of 10 inches. The body plans,
both underwater and abovewater, were supple-
mented (on the same drawing) by tables of prin-
cipal ship dimensions, non-dimensional coefli-
cients and parameters, and large-scale layouts of
the section-area ratios A/Ax and the half-beams
of the designed (or load) waterlines. When
available, data on model resistances and sliij)
elTective powers were added to the sheets.
Fortunately, although the Cramp shipyard is
no more, the Cramp standard jjody plan tracings
are preserved in the files of the De]}artmcnt of
Naval Architecture and Marine iMigincering at
the Ma.s8achu.setta Institute of Technology in
Cambridge, Mass. There they maj' be consulted Fio. 51. D Body Plan for Run or U. S. Maritius
by all who arc interested in them. coMMis8ir)N Cl-^f-^ VI Ci .A.S.S OK CaUOO VB8SEI<
Sec. 51.S TYPICAL SHIP-FORM AND SHAPE DATA 235

stations

Slopes of Desianed ard Other Woterlines for This Form ore Excessive; Seporotion is Certain to Occur Aboft Them,

If Lenqth is Limited, It is Better to Adopt a Different Type of Stern, to Insure Proper Flow of Woter to the
Propeller ond Rudder

rH
236 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 51.9

(\) V. S. Mnritimc Commission Cl-M-.\Vt rlnss of iho marine architect has ready at hand a very con-
1940'». The plan of the aflerl)0»ly ami of the wafer-
siderable amount of reference data.
linen nnd run of thin vesBcl lire illuxtrnttHl in Figs,
."il.n and 51. K, resp«'elivcly. These lines are included
The Index sheets and Summarj' sheets accom-
as an e.xnmple of a stern that is definitely too blunt, panying RD sheets 1 through 150 (and later) add
with slope.i that are exoe.isivo for goo<l flow to the to the store of information and present it in a
propeller.This chiss was te.'itod as model TMB slightly difTerent fa.shion.
3S39, and the complete model results are given in
51.9 Twin-Screw Body Plans. The general
SNA.ME RD sheet 19.
(5) U. S. Maritime Commission CS ty|)c cargo vessel, for
comments of Sec. 51.8 relative to single-screw
which a IkkIv plan is to be found in SXAME, 1950, ships, including the notes on the SXAME RD
Fig. 77 on p. 5t)3. This class was tested as TMB sheets, Index sheets, and Summarj' sheets, apply
model 35:J4, but at the time of writing (1955) the to twin-screw vessels as well. Among the ships
complete results had not yet been embodied in an
(or designs) for which body plans arc available
S.\.\MK RD sheet.
in the literature there may be mentioned:
(6) To<ld, F. H., and Forest, F. X., ".\ Proposed New
Basis for the Design of Singli>^orew Merchant >Ship
Forms and Standard Scries Lines," SNAME, 1951,
(1) .\tlantic liner ^fanhaitan, represented by TMB mo<lel
3041. Fig. 17 on p. HI of SNAME, 1947. General
pp. (}42-744. This paper covers the TMB Series 57
characteristics of the hull are given in Table 3 on
forms.
p. 113 of the reference.
(7) Todd, F. H., "Some Further Experiments on Single-
(2) Twin-skeg Manhattan design, tested in small scale
Screw Merchant Ship Forms— Series 60," SN.\ME,
as TMB model 3898 but never worked up as a
1953, pp. 516-5S9. This pajx^r gives the data in all
ship design or built as a ship. Body plans are shown
sufficient detail to indicate the exactforms of the
in Figs. IS and 24 on pp. 112 and 116, respectively,
various models, their hull coefficients, and their
of SNAME, 1947. General characteristics of this
distribution of section area along the length. It also
design are given in Table 3 on p. 113 of the reference.
gives corresponding data for the U. S. Maritime
(3) Proposed design of a large tanker of extremely wide
Commission C-2 class of cargo ship, for the ^lariner
beam, developed by the Sun Shipbuilding and Dry
class, for the modified C-3 vessel Schuyler Olis
Dock Company, tested in small scale as T.MB
Bland, for a Bethlehem design of cargo vessel, and
models 3817 and 3821. The lines are shown in Fig.
for the tanker Pennsylvania.
11 on p. 107 and Fig. 13 on p. 108 of SNAME, 1947.
(8) Rus-oo, V. L., and Sullivan, E. K., give a body plan
Table 1 on p. 109 gives the general characteristics
of the Mariner cla.ss, including a wave profile at a
of the proposed ship.
speed of 20 kt and a T, of 0.S77 (SNAME, 1953,
(4) TMB model 3930, representing a twin-sorew liner,
p. 1 15 and Fig. 12 on p. 122|. This design was tested
745 ft long on the waterline, with a normal form of
as TMBmodel 4358\V-3. The stern profiles, both
-stern (Bates, J. L., SNAME, 1947, Fig. 41, p. 137).
closed (as tested in model scale) and open, as built
The body plan is accompanied by a table of general
into the are shown in Figs. 13 and 14, pages
shijis,
characteristics.
123 and 125, respectively, of the reference.
(5) Bates, J. L., "Large Piissenger-Carrying Ships for
(9) A small-scalebody plan of the Gopher Mariner is
Certain Essential Trade Routes," SNAME, 1945,
published by V. L. Russo and R. T. McGoldrick in
pp. 290-334. Table 1 on page 296 lists the principal
SNAME, 1955, Fig. 9 on p. 449
dimensions and characteristics of the five designs
(10) II. De Luce and W. I. H. Budd give a body plan,
described in the paper.
wave profile, and some lines of flow around the
tanker Pennsylvania [SNAME, 1950, Fig. 7, p. 430]
(6) TMB model 3917, representing a tunn-screw liner,
745 ftlong on the waterline, with a twin-skeg stern
(11) Body and in
plans, many cases lines
drawings, are
(Bates, J. L., SNAME, 1947, Fig. 42, p. 137).
published by J. Baader for a great variety of large
The body plan is accompanied by a table of general
and small single-screw vessels in his book "Cruceros
characteristics.
y Lanchas Veloces (Cruisers and Fast Launches),"
published in Buenos Aires in 1951, Figs. 225-239,
51.10 Multiple-Screw Sterns. A great ?iiMn-
pp. 287-301.
ber of quadruple-screw been liuilt in
ve.s.sels iiave
Typical body plans for .sliallow-wiilcr paddle- the period 1000-1955, yet the published data on
driven vessels are (^ivoii in Figs. 72. A, 72. B, and lines, form coefficients, hull parameters, and other
72.D. hydrodynamic features are surprisingly meager.
Limitations of space i)recliide the roprodiu'tion In fact, data on the shape of the runs, the jiropeller
of lines drawinns, body plans, or even tabulated positionsand diameters, hull (tip) clearances, and
data on other interesting and instructive designs. shape of appendages carrying the jiropeller .'jhafts
Indeed, in view of the availability (in 19oG) of are limited largely to stern jihotdgraphs of these
some 100 SXAME Resistance Data sheots, with ves.sels on the laimching ways or in dock.
their wealth of quantitative data, and with the In the late l<,l20"s and early HMO's, T. E. Ferris

prospect of additional sheets year by year, the made many studies of a large, high-speed trans-
Sec. 51.10 TYPICAL SHIP-FORM AND SHAPE DATA 237

atlantic passenger vessel. He reported upon these justification for referring to a paper, now almost
studies in the paper "Design of American Super- by G. W. Melville entitled "Notes on
historic,

hners" [SNAME, 1931, pp. 303-350 and Pis. 1-13]. the Machinery of the New Vessels of the United
Table 1 on page 318 of this reference gives the States Navy" [SNAME, 1893, pp. 140-175].
ship dimensions and hull coefficients correspond- Plate 41 of this paper illustrates the triple-screw
ing to three of the fourteen models tested at the arrangement of the U.S.S. Columbia (old) of 1890.

Experimental Model Washington. All

Basin, Fig. 51. F is a body plan resembling those of the

these designs embodied 4 propellers. This paper coastwise triple-screw passenger steamers Yale
was published, practically in full, in Marine and Harvard, designed in the early 1900's, and
Engineering and Shipping Age, December 1931 reported upon by C. H. Peabody, W. S. Leland,
and January through April 1932. and H. A. Everett in a paper "Service Test of
E. P. Trask discussed this design problem the Steamship Harvard" [SNAME, 1908, pp.
further in his paper "A Proposed 800-ft Atlantic 167-186]. These vessels gave long and distin-
Liner" [MESA, Jul 1932, pp. 268-275]. This guished service on many difficult routes, so much
vessel was designed for an operating speed of so that their designs would warrant further
28.5 kt. analysis if accurate and reliable data and drawings
At the conclusion of World War II, J. L. Bates could be found.
and I. J. Wanless made an analysis of existing Fig. 51. G is a body plan of the high-speed,
passenger liners and worked up a new design, triple-screw passenger and cargo vessel Great
which they reported upon in their paper "Aspects Northern (and sister vessel Northern Pacific),
of Large Passenger Liner Design" [SNAME, 1946, designed in about 1914 and famous for outstanding
pp. 317-373]. This paper tabulates many dimen- performance in heavy weather. Unfortunately,
sions and characteristics of the Europa, Man- it is not possible to add propeller-disc positions
hattan, Conte di Savoia, Rex, Normandie, and a and appendage data to either of these drawings.
projected U. S. Maritime Commission design German naval architects have probably had
P3-S2-DA1 for trans-ocean service. One of the more experience than all others combined in the
ships analyzed, the Manhattan, is a twin-screw design of triple-screw vessels. However, as almost
vessel but all the others are quadruple-screw all of these were combatant craft, their lines and
ships. the design rules pertaining to them appear not
Corresponding information on triple-screw ves- to have been published. What might be considered
sels,with sterns which are the most difficult of an exception to this is the study for a medium-size
any to design, is very scarce. This is partial fast liner published by E. Foerster [SNAME,

Fig. 51.F Body Plan Resembling Those of the Triple-Screw Coastal Passenger Vessels Yale and Harvard
238 ll^^K()n^\ wik.s i\ siih' nisir.N Srr. 51.10

Fig. oi.O Body Plan of the Tniri.E-ScRiiw Passenger and Cargo Vessel Great Northern

1936, pp. 228-287]. TliLs unusual vessel, for wliich peller which was to have been used for steering
some section- and hull-shape data are given, was as well as propulsion. Resistance and power data,
to have had twin propellers carried by orthodox derived from model tests, are given for various
bossings, plus a centerline Voith-Schncider pro- combinations.
One of the most modern of the German com-
batant vessels, the World War II cruiser Prim
Eugcn, was taken over by the United St-ates.
Some data on this vessel arc in the files of the
U. S. Navy Department. Fig. 51.11 gives the
general features of one of its transverse sections.
Vessels with five screw propellers have been
considered in the design stage but so far as known

no data on those studies iiavc been published

(SBSR, 17 Oct 194G, p. 439].
I''urtlier reference data on ves.sels il riven by

Fio. 61.H SuiTCii OK Onb SEcnoN or tub Trii'LE- multiple propellers are given in Sees. 07.14 and
ScREW Gehman Ciiuihek Print Eugtn 07.15.
 CHAPTER 52

Analysis of Flow Diagrams and Prediction of

Ship Flow Patterns
52.1 Scope of Chapter 239 52.12 Probable Flow at a Distance From the Ship
52.2 Typical Ship- Wave Profiles 239 Surface 256
52.3 Wave Profiles Alongside Models 241 52.13 Estimating the Change in Flow Pattern for
52.4 General Rules for Wave Interference Along- Light or Ballast Conditions 256
side a Ship 243 52 14
. Predicting Velocity and Pressure Distribu-
52.5 Estimate of Bow-Wave and Stern- Wave tionAround Ship Forms 257
Heights and Positions 244 52.15 Use of Flow Diagrams for Positioning
52.6 Prediction of the Surface- Wave Profile. . 246 Appendages 258
52.7 Typical Lines-of-Flow Diagrams for Ship 52.16 Estimated Flow at Propulsion-Device Posi-
Models 248 tions 258
52.8 Analysis of Model Surface-Flow Diagrams . 250 52.17 Analysis of the Observed Flow at a Screw-
52.9 Observation and Interpretation of Off-the- Propeller Position 259
Surface Flow Data on Models 254 52.18 Flow Abaft a Screw Propeller 259
52.10 Estimating the Ship Flow Pattern on the 52.19 Persistence of Wake Behind a Ship .... 261
Body Plan 255 52.20 Bibliography on Wake 262
52.11 Prediction of the Ship Flow Pattern at the
Bilges 255

52.1 Scope of Chapter. Supplementing the outstanding feature of the 3-diml flow around a
potential-flow, data on streamline
ideal-liquid 2-diml simple ship form, when the latter is
patterns around bodies and the discussion on brought up from a deeply submerged position
distribution of velocity and pressure in Chap. 42, and run at the air-water interface. This feature
there is given here some representative informa- has perhaps more importance for 3-diml forms
tion on flow and on velocity-and-pressure distri- and actual ships because, at the speeds where
bution in the water around ship models. There surface wavemaking is prominent, the wave
are very few full-scale data on ships, either in the pattern there influences the flow over a consider-
technical literature or in form available for publi- able extent of the ship's side, often down to and
cation, with which to confirm the model data. including the bilge-keel positions.
Space limitations prevent the inclusion of the Fortunately, it is not too difficult to obtain
vast amount of model data available in America, the wave profile on a ship because this region is
mostly at the David Taylor Model Basin, on the available for observation or photographic record-
flow around ship models, representing many ship ing. A number of ships in the past have had
types. Indeed, these data comprise sufficient painted on one side a grid pattern of some sort
material for an entirely separate study and analy- for the builder's or the acceptance trials. By
sis. looking over the side, the intersections of the
52.2 Typical Ship- Wave Profiles. An analysis actualwave profile could be observed and marked
of the flow patterns around a body or ship, at on an outboard-profile drawing carrying the same
least for a craft running on the surface, begins grid. The two full-scale profiles of Fig. 52.A,
properly with the surface-wave profile. This is the for the U. S. battleship Maine (new), were ob-

FiG. 52.A Observed Wave PROPitEs at Two Speeds on a BATiiiESHip

239
 !I0 nVDROnVNAMIQS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 52.2

Wove FVofile at 12 hi. Jy 0371, f„' 259 Wove Profile ot 16 M. 1^- 1.161; F„- 0.i45.

Fio. .'i2.R OBSF.RVF.n Wave Profiles at Two Speeds on a CiiiNnoAT

setAotl in this manner [Powoii, J. W., SXAME, taken from contemjiorary issues of "Jane's
1902, p. 49 and PI. 11]. Wave profilos ob.served at Fighting Ships":
two speeds during tiie trials of the U. S. Coast (a) French cruiser Condi of about 1904, making about
Guard cutter Manning of the late 1890's are 22 kt. The photograph shows that the Velox wave
drawn over an outboard profile of the ship in length is about L/2. For this vessel, L = 452.75 ft,

Fig. 52.B [Peabody, C. H., SXAME, 1899, PI.

B = 65.33 ft, ;/ = 24.5 ft, A = 10,000 t, P., =
20,500 horses, V = 21 kt (nominal); for 22 kt,
93; NA, 1904, Fig. 20S, p. 513].
T, = 1.034.
There arc in the literature litcrallj' thousands (b) French crui.scr Chaleaurcnault of about 1S9S. The
of photographs of ships inidorway, surrounded photograph reveals a considerable trim by the stern
(on the near side at least) by the waves of the and a Velox wave length of well over L. Here
ship's Velox system. Almost never are the.se L = 443 ft, B = 56 ft, // = 22.5 ft, A = 8,01S t;
Ps = 23,000 horses, V = 23 kt (estimated); for
photographs of more than pictorial value becau-se
23 kt, 7', = 1.093. For a speed-length quotient only
either: slightly greater than that of the Condi, the Velox
wave length appears to be much greater.
(1) The}' do not show the wave profile directly
(c) French battleship MagctUa of 1890. The photograph
against the ship's side, or gives the distinct impression that the ship is down
(2) They do not state the exact speed at which by the head. The Velox wave length appears to be
the ship is traveling. about L/2. Here L = 330 ft, B = 65.5 ft, // = 28.5
ft, A = 10,850 t, Ps = 12,000 horses, F = 16 kt;

Nevertheless, they are better than no data at all, T, = 0.881 at this speed.
especially because sj'stematic procedures are (d) The Voltaire shows a Velox wave length of about L/2.
lacking for the prediction of wave profiles along-
For this ship, L\(-l = 475.75 ft, B = 84.75 ft,

side models or ships in advance of tests or trials.

H = 27.5 ft, A = 18,400 t, Ps = 22,500 horses,
V = 19.4 kt; T, = 0.889 at this speed.
One interesting photograph of this kind shows (e) A photographic wave profile of the U. S. battleship
a small battleship of the German Deulschland Iowa (old), presumably made at or near full s|)oed,
class at full speed [STG, 1940, p. 341]. Another, shows one crest at the bow, one amidships, and one
equally interesting becau.sc of two very large at the stern [.\SNE, Aug 1897, p. 454). A similar
photograph appears in "Jane's Fighting Ships,"
wave crcstvS that appear in the photograph, shows
1910, p. 192. The wave length at this speed, assumed
the German World War I battle cruiser Gocbcn to be 17.087 kt, is thus about half the length of the
at what appears to be full speed [USXI, 1912, ship. For a waterliiic length of 360 ft, 7', = 0.9005,
Vol. 38, p. 1GG8]. A third sliows wave profiles F„ = 0.26S2. For a trochoidal wave deep water,
in

along.side the Gennan battle cmisor Moltke of the

the wave Icngtli Lw for 17 kt is about 1(>2 ft, some-
thing less than half the ship lengtli. Data for the
World War I pcri(Kl (SchilTbau, 22 May 1912,
old Iowa, corresponding to thase for the French
p. G49|. These indicate in a general way that the ships, are: = 360 ft, B = 72.0 ft, // - 24.02 ft,
/>,r,,

first Velox wave is something less than one ship A = 11,363 Ps = 11,835 horses, Cp - 0.668,
t,

length long, because of the lag of the first wave Cx = 0.944, S = 31,110 ft', Cr = 0.7:53, .\x - 1,635
ft«.
crast aimft the bow, but otherwise they are useless
(f) Wave profiles at two speeds for the Italian crui.'wr
for analysis by any known method.
Picmontc are publi.shed in INA, 1SS9, Plato XXVII.
Some data are listed here relative to excellent The ship is 325 ft long, and for the higher s|>ced the
photographs of certain French men-of-war of a wave length is about eijual to the ship length,
half-century ago, wlion underway at what appear minus the lag in the bow-wave crest. At 20 kt the
value of T, Is 1.11, F. - 0.331; at 21.5 kt, 7', is
to Ix; full speed and full power. The i)liotograplis
1.193 !tnd /•„ - 0..3.5.5.
in qucHtion are rcproductid in the .Inly 19."j4 issue
(g) The Danish ship Tjaldur is shown ninning at IS kt,
of the U. S. Xavnl Institiile Procecdiiig.s, jjages revealing a deep trough at an estirnati'd position of
79(i to 799. The nuincrical data appenilnl here arc O.l.'iL from llic bow and a seronil crest (following
Sec. 52.3 FLOW PATTERNS AROUND SHIPS 241

T,,- 0.689 F„- 0.205

At-Re5t Woterline Fosi

;
 IlVnRODVX AMK.S IN SHIP DKSIGN Sec. 52.3

bulbs, /, = 0.08, O.OJ, ami 0.(X), witli the vortical of /•'. varying from 0.21 to 0.38, T, of from 0.71
scales exftggeratetl about 7 times, are given by to 1.28.
E. M. Bragg in SNAME, 1930, PI. 51: The wave profile for a double-ended model
having mathematical lines is given on Plat« 1,
page 545 of a paper on wake by C. Igonet [ATM A,
r, - v/Vl Station for first bow-wsvo crest abaft FP, 1938, Vol. 42, pp. 543-5G9]. This plate shows not
on a basis of 20 stations only a body plan of the model but a transverse
profile of the water surface abreast the model at
1.2 About 1.7, approx. 0.0S5/y from FP. Varied
from Sta. 1.6 to Sta. 1.9 for the three
Stas. and 19, corresponding
1 to 0.05 and 0.95L

modoLs referenced from the FP.

E. Ileckscher published a scries of wave pro-
1.0 About 1.2, approx. 0.06A from FP. Varied files alongside a given model, for F„ values of
from Sfa. 1.0 to Stas. 1.6 or 1.7 for the
0.19, 0.23, 0.25, and 0.325, T, of 0.(54,
0.295,
three models
0.775, 0.842, 0.991, and 1.091, corresponding to
0.8 About 0.8, approx. O.OIL from FP. Varied five hump-and-hollow positions along the curve
from Sta. 0.7 to Sta. 1.0 for the three of resistance with speed [WRH, 15 Aug 1939,
models. Fig. 4, p. 2G2].
In the Annual Report of the Rome Model Basin
for the year 1941, Vol. X, there are showTi two
The author of this paper comments on the fact, wave profiles for Rome model C.295, at two
still unexplained, that despite amazing
the speeds. The corresponding T, values are 1.082 and
similarity of the \va\'e profiles for all three models 1.204. These profiles, with the body plan of the
at a T, of 1.2, the model with the largest bulb had model, as published in Table XII of the refer-
15 per cent less resistance than the one with no enced report, are reproduced here in Fig. 52. E.
bulb.The present author makes the further D. W. Taylor shows the wave profiles for two
comment that, at all three T, values, the model models at various speed-length quotients [S and
with the largest bulb had the highest bow-wave P, 1943, Figs. 21-25, p. 24]. Wave profiles are also
crest!This feature likewise remains unexplained. traced on the body plans of two series of models
0. Schlichting, in his 1934 STG paper on tests \vith \videly varying midsection coeflRcients in
of models in shallow and restricted waters, Figs.26-35 on page 25 of the reference. This set
referenced in Sec. 61.3, gives in Figs. 13a and 13b of body plans is reproduced as Fig. 52. Q in Sec.
the wave profiles alongside models of a heavy 52.7 of the present chapter.
cruiser and a light cruiser, respectively, for values G. do Verdi6rc and J. Gauticr give a series of

Wave Rrofile for Tq- I 204, F„-0359 Water Surtace at Re^t

V ^
Fia. S2.E Obbeiivko Wavk 1'iiorii.Eu on Uomk Munr.L Bakin Moiiei, C.:^05
Sec. 52. 4 FLOW PATTERNS AROUND SHIPS 243

wave determined from tests of four

profiles as mate analytically the resultant wave profile,
models of ships having waterline lengths L of taking account of wave-interference effects. Fig.
from 459.3 ft to 448.2 ft [ATMA, 1948, p. 490]. lO.F in adapted from W. C. S. Wigley,
Volume I,

The ordinates are in meters for the full-scale ships does this for a 2-diml ship having a parallel
and the abscissas in 0-diml length ratios x/L, middlebody and triangular ends. Many barges
with Sta. at the AP and Sta. 20 at the FP. have nearly square-cornered rectangular water-
The profiles in diagram a of Fig. 8 on page 490 lines but on most ships the pressure disturbances
of the reference are plotted with respect to the are regions rather than points. This renders it
undisturbed water surface at infinity. Those in extremely difficult to predict the shape and fore-
diagram b are plotted with respect to the at-rest and-aft position of the wave form generated by
ship waterplane, so that they differ by the amounts each such disturbance.
of the sinkage at each station. The T^ values for Several further complications in working out
these plots range from 0.747 for the short ship to wave interferences and their effects along the
0.756 for the long ship; corresponding F„ values waterline of a ship of normal form are:
are 0.222 and 0.225.
(1) Lack of information as to the variation of
Wave profiles are shown for the ten tanker
level along the ship of the crests and trough of
models reported upon by R. B. Couch and M.
the Bernoulli contour system, described in Sec.
St. Denis [SNAME, 1948, Figs. 2(a)-10(a), pp.
10.3. This is undoubtedly a function of the^
360-378]. A single wave profile is reproduced by
surface-waterline shape and it may also be a
W. P. A. van Lammeren in RPSS, 1948, Fig, 38,
function of the section-area curve.
on page 88, for a T, of 0.64, without the body
plan of the ship in question. (2) Lack of a precise determination of the effect
of the presence of the ship entrance abaft a point-
Six sets of wave profiles for two self-propelled
pressure disturbance such as a stem
models, showing the changes in profile over a
wide range of speed, are given by S. A. Harvald (3) Inadequate knowledge as to the effect of
in SSPA Report 13, published in 1949, entitled variations in the waterline slopes in such an
"Medstr0mskoefficientens Afhaengighed af Ror- entrance, discussed briefly in Sec. 10.6 on page
form, Trim og Haekb0lge (The Dependence of 174 of Volume I and in Sec. 48.2
Wake Fraction on Shape of Rudder, Trim, and (4) Uncertainty as to the amount of crest lag
Stern Wave)." The profiles appear on pages 13, (and trough lag) in the Velox wave systems
14, 34, 35, 36, and 40. On the last-named page generated by pressure disturbances abaft the bow
there is a set of profiles for the model running (5) Uncertainty as to the factors determining
astern. On pages 56-60 there is a summary in the fore-and-aft position .and shape of a stern-
English. wave crest on an actual ship, in the presence of a
Wave profiles at three speeds for seventeen separation zone, of boundary layers, and of water
models of coasters are given by A. 0. Warholm in coming up from under the ship
SSPA Report 24, published in 1953, entitled Lack of knowledge as to the lengths of actual
(6)
"Nagra Systematiska Forsok med Modeller av (or trochoidal) waves for a given celerity, when
Mindre Kustfartyg (Systematic Tests with Models occurring abreast a ship instead of in the open,
of Coasters)." The profiles, apparently taken
unobstructed sea.
during resistance (and not self-propelled) tests,
are printed on pages 85-90. On pages 48-50 there In the absence of these data it is difficult to
is a summary in English. set down specific rules for wave interferences and
Provision is made, on SNAME RD sheets their effects alongside a moving ship. If the
having numbers in excess of 100, to depict the individual profiles could be determined and
wave profiles at designed speed in either or both positioned longitudinally, there is every reason

of two locations. Examples of these are sheets to believe that in most cases the interference
114, 115, and 144. effects could be determined by simple super-
52.4 General Rules for Wave Interference position of the heights of the transverse waves in
Alongside a Ship. For a ship form having abrupt each system at any selected station.
and localized changes in waterline curvature, K. S. M. Davidson gives a few diagrams [PNA,
resulting in what may be considered as point- 1939, Vol. II, pp. 66-67] in which this superposi-
pressure disturbances, it is possible to appro.xi- tion is indicated, in addition to the schematic
:n HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DFSICN Sec. 52.5

tli:iRrain.s in Figs. lO.C;, 10..I, uiul 10. K of C'liap. ships, />-,r for the 0-dinil Eq. (52. i), as indicated
10 of \olume I. by the wave profiles ob.servcd on tiieir models,
W. P. A. van I^mmorcn, L. Troost, ami J. G. varies from 0.3 to nearly 3.0, indicate*! graphically
Koniiig discuss the features and effects of wave in Fig. 52. F. This extreme variation is undoubtedly
interference along somewhat difTerent lines [RPSS,
1918, pp. 54-')ol.
52.5 Estimate of Bow-Wave and Stem-Wave
40
3. 6r
azo ojso ^ ZHflST
Heights and Positions. Prediction of the surface- 32
wave profile, outlined in Sec. 52. (i, recjuires in 26
particularan estimate of the heights and positions
5 2"
of the bow-wave and stern-wave crests. There is
an appreciat>le space lag in the bow-wave crest \\, Seoplane lender
I
position al)aft the stem, described in Sec. 10.15 D«st. Tender *v
^"-L—n_ ''""feS^^I
DeslroYer
on page ISO of Volume I, especially if the speed Cruiser
is high. This lag is particularly noticeable in

Fig. 52.B of Sec. 52.2 and in Figs. 52.1 and 52.J

5 08

0.6
t,-vm:
16
^ 20
of Sec. 52.6. 0.6 1.0 1.2 1.4 i.a

J. Scott Russell, in Plate 1 18 of MSXA, 18G5,

Fig. 52.F Graph for Estimati.n'o Bow-Wave Crest
Vol. II, Fig. 31, shows a ves.sol being driven so Height
fast that the bow-wave crest lags back to a The spot .ipplying to each vessel is ealeulutcti for the
point abreast midships. He explains this feature in designed speed of tiiat vessel

Vol. I page G3G. A situation

of the reference,
almost exactly similarreproduced in the familiar
is
due to the fact that the ratio Bx/Le does not take
photograph of Parsons' Turbinia at full speed
adequate account of the WL slopes at and just
(SNAME, HT, 1943, p. 439].
abaft the stem. A large waterline slope not only
An empirical formula for estimating "good
produces a high value of pressure coefficient close
average values" of the height of the bow-wave
behind the stem, but the large slope throws the
crest is given by J. L. Kent [NECI, 1949-1950,
projection of the crest on the centerplane farther
Vol. 66, 435]. This is in the dimensional
p.
forward, toward the stem.
form h =
k{B/LE)V', where h, B, and Lg are in
The models on which pressure distributions
ft, V is in kt, and Jc = 0.083. It resembles a formula
were observed by E. F. Eggert, 2861 and EMH
given by Laubcuf many years ago [ATMA, 1897,
3383 [SNAINIE, 1935, pp. 129-150; 1939, pp.
p. 211].
303-330], sliow bow-wave crests considerably
Kent's /:-value is for "ordinary merchant
higher than those given by either formula, in the
ships," derived from wave jjrofiles observed when
T, range of 0.76 through 1.2. On the other hand,
towing a number of ship models at the XPL,
the bow-wave crest heights measureil on two
Teddington. Presumably it appHes to ships with-
narrow models by W. C. S. Wigley, in the same
out bulb bows. Furtiiermore, it takes no account
speed range, are lower than the fonnida values
of angle of entrance at the stem, hollowness or
[NECI, 1930-1931, Vol. 47, pp. 153-196; INA,
fullness in the entrance wnterlines, flare of bow
1935, Fig. 6, PI. XXVI]. It is po.s.sil)le that on
sectioiKS, rake of the stem profile, or of any other
some towed models it is difficult to tell where the
feature which might reduce or augment the
wave profile ends and the spray root begins; also
bow-wave crest height. Preliminary plots indicate
that factors additional to those in the formulas
that the value of /; varies rather widelj', from tlie
affect this phenomenon. For either or both of these
order of 0.015 to 0.13 or more.
regions E(|. (52. i) and the Air-curvc of Fig. 52.
Transformed into a dimensionally consistent
arc consiiiercd lus preliminary only.
equality for any units of measurement, Kent's
The estimated bow-wave crest height for the
formula becomes, for the height h of the bow-
ABC ship of Part 4 at 20.5 kt (34.62 ft per sec),
wave creat above the at-rest WL:
using a h,r of 1.385 from Fig. 52.F and employing
Eq. (52.i), is

(l^A ^" , oor 73(l,198.r>) _- ,-f,

,
- ,
= f'
For the range of fcjrni of displacenicnl-lyije
''
'"\J 2y '
••^^•'(2ii2T5J647rrs '
'
'
Sec. 52 J FLOW PATTERNS AROUND SHIPS 245

It appears proper that this height be measured T„ and Froude number /*"„ . For the ABC ship at
from the undisturbed water level rather than 20.5 kt, or 34.62 ft per sec, this crest lag works
from the at-rest WL
of the ship, as might be out as 0.372(34.62)732.174 = 13.86 ft. From
painted on its hull, because of the drop (or rise) Fig. 52. G the value of the crest lag for a T„ of
of the bow due combined effects of the
to the 0.908 is 0.0272L„.z, . The value observed on TMB
Bernoulli contour system and the Velox wave model 4505 of the ABC ship and indicated on
system at the ship speed in question. Adding to Fig. 66. R, where the crest occurs at about Sta.
the calculated h the value of this drop for the 0.7, is 17.85 ftor0.035L;pi .

ABC ship, —2.35 ft, as measured during the Model data from
for a variety of ship forms,
model resistance test, and allowing for the lag which the graph of Fig. 52. G was derived, show
in the bow-wave crest, to be determined presently, rather wide variations from the value predicted
gives a value of 9.47 ft for the bow-wave crest by Eq. (52. ii) in some cases and exact agreement
height, measured above the 26-ft DWL. The full in others. Thus this equation and the broken-line
details of this calculation are given in Sec. 66.28. curve of Fig. 52. G are both to be considered as
Based upon observations of EMB model 2861 preliminary.
E. F. Eggert evolved a rule for estimating the S. A. Harvald, in his "Wake of Merchant
bow-wave crest lag, defined as the fore-and-aft Ships" [Danish Tech. Press, 1950, pp. 81-84],
distance of that crest abaft the intersection of the gives a diagram by which the stem-wave height
stem and the at-rest WL, when projected on the may be estimated, as a means of predicting the
[EMB Rep. 392, Nov 1934,
centerplane p. 1]. amount of wave wake in any particular case.
The +Ap peak may not always lie exactly at the Fig. 52. H, adapted from Harvald's Fig. 41 on
intersection just mentioned, but it is near enough
for all practical purposes. Eggert's formula, in
dimensional form, says that the crest lies at a
distance x = 0.033 F^ abaft this intersection,
0.05
where the x-distance is in ft and V is in kt. In h = Stern-Wave Crest Height
0-diml form this becomes, for the distance abaft Ly/ "= Lenqth of Tro-
the stem at the WL at rest. \\^ \^
choidal Wave of
—
0.04 L Velocitv^ V
=
X = 0.372 —
7'
(52.ii) ?
s\^ ^
-
\\
\\\
\\\
\ \
0.03 \\ \ \
This equation is plotted in Fig. 52.
values of the crest lag x in fractions of the water-
G to give o — W\\\ W
\ \ s

line length L ^l on a basis of both Taylor quotient

,
\ \\
0.02-
\ \ \>
.\ \ \ \
\Q.I6
-n-V^ 0.01
L
N^O.14
\
0.1 z a \0.20
Crest Lag-
-r- V \

0.5 0.7 0.9 1.3

Fig. 52.H Graphs for Estimating Stern-Wave

Crest Height

page 83 of the reference cited, indicates the

parameters employed, B/L, h/Lw and T, Har- , .

vald admits that a number of apparently import-

ant factors are not taken account of in his diagram
but, like the other diagrams of this section, it
will serve untilsomething better is developed.
0.6 0.8 1.0 I.Z 1.4 1.6 1.6 2.0 For the ABC
ship, or one of its proportions,

Fig. 52. G Graph for Estimating Bow-Wave Crest B = 73 ft and L = 510 ft, whence B/L = 0.143.
Lag Abaft Stem At a Tj of 0.908, Harvald's diagram gives a value
:i6 UVDKODVNAMK.s IN Mill' DllSlCN Src. 52.6

for h/L, of about 0.0195. From Table 48.d the There Is a definite lack of accurate, comprehensive,
length Lw of a Irochokirtl wiivo having a velocity and rcliiible information in Sees. 52.2 and 52.3,
equal to Uie ship speotl of 20.5 kt is 231.3 ft. and in the literature in general, upon which to
Then, for the estimated height of the stern wave, develop a wave-profile prediction method by the
analysis of systematic dala. This applies not only
h = O.OI95/.,r = 0.0195(231.3) = 1.57 ft.
to elevations in the wave profile but to the exact
If this height isreckoned above the undisturbed speeds corresponding to the profiles, and to the
water level, the height above the 20-ft is DWL shapes and proportions of the ships making the
•1.57 ft plus the sinkage (about 0.75 ft), or 5.32 ft. waves. Nevertheless, it is possible to sketch an
Although Ilarvald's data arc not intcndcfi to approximation of the surface-wave profile for a
take care of Iraiisoni-slcrn ships, the hciglit of tlic ship design by using the empirical data of Sees.
obs»»rved stern-wave crest just forward of the 52.2 and 52.3, plus some additional experimental
transom, as measured from the profiles on TMB data relative to the number of wave lengths to be
model 4505, reproduced in Fig. 66.11, is about expected between the bow-wave crest and the
4.1 ft. reckoned above the 2(>-ft DWL. stern.
52.6 Prediction of the Surface-Wave Profile. The latter data are based preferablj' upon the

19 10 17 16 15 14 IS 12 II 10 9 S 7 6 3 4 J

Fio. 62.1 Wavb Profiles for TMB Sbrieb 67, Modbi, 4200W, at VARioita Spbeds
Sec. 52.6 FLOW PATTERNS AROUND SHIPS 247

speed-length or Taylor quotient T„ or the Froude fall in the positions indicated along the lower
number F„ .known that, in general, when
It is edge of Fig. 66.A.
wave of the Velox system
the crest of a transverse It is also known, for ships of normal form,
generated by the bow coincides with the first that certain T, values correspond to ship lengths
wave crest of the stern Velox system, there is a that are multiples of the transverse-wave lengths
drop in total resistance. When a trough of the in whole numbers. Roughly:
bow system coincides with a crest at the stern,
there is a rise in resistance. When these effects (1) For T, = 0.63, the ship is 4 wave lengths long
are plotted on a base of speed-length quotient (2) For r, = 0.72 to 0.73, the ship is 3 wave
T, or F„ the humps and hollows in the curve of
,
lengths long
total (or wavemaking) resistance are found to (3) For r, = 0.88, the ship is 2 wave lengths long

AP 19 16 17 16 15 14 13 la II 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I FP

Fig. 52. J Wave Profiles for TMB Series 57, Model 4202W-1, at Various Speeds
218 lIYDROnVNAMHs IN SHIP DllSIC.N Src. ''2.7

(4) Ft>r 7', = l.l.'>. till' sliip is about 1 \v:i\c Cicneral rules and procedures for predicting
length loiiR. Tliis is tlic ciusc for some large, fast the wave profile along a shij) of normal form, in
combatant vessels and for most tugs ami sailing the usual range of speeds, are described in Sec.
yachts at full or designed speed. 00.28, using the .VHCsiiij) of Part 4 as the example.
52.7 Typical Lines-of-Flow Diagrams for Ship
By the same reasoning, the humps in tlic
Models. Thanks to the work of D. W. Taylor
resistance curves occur when the ship Icnglli
and his as,sociates at the Experimental Model
corresponds approximately to half-lengths of the
Basin at Washington in the period 1900-1910
transverse wave system. Again roughly:
there appears in the technical literature a mmiber
(5) For 7', = 0.1)7, the ship is 3J wave lengths of lines-of-flow diagrams. These are body plans
long upon which the projected flowline positions are
(6) For T, = 0.80, the ship is L'l wave lengths
long
(7) For T, = D.'.i'.i tu IdJ, il,(. ship is \\ \v;iv('

length long
(8) For T, = 1.5 to 1.7, the ship is about \ wave
length long. For most destroyers at full speed,
nmning at a T, of about 2.00, the ship is some-
what less than half a wave length long.
The values given in the foregoing are drrucii
from preliminary examination of published :uul
available wave profiles, without a careful study
of the effects of bow-wave crest lag. For this
purpose, a wave profile shown broadside, for the
full model or ship length, is much more ii.seful Fig. 52.Ka Lines of Flow for Old Cruiseu Model
and valuable than a wave profile shown in its
projected position on a body plan. When there Wove Profiles-

is a parallel watcrline portion of considerable

length, the po.sitions of the crests and troughs

abreast it are not readily apparent in an end
view of the hull.
Figs. 52.1and 52.J show the wave profiles for
five quotients on each of two
speed-length
models of TMB Series 57, having block coeffi-
cients Cfl of O.GO and 0.70, respectively. The
body plans and other data for the.se models are
given by F. H. Todd and F. X. Forest [SNAME, 55. Dolt I more (Old)
1951, pp. 042-G9I]. Via. 52.1vb Lines OK FiAJw Fou Old Cruiser Model

TABLE .'j2.a— Sini' Dwk fou Mudei.s with Observed Lines ok Flow
Thn »hip lonRths and Hpocd.s, except fr>r the Pensacola, are from D. \V. Taylor [SNAME, 1907, j). \\, us are ttie body
planH carrying the lines of flow.

Fig. No. Name or type of vessel J^WL , ft peed, kt

.'J2.Ku Sun Francixco (old) :iio.o

52.Kb liaUimore (old) ;i27.5
52. Kc Penaacola 570.0
52.L Great Lakes ore steamer 540.0
62. M Collier 460.0
.'i2..Nu Sotoyomo, full speed 04.0 J
.'i2.Nb Siiloyomo, hIow sfiecd 91. 01
.VJ.O Sliidlou'-drafl river Hti-iiiner 257.0
62.1' KiM.-ciiil typo willi bulges 490.25
Sec. 52.7 FLOW PATIERNS AROUND SHIPS 249

Tq= 1.345
250 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 52.8

duction, for ready reference, of one such diagram

previously pubhshed.
The Swedish State Shipbuilding Experimental
Tank makes use of the wet-paint technique for
depicting flowlines around selected portions of
ship models [SSPA Rep. 32, 1954, Figs. 18 and
19, pp. 26-27]. For the local areas covered
they
are excellent. A. F. Lindblad includes photo-
Tq=l.ie Shallow-Draft River Steamer
graphs of flowlines around the bulb bow of a
Fig. 52.0 Lines of Flow fob Shallow-Draft Steamer model made mth this technique [SSPA, Rep. 8,
1948, Figs. 15 and 17, pp. 18-19]. Published with
them is a model body plan upon which a number
of flowlines are indicated.
In 1947 R. Brard and J. Bleuzen published
photographs of models in which flowlines were
determined during steering tests [ATM A, 1947,
Figs. 10, 11, 12, and 13, between pp. 332-335;
TMB Transl. 248]. H. F. Nordstrom published
similar photographs of the flow near the bow-
propeller position on an icebreaker model [SSPA,
Rep. 20, 1952].
Tq =0.855 Speciol Ship Type In his book "Marine Propulsion Devices,"
pubhshed at Leningrad and Moscow in 1949,
Fig. 52. P Lines of Flow for Ship with Under-
V. M. Lavrent'ev shows body plans on pages 65
water Bulges
and 66 with fines of flow drawn over them.
A multitude of photographs have hkewise
drawn. A considerable number of ship types are been made of EMB and TMB models with the
represented [SNAME, 1907, pp. 1-12, Plates 1-7]. flow traces marked on them, but only a few
Figs. 52.K through 52. Q are adapted from the are available for study by marine architects
diagrams in the reference cited, with the proper [SNAME, 1947, Fig. 9 on p. 104; Figs. 25, 26,
r, values shown on each. Table 52.a gives the and 27 on pp. 116-117]. Lines-of-flow traces for
information presently available on the ships a few selected locations appear on SNAME RD
represented by seven models of this group. sheets 114 and 115. It is hoped that, in the future,
In 1910 Taylor published the hnes-of-flow these can be shown on all such sheets when the
diagrams for two model series, one apparently for data are available.
a battleship and the other for a light cruiser of Fig. 52.U gives a rather comprehensive flow
that day, in which the maximum-section coeffi- pattern for the transom-stern ABC ship huU
cient Cx was varied from 0.70 through 1.10 for worked out in Chap. 66. Figs. 78. C and 78. D are
each group of five [S and P, 1943, Figs. 26-35, photographs of the model showing the nature
p. 25]. Fig. 52. Q is adapted from the Taylor and positions some of the flow traces.
of
reference by adding the principal hull parameters 52.8 Model Surface-Flow Dia-
Analysis of
and coefficients, as well as the speed-length ratios. grams. The method of analyzing photographs
Despite the major differences in form between and diagrams of flow fines and flow patterns
the two parent models the flow patterns are taken directly on the surface of a model depends
remarkably similar. upon the technique employed in tracing the flow.
Since 1910 a great many flow tests have been Wet-paint streaks are usually short but if the
run on ship models at the Experimental Model paint fines are closely spaced in a fore-and-aft
Basin and the David Taylor Model Basin but direction they may be combined fike the short
unfortunately only a few of the lines-of-flow vectors that form path fines, described in Sec.
diagrams have been published in unclassified 1.4 of Volume I. The traces left by chemicals
EMB and TMB reports and the technical ejected from orifices in the hull are much longer,
hterature. Figs. 52.R and 52. S are copied from sometimes half the length of the model. They
two unpublished diagrams. Fig. 52.T is a repro- may be assumed to give a better representation
Sec. 52.S FLOW PATTERNS AROUND SHIPS

" 55.8 for oil Models

C0QIQI_\3
of this Group
/qoiol)^"
1674- for oil Models of this Group

Cx = 0.90

Cx = 90 Tc[? I.34E, Fn= 0.396 for this Group

1^0.894. Fn- 0.266 for
this Group

Cx = 1-00

-^ - 2.9^ and Cp = 0.56 for all

Ten Models

Fig. 52.Q Vawation of Flow Pattern with Maximum-Section Coefficient Cx

252 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 52.S

linos of flow are reproduced on pages 6 and 7 of

this report.
Several flowhnes are hkely to come together as
they approach the surface, usually between the
after quarterpoint and the stern. A case in point
isthat of the flow along hues E arfd F on TMB
model 3898, representing the twin-skeg Manhattan
design, depicted in Fig. 52.T [SNAME, 1947,
Fig. 24 on p. 116 and Fig. 26 on p. 117]. Here,
at Sta. 18.5, the two lines of flow not only join
but appear to be about ready to project themselves
up through the water surface, just above the
junction point. Apparently the two large-size
stream tubes along E and F change shape rapidly
between Stas. 16, 17, and 18.5, so that opposite
the latter point they are both very thin in a
girth wise direction and very thick in a direction
normal to the hull. The junction point is appar-
ently close to the separation point at that girth-
wise position, so that abaft Sta. 18.5 the stream
tubes in question have gone off and left the hull.
The following is copied from page 7 of TMB
Report 535, referenced earlier in the section:

"A careful study of the streamlines on the model will

afford a fund of information not only as to the direction of
flow, but concerning the nature of the flow. A long, narrow
Fig. 52.R Lines op Flow for Run op Model op line indicateshigh velocity; a short, wide and smeary line
S. S. Clairton indicates low velocity; a sudden breaking off of the line
indicates separation from the surface of the model; and
an irregular line or an area with diagonal tails indicates
of the surface flow. The details of the chemical
eddying along the model."
methods, some representative results, and in-
structions for interpreting the traces are described The orthodox lines-of-flow diagrams, such as
by J. F. Hutchinson in TMB Report 535, of those in Figs. 52.R, 52.T, and 52.U, show only
May 1944, entitled "The Delineation of Surface very mdirectly the dii-ection taken by the water
Lines of Flow and Wave Profiles at the David when flowing aft under a ship model, especially
Taylor Model Basin." Two body plans showing if the bottom is flat. Fig. 52. V is a fish-eye view,

TMB Model 3594 5NAME RD Sheet 98 \-0858 F„-0255 Bow-Wqve Crest at 5ta. 0.9. -o- 0.045 L Abotl FP

Fig. 52.S Lines op Flow for TMB Model 3594, Representing Minelayer U. S. S. Terror
Sec. 52.8 FLOW PATTERNS AROUND SHIPS 253

Fig. 52.T Lines of Flow of TMB Model 389S, Representing Twin-Skbg Manhattan

greatly contracted longitudinally, of the flowlines '^b c Tronsom-stern Design

^
tmb Model 4505 Tc^-ogoa

under TMB model 3898, representing the twin- ^^'

skeg Manhattan design developed by the U. S.

Maritime Commission [SNAME, 1947, pp. 112-
125]. The projection is made upward on the plane
of the designed waterline; all flowlines are shown
on the same side of the centerplane. Three
photographs are available showing the original
lines of flow on the model [SNAME, 1947, Fig.
25 on p. 116 and Figs. 26 and 27 on p. 118]. Fig. 52.U Lines of Flow Around Model of
The transverse spreading of the flow shown by Transom-Stern ABC Ship

~^Desi(^ned Waterline Projected Upward

on Plane Parallel to Boseplane
'
i
I
I
I

Lettered Lines of Flow Are Projected Upward in Similar Fashion

Contracted Lonqitudinallu 4,57 Times

7 6 5 4

Fig. 52.V Fish-Eye View of Lines of Flow Under Bottom of TMB Model 3898
The transverse scale here is 4.57 times the longitudinal scale, to permit showing the flowlines to better advantage
254 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 52.9

traces A, B, and C, and by the forward portions Tufts have the disadvantage of shortness, like
of traces L and M, is typical of the flow under the streaks from a transverse line of wet paint.
models in general. It is possible that it indicates a However, there is no Umit to the number of them
slowing down in the next-to-the-huU water layers that can be used over the surface of a ship model.
because of the thickening of the boundary layer They are extremely valuable as nature-of-flow
under the hull. The increase in x-distance from indicators, streaming straight out in a fast,

the stem is one cause of thickening; another is the regular (or uniform) flow and waving gently or
increase in width of the flat portion, with its lazily in a slow flow that is irregular and uncertain.

small (or zero) transverse curvature. Off-the-surface vane and rigid-flag indicators
52.9 Observation and Interpretation of Off- require little in the way of interpretation since

the-Surface Flow Data on Models. It is cus- they reveal velocity direction only. This is usually
tomary in circulating-water channels and wind sufficient when they are employed to determine a

tunnels to observe the nature and direction of the
flow over a body or ship surface by watching the
behavior of short strings or tufts of yarn. These
may be attached not only to the surface directly
but to slender pins projecting any required
distance from the surface, indicated in Fig. 52. W.
Different tuft colors may be used to represent
different normal distances from the hull. Indeed,
the tufts may be attached to the ends of long, thin
wands, moved about by hand to the desired
positions.
single Une of flow such as a bilge-keel trace.
Colored inks and dyes may be ejected from the
ends of long, thin tubes, moved to any desired
position in the water around the model. Figs.
46.E and 46.F show ink trails along a model.
To permit subsequent study at leisure, after
completion of the test, flash photographs are
made of the tuft positions, like those reproduced
in Fig. 52.W, as well as in Figs. 36.F, 36.G, 46.D,
46.E, 46.F, 78.E, and 78.F. Similar still photo-
graphs have been made at the Experimental

Fig. 52.W Fish-Eye View of Self-Propelied Model in Circulating- Water Channel, Showing Tufts Carried
BY Pins and Tufts on Model Surface
Sec. 52.11 FLOW PATTERNS AROUND SHIPS 255

Towing Tank, Stevens Institute of Technology, tests on the ABC ship model were made. The
and published in: rather large variations between prediction and
observations revealed in Fig. 66. R, especially in
(a) Sutherland, W. "Underwater Photographs of
H.,
Flow Patterns," ETT, Stevens, Note 75, May 1948. the forebody, show that the tentative instructions
This includes some observations made from under- and study.
of Sec. 66.28 require further attention
neath a model during a turn. In this connection the comments made by
(b) Ashton, R., "An Underwater-Photographic Method
H. C. Sadler, W. Hovgaard, D. W. Taylor, and
for Determining Flow Lines of Ship Models," ETT
others, in the discussion and closure of D. W.
Tech. Memo 101, Feb 1949.
Taylor's paper "An Experimental Investigation of
Other published flow-test photographs showing Stream Lines Around Ship Models" [SNAME,
tufts attached to the model surface and ink or dye 1907, pp. 1-12], will be found most helpful.
injected into the water through small tubes are 52.11 Prediction of the Ship Flow Pattern at
found in: the Bilges. The portion of the hull flow pattern
(c) Baier, L. A., "Trouble-Shooting the Martha E. Allen," of the most immediate and practical interest is
Mar. Eng'g., Sep 1955, p. 54 that in way of the propulsion devices, discussed
(d) Baier, L. A., and Ormondroyd, J., "Suppression of in Sec. 17.2, in Chap. 33, and in Sees. 52.16 and
Ship Vibration by Flow Control," Proc. Third
59.12. The next in importance is that in way of
Midwestern Conf. on Fluid Mech., Univ. of Minn.,
Jun 1953, pp. 397-411
the bilge or roll-resisting keels, especially if these
(e) Harper, M. S., and Weaver, A. H., Jr., "Model Flow keels extend beyond any parallel middlebody
Studies Around Stern of U. S. Navy Fleet Tug that may be worked into the hull.
ATF-16S, TMB model 3531," TMB Rep. 810, In some quarters it is considered sufficiently
issued in Jan 1952. This report contains 10 photo-
accurate to place the bilge-keel trace, as projected
graphs, showing both tuft positions and ink trails.
on the body plan, along a line bisecting the angle
If the flow contains eddies, vortexes, and at the bilge between the side and the bottom at
counter-currents, or otherwise varies with time, the section of maximum area. This neglects the
motion-picture photographs are taken. However, effect of B/H ratio and similar factors. In other
neither type of photographic record can compare quarters assumed that the flow must certainly
it is

in vividness and reality with direct visual observa- follow the bilge diagonal, at least close enough for
tion. Fortunately, this can include study and all practical purposes. Both rules of thumb ignore

interpretation also by continuing any given set the effect of the surface-wave pattern as far down
of test conditions in the circulating-water channel as the bilge.
may be desired, or until the observer
for as long as For slow low T, values, the surface-
ships, with
understands what is going on. wave effect probably
small but for fast ships,
is

References to the studies of various experi- with medium or high T^ values, the prediction
menters, relating to the off-the-surface flow on must be based on knowledge of the flow to be
models, are Usted in Sec. 52.12 and in Sec. 22.6 expected in this region. There is ample evidence
on page 311 of Volume I. that for ships operating at T^ values in excess of
52.10 Estimating the Ship Flow Pattern on the 0.85 or 0.90, F„ > 0.253 or 0.268, the crests and
Body Plan. It will some day be considered as troughs in the surface-wave system are reproduced
important, and as necessary, to estimate the flow to a lesser degree at the bilge-keel level. The bilge-
pattern around a newly shaped hull, in advance keel traces of the Mariner class,shown by V. L.
of model tests, as it is to predict its resistance or Russo and E. K. Sullivan [SNAME, 1953, Fig. 18,
the effective (and shaft) power required to drive it. p. 127], determined by both the chemical method
Based upon the physical aspects of flow around and the vane or flag method, are excellent
a ship form, described in Chap. 4 of Volume I, examples of this situation. Unfortunately, the
with emphasis on the flow around surface-ship wave profile (Fig. 12 of the reference) does not
forms in Sees. 4.10 and 4.11, an attempt is made in appear on the same drawing as the bilge-keel
Sec. 66.28 to formulate a few preliminary instruc- traces, so as to make the surface-wave effect
tions for guidance in predicting the flowline and readily apparent.
wave-profile positions. Following these instnic- For ships with a considerable extent of parallel
tions, a flow pattern is sketched for the transom- side at the waterhne, the surface-wave profile is
stern ABC hull designed in Chaps. 66 and 67; not outhned well enough on a body plan to permit
in fact, it was drawn out in ink before the flow predicting its effect on a bilge-keel trace. The
256 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 52.12

wave profile in side elevation should be used for Distribution of Velocity Around a Ship's Model
Placed in a Turbulent Stream," IN A, 1934, pp.
this purpose.
136-143 and Pis. XV, XVI
A prediction of flow in way of the bilge keels
(c) Hamilton, W. S., "The Velocity Pattern Around a
should cover the light-load or ballast condition Ship Model Fixed in Moving Water," Doctorate
as well as that for the designed load, using the Diss., IIHR, Deo 1943. Available in Ubrary, TMB
appropriate speed-length quotients in each case. number VM298.H11.
Almost certainly the traces wiU be different,
In the present state of the art, the prediction of
unless the speeds are low, although the differ-
flow conditions from available reference data
ences may be small. A decision is called for in the
only, for an important part of a ship or an import-
design stage to determine which load and speed
ant region near the ship, is uncertain at the best.
condition is to be favored in positioning the bUge
Rehance upon flow tests mth a model is definitely
keels on the ship.
indicated.
52.12 Probable Flow at a Distance From the
52.13 Estimating the Change in Flow Pattern
Ship Sixrface. At normal or lateral distances
for Light or Ballast Conditions. Predicting the
from the 3-dunl ship form greater than those
involved in placing the roll-resisting keels, avail-
flow pattern —and wave profile —for a ship design
when the vessel is assumed to be in a hght or
able data for predicting flow conditions become
ballast condition requires modifications of the
rather rare. A few sources giving data on tests of
rules in Sec. 66.28. In the first place, the forefoot
ship models, which may or may not cover the
is usually well out of water, so that whether it is
distances with which a ship designer is concerned,
cut away or is occupied by a bulb, the section
are mentioned:
lines are by no means vertical in that region. In

(a) Laute, W., "Untersuchungen iiber Druck- und
Stromungsverlauf an einem Schiffsmodell (Investi-
gations of Pressure and Flow on a Ship Model),"
STG, 1933, Vol. 34, pp. 402-460; English version in
TMB Transl. 53, Mar 1939. See also Figs. 22.D
and 22.E in Sec. 22.8 of Volume I.
(b) Lamble, J. H., "An Experimental Examination of the
the second place, the free surface, disturbed by
Velox waves, is much closer to the bottom of the
ship than at normal draft. The surface-wave
pattern may be expected, therefore, to have a
considerable influence on the flow pattern, at
least as far down as the flat floor under the ship.

Numbers at Sides Indicate ftisitions of U. S. Maritime Commission Design

Wave Profiles and Flow Traces at T2-SE-AI
Those Stotions TMB Model 3867
FULL-LOAD CONDITION
Trim, Zero Tq = 0.684
5 10 15 20
l.i.i I I I I I I I I 1 I I

Fig. 52.Xa Lines of Flow in Full-Load Condition foe U. S. Maritime Commission Design TS-SE-Al
Sec. 52.14 FLOW PATTERNS AROUND SHIPS 257

Numbers ot Sides Indicate Positions of U.S. Maritime Commission Desii

Wove Profiles and Flow Traces at T2-5E-AI
Those Stations TMB Model 3867
BALLAST CONDITION
Trim, IZft b\j theStern

Fig. 52. Xb Lines of Flow in Ballast Condition for U. S. Maritime Commission Design T2-SE-A1

With a broad, blunt bulb as a waterline begin- on the basis of empirical data, the fund of inform-
bow-wave crest may be
ning, at light draft, the ation presently available must be greatly ex-
surprisingly high, although the upper portion of panded. It now comprises the references listed
the crest is more apparent than real, in the form in Sec. 52.12 plus the following:
of a bow feather.
Whether the sections at the forward end of the (1) Eggert, E. F., "Form Resistance Experiments,"
entrance are sharply flared outward or are of the SNAME, 1935, pp. 139-150

bulb type, the Bowlines will undoubtedly curve (2) Eggert, E. F., "Further Form Resistance Experi-
ments," SNAME, 1939, pp. 303-330
and pass under the ship very close abaft the stem.
(3) Yokota, S., Yamamoto, T., Shigemitsu, A., and
This means, for one thing, that air entrained in Togino, S. see Sec. 52.3 for the complete
; listing
the bow-wave crest may be expected to flow (4) Izubuchi, T., full-scale experiments on the Japanese
along under the bottom at transverse distances destroyer Yudachi, Zosen Kiokai, December 1934,
rather close to the centerhne. Vol. 55; English translation available in Research
and Development Division, Bureau of Ships, U. S.
Figs.52.Xa and 52.Xb indicate the differences
Navy Department
in wave profile and flow pattern found on two
(5) Hiraga, Y., "Experimental Investigations on the
model tests of a tanker. In the light condition the Resistance of Long Planks and Ships," See. Nav.
displacement than half the full-load dis-
is less Arch., Japan, 1934.
placement, and the trim by the stern is very large.
52.14 Predicting Velocity and Pressure Dis- Fig. 52.Y is a reproduction of one of the after-
tribution Aroiuid Ship Forms. If the magnitudes, body plans of EMB model 3383 from (2) preceding
and distribution of velocity and pressure
direction, [SNAME, 1939, Fig. 30 on p. 314]. It carries the
are to be calculatedby the methods discussed in isobars for a multitude of Ap values, as indicated
Chap. 50, this prediction will be for a hull form in the diagram.
which has the shape of the physical ship plus the A comprehensive measurement of pressure
displacement thickness of the boundary layer, as around the surface of a ship or model is a pro-
nearly as the latter can be determined. If the digious undertaking, yet anything less than
velocityand pressure factors are to be predicted comprehensive is not worth the effort, from the
258 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 52.15

the flow directions are desired is always of the

thin-plate variety. Its position, shape, and bulk,
as affecting the flow, all must be taken into
account.
52.16 Estimated Flow at Propulsion-Device
Positions. Extended discussion of the flow to the
propulsion-device positions, amounting almost to
duplication (it appears in Sec. 17.2, in Chap. 33,

and in Sees. 59.12 and 60.7), is considered justified

in view of the importance of this feature and the
insufficient attention it has received in many
quarters in the past. However, the extensive
model-basin instrumentation now available (1955)
inadequate to give the ship and the pro-
is still

pulsion-device designers all the advance informa-

tion they should have in the design stage.
The huU-surface traces of the flow just ahead
of a propeller position, particularly those on a
centerline skeg in front of a single screw, are
usually good indicators of the type of inflow into
the wheel positions close to the centerplane. For
example, in Fig. 52. R it appears that the flow
Fig. 52.Y Pressure Distribution on Afterbody op
EMB Model 3383 at a Speed of 3.8 kt, T, = 0.844 just ahead of the single propeller, at least into the

The numerals on the isobars indicate differential pressures 11 o'clock to 1 o'clock and 5 o'clock to 7 o'clock
same mass density
in inches of water of the as that in positions, may be expected to have only a slight
which the model was towed upward component of velocity. For each offset
propeller position of Fig. 52.T, it is expected that
standpoint either of hydrodynamic research or of the flow outboard of the skeg ahead will have a
ship design. small upward component but that inboard of the
52.15 Use of Flow Diagrams for Positioning skeg it will have a large one.
Appendages. The comments of Sec. 52.12 apply Nevertheless, in the absence of any proved
generally to the proper positioning of appendages general rules for interpreting them, it can not be
such as bossings, shaft struts, small skegs, and said that the surface traces are completely
rudders, as well as to the outer portions of roll- reliable indicators in this respect. Before an
resisting keels. acceptable procedure for estimating the flow at
Special model-basin techniques are available to propdev positions can be formulated, it will be
determine the proper strut-section angles for necessary to make, and to analyze, companion
shaft struts. Since the variation from straight- off-the-surface flow traces such as those described
ahead positioning of these parts seldom exceeds and illustrated in Sec. 52.9 and 3-diml wake-
7 or 8 deg, and almost never is greater than 10 survey diagrams of the type diagrammed in
deg, a prediction without model-test confirmation Sec. 60.6. Until that time the surest and most
would have to be extremely precise, relative to reliable prediction method is actually to observe
present (1955) standards. the flow in the vicinity of the propulsion device (s)
When rudders (and diving planes) are of the on a model of the vessel in a circulating-water
spade or horn-supported type they are necessarily channel. If the propdev characteristics are approxi-
rather thick to achieve strength and rigidity. mately known, a stock model of the device can be
Extended observation of flow around model added to the ship model and observations made
appendages in the circulating-water channel under thrust-producing conditions. In most
indicates that their presence affects the flow to cases these tests can be made and this study
considerable distances on either side. The ink completed at a sufficiently early stage in the
trail in Fig. 46.E shows this feature clearly. It is design to permit changing the hull or appendages
not adequate, therefore, when making flow (or both), to correct or to improve the flow.
predictions, to suppose that the object for which A situation somewhat out of the ordinary is
Sec. 52.1S FLOW PATTERNS AROUND SHIPS 259

encountered on certain not-too-large vessels (3) To

determine a systematic wake-fraction
where a relatively high power is delivered to a variation with radius if one exists, and to embody
single screw propeller on a vessel having a small it, if desired, in the design of a wake-adapted
displacement-length quotient or fatness ratio propeller (or selection of such a propeller from
V/{0.10LY and a large keel drag. Examples are stock)
river and bay passenger steamers, tugs, trawlers, (4) To ascertain, at an early stage in the design,
and whale catchers. Because of the projection of the liabiUty and the magnitude of objectionable
the propeller below what might be called the variations in thrust and torque, per blade and
main body of the hull it could be expected that per wheel, for all angular positions in one revolu-
the flow would have only a small degree of non- tion. This latter feature is discussed further in
axiality. However, a considerable dechvity in the Sec. 59.17.
shaft, downward and aft, is sometimes necessary
It is assumed, in the foregoing, that the advance-
to accommodate the machinery position inside
velocity vectors for the proposed propeller-disc
the hull.
and are determined
position are 3-diml in nature
on single-screw ships,
It is to be expected that,
by the method described and illustrated in Sees.
much of the water moving toward the blades of
11.6 and 11.7 and Figs. ll.E and ll.F of Volume I.
the propeller, in their lower positions, will be
This method is, by the instrumentation such as
unaffected by the presence of the hull, lying
that currently (1955) in use at the David Taylor
mostly at an upper level. The present trend (in
Model Basin [Janes, C. E., "Instruments and
the 1950's) of eliminating the rudder shoe and
Methods for Measuring the Flow of Water
cutting away the aftfoot on vessels of this typQ,
Around Ships and Models," TMB Rep. 487,
means that the flow to the lower blades is almost
entirely free of hull influence. Although uniform
Mar 1948], somewhat artificial. For example, the
additional velocity induced by the action of the
and regular, it may be expected to have little or
propeller when it exerts thrust is not represented,
no positive wake velocity unless the vessel
nor is the straightening effect of the propeller
"pulls" a large stern-wave crest above it.
jet actingupon the water flowing into the propeller
52.17 Analysis of the Observed Flow at a
position. However, a wake determination of this
Screw-Propeller Position. Although not a part
kind is most revealing, and many features of the
of the estimating or predicting procedure, strictly
propeller action can be predicted from a careful
speaking, it is still necessary to analyze graphic,
study of it. Instructions for conducting such a
tabulated, and other records from flow-indicating
study, and for determining quantitative values
devices at screw-propeller positions to determine
from it, are found in Sees. 60.6, 60.7, and 60.8.
the principal characteristics of the flow. Simply
52.18 Flow Abaft a Screw Propeller. The
making a flow record does not whether the
tell
water in the outflow jet of a screw propeller
nature of the flow is acceptable or not. In fact,
producing thrust is known to be contracting at
there are at least four reasons for analyzing the
the point where it leaves the propeller disc,
observed flow at a screw-propeller position,
illustrated by Fig. 16.E in Sec. 16.6 of Volume I.
when determined by suitable instrumentation on
It is known to be increasing in velocity at that
a model, before the model is fitted with or driven
point, and there are rotational or tangential
by model propeller (s). The record in this case
its
velocity components in it, additional to the
is assumed to be a 3-diml wake-survey diagram
axial component of induced velocity. The brief
similar to Figs. 11. F and 60.D:
discussion of Sec. 17.17 reveals that the screw-
(1) Todetermine, by visual inspection, whether propeller outflow unusual among submerged
is
there are any longitudinal eddies passing through liquid jets in that maintains its identity as a
it

the disc, whether there are obvious differences jet for many propeller diameters astern of the
in flow direction at two or more points near each disc position.
other, and whether there are obvious large The first quantitative observations on the
differences in the longitudinal or transverse nature of the actual flow abaft a screw propeller,
components of flow for two or more such points in and around an outflow jet, appear to have
(2) To estimate the probable magnitude of the been made in about 1865 by Arthur Rigg of
wake fraction for a screw propeller occupjdng a Chester, England, in connection with his develop-
disc region of given size (diameter) and position ment of the first contra-rudder [Inst. Engrs.
260 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 52.18

Scot, and Scot. Shipbldrs. Assoc, 1865-1866, measuring stations. For three conditions of
Vol. IX, pp. 52-64]. By suspending over the stern operation he recorded the following data:
of a small sci'ew-propelled vessel a flat swinging
(1) The vessel propelling itself only, at 144 rpm;
vane with an indicator he measured "the aiigle
35 deg, 2.1 psi
of the water driven off from the screw" with
(2) Towdng a large "flat," with cargo, at 160 rpm;
reference to the centerplane. The vane was raised
45 deg, 1.0 psi
and lowered to cover a range of positions from
(3) WhUe moored to a post at 136 rpm; 72.5 deg,
0.285R to 0.8R below the axis. The data given
0.4 psi.
below are for a propeller radius of approximately
0.8R. By turning the vane in a direction normal Other published data on the distinctive features
to the current at its axis and measuring the of the outflow jets of marine propellers have so
moment on the vane Rigg was also able to obtain far not been discovered. Some unpublished data
a rough idea of the actual velocity at each of the from the tests of two model propellers at the

Estimated .ocu5 of \
?^^ ° '^"^f' 0.61 D A baft I Fore-$n d-Aft Position of
^"'^ ^°^'^'°" Disc Position I
Lonqitudinal Center of
Centers of Lonqfd'l I

Vortex m Propeller |
°^ Propelle- of Propeller Propeller

Equivalent to True Velocity Vector

0.28 V H Lies at an
. -I 0.28
"" l.00-(-Q29)

Fig. 52. Za Diagrams Indicating Components op Net Augmented Axial and Rotational Velocities in Outflow
Jet op Port Propeller on TMB Model 3613'

Transverse Vector Component;

are Drawn to Twice the Scale
of V^ and the Wake
Vectors

Wake Measurements
Available on
Starboard Side Only

Fig. 52.Zb Diagrams Indicating Axial and Rotational Components op Velocity in the Outflow Jet op
EMB Propeller 857, Running in Open Water
Sec. 52.19 FLOW PATIERNS AROUND SHIPS 261

David Taylor Model Basin, partially analyzed, by noting the upward curve in the swirl core or hub
are presented in Figs. 52.Za and 52.Zb. Sum- vortex trailing a screw propeller on a destroyer
marizing these tests briefly: model in the circulating-water channel.
It is difficult, because of the lack of observations
I. A model of a destroyer, TMB 3613, was towed
in the upper portions of the propeller outflow jet
and a 3-diml wake survey was made at the pro-
abaft the stern of the destroyer model, to estimate
peller-disc position. It was then self-propelled by
the limits and shape of the cone of diffusion
its own model propellers, TMB numbers 2170
between the outflow jet and the surrounding
and 2171. While self-propelled, at a simulated
water. With a net augmented axial velocity in
ship speed of 28.6 kt, three additional wake
the outflow jet which is roughly 20 to 25 per cent
surveys were made, at positions corresponding to
greater than the ship speed, the cone of diffusion
0.607, 2.075, and 3.543 propeller diameters abaft
is rather thick. Its inner surface, as well as can be
the disc position.The net axial and tangential
determined, is of such slope that the jet core will
components of velocity (by vectorial subtraction),
persist to a distance of 5 or 6 diameters abaft
due to the action of the propeller, as averaged
the disc.
for several radii, are indicated by vectors in the
For the model mounted on the propeller boat,
several diagrams of Fig. 52.Za. The thrust-load
the net augmented axial velocity in the outflow
coefficient Ctl for the conditions given was 0.907.
jet is about 55 per cent greater than the ship
Other pertinent data applying to this test are
speed. The cone of diffusion is relatively thin,
added to the diagram.
with an inner-surface slope small enough to
II. A model propeller, EMB 857, of 9 inches
indicate that the jet will preserve some measure
diameter, was mounted at the end of the long
of its identity to a distance of perhaps 15 diam-
shaft ahead of the propeller boat [Bu C and R
eters abaft the disc position.
Bulletin 7, 1933, Fig. 5 on p. 24] and the assembly
run at a speed of advance of 3.26 kt. Wake
For EMB model propeller 1884 on EMB model
3424, for which no graphic data are given, there
surveys were made at 1, 2, and 3 propeller diam-
are definite signs of augmented axial velocity and
eters abaft the disc position. The available
rotational velocity in the outflow jet at 15 pro-
records do not indicate the thrust-load coefficient
peller diameters astern of the disc. There are
at which the propeller was working but it was
traces of the rotational velocity at 24 diameters
apparently very high. The axial and tangential
astern.
components of velocity, due to the action of the
52. IQ Persistence of Wake Behind a Ship. It
propeller in producing thrust in open water, as
is often useful to know the characteristics of the
averaged for several radii, are indicated by
wake left in the path of a body or ship, mentioned
vectors in the three diagrams of Fig. 52. Zb.
in Sec. 11.11, even though the ship propulsion
III. A series model, EMB 3424, was towed and
device (s), fike those of the sailboat or the flying
a wake survey was made at the propeller-disc
boat, may be entirely clear of the water. The wake
was then self-propelled by its own
position. It
may involve only the mean residual velocity
propeller, EMB 1884. While self-propelled, at a
along the ship track, over a section taken across
model speed of 3.00 kt, four additional wake
surveys were made, at positions corresponding
the body or ship path. It may involve effects of
another order such as variations from the mean
to 1, 5, and 24 propeller diameters abaft the
15,
velocity, the scale and intensity of the residual
disc. These data are available at the David
turbulence, the presence of entrained air, or some
Taylor Model Basin but have not been reproduced
other characteristics of interest. As a rule, the
here.
transverse surface waves of the Velox system are
Abaft the destroyer model, it is obvious that dissipated, by spreading transversely and by
the longitudinal centerline of the outflow jet does internal viscous damping, long before the distur-
not lie along an extension to the propeller shaft bances within the water disappear.
axis but rises rather abruptly. This rise begins at Quantitative data on the persistence of wake,
the disc position, increases rapidly, and then coin- applying to the mean velocity only, are almost
cides more or less with the rise in the water which nonexistent. Perhaps the most extensive and
has flowed under the stern, generally parallel to the refiable are from model-testing tech-
derived
buttock fines on the model. This change in vertical niques, but the vafidity of stepping these data up
position with distance abaft the disc is confirmed to ship size is still uncertain. It is known that the
262 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 52.20

wake from a vertical turbulence-stimulating strut 1855), the literature which has accumulated on
having a diameter of say 0.01 the model beam and the subject since that time is Uttle short of
a submergence equal to the model draft, when tremendous. S. A. Harvald has recently (1950)
towed a short distance ahead of a small model, made a valiant endeavor to systematize the
causes a measurable change in its resistance. It is available data, and to arrive at a logical and
often necessary to wait from 10 to 20 minutes reliable method of predicting wake conditions
between runs in the basin, when towing a large, from a design, but he has found the answer most
heavy model, to insure that the residual currents elusive, as indicated in Sec. 60.8. It appears
left in its wake have diminished to the order of certain that the problem will have to be studied
0.01 kit or less. On the basis of a 20-ft model analytically, beginning at its fundamentals.
running at 4 kt, this means that if the model kept Fortunately for the profession at large, this work
on going it would be 200 lengths away from the is now (1955) in progress in the United States.

finishing point of the run in the course of 10 min.
For a 500-ft ship traveling at 20 kt in a channel of
comparable relative size, this is the equivalent of
over 3.3 nautical miles. It one reason why a
is
ship has to make a long approach run before
entering a measured mile [SNAME "Standardiza-
tion Trials Code," 1949, p. 7; van Lammeren,
W. P. A., RPSS, 1948, p. 352] to insure that
does not meet, as a counter-current, its
from the preceding run.
Model-basin experience indicates that the
presence of the walls and bottom, not too far
from the model track, damps out the residual
currents due to towing and self-propelling. Since
the basin depth is of the order of 20 times the
model draft and its width the order of 20 times
the beam, the corresponding dimensions for a
ship like the ABC design of Part 4 would be 520
ft depth and 1,460 ft width —
hardly a restricted
channel!
In view of the inclusion in Harvald's study of
a practically complete bibliography on wake,
there are mentioned here only a few special papers
and others which have appeared since 1950:
Dahlmann, W., Hoppe, H., and Schafer, O., "Messung
(1)
der Wassergeschwindigkeiten neben der Schiffswand
(Measurement of Water Speeds near a Ship Hull),"
it WRH, 7 Sep 1926, pp. 415-419
own wake (2) Baker, G. S., "Ship Wake and the Frictional Belt,"
NECI, 1929-1930, Vol. XLVI, pp. 83-106 and Pis.
Ill, IV; discussion on pp. 141-146. Describes
results of tests on planks and ship models, and on
the fast channel steamer Snaefell and the single-
screw merchant ship Ashworth.
(3) Baker, G. S., "Wake," NECI, 1934-1935, Vol. LI,
pp. 303-320 and D137-D146. Describes results of
tests on two models, and full-scale observations on
the Ashworth and on the Pacific Trader.
(4) Igonet, C., "Note on Wake," ATMA, 1938, Vol. 42,
pp. 543-569. This paper has apparently not been
translated into English.
(5) Sohoenherr, K. E., and Aquino, A. Q., "Interaction

It is reported, from not-too-precise observa- Between Propeller and Hull," TMB

Rep. 470, Mar
1940
8 to 10 lengths abaft the stern of a
tions, that at
(6) Harvald, S. A., "Wake of Merchant Ships," Danish
high-speed towing vessel of form similar to a Tech. Press, Copenhagen, 1950; copy in TMB
destroyer, at a T^ of about 1.4 or 1.5, the effect library
of the toAving-vessel disturbance on a towed (7) Harvald, S. A., "Three-Dimensional Potential Flow

vessel of similar type is practically neghgible. and Potential Wake," Trans. Danish Acad. Sci., 1954
(8) Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., "On the Numerical
52.20 Bibliographyon Wake. Considering
Calculation of Wake Fraction and Thrust Deduction
how little was known or understood about wake in a Propeller and Hull Interaction," Int. Shipbldg.
conditions abaft a ship a century ago (about Prog., 1954, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 170-178.
 CHAPTER 53

Quantitative Data on Dynamic Lift and Planing

53.1 Relationship to Other Chapters 263 53.6 Wetted Length, Wetted Surface, and Friction
Principal Quantitative Factors Involved in Resistance 268
Planing 263 53.7 Variation of Total and Residuary Resistances
53.3 Principal Forces and Moments on a Planing with Speed 209
Craft 264 53.8 Selected Bibliography on Planing Surfaces,
53.4 Determination of Dynamic Lift 264 Dynamic Lift, and Planing Craft .... 269
53.5 Typical Pressure Distribution and Magnitude 53 . Partial Bibliography on Hydrofoil-Supported
on Planing-Craft Bottoms 266 Craft 271

Relationship to Other Chapters. The

53.1 (1) Length, breadth, and planform shape of the
basic phenomenon of planing is described in planing surface actually in contact with the
Chap. 13, and the behavior of planing craft in water in any given running condition, with respect
general is discussed in Chap. 30. Rules and pro- to an axis parallel or nearly so to the direction of
cedures for the hydrodynamic design of a full- motion. At running attitude and position, the
planing type of motorboat are to be found in length dimension becomes the mean wetted
Chap. 77, with a preliminary design worked out length Ljrs and the breadth dimension becomes
for one boat. the mean chine beam Be
The basic data for predicting the behavior of (2) Wetted area of the planing surface. This is
simple planing surfaces are rather voluminous, the actual and not the nominal area.
when the test results on flying-boat and seaplane- (3) Forward speed V with respect to the water
float models are included. Several workers in the underneath the bottom of the planing craft,
field, as related in the sections following, have neglecting the cosine of the angle of trim
succeeded rather well in their efforts to assemble, (4) Mass density p(rho) and weight density w of
analyze, correlate, and systematize the available the water
planing-surface data, so as to make them directly (5) Trim angle d with reference to the horizontal
applicable to and useful for new designs. It is not (6) Rise-of -floor angle /3(beta), for a planing sur-
possible, within the scope of this chapter, to do face that is V-shaped in transverse section
much more than reference a few of the sources (7) Distance of the CP from the after termina-
which contain quantitative data in a form to be tion, usually a sharp edge of the planing surface,
readily usable to the designer of planing craft. in any given running condition.
In addition to the selected bibhography on
Related to these features are the:
planing in Sec. 53.8, a partial bibliography on
hydrofoil-supported craft is included as Sec. 53.9. (8) Dynamic lift L
53.2 Principal Quantitative Factors Involved (9) Total resistance or drag Rt , in the direction

in Planing. The magnitude

dynamic pres-of the
of motion
sure intensity and the dynamic lift under a (10) Friction resistance Rf , exerted parallel to

planing surface inclined at a small angle of attack the wetted bottom surface

a(alpha), or under a V-bottom boat running at (11) Residuary resistance Rjt , as for any other
a trim ^(theta) by the stern, surface craft
a function of a
is

considerable number of factors. Further, the (12) Total weight W(ot A) of the craft
center CP of this pressure system, or the point (13) Buoyancy B, due to partial immersion of
where the resultant dynamic the hull at some speeds
lift is exerted, and
its location with respect to the center of gravity (14) Acceleration of gravity g.

CG, is as important for the proper design of a There are a number of dimensionless ratios and
planing craft as it is for the design of an airplane. coefficients utihzed in planing-surface and planing-
Among these factors may be mentioned: craft design:

263
264 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 53.3

(15) Ratio of the chine beam Be to the mean drawn to supplement Fig. 13. C in Sec. 13.3 on
wetted length L^s or the aspect ratio
, page 206 of Volume I. The accompanying figure
(16) Planing number Rt/W. Its reciprocal may- shows the principal forces acting on a craft
be used if it is an advantage to do so. during planing. The propulsive force and its
(17) Ratio of the distance designated as [CP component, not shown in Fig. 13. C, are indicated
from trailing edge of planing surface] to the mean here, as are the buoyancy force (assumed finite

chine beam Be and not negligible), the relative-wind forces, and

(18) Speed coefficient Cy o r beam-Froude num- the drag of the appendages. The relative-wind
ber, where Cv = V/-vgBc drag is in this case assumed equal to the stUl-air
(19) Load coefficient, where Ca or Cw sym- ,
resistance. The thrust-deduction force is assumed
bolized preferably as Cld, = W/{wBc) as zero, although in practice this is probably
never the case. In the diagram of Fig. 53. A there
(20) Dynamic-lift coefficient, C^l = W/(qBc) =
would be a thrust-deduction force exerted on the
2iC,n)/C^
= strut and rudder assembly abaft the propeller
(21) Resistance or drag coefficient Cpianins r
and on the exposed shaft ahead of it, if not on the
Rr/(wB^).
hull proper.
The marme architect, seeing this list for the There are forces due to the formation of spray
first time, is amazed at its length and complexity, roots and the generation of spray, indicated
as compared to that for a surface ship of the dis- on the diagrams of Figs. 13. B and 13. D, but
placement type. It is perhaps satisfying, but not their positions and vector directions are not well
always comforting for this architect to realize known.
that his amazement is fully justified. The problem 53.4 Determination of Dynamic Lift. There
of estimating and predicting planing-craft per- is no liquid circulation as such about an inclined

formance is indeed more intricate and involved
than that for a normal type of surface ship.
53.3 Principal Forces and Moments on a Plan-
ing Craft. As an aid in presenting, in systematic
fashion, the quantitative data relating to pre-
diction of planing-craft performance. Fig. 53.
fiat plate skimming along the water surface, or
about any planing craft in the manner described
for the hydrofoils of Chap. 14 of Volume I. It is
found possible, nevertheless, to estimate the
dynamic lift of such a plate reasonably well by
A is calculating the lift due to circulation, as if the

Woterline Lern^th L^
Croft Qt Rest
Lift Force L
Wetted Le ngth at 5peed V

Pressure Draq Dpft^ Direction of Flow

of Appendoaes Under Bottom
-
Weight
—
NOTE: Not shown here, to avoid confusion,
is the vertical force (or upward force normal to
Thrust-Deduction Force AT is Assumed Zero Force W the shaft axis) exerted by the propeller because
of the non-axial flow in which it is operating.
'

Buo\;Qnc\j Force B is That Due to Water

Displaced b\j Afterbodvj This is the force mentioned in the second para-
graph of Sec. 53.6 on page 268. It is developed
Force DE 13 Ltane3*(lnduced Droq Di)sece by the action explained in Sees. 17.7 and 33.5
^ (Slope Draq)sec0 of Volume I, and illustrated in Figs. 17. C, 17. D,
ForceCD is Force Dp;., times sec 9 and 33.1 on pages 264, 265, and 485, respectively,
Force AC is Bottom-Friction Force Dp times sec of that volume.

Fig. 53. a Definition Diagram op Forces on a Planing Boat

Sec. 53.-1 DATA ON DYNAMIC LIFT AND PLANING 265

Fig. 53.B Graphs fob Relating the DrNAivac-LiFT Coefficient to Otheb Features of a Planing Form
266 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 53.5

plate were completely submerged, and then of floorand X (lambda) is the ratio of the mean
halving this value. wetted length L^,^ to the mean chine beam Be
Without going further into the analytic hydro- (3) For a V-surface having a constant rise-of-
dynamics of planing, set forth in detail in many floor angle of /3 deg,
of the references listed in Sec. 53.8, it is stated
{C^l), = (C^l)o - 0.0065^[(C«^)„]" (53. iv)
simply that the dynamic lift exerted normal to a
flat inclined plate of length L and breadth B, Graphs giving the relationships between these
in contact with a hquid surface on its under side variables, convenient for the use of a planing-craf
only, is expressed by designer, aredrawn in Fig. 53.B, adapted from
diagrams previously pubUshed in the references
Li, normal to plate = ^ pB'V^a (53. i) listed earlier in this section.
o
The method of using the equations listed and
where a is the angle of attack or trim by the stern the accompanying graphs is described by A. B.
and Lz) is not, as customary, measured normal to Murray [SNAME, 1950, pp. 669-670] and is
the direction of motion. illustrated for a specific design of planing-type
The dynamic lift to be expected from a simple motorboat in Sec. 77.26.
planing surface, defined as one with straight 53.5 Typical Pressure Distribution and Mag-
buttocks and keel and a constant rise-of-floor nitude on Planing-Craft Bottoms. Diagrams
angle j8, running at a trim angle d, may be derived showing typical transverse and longitudinal pres-
more up by
precisely in terms of equations set sure distributions on the wetted bottoms of
B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky, D. Savitsky, and planing forms, similar to those reproduced in
W. F. Lehman [ETT Rep.
360, Aug 1949]. These Figs. 13.B and 13.D on pages 205 and 207 of
equations, with their representation in graph Volume I, are rather plentiful in the technical
form, are used by A. B. Murray in his paper "The Hterature. They are to be found in many of the
Hydrodynamics of Planing Hulls" [SNAME, references of Chaps. 13 and 30 and of Sec. 53.8
1950, Fig. 11, p. 666]. of the present chapter. For example, the graphs
The dynamic lift is expressed in terms of of longitudinal -|-Ap distribution pubhshed by
0-diml dynamic-lift coefficients Cdl , using A. B. Murray [SNAME, 1950, Fig. 19 on p. 675]
(CdlJo for a planing surface with zero rise of are taken from data developed by W. Sottorf, in
floor and {Cul)^ for one with a rise-of-floor angle /3. a paper Usted as reference (21) of Sec. 53.8.
The equations for these coefficients are, strictly Assuming a V-bottom craft, the transverse
speaking, dimensionless in that all the factors pressure distribution is characterized by peak
composing them have dimensions of zero. Never- pressures over the regions of origin of the port
theless, the fact that the trim angle 6, expressed and starboard spray roots, along the diagonal
as T(tau) in the references, appears to the 1.1 stagnation loci depicted in Fig. 13.D. At small
power and the term {Cdl)o to the 0.6 power immersions of the keel, all the pressure is con-
seems to indicate that other terms as yet unknown centrated near the centerplane. At greater
should eventually be embodied in the equations. immersions the two pressure concentrations move
Expressed in standard and ATTC notation outward toward the chines.
these equations are: Reliable specific data on the distribution of
pressure and the magnitude of the pressure
(1) '•^DL —
W (or A) — Z
Cj^
„2 (53. ii) intensities on the bottoms of planing craft having
given characteristics, especially when subjected
to heavy impact in waves, are relatively meager.
where Be is the mean chine beam, Cld is the load Much of the available information is in a classified
coefficient, and Cy is the speed coefficient, pre- status, so that the naval architect is forced to fall
viously defined back upon the results of theoretical analysis or
(2) For a flat, inclined plate, having a rise-of- upon pubhshed data concerning measurements on
floor angle /3 of zero and a trim of d deg, the hulls of seaplanes and flying boats.
For the determination of CP positions in
0.0095X'
(C^l)o = e'M0.0120\"' + (53.iii) and graphs set up by
specific cases the equations
ci
B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky, D. Savitsky, and
where {Cdl)o is the lift coefficient for a zero rise W. F. Lehman are useful [ETT Rep. 360, Aug
Sec. 53.5 DATA ON DYNAMIC LIFT AND PLANING 267

Fig. 53. C Graphs fob Determining the Foke-and-Aft Center-of-Pressure Location Under a Planing Form
268 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. ^3.6

1949]. Both eciiiatioiis and graphs are reproduced A. B. Murray illustrates the ETT method of
by A. B. Murray [SNAME, 1950, Fig. 10, p. 665]. determining wetted chine and keel lengths for a
The distance of the center of pressure CP from towed model [SNAME, 1950, Figs. 14 and 15,
the traihng edge of the planing surface, assumed pp. 672-673]. Both wetted length and wetted
at the after perpendicular AP, is expressed as area may be determined by fish-eye views made
photographically, using a painted grid on the
The .r-distance [CP to AP] = K(L„.s)\" (53.v)
under surface of the model and a water box,
where L^s is the mean wetted length, X is the underwater mirror, or other suitable setup [ETT,
ratio LjTs/Bc and ,
K
is a function of the angle Stevens, Rep. 378, Sep 1951, pp. 46-47]. The
of trim 6 and of the rise-of-floor angle /3. This general shape of the wetted area for a V-bottom
relation is craft is the same, illustrated by Figs. 13. D, 30. A,
30.C, 30.F, and 77. P. Small-size photographs
K = 0.84 + 0.015/3
(53 .vi) and diagrams, in the form of fish-eye views
.published by A. G. Smith, show the general shapes
where /3 and 6 are both expressed in degrees. of the wetted area and of the spray roots under
The exponents n and m are derived from V-bottom planing forms with a 25-deg rise of
floor and a 6-deg trim by the stern [5th ICSTS,
„ = -(0.05 + O.Olg) (Sa.vii)
1949, pp. 70-73 and Figs. 1-5].
C. W. Spooner, in his unpublished report "Speed
m = 0.125 + 0.0042/3 (53.viii)
and Power of Motorboats up to a Speed-Length
where /3 is again expressed in degrees. Ratio of 3," dated October 1950, gives a table
Graphs giving the relationships between these and wetted-
listing the principal characteristics

variables, in convenient form, are drawn in Fig. surface area of a considerablenumber of motorboat
53. C, adapted from diagrams pre\'iously published designs. In his Fig. he includes tentative
13
in the references quoted. graphs for estimating the wetted surface of craft
The method of using the equations listed and of this type, based on a coefficient S/{LB), which
the accompanjdng graphs is described by A. B. increases slowly \vith fatness ratio V/{0.lOLy.
Murray [SNAME, 1950, pp. 670-671] and is For a motorboat mth a single centerline skeg the
illustrated for a specific design of full-planing coefficient is:

motorboat in Sec. 77.26.

0.950 at a fatness ratio of 4.0
53.6 Wetted Length, Wetted Surface, and
0.984 at a fatness ratio of 6.0
Friction Resistance. Diagrams indicating the
1.01 at a fatness ratio of 8.0,
general position and shape of the wetted area
under a planing craft when running at or near its where L and B are presumably in ft, and is in »Sr

designed speed are found in Chaps. 13 and 30. The ft^. For a bare hull the corresponding coefficient

changes in wetted surface and wetted length at values are 0.860, 0.889, and 0.911, respectively.
speed are discussed briefly in Sec. 30.8. Since these J. P. Latimer gives the layouts, lines, principal

features are important factors in predicting per- characteristics, and wetted surface for a USCG
formance, the method of estimating or determining 40-ft utility boat ["Characteristics of Coast
them, in a running rather than an at-rest condi- Guard Powered Boats," SNAME, Ches. Sect.,
tion, requires further explanation. 13 Oct 1951].
The shape and extent of the wetted area of the Contour charts for determining wetted areas
bottom or dynamic-support surface of a planing of the EMB
Series 50 models, applicable as first
craft is rather easily determined by running a approximations of the wetted areas of other
model under a given set of conditions. This method V-bottom planing craft having speed-length T",
is, however, open to the objection that a model values of from 2.0 to 6.0, are described and pub-
which is towed and not self-propelled may not lished on pages 6 and 85-94 of Report TMB
run at the proper trim for the prototype because R-47, revised edition, March 1949.
the vertical forces exerted by the propeller (s) are Further data may be found in a paper by
missing. A change in trim almost always means B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky, D. Savitsky, and
a change in both wetted length and wetted area, W. F. entitled "Wetted Area and Center
Lehman,
possibly a change in the center-of-pressure position of Pressure of Planing Surfaces" [ETT, Stevens,
as well. Rep. 360, Aug 1949].
Sec. 55.<? DATA ON DYNAMIC LIFT AND PLANING 269

The method computing the friction resistance

of
is essentially the same as for any other type of
surface craft, described in Sec. 45.22.
wetted length L^s^s used as the length dimension
to determine the Reynolds number R„ for the
are, as stated by Murray, most useful for pre-
liminary resistance estimates, when the shape
The mean and proportions of a new design of hull have not
yet been determined.
Considering only residuary resistances Rr ,

craft in any specified running condition. Through- the few available data indicate a greater degree
out the whole speed range the wetted length, of irregularity than that described in the fore-
Reynolds number, and wetted area all change going. Fig. D illustrates variations in the
53.
with speed but at and near the designed speed
they are practically constant. 40

Sec. 77.26 embodies an example in which the

wetted area and the friction resistance of a full-
planing type of motorboat ai'e calculated, follow-
ing the methods described by A. B. Murray in a
reference cited earlier in this section.
If there is wetting of the sides as well as the
bottom at full speed it can be taken care of as an
augment of the wetted area. Normally, however,
consistent wetting of the sides of a full-planing
craft is evidence of poor design somewhere. Rather
than to calculate the effect, the cause should be
eliminated.
A few words are in order here relative to rough-
ness of the bottom surface. Although the mean
wetted length of modern (1955) planing craft is
usually low, well under 100 ft or say 30 meters,
the rubbing speed of the water is high. By the
reasoning of Sec. 45.10, this means a very thin
laminar sublayer under the boat and a large
increase in drag if the bottom surface is rough.
The permissible roughness height is small, even
though the overall R„ may likewise be small.
53.7 Variation of Total and Residuary Resist-
ances with Speed. It is most interesting to note,
from the diagrams in Figs. 20 and 21 on pages 676
and 677, respectively, of A. B. Murray's paper
[SNAME, 1950], that the total-resistance-to-
weight ratios of many planing craft, when plotted
on a base of speed-length quotient T, lie remark-
,

ably close to a meanline for a rather wide range

of speed. The corresponding values for both
V-bottom and round-bottom motorboats and
sailing craft given by H. M. Barkla exhibit the
same characteristic [INA, 1951, Vol. 93, p. 237],
as do the data for many types of large vessels
plotted in Fig. 56.M of Sec. 56.10. However, the
ordinates of Fig. 56. M
have values that are 2,240
times the ordinate values of the Murray and
Barkla graphs.
Murray's planing-craft data cover ranges of
displacement-length quotient A/(0.010L)^ of from
100 to 180, yet it is only above a T, of about 3.5
to 4.0 that much dispersion is found. These data
270 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 53.8

(4) Steele, J. E., "The Longitudinal Stability of Skimmers Oberflache von Fliissigkeiten (Concerning Impact
and Hydro-Aeroplanes," INA, 1913, Part 1, pp. and GUding Phenomena near or at the Surface of
136-147 and PI. XIII Liquids)," Zeit. fiir Ang. Math. Mech., Aug 1932,
(5) Richardson, H. C, "Hydromechanic Experiments Vol. pp. 193-215. A number of additional
12,

with Flying Boat Hulls," US Navy-Smithsonian references are given in the footnotes. There is an
Misc. Collections, 20 Apr 1914, Vol. 62 informal translation of this paper in the TMB
(6) Millar, G. H., "Some Notes on the Design of Floats library.

for Hydro- Aeroplanes," INA, 1914, pp. 313-328 (20) Diehl, W. "The Establishment of Maximum Load
S.,

(7) Richardson, H. C, "Aeronautics in Relation to Naval Capacity of Seaplanes and Flj'ing Boats," NACA
Architecture," SNAME, 1916, pp. 43-51 Rep. 453, Sep 1932; 1933 reports, pp. 211-213
(8) Crowley, J. W., and Ronan, K. M., "Characteristics (21) Sottorf, W., "Versuche mit Gleitflachen (Experiments
of the Boat Tj-pe Seaplane during Take-Off," with Planing Surfaces)," Part II, WRH, 1 Oct
NACA Rep. 226; 1925 reports, pp. 393-401 1932, pp. 286-290; 15 Feb 1933, pp. 43-47; 1 Mar
(9) Richardson, H. C, "Naval Development of Floats 1933, pp. 61-66. English transl. in NACA Tech.
for Aircraft," SNAME, 1926, pp. 15-28 Memo 739, Mar 1934.

(10) Diehl, W. "Tests on Aeronautical Fuselages and

S., (22) Perring, W.
G. A., "Porpoising of High Speed Motor
Hulls," NACA Rep. 236, 1926 reports, pp. 131-150. Boats," INA, 1933, Vol. 75, pp. 268-296
This paper gives drag and moment data on a great (23) Wagner, H., "Uber das Gleiten von Wasserfahr-
variety of airplane fuselages, seaplane and flsdng- zeugen (On the Planing of Watercraft)," STG,
boat hulls, airship cabins, nacelles, and the like. 1933, Vol.205-227; English transl. in
34, pp.
(11) Richardson, H. C, "The Trend of Flying Boat NACA Tech. Memo
1139, Apr 1948
Development," ASNE, May 1926, Vol. XXXVIII, (24) Wagner, H., "Uber das Gleiten von Korpen auf der
pp. 231-253. Contains a great deal of information Wasseroberflache (Concerning the Gliding of
which still remains of value (1955) in studying and Bodies on the Water Surface)," Proc. Fourth Int.
predicting the behavior of planing craft. Cong. Appl. Mech., Cambridge (England), 1934,
(12) Richardson, H. C, "Design of a Large Flying Boat," pp. 126-147. On pp. 146-147 there are listed 27
SNAME, 1928, pp. 77-88' references.

(13) In Vol. 32 of the Bulletin d' Association Maritime (25) Shoemaker, J. M., "Tank Tests of Flat and V-Bottom
Technique et A6ronautique (ATMA), Paris, 1928, Planing Surfaces," NACA Tech. Note 509, Nov
on pp. 319-324, there appears a long list of refer- 1934
ences on planing forms. The titles are in both (26) Perring, W. G. A., and Johnston, L., "The Hydro-
French and the original language and the references dynamic Forces and Moments on Simple Planing
extend back to the year 1914. Surfaces and An Analysis of the Hydrodynamic
(14) Sottorf, W., "Versuche mit Gleitflachen (Tests with Forces and Moments on a Flying Boat Hull,"
Gliding Surfaces)," Part I, WRH, 7 Nov 1929, ARC, 1934-1935, Vol. II, and R
1646, pp. M
pp. 425-432; English transl. in NACA Tech. 553-575
Memo 661, Mar 1932 (27) Eshbach, O. W., "Handbook of Engineering Funda-
(15) Schroder, P., "IJber die Bestimmung von Widerstand mentals," 1st ed., 1936, pp. 6-50, 6-51
und Trimmoment bei gleitenden Wasserfahrzeugen (28) Allison, J. M., and Ward, K. E., "Tank Tests of
(Determination of Resistance and Trimming Models of Flying-Boat HullsHaving Longitudinal
Moment of Planing Water Craft)," Zeit. fiir NACA Tech. Note 574, May 1936
Steps,"
Flugtechnik und Motorluftschiffahrt, 28 Nov 1930, (29) Sottorf,W., "Gestaltung von Schwimmwerken (The
Vol. 21, No. 22; Enghsh transl. in NACA Tech. Design of (Planing) Floats)," Luftfahrtforschung,
Memo 619, May 1931 20 Apr 1937, Vol. 14, pp. 157-167; EngUsh transl.
(1 6) Pavlenko, G., "On the Theory of Gliding; The Motion in NACA Tech. Memo 860, Apr 1938
of a Plank at a Small Angle of Inclination to the (30) Weinig, F., "Zur Theorie des Unterwassertragflugels
Water Surface," Proe. Third Int. Congr. Appl. und der Gleitflache (On the Theory of Hydrofoils
Mech., Stockholm, 1930, Vol. I, pp. 179-183. For and Planing Surfaces)," Luftfahrtforschung, 20
a Froude number F„ of 4 and above, Pavlenko Jun 1937, pp. 314-324; English transl. in NACA
gives the resistance formula fi = pV* tan^ a/{'^g), Tech. Memo 845, Jan 1938. On pp. 26-27 there
where p is the mass density of the water and a is are 1 1 references listed.
the trim angle or nominal angle of attack. (31) Sottorf, W., "Analyse Experimenteller Untersuchun-
(17) Wagner, H., "Uber den Aufschlag gekielter Flachen gen iiber Gleitvorgang an der Wasseroberflache
auf Wasser (Concerning the Impact of V-Bottom (Analysis of Experimental Investigation of the
Planing Surfaces on the Water)," Proc. Third Int. Planing Process on the Surface of Water),"
Conf. Appl. Mech., Stockholm, 1930, Vol. I, Jahrbuch der Deutschen Luftfahrtforschung, 1937,
pp. 215-219 pp. 320-339; Enghsh transl. in NACA Tech.
(18) Wagner, H., "tlber die Landung von Seeflugzeugen Memo 1061, Mar 1944
(Landing of Seaplanes)," Zeit. fur Flugtechnik (32) Diehl, W. S., of Certain Problems
"A Discussion
und Motorluftschiffahrt, 14 Jan 1931, Vol. 22, Connected wth the Design of Hulls of Flying
pp. 1-8. English transl. in NACA Tech. Memo 622, Boats and the Use of General Test Data," NACA
May 1931. Rep. 625, Nov 1937; 1938 reports, pp. 253-260.
(19) Wagner, H., "Uber Stoss- und Gleitvorgange an der Page 260 lists 24 references.
Sec. 53.9 DATA ON DYNAMIC LIFT AND PLANING 271

(33) Bollay, W., "A Contribution to the Theory of Planing Rep. 378, Sep 1951, published by the Inst. Aero.
Surfaces," Proc. Fifth Int. Congr. Appl. Mech., Sci. as S. M. F. Fund Paper FF-6 of the same date.

1938, pp. 474-477; published by Wiley, New York, It lists 24 references on pp. 25-27.

1939 (49) Clement, E. P., "The Analysis of Stepless Planing

(34) Sambraus, A., "Planing-Surface Tests at Large Hulls," SNAME, Ches. Sect., Apr 1951; abstracted
—
Froude Numbers Airfoil Comparisons," NACA in SNAME Member's Bull., Oct 1951, p. 15
Tech. Memo 848, Feb 1938. Originally published (50) Kapryan, W. J., and Weinstein, I., "The Planing

in Luftfahrtforschung, 20 Jun 1936, Vol. 13, pp. Characteristics of a Surface Having a Basic Angle
190-198. of Dead Rise of 20 Deg and Horizontal Chine

(35) Sottorf, W., "Versuche mit Gleitflachen, Part IV, Flare," NACA Tech. Note 2804, Oct 1952
(Tests with Planing Surfaces, Part IV)," WRH, (51) Blanchard, U. J., "The Planing Characteristics of a
1 Mar 1938, Vol. 19, pp. 51-56; 15 Mar 1938, pp. Surface Having a Basic Angle of Dead Rise of
65-70 40 Deg and Horizontal Chine Flare," NACA Tech.
(36) Coombes, L. P., "Scale Effect in Tank Tests of Note 2842, Deo 1952
Seaplane Models," Proc. Fifth Int. Cong. Appl. (52) Perry, B., "The Effect of Aspect Ratio on the Lift
Mech., 1939, pp. 513-519 of Flat Planing Surfaces," Hydrodynamics Lab.,
(37) Truscott, S., "The Enlarged NACA Tank, and CIT, Rep. E-24.5, Sep 1952. There is a list of 16
Some of its Work," NACA Tech. Memo 918, 1939 references on pp. 17-18.
(38) Diehl, W. S., "The Application of Basic Data on (53) Knowler, H., "The Future of the Flying Boat,"
Planing Surfaces to the Design of Fljnng-Boat Fifth Louis Bleriot Lecture, Assn. Frangaise Ing.
Hulls," NACA Rep. 694, 16 Dec 1939; 1940 et Techn. de I'Aeronautique, Paris, 12 Mar 1952;
reports, pp. 287-293. abstracted in ASNE, Aug 1952, pp. 630-638; also
(39) Sedov, L. I., "Planing on a Water Surface," RTP in Engineering (London), 14 and 21 Mar 1952
Transl. 2506, Brit. Min. Aircraft Prod, (from Tech. (54) Chambliss, D. B., and Boyd, G. M., Jr., "The
Vosdushnogo Flota, No. 4-5, 1940). Also Durand Planing Characteristics of Two V-Shaped Pris-
Reprinting Committee, Calif. Inst. Tech., Pasa- matic Surfaces Having Angles of Dead Rise of 20
dena 4, CaUf. Deg and 40 Deg," NACA Tech. Not« 2876, Jan
(40) Adamson, G., and Van Patten, D., "Motor Torpedo 1953
Boats: A Technical Study," USNI, Jul 1940, (55) Weinstein, I., and Kapryan, W. J., "The High-Speed
Vol. 66, pp. 976-996 Planing Characteristics of a Rectangular Flat
(41) Schubert, R., and Thieme, H., "Klarende Darstellung Plate over a Wide Range of Trim and Wetted
der Hydrodynamischen Erscheinungen beim Start Length," NACA Tech. Note 2981, Jul 1953. Fig.
von Seefiuzeugen (Explanatory Representation of 9(b) on p. 24, also pp. 5-6 of the text, show that
the Hydrodynamic Phenomena Occurring at the there is a depression in the liquid surface just
Takeoff of Seaplanes)," Bericht SUO, Hamburg, ahead of the pile-up, under the plate, at low trim
5 Jul 1946 angles. It is possible that this could be air drawn
(42) Sedov, L. I., "Scale Effect and Optimum Relations under the inchned surface, just as oil is drawn
for Sea Surface Planing," NACA Tech. Memo into a wedge-shaped gap in a plain bearing.
1097, Feb 1947 (56) Springston, G. B., Jr., and Sayre, C. L., Jr., "The
(43) Locke, F. W. S., Jr., "Tests of a Flat Bottom Planing Planing Characteristics of a V-Shaped Prismatic
Surface to Determine the Inception of Planing," Surface with 50 Degrees Dead Rise," TMB
Rep.
NAVAER DR
Rep. 1096, Bur. Aero., Navy 920, Feb 1955
Dept., Dec 1948 (57) Clement, E. P., "Hull Form of Stepless Planing
(44) Locke, F. W. S., Jr., "An Empirical Study of Low Boats," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 12 Jan 1955
Aspect Ratio Lifting Surfaces with Particular (58) Kapryan, W. J., and Boyd, G. M., Jr., "Hydrody-
Regard to Planing Craft," Jour. Aero. Sci., Mar. namic Pressure Distribution Obtained During a
1949, pp. 184^188. On page 188 of this paper there Planing Investigation of Five Related Prismatic
is a list of 9 references. Surfaces," NACA Tech. Note 3477, Sep 1955
(45) Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., Savitsky, D., and (59) Pournaras, U. A., and Sherman, P., "Model Test
Lehman, W. F., "Wetted Area and Center of Results and Predicted EHP for a Round Bilge
Pressure of Planing Surfaces," Sherman M. 40-Ft Aircraft Rescue Boat Design from Tests of
Fairchild Fund Paper 244, Inst. Aero. Sci., origin- (TMB) Model 4525," TMBRep. 1002, Oct 1955.
ally pubKshed as ETT, Stevens, Rep. 360, Aug
53.9 Partial Bibliography on Hydrofoil-Sup-
1949. There is a list of 23 references on pp. 19-20.
(46) Bisplinghoff, R. L., and Doherty, C. S., "A Two-
ported Craft. A good, concise list of references on
Dimensional Study of the Impact of Wedges on a the development, characteristics, and performance
Water Surface," Cont. NOa(s)-9921, Dept. Aero. of high-speed craft supported by hydrofoils is
Eng'g., MIT, 20 Mar 1950 and J. J.
given by T. M. Buermann, P. Leehey,
(47) Murray, A. B., "The Hydrodynamics of Planing
embodied
StUwell [SNAME, 1953, p. 264]. It is
Hulls," SNAME, 1950,' pp. 658-692. On p. 680
in the following partial bibhography which con-
there is a list of 19 references.
(48) Savitsky, D., "Wetted Length and Center of Pressure tains additional references of less scientific but
of Vee-Step Planing Surfaces," ETT, Stevens, more general interest:
272 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 53.9

(I) Nutting, W. W., "The HD-4, a 70-Miler mth Remark- (14) Benson, J. M., and Land, N. S., "An Investigation of
able Possibilities," reprinted Smithsonian Report Hydrofoils in the NACA Tank;
Effect of Dihe- I.

for 1919, Publn. 2595, Gov't. Print. Off., Wash- dral and DepthSubmersion," NACA Wartime
of

ington, 1921 Rep. L-75S, Sep 1942

(2) Richardson, H. C, "The Trend of Flying Boat (15) Land, N. S., "Characteristics of an NACA 66,
Development," ASNE, Ma}' 1926, Vol. XXXVIII, S-209 Section Hydrofoil at Several Depths,"
pp. 231-253. Historical data on "hydrovanes," NACA Wartime Rep. L-757
now known as hydrofoils, are found on pp. 245-246. (16) Ward, L. E., and Land, N. S., "Preliminary Testa

(3) Guidoni, A., "Seaplanes, Fifteen Years of Naval in the NACA Tank to Investigate the Funda-

Aviation," Jour. Roy. Aero. Soc., Jan 1928, Vol. 32, mental Characteristics of Hydrofoils," NACA
No. 205 Wartime Rep. L-766
(4) Keldysch, M. V., and Lavrent'ev, M. A., "On the (17) Durand, W. F., "Aerodynamic Theory," Vol. 2,

Motion of an Aerofoil under the Surface of a Durand Reprinting Comm., 1943

Heavj' Fluid, i.e., a Liquid," paper to ZAHI, (18) Abbott, I. H., von Doenhoff, A. E., and Stivers,

Moscow, 1935; EngUsh Transl. by Science Transl. L. S., Jr., "Summary of Airfoil Data," NACA
Serv., Cambridge, Mass., STS-75, Nov 1949 Rep. 824, 1945
(5) Tietjens, O., "Das Tragflachenboot (The Hydrofoil (19) Hook, C, "The Hydrofoil Boat for Ocean Travel,"
Boat)," WRH, 1 Apr 1937, pp. 87-90; 10 Apr 1937, Trans. Liverpool Eng'g. Soc., Vol. LXIX, 1947-

pp. 106-109. English transl. in library. TMB
(6) Weinig, F., "Zur Theorie des Unterwassertragflugela
und der Gleitflache (On the Theory of Hydrofoils
and Planing Surfaces)," Luftfahrtforschung, 20
Jun 1937, pp. 314-324. English transl. in NACA
Tech. Memo 845, Jan 1938. On pp. 26-27 there
1948. In Fig. 3 on page 9 of this paper there are
shown diagrammatic arrangements of a number of
hydrofoil boats, captioned "Italian and German
Types," said to have been taken from a patent by
H. F. Schertel von Burtenbach, 1938.
(20) Rabl, S. S., "Pursuit of More Speed," Chesapeake

i
are 11 references listed. Skipper, Apr 1950, pp. 12, 31, 32
i:i!(7) Grunberg, V., "La Sustentation hydrodynamique par (21) Hoerner, S. F., "Aerodj'namic Drag," 1951
,vj , . ailettes immergees: Essais d'un sj'steme sustenteur (22) Oetling, J. J., "The Possibilities of Hydrofoils,"
autostable (Hydrodynamic Support by Immersed SNAME, North. Calif. Sect., 11 ftfay 1951.
; Foils: Tests of a Self-Stabilizing Support System)," Abstracted in SNAME Member's BuU,, .Oct 1951,
L'Aerotechnique, Jun 1937, 16th Yr., No. 174 p. 19.

; (8) Coombes, L. P., and Davies, E. T. J., "Note on the
Possibihty of Fitting Hydrofoils to a Flying Boat
jj . Hull," Roy. Aircraft Estab., Farnborough, Rep.
B. A. 1440, Nov 1937
!• (9) Kotchin, N. E., "On the Wave-Making Resistance
and Lift of Bodies Submerged in Water," Trans.
;.. of the Conf. on the Theory of Wave Resist.,
USSR, Moscow, 1937; English transl. by A. I. (T)
Air Ministry, R.T.P. 666, Mar 1938;
T and R Bull. 1-8, Aug 1951
(10) Vladimirov, A., "Approximate Hydrodynamic Calcu-
lation of a Hydrofoil of Finite Span," ZAHI Rep.
Moscow, 1937; EngUsh transl., Br. Adm.
311,
Document, PG/53280/NID, May 1946
(II) "High Speed Craft: Some Comments on a Patent
Specification Recently Filed from Dumbarton,"
SBSR, 2 May 1940, pp. 440-441. This article shows
a proposed design of high-speed motorboat sup-
ported by a planing step or a hydrofoil forward and
(23) Kaemmerer, "Trag- und Dampfungsflachenboote
(Hydrofoil Motorboats)," Schiff u. Hafen, Apr
1952, pp. 121-122. This article g'ves a very brief
resume of the development work carried out on
hydrofoil motor boats in Germany during World
War II. Tlie boats did not proceed beyond the
experimental stage. A boat with an all-up weight
of 100, t, , powered by two 1,600-horse engines,
SNAME attained a speed of 41 kt, while a second boat with
a weight of 60 t was expected to reach 60 kt; the
latter was, however, damaged before trials were run.
(24) Knowler, H., "The Future of the Flying Boat,"
ASNE, Aug 1952, p. 630
(25) Biiller, K. J., "The Hydrofoil Boat," Hansa, 16 Aug
1952, p. lOOOff
(26) "Hydrofoil Boat White Hawk," The Motor Boat and
Yachting, London, Sep 1952, p. 361
(27) "Modern Hydrofoil Boat Designed by H. F. Scher-
tel," The Motor Boat and Yachting, London, Oct

by a second hydrofoil aft, in which there is em- 1952, p. 414

bodied a screw-propeller drive with a vertical (28) Sachsenberg, G., "On the Economy of the Traffic
shaft and bevel gears at both top and bottom. The with Hydrofoil Speed Boats," Hansa, 1952, No.
steering rudders extend well down from the hull 30/31
of the craft. This article mentions a tj^pe of boat (29) Schertel, H. F., "Tragflachenboote (Hydrofoil
evolved byPlum of the TMB staff.
J. Supported Boats)," Handbuch der Werften, Band
(12) Adamson, G., and Van Patten, D., "Motor Torpedo II, Schiffahrts-Verlag, Hansa, Hamburg, 1952,
Boats: A Technical Study," USNI, Jul 1940, pp. pp. 43-47. English translation available at the
976-996, esp. pp. 988-989, describing the Bell- DTMB. For a photograph and description of a
Baldwin HD-4 more modern 45-ft hydrofoil boat designed by
(13) Sottorf, W., "Experimentale Untersuchungen ziir Schertel (von Burtenbach) see The Motor Boat
Frage des Wassertragfliigels (Experimental Exam- and Yachting, London, Oct 1952, p. 414.
ination of the Question of Hydrofoils)," Rep. 1319, (30) Buller, K. J., "Das Tragfliigelboote (The Hydrofoil
•
Ger. Res. Est. for Aircraft, Inst, for Seaplane Boat)," STG, 1952, pp. 119-136
Develop., Hamburg, Dec 1940 (31) Vertens, F., "German Contributions to the Develop-
Sec. 53.9 DATA ON DYNAMIC LIFT AND PLANING 273
ment of the Hydrofoil SpeedBoat," Schiff u. R and M 2836, Sep 1946, published 1953
Hafen, Mar 1953, p. 103 (37) "Boats that Fly Atop the Waterj" Life, 27 Sep 1954,
(32) Grupp, G. W., "Speedboats with Wings," Motor pp. 56-58, 60
Boating, New Yorlv, Aug 1953, pp. 22-23 (38) Imlay, F. H., "The Theoretical Dynamic Longi-
(33) "Water Wings Add Zip to Navy Craft," All Hands tudinal Stability of a Constant-Lift Hydrofoil
IVtag', Bu. Nav. Pers., Oct 1953, pp. 14-16 System," TMB Rep. 925, Dec 19.54
(34) Buermann, T. M., Leehey, P., and Stilwell, J. J., "An (39) Miller, R. T., "Hydrofoil Craft," Yachting, Mar 1955,
Appraisal of Hydrofoil-Supported Craft," SNAME, pp. 58-60, 127
1953, pp; 242-279. This paper is abstracted briefly (40) Biiller, K., "New and Larger Hydrofoil Boats,"
in the 14 Jan 1954 issue of SBSR, pp. 53-54. European Shipbuilding, 1955, Vol. 4, pp. 5-8;
(35) Coffee, C. W., Jr., and McKann, R. E., "Hydro- abstracted in IME, Jul 1955, Vol. LXVII, pp.
dynamic Drag of 2- and 21-per cent Thick Surface-
] 102-103, with diagram of the PT SO/dJf, a Schertel-
Piercing Struts," NACA Tech. Note 3092, Dec Sachsenberg craft, in its flying position. Brake-
1953. Covers tests at zero yaw angle, various power to displacement ratios of the Bremen and
depths, and various angles of rake. Two struts Messina types, whose characteristics are given,
had NACA 661-012 sections and one an NACA are 59 and 55 horses per ton, respectively.
664-021 section. (41) "World's Fastest (Hydrofoil) Sailing Boat, Monitor,"
(36) Warren, C. H. E., "A Theoretical Approach to the 111. London News, 8 Oct 1955, p. 627; Yachting,

Design of Hydrofoils," Aero. Res. Counc, London, Nov 1955, p. 71 ; SBSR, 17 Nov 1955, p. 637.
 CHAPTER 54

Estimating the Air and Wind Resistance of Ships

54.1 Scope of This Chapter; Definitions .... 274 54.8 Comments Concerning Wind-Friction Re-
54 2
. Increase of Wind Velocity with Height Above sistance of an Abovewater Hull 280
Water Surface 274 54.9 Drag and Resistance with Wind on the Bow . 281
54.3 Flow Diagrams for Upper- Works Configura- 54.10 Prediction of Wind Resistance for ABC Ship
tions 276 of Part 4 282
54.4 General Formulas for the Wind Drag of 54.11 Magnitude of Wind Pressure 283
Irregular Ship Hulls and Superstructures . 276 54.12 Location of Center ofWind Pressure . . . 284
54.5 Notes on Wind-Resistance Models and 54.13 Lateral Wind Drag 285
Testing Techniques 278 54.14 Lateral Wind Moments and Angle of Heel . 285
54.6 Bibliography of Model Wind-Resistance 54.15 Estimated Drift and Leeway 286
Tests 278 54.15 Estimating the Forces on a Moored Ship . 287
54.7 Drag Coefficients for Typical Abovewater 54.17 Surface-Water Currents due to Natural Wind 287
Hulls and Upper Works 279

54.1 Scope of This Chapter; Definitions. masts. The thickness 5 (delta) may attain values
The general phenomena and the effects of the greater than a thousand feet [Matveyey, R. T.,
flow of air over the abovewater hull and the upper Meteorologiya i Gidrologiya, No. 3, 1949, pp.
works of a ship are described in Sees. 26.15 and 20-29; ASCIL Transl. 490]. Large wind velocities
26.16 ofVolume I in purely qualitative fashion. at high airplane altitudes are caused by move-
The winds of nature, powerful enough to propel ments of huge air masses and are not strictly a
saihng vessels, produce sizable quantitative effects boundary-layer effect.
on mechanically driven ships, often of the order For the ordinary boundary layer in air or water
of tenths of the power and whole knots or more of the so-called reference velocity, represented by
speed. Reasonably accurate estimates or predic- [/„ , is that at a great distance from the body or
tions of these effects are required, especially when ship. Since this velocity is rarely known for the
analyzing ship-trial data [Eggert, E. F., EMB thick and high boundary layer in the atmos-
Rep. 264, Aug 1930; SNAME, 1932, pp. 17-44; phere above a large water surface, it is customary
1933, pp. 243-295; Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1943, to use as a reference, for ship-design and ship-
pp. 167-169]. operation purposes, some velocity that is easily
Definitions applying to these phenomena and measured. In the past, the reference velocity has
effects are given in Sec. 26.15, supplemented by often been considered to be that observed at a
Figs. 26. G and 26. H. It is most important to height of 50 ft above the water. However, there
keep clear the distinction made there between the is no accepted standard height for measuring the

wind drag D„r which always acts dovmwind from

, wind velocity which is assumed to be acting on a

the relative wind direction, and the wind re- boat or a ship as a whole. Nevertheless the mnd
sistance ffwind • The latter is the sum of the fore- velocities of interest to marine architects and ship
and-aft components of both the mnd drag and operators are usually e.xpressed as multiples,
the wind lift, acting always along the principal greater than 1.0, of whatever velocity near the
ship axis, opposite to the direction of motion. surface taken as the reference or the standard.
is

This distinction is necessary because the wind Theoretically, the air velocity over smooth
forces are impressed on the ship separately from water is zero at the water surface, as for a hquid
the hydrodynamic forces. flonang over a solid surface. Practically, even for
54.2 Increase of Wind Velocity with Height model sail boats and sailing yachts having mast
Above Water Surface. The boundary layer heights of 1 ft or less, the actual air velocities at
formed by the -wind blo\ving over moderately measurable distances above the water surface are
long stretches of water is thick in proportion to large. Taking all things into consideration, a
the vertical dimensions of a ship hull, or even of its reference height of 6 ft above the water surface is

274
Sec. 54.2 AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF SHIPS 275

considered logical and is used as the reference in (1.64 ft to 26.248 ft) above the sea. Hay found
this book. that the local velocity U at any height h above
The ship designer, naval architect, and ship the quiet water surface (represented by the
operator then need a curve or table of multiples, symbol z in the paper) varied generally in accord-
to compare the wind velocity at other heights ance with the logarithmic formula
with that at 6 ft. The necessary data can be
and have been derived from (1) theoretical con-
U
lioh -{ h (54. ii)
C/:.o
siderations and from (2) observed simultaneous
wind velocities at several heights above a reason- where C/1.0 is the velocity at the reference height
ably level water surface. of 1 meter (3.28 ft), and a and h are numerical
Making use of boundary-layer theory it is values tabulated by Hay for different wind and
possible to develop a simple formula which shows sea conditions.
that the ratio of the wind velocities at two The roughness of the sea surface, increasing
different heights above a solid, level surface with the wind velocity at the reference height,
should vary as the fifth root of the ratio of the changes the type of viscous flow somewhat and
heights [Experiment Tank Comm., Japan, "Ab- with it the numbers a and h. Hay lists 8 references
stract Notes and Data," 6th ICSTS, 1951, pp. on page 16 of the report.
71-92]. Taking hi and h^ as these heights, and Because of the diminished relative roughness
TTi and W2 as the wind velocities at these heights. of the average water surface as compared to the
average land surface, the speed of the wind for a
W2 _ Wind velocity at height h^
(54.i) given atmospheric disturbance is greater over
Wi Wind velocity at height hi
water than over land. Likewise, the reduction in
A discussion by D. Brunt, also based upon wind speed as the height is diminished, due to the
boundary-layer theory but making use of experi- increased wind friction over the land, is greater
mental observations to some extent, is given in than over the water [Curry, M., "Yacht
his book "Physical and Dynamical Meteorology" Racing," Scribner's, New York, 1948, p. 130].
[Cambridge (England), University Press, 1944, For this reason, velocity observations made over
pp. 247-255]. Brunt is inclined to use a seventh- land should not necessarily be taken as applying
root velocity variation rather than a fifth-root over water. However, even though it is known
variation, based upon the distribution in the that they do not apply, it has been necessary
1/7-power velocity profile illustrated in the right- to make some use of data taken over the land.
hand diagram of Fig. 5.K. It is apparent, from Based on available sources, Hsted in the next
the discussion presented by Brunt, that the rate paragraph, the graphs of Fig. 54.A have been
of wind variation with height is complex, depend- prepared. Briefly:
ing upon a number of variables which could be
evaluated only with difficulty in actual practice.
I. The solid-line graph A is based upon a com-
bination of data from references (c) and (e) of
not a simple matter to find reliable experi-
It is
the which follows
list
mental data known to have been taken over the
II. The short-dash graph B at the left represents
water. Furthermore, the exact vertical location of
values derived from Eq. (54.1), based upon a
the "Surface" observations used for reference are
wind velocity of 1 (unity) at 6 ft above the water
rarely stated. Presumably they are at least as
level. Itappears to represent the probable rate
high as a man sitting in a small boat. The low
of variation over a reasonably smooth water
heights of interest to the ship designer, say
surface as well, if not better, than most of the
several hundred feet, are in the category of
experimental data.
micro-heights in the field of meteorology.
III. The long-dash graph C at the right of the
The only careful, systematic investigations
figure represents the mean of the data from (b) of
made over the sea appear to be those of J. S. Hay,
the following list, indicated by the small open
published in Porton Technical Paper 428 (un-
circles.
classified) of 24 June 1954, issued by the Chemical
Defense Experimental Estabhshment of the The references consulted were:
Ministry of Supply of Great Britain (copy in (a) Schoeneich, "Der Windwiderstand bei Seeschififen
TMB library) Unfortunately, however, the obser-
. (The Wind Resistance of Oceangoing Ships),"
vations covered a range of only 0.5 to 8 meters Schiffbau, 22 Nov 1911, Vol. XIII, pp. 121-129.
276 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 54.3
Sec. 54.4 AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF SHIPS 277

where /^wud is tlie wind resistance, exerted m the D,

direction of ship motion, ^^ is the abovewater
(>DCAir) — (54 .v)

silhouette area of the ship (defined in Sec. 26.15),

A^W^
as viewed from astern, and Wg is the relative
Here the mass density p(rho) is, from Sec.
wind velocity, derived from the vectorial addition
X3.8 m Appendix 3, taken as 0.002378 slugs per
of the ship speed V and the true-wind velocity Wt-
ft^, for "standard" air conditions at a temperature
For what was supposed to be the worst case, the
of 59 deg F, 15 deg C, and a sea-level pressure of
true mnd was in those years assumed to be
14.696 lb per in' or 2,116.2 lb per ft'.
always from ahead.
The area Ap^^j or A^ is that of the abovewater
The necessity for using data derived from
silhouette of the hull or structure in question,
aeronautical studies, many of them in \vind
when projected on a vertical plane normal to the
tunnels, as well as data formerly expressed in
direction of the relative wind. The velocity of that
other units of measurement, called definitely for
non-dimensional wind-drag and wind-resistance
wind is W^
.For rough calculations it is assumed
constant over the whole vertical span of the
formulas. On the basis that substantially all the
abovewater structure being blown upon.
drag of a ship hull andits upper works is a pressure
For more refined estimates the structure should
effect,due to deflection and separation drags, the
probably be considered as composed of two or
general equations for the wind drag D,^ with the ,

more vertical layers, each \vith its own relative-

latter always measured in the same direction as the
wind velocity, dependent upon its average height
relative wind-velocity vector W^ , are
above the water surface, employing the wind-
velocity multiples of Fig. 54. A. In addition, each
Dw = Cfl(A,„|4p,„iF«^
layer should be composed of a typical kind of
(54. iv)
structure, such as (1) hull, (2) upper works, and
= Cnui.^ 7, A^W^ (3) spars and rigging, so that
if appropriate a

separate drag coefficient as well as a separate

average relative-wind velocity W^ may be used

Fig. 54. B Typical Wind-Resistance Model

278 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 54.5

with each. G. S. Baker iUustrates and uses this to represent relative ^vind impinging on the model
method in his book "Ship Efficiency and Econ- at any bearing from right ahead to right astern.
omy" [1942, pp. 14-16], but for a slightly different (2) Made double, symmetrical about the designed
purpose. waterline,embod3ang two abovewater hulls which
In still air, the relative-wind velocity W^ is are then towed submerged
that caused by the motion of the ship itself (3) Mounted on the under surface of a flat plat-
through the water, so that W
r = V. The still-air form and suspended, in inverted position, in a
resistance is then circulating-water channel.

UsA — C/D(Air)o^'l ' (54 .vi) When the test is conducted by procedure
(3) it is possible to look up from underneath and
As magnitude of this resistance, E. F.
for the
watch the position and action of tufts attached to
Eggert estimates it as from 2 to 4 per cent of the the abovewater hull and the upperworks. This
water resistance [TMB Rep. 264, Aug 1930, p. 1]. is also possible in a wind tunnel but streamers of
The first example of Sec. 54.10 indicates that for dye and ink injected into the slow-moving water
theABC ship designed in Part 4 it is estimated as of the channel show the flow to much better
about 2.6 per cent of the bare-hull water resistance. advantage than jets of gas or smoke injected into
Although it is not general practice to allow for the fast-moving air of the wind tunnel.
still-air resistance in ship-powering estimates,
There is little to represent boundary-layer
always with the ship, so to speak,
this resistance is
development over the full-scale water surface
unless the latter happens to run in a following under these conditions, causing a natural variation
natural wind having a velocity equal to its own of velocity with vertical distance, because the
mounting board is only several times as large as
For a relative wind compounded of ship the planform area of the model. For the model
motion and an ahead wind of gale force, the wind test, therefore, the water (or wind) velocity is
resistance can form a large percentage of the nearly constant over all parts of the model, from
water resistance. For the second example of the lower part of the abovewater hull to the
Sec. 54.10, assuming an ABC ship speed of 18.5 mast trucks.
kt and a strong breeze of only 23 kt (true velocity), B illustrates what is known as a drawing-
Fig. 54.
the wind resistance is 10.8 per cent of the bare- room model of a destroyer but it shows well the
hull hydrodynamic resistance at that speed.
amount of detail which is customarily reproduced
54.5 Notes on Wind-Resistance Models and
on wind-resistance models. The mounting board
Testing Techniques. The values of wind-drag shown there is greatly enlarged for a wind-
coefficient Cd( Air) now available for the estima- resistance test in water.
tion of thewind resistance of the hull and upper The experimental techniques developed to date
works of a ship of any size and type are derived do not simulate fully the actual ship conditions.
almost exclusively from tests of special wind- This is not surprising because the full-scale
resistance models, similar to that pictured in conditions are not yet adequately known. How-
Fig. 54. B.These have been run in water and in ever, the wind drags are usually not-too-large
air, sometimes in both. Despite the limitations in
fractions of the total resistance to motion, and
scope of the book imposed in Sec. 1.5 of the the available data appear to serve well for
Introduction to Volume I, a few notes are given estimating purposes in the preliminary-design
here concerning the rather unusual techniques
stage and for analysis and reduction of full-scale
employed with these models. trial data.
When making tests with abovewater models 54.6 Bibliography of Model Wind-Resistance
to determine wind-drag coefficients, the models Tests. There is given hereunder a partial list of
are:
published data relating to model \vind-resistance
(1) Mounted on the under side of a flat board or tests. Other data undoubtedly exist but they
platform representing the water surface, and then have not yet been collected. In addition, the list
towed inverted in a model basin. The under contains references embodying shipboard observa-
surface of the board is held at the water surface, tions on air drag and wind resistance and other
with the model upside down in the water. The references describing the use of these data in
board, with the model, may be oriented in azimuth analyzing ship trials. The list follows:
Sec. 5-1.7 AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF SHIPS 279

Peabody, C. "Experiments on the Froude,"

H., (21) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,
SNAME, 1911, Vol. 19, pp. 114-115 J. G., RPSS, 1948, pp. 24-26, 69
Schoeneich, "Der Windwiderstand bei Seesohiffen (22) Kent, J. L., "The Design of Seakindly Ships,"
(The Wind Resistance of Oceangoing Ships)," NECI, 1949-1950, Vol. 66, Part 8, pp. 417-442
Schiffbau, 22 Nov 1911, pp. 121-129 and D159-D174
McEntee, W., "Notes from the Model Basin," (23) Aertssen, G., "Sea Trials on a 9,500-ton Deadweight
SNAME, 1916, Vol. 24, p. 86, and Pis. 70, 71 Motor Cargo Liner," joint INA-IME (Institute
Smith, W. W., "Effect of Wind and Fouling Resist- ofMarine Engineers) mtg., 5 Apr 1955; abstracted
ances on the U. S. S. Neptune," SNAME, 1917, in SBMEB, Jul 1955, p. 434. The author found
Vol. 25, pp. 41-69 that the adverse effects of wind and weather
Biles, H. J. R., "Notes on the Effect of Wind on depended upon the power-displacement ratio;
Power and Speed," INA, 1927, Vol. LXIX, pp. in other words, upon how hard the craft was
164-173 being driven.
Kempf, G., and Sottorf, W., "Probefahrtsmessungen (24) A. J. W. Lap, in a published lecture on ship resistance,
(Ship-Trial Measurements)," WRH, 22 Jun 1928, quotes extensively from Report 1 of the Japanese
pp. 232-236 Shipbuilding Research Assn., 1954, in a discussion
Hughes, G., "Model Experiments on the Wind of the air resistances of ships and their super-
Resistance of Ships," Engineering, 8 Aug 1930, structures [Int. Shipbldg. Prog., Sep 1955, Vol.
p. 184 3, No. 25, pp. 509-513]
Hughes, G., "Model Experiments on Wind Resistance (25) Richter, E., "Strommgsgiinstige Formen von Schiffs-
of Ships," INA, 1930, Vol. LXXII, pp. 310-329 aufbauten (Flow Around the Most Favorable
and Pis. XXXIII-XXXVI. This paper gives the Form of Ship Superstructures)," Schiff und Hafen,
results of wind-tunnel tests on abovewater models Jun 1955, pp. 351-356.
of the tanker San Leandro, the cargo vessel Pacific
Trader, and the liner Mauretania (old). In addition to the tests on the wind-resistance
"The Effect of Wind on Ship Trials," EMB Rep. 264, models of the ships hsted in the foregoing refer-
Aug 1930
"Test of Drawing Room Model of 10,000-Ton Light
ences and on Figs. 54. C, 54. D, and 54.E of Sec.
Cruisers (Pensacola and Salt Lake City, CL24, 25) 54.9, it is reported that tests have been made on
in Water to Determine Forces Due to Wind," models of several large tankers and of several
EMB Rep. 276, Dec 1930 floating drydocks. Up to the date of writing
"Test of Drawing Room Model Destroyer
of U. S.
(1955) it has not been possible to locate and to
Hamilton in Water to Determine Forces due to
Wind," TMB
Rep. 312, Oct 1931 present these data.
Schoenherr, K. E., "On the Analysis of Ship Trial 54.7 Drag Coefficients for Typical Abovewater
Data," SNAME, 1931, Vol. 39, pp. 281-301 Hulls and Upper Works. Modifying Eq. (54.iii)
Pitre, A. S., "Trial Analysis Methods," SNAME, of Sec. 54.4 by applying it to the wind drag
1932, Vol. 40, pp. 17-44
rather than the wind resistance, and adhering
Baker, G. S., "Ship Design, Resistance, and Screw
Propulsion," 1933, Vol. I, pp. 213-221 to the dimensional form,
Hughes, G., "The Effect of Wind on Ship Perform-
ance," INA, 1933, Vol. 75, pp. 97-121 and Pis.
D^ = kA^W^ (54.vii)

VIII-X
"Test of Model of U. S. S. Salinas Inverted in Water
When Dw is in lb, ^a is in ft^, and Wg in kt,

to Determine Forces Due to Wind," TMB Rep. the value of k varies from 0.003 to 0.0056, for a
345, Jan 1933 relative-wind velocity from directly ahead. A
Stevens, E. A., "Wind Resistance," ASNE, Feb. round value for k, easily remembered, is 0.004.
1936, pp. 19-31; abstracted in SBSR, 2 Apr 1936,
R. Ellis quotes a dimensional coefficient k of
pp. 408-409
0.0055 for determining the wind drag of a moored,
Eshbach, O. W., "Handbook of Engineering Funda-
mentals," 1st ed., 1936, pp. 9-64 through 9-69, cruising-type sailing yacht, based upon wind
covering wind pressure on structures velocities in hurricanes. He reckons the cross-
Malglaive, P. de, and Hardy, A. C., "The Trans- sectional area A^ as the product of the maximum
atlantic Liner of the Future," IME, 14 Dec 1937;
beam and the height of the cabin top above
abstracted in SBSR, 30 Dec 1937, pp. 811-818,
water [Yachting, Jun 1955, p. 60]. However,
esp. pp. 813, 817. The authors estimate that
maximum streamlining on the Lusitania would EUis uses a wind velocity in mph; replacing this
have reduced the wind resistance only by the with a wind velocity in kt, the dimensional
ratio of 0.17 to 0.12. Further, they estimate the coefficient k should be increased by the factor
still-air resistance as only 0.02 of the total hydro-
(1.15)^ or 1.3225. The coefficient k then becomes
dynamic resistance; in a 30-kt head wind as only
(0.0055) (1.3225) or 0.00727.
0.08 of the total.
(20) Nolan, R. W., "Design of Stacks to Minimize Smoke When D^r of Eq. (54.vii) is in kg, Aa is in m^
Nuisance," SNAME, 1946, Vol. 54, pp. 42-82 and Wr in meters per sec, k is of the order of
280 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 54.8

0.045 to 0.063 for ship superstructures only [van the high portions of the ranges listed previously
Lammeren, W. P. A., Troo.st, L., and Koning, in this section.
RPSS, 1948,
J. G., p. 69]. Table 54. a presents a number of dimensional
On
the basis of the foregoing, tests with above- wind-drag coefficients, taken from the material
water models towed upside down in basins give referenced there. In every case, so far as known,
a 0-dinil drag coefficient CccAir) of the order of the coefficients given apply to mnd forces
0.85 to 1.2 or more; This agrees well with values generated by a relative wind of incident velocity
for short, blunt-ended, 3-diml bodies [S and P, Wb blowing from directly ahead, where the
,

1943, pp. 52, 159-160; RPSS, 1948, pp. 25, 69]. relative-wind bearing angle e(theta) is deg.
When the deck erections and upper works are When the mass density of the air is taken into
not yet laid out, or are known only sketchily, it account, and consistent units of measurement
is possible to approximate the projected area of are used, the dimensional formula and the
the abovewater silho\iette, as seen from directly coefficients listed in Table 54. a give a range of
ahead, by E. t. Eggert's formula, Aa= (0.5)B1: . values for Cfl(Air) in the 0-diml formula
This assumes an average maximum effective
height, above the water, of half the beam Bx Dnr — ClXAir) cf
-^AryR (54. iv)
For the ABC ship of Part 4, mth its tentative
beam of 73 ft, the projected area by this rule which vary from 0.974 to 1.505. These are to be
works out as (0.5) (73)' = 2,665 ft'. For a pas- compared with the C^'s for flat plates of various
senger-cargo ship it is probably on the small side. aspect ratios, placed normal to the stream, which
The method of using the projected or silhouette are fisted in Fig. 55.B. When the coefficient
area as the basis for the wind-resistance estimate, k = 0.004 of the dimensional wind-drag Eq.
especially with the relative wind directly ahead, (54.vii),- employing units as listed at the beginning
is open to some objection because it takes no of this section, is converted for use in the 0-diml
account of the fore-and-aft positioii of the parts Eq. (54. iv), the value of C^xAir) works out as
of this silhouette with respect to each other. A about 1.18.
large deckhouse right forward, close to the bow 54.8 Comments Concerning Wind-Friction Re-
and in the lee of the updrafts from the blunt sistance of an Abovewater Hull. In Sec. 54.4
bow, as on large Great Lakes freighters, probably it is assumed that, because of the irregular shape
causes less wind resistance than the same deck- of the abovewater portion of a ship, its wind drag
house farther aft. Further, on a large tanker, the is all pressure drag, varying as W^ This is .

forward house may be so far from the forecastle, probably true for the general case, where the
and the after house so far from the forward relative A\dnd may blow from any bearmg relative
house, that the shielding offered by each on the to the ship.
one astern is negligible, even with a relative Avind With the wind nearly ahead, a ship
relative
from right ahead. Vessels with large fore-and-aft upper works, resembles
hull proper, excluding the
gaps or separations between major transverse somewhat a train of streamhned cars behind a
areas therefore call for the use of coefficients in streamlined locomotive. In both cases the sur-

TABLE 54.a Approximate Wind-Drag Coefficients for Various Types of Ships

Group I. Dimensional Values of k.
The values of k pertain to tlie formula R^/iad = kA^W^ where fiwind is in lb, Aji is in ft^, projected normal to the
,

wind, and Wr is in let. Unless otherwise stated Wr is directly ahead.

Eggert, E. F. k = 0.004 and Aa if not known, is taken as (Sx)V2 [EMB Rep. 264, Aug 1930, p. 2]
,

Taylor, D. W. k = 0.004 [S and P, 194.3, pp. 51-52]

Chapman, C. F. fc = 0.00454 for an anchored motorboat [SSBH, 1951]
Chapman, C. F. fc = 0.0051 for an anchored sailboat, measuring Aa to top of deckhouse [SSBH, 1951]
Barnaby, K. C. k = 0.004 but A^ is determined by adding to the projected area of the superstructure and upper works
a diminished projected area of the hull proper, equal to that projected area times 0.45 (Cb) [BNA,
1948, Art. 163, pp. 192-193]
Baker, G. S. fc = 0.0033 for an Atlantic liner and 0.004 for a cargo vessel, combined with a reduction factor which
calls for using only about 0.3 of the actual projected hull area when computing the overall projected
area Aa [SEE, 1942, pp. 14-16).
Group II. Non-Dimensional Values of 0^,(^1 r)
See the text.
Sec. 54.9 AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF StIIPS 281

faces in contact with the air are large and long, -Tanker SALINAS
many of the contours are reasonably uniform, -Carcjo Ship CLAIRTON
-Passenger Ship 5ANTA R05A
and friction drag is no longer negligible. If the ^

frontal area of such a ship hull is taken as equal

to the maximum underwater ai'ea Ax or even ,

as B{H), with an L/B ratio of say 7, the "wetted"

abovewater area of the smooth side portions is of
the order of 2L{H) = 2{7B)H = 14B(i7). This
proportion of wetted to frontal area is about the
same as for a railway coach. Unfortunately, a
reasonably accurate prediction of the friction
drag for the coach must await more knowledge
as to the actual air flow around it [Hoerner, S. F.,
AD, 1951, pp. 169-170]; the same is true of the
ship hull.
54.9 Drag and Resistance with Wind on the 10 20 30 40 50 60 70^-80 90
Bow. For the reasons explained in Sec. 26.15 Angle of Relative Wind f rom Aheod, deg
and illustrated in Fig. 26.1 of Volume I, the
Fig. 54. C Graphs of kg for Three Merchant Ships
relative wind blowing at an angle on the bow
impinges separately on d-eck erections, stacks,
Anqle of Relative Wind from Aheod, deq
and certain other elements of the upper works O 10 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 96
which normally benefit from shadowng when the
relative wind is dead ahead or nearly so. Further-
more, a ship hull, lying at an effective angle of
attack to the relative wind and acting as a short-
span airfoil, cantilevered above the water surface,
is creating an induced drag as well as the lift

depicted in diagram C of Fig. 26. H. This induced

drag, although not shown there, is additional to
the pressure drag. It measured as part of the
is

wind drag and wind resistance when model tests

are made, and is included in the coefficients set
forth in this chapter.
As a result, the axial component Rwi„d of the
lift and drag forces due to the relative-wind
velocity Wr at a range of relative-wind angles on
the bow usually exceeds the value of the wind
resistance i2wind when the relative wind is from
directly ahead. The ratio of these forces is ex-
pressed for convenience as kg .Then for any
angle of relative wind 6, measured toward the
rightfrom ahead, /2wind = kgDw when D^r ,
is

measured at 6 = deg. This is equivalent to

jRwind at angle d = fc9(i2wind at deg) (54.viii)

The rates at which the coefficient kn vary with

the direction of the relative wind for several
ships of different types are illustrated in Figs.
54.C, 54. D, and 54. E. Two similar graphs, one
for a cargo vessel with forecastle, centercastle,
and poop, and the other for a passenger ship,
are given by W. P. A. van Lammeren, L. Troost,
and J. G. Koning [RPSS, 1948, Fig. 8, p. 25].
282 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 54.10

Anqle of Relative Wind from Ahead, deq stUl-air resistance is to be approximated for the
10 20 30 40 50 60 10 80 90,
.6 trial speed of 20.5 kt. The transverse abovewater

^ *•
area Aa\s taken, by Eggert's rule of thumb, as
-^
1.5
(0.5)Bx With a beam of 73 ft, Aa becomes
O 0.5(73)'
•

= 2,665 ft'. The dimensional Eq.

1.4
-s (54.vii) is used for a and k is taken
first estimate,
1.3 "? as 0.004. Also, since there no true or natural is

> wind blomng, W^ is equal to V, and there is no

I.Z
Q^
variation of wind velocity with height, due to
o boundary-layer effect. Then
'•' ^^
"^
RsA = DjfT for this case
1.0
iota for a Typical <D = kA^Ws = 0.004(2,665) (20.5)' = 4,4801b.
Heavv^Cruiser 0.9 -S
PENSACOLA (CLZ4) Assuming a totalhydrodynamic resistance Rt for
0.8
1 the bare hull, from Chap. 66, as about 170,000
lb, the still-air resistance ratio is 4,480/170,000 =
01 az
0.0263. The bare-hull Rr value is used so that
0.6 8 the stUl-air drag may be added as a percentage,
o Kke the overall appendage resistance, to predict
0.5:? the probable total trial resistance.
tn
W Next, consider the relative-Avind resistance
0.4 '^
when =
deg (^\'ind ahead), the ship speed at
-a
0.3 .E sea is 18.5 kt, and the true wind velocity is 23 kt.
3: The relative-mnd speed is then (18.5 + 23) = 41.5
0.2
'S kt. Hence

0.1
~ i2wiod = kA^W^ = 0.004(2,665)(41.5)'
a
= 18,360 lb.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90
/'^ngle of Relative Wind from Ahead, deg This represents a resistance augment, over that
estimated for the bare hull at the trial speed of
Fig. 54. E Gr.\ph of kg for a Heavy Cruiser 20.5 kt, of (100) (18,360/170,000) or 10.8 per cent.
It would be a much larger proportion of the total
Three additional graphs are given by G. Hughes resistance at the 18.5-kt smooth-water ship speed
for a tanker, a cargo vessel, and a transatlantic of the problem given.
liner [INA, 1930, pp. 321-324 and PL XXXVI]. As a third approximation it is desired to esti-
These graphs are reproduced in SNAME, 1932, mate the \\dnd resistance of the having ABC ship,
Fig. 14, p. 41. Additional graphs for an express abovewater hull and upper works of the general
cargo hner are given by G. Kempf in Fig. 7 on form shown in Figs. 66.0, 66. S, and 68. M, when
page 51 of this reference. A graph for the U. S. conducting a full-speed run during standardization
Maritime Administration Mariner class is pub- over the measured mile. Assume that the meas-
lished by V. L. Russo and E. K. Sullivan in ured speed is 20.4 kt for a particular run, that the
SNAME, 1953, Fig. 45, page 212. amemometer on top of the after pair of kingposts
54.10 Prediction of Wind Resistance for reads 41.5 kt, and that the Avind direction indicator
ABC Ship of Part 4. As examples of the method gives an angle of 22 deg on the port bow. The
by which the formulas and data of the preceding latter two readings are both for the relative wind,
sections are employed in practice, the probable so it is not really necessary to know how fast the
wind resistances of the ABC ship, designed in ship is gouig through the water to predict the
Part 4, are calculated for several design stages wind resistance to be encountered.
and conditions. From the dimensions on Fig. 54. F, correspond-
It is assumed first, that at an early stage in the ing to those on the three dra^vings mentioned,
preliminary design, before the abovewater body the silhouette area, looking from ahead, is esti-
is dra%vn and the upper works are laid out, the mated to be about 3,880 ft'. This is nearly half
Sec. 54.11 AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF SHIPS

Silhouette from Abeam, Correspondincj to Layout in Fiq, 68.M

Calculated Lateral Area of Abovewater Form, 20,167 sq ft

Fig. 54.F Wind-Resistance and Cbnteb-of-Pressube Layout for the ABC Ship of Part 4

again as large as the Aa = (0.5)5i value origin- more than its rated maximum power it is doubtful
ally used. To keep the problem simple it is assumed whether the ship could make 20.4 kt on the trial
that the relative-wind velocity over all this area course against a 41.5-kt relative wind on the bow.
is the same, eliminating any boundary-layer effect. 54.11 Magnitude of Wind Pressure. It is

The value of kg is taken from the Santa Rosa helpful at times to have magnitude
an idea of the
short-dash curve of Fig. 54. C, for 6 = 22 deg, of the forces exerted by a natural wind on a flat
as approximately 1.15. Then, for Wr = 41.5 kt, plate or a flat surface normal to the wind direction.
Eq. (54.viii) gives A number of authors have given tabulated data
of this kind in the past, among them Dixon Kemp
2?wud = {ke)KAA)Wl ["A Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing," Cox,
= = London, 3rd ed., 1882, p. 599, on which there is a
(1.15)(0.004)(3,880)(41.5)' 30,739 lb.
table of wind-pressure intensity]. His values of
From Fig. 78. Nc of Part 4, the effective power normal pressure in lb per ft^, for a range of wind
Pe for the transom-stern design of ABC ship, velocity of 1 to 100 kt, corresponding to the
predicted from model tests, is about 9,940 horses. complete range of the Beaufort scale from 1 to
For the water speed of 20.4 kt, equivalent to 12, were based upon a constant drag coefficient
Rt with
34.45 ft per sec, the total resistance , Cd of 1.87. It is now known that this drag coefla-
appendages, works out as 9,940(550)/34.45 = cient varies from about 1.16 for a square plate
158,694 lb. The predicted wind resistance then with free edges to about 1.90 for an infinitely
represents an increase in the estimated total long strip, also with free edges.
resistance at 20.4 kt of (100)(30,739)/158,694 or The figures iia Table 54.b are adapted from a
19.4 per cent. Unless the machinery could develop table published more recently by K. C. Barnaby
284 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 54.12

TABLE 54. b Nominal Force, Velocity, and Pressure Due to Natural Winds
The ram pressures are based on a p-value of 0.002378 slugs per ft'. The flat-plate pressures are based on a thin plate
mounted in the open, with a separation zone on its leeward side.
Column 5 is calculated for a Co of 1.16; column 6 for a Cd of 1.90.
The vAnd. velocities correspond exactly to the Beaufort-scale numbers pubUshed in "Instructions for Keeping Ship's
Deck Log," NavPers 15876 of July 1955, Bureau of Naval Persoimel, U. S. Navy Department.

1
Sec. 54.14 AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OE SHIPS 285

wind-resistance load of 22.6 long tons for a large

collier with multiple derricks.
The value of the dimensional drag coefficient for

0,50
a broadside relative wind is very nearly as large
as for an end-on wind or for a flat plate having a
0.45 length ecjual to that of the ship and a depth of
twice the ship height (including the mirror image
0.40 below the water surface). However, tests on
models indicate a somewhat smaller drag co-
0.55
efficient for the broadside presentation.
For a dimensional expression of the form
0,30

0,25
D, ksA,,W^ (54.viia)
Data Token from
EMB Rep.- 276 for FENSACOLA
020 EMB Rep. 512 for HAMILTON the dimensional coefficient ks for 6 = 90 deg has
5 -1 EMB Rep. 334 for CLAIRTON values ranging from 0.003 to 0.0042. In their
0.15 EMB Rep 345 for 5AL1NA5 - analysis, and for practice, Thorpe and Farrell
EMB Rep 562 for 3ANTA ROSA
0.10
r Each Report Contains a Photoqroph
recommend a kg of 0.004.

of the Model Tested I

It is interesting to make an estimate of the
mnd drag exerted on the ABC ship of diagram 3
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Anqle6
10 20
of Relative Wind from Centerline of Ship Aheod,decj m Fig. 54. F when lying beam-to in a 60-kt storm
mnd. The silhouette area for 6 = 90 deg and for
Fig. 54. G Centee-of-Wind-Pkessure Data fob
the ship at designed draft, estimated from Fig.
Five Typical Ships
Theoretically, all graph values should be zero when = 68.M and from diagram 3 of Fig. 54.F, is 20,167
ft^ For a /c-value of 0.0042, the maximum quoted
graphs of by T. Thorpe and K. P. Farrell in Sec. 54.13, the
models of the five ships listed in the
lateral wind drag is
Figs. 54. C, 54.D, and 54. E. Schematic wind-drag
force vectors for a few representative relative-
Dw = keA^Wi = 0.0042(20, 167)(60)'
wind directions are indicated on diagram 2 of
Fig. 54. F. G. Hughes gives center-of -pressure data = 304,925 lb.

for three aboveAvater models tested m a Avind

tunnel [INA, 1930, p. 321 and Fig. 2 on PI. XXXV; This is almost twice the ahead hydrodynamic
INA, 1933, PL VIII, Fig. 4], for values' of d resistance at the designed speed, as predicted by
from to 180 deg. the model test. Under this lateral force the ship
54.13 Lateral Wind Drag. Ships underway would, if left to itself, heel and drift downward,
are often subjected to strong relative \vinds from as described in subsequent sections.
abeam, at an angle d of approximately 90 deg, 54.14 Lateral Wind Moments and Angle of

measured from ahead. Vessels anchored and at Heel. It is unfortunately possible for certain
moorings, lying to the tide or moored at both craft, especially when m a light or nearly light
ends in assigned positions, are subject to cross condition, with the relative wind about abeam,
winds. Moreover, vessels often have to be berthed to be subjected to a wind-drag moment which
and unberthed when the true wind is about at exceeds the righting moment. The craft then
right angles to their axes. The wind resistance capsizes. This can happen in areas of relatively
under these conditions is nearly zero, but the smooth water, if a vessel is struck by a sudden
wind drag may be very large. high-velocity squall. In areas where waves
The most extensive and probably the most already exist, the menace is obviously greater if
rehable data as to lateral wind drag appear to the ship is perched broadside on a high wave
be those of T. Thorpe and K. P. Farrell [INA, crest, Avith a diminished metacentric stability,
1948, pp. 116-117]. These list transverse wind- at the instant that it experiences the maximum
drag loads for a wind velocity of 60 kt as ranging force of the squall.
from 37.5 long tons for a large battleship to 7.85 The heeling to beam winds on
moment due
long tons for a frigate or escort vessel. W. W. full-scale vessels, about an axis in the waterplane,
Smith, in reference (4) of Sec. 54.6, mentions a may be estimated by using a 0-diml formula
286 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 54.15

developed by the Bureau of Ships of the U, S. As an indication of the values to be expected

Navy Department. It is under violent beam winds, a model of the World
War I Eagle class patrol boats was floated in a
K = C;c(0.5p).4^/u(cos= ^)Wl (54.ix)
shallow pan of water in a wind tunnel, where it
where Ck is the 0-diml heeling moment coefficient was blown upon at various relative-Avind bearings
due to wind 6 from 30 deg (on the bow) to 150 deg (on the

^A is the abovewater area for 5 = 90 deg, quarter). The scale ratio was 48, the weight
projected on the plane of symmetry, with the corresponded to the designed ship W
of 480 t, and
vessel upright the full-scale GM simulated in the tests was
hx is the height above the waterplane of the 1.012 ft. This corresponded to (1.012/26.23)5 or
center of the area A a mth the vessel upright 0.039S. The dimensions and lines of the vessel
0(phi) is the angle of heel are found on SNAME RD sheet 118.
Wjt is the relative-^vind velocity, assumed as At a full-scale wind velocity corresponding to
directed abeam. 100 mph, 86.84 kt, by no means uncommon in
Model tests give a value of the product hurricanes and typhoons, the maximum angle of
Ck(0.5p) of about 0.00147, from which Ck = heel was over 37 deg. Surprisingly, this occurred
0.00147/(0.001189) = 1.236. Entering the known with the bow 130 deg away from the wind. The
or assumed values for a given situation, and next greatest heel, 35 deg, was encountered with
assuming successive values of heel angle <^, the bow 70 deg from the wind. With the wind
increasing by 10 deg up to as great a range as abeam, or at bearings of 50 and 110 deg, the heel
desired, a curve of heeling moment on a basis of was less than 33 deg. The smallest heels, 20-22
heel angle is plotted for a given wind velocity. deg, occurred when the bow was either 30 or
Comparing this with the curve of righting 150 deg from the relative-wind direction [EMB
moments in stUl water, the intersection gives the Rep. 15, Jul 1920].
angle to which a ship will heel under the wind An interesting passage from this report is

effect. Assuming a given maximum or allowable quoted as follows:

angle of heel, the righting moment for that angle
"3. The center of lateral resistance was previously deter-
may be set down as X in Eq. (54. ix) and the
mined by towing a larger but similar model of (an) Eagle
corresponding wind velocity be found.
boat sidewise and was found to be substantially at the
This procedure is in the nature of a rough water surface."
approximation because, like the example of the
preceding section, it assumes a constant wind 54.15 Estimated Drift and Leeway. It is
velocity over the whole lateral abovewater area. advance, just how fast a
difficult to estimate, in
Further, it takes no account of second-order ship, mthout power and under given weather
effects such as the downwind motion of the ship conditions, may be expected to drift under the
due to the by the wind, or
lateral force exerted action of wind alone. This is principally because
the fact that the ship away from the
is heeling ships vary in their attitudes to the wind when
wind. For a sudden squall, it takes no account of drifting, so the relative position of the ship axis
the kinetic rolling energy in the ship when it and the wind direction must generally be assumed.
reaches the nominal angle of equilibrium, which Granted that the ship drifts broadside to the
means that the ship would heel beyond the equi- wind, and that it is of normal form, a reasonable
hbrium angle. However, L. Gagnatto, as the value of the 0-diml water-drag coefficient of its
result of a more rigorous analysis [ATM A, 1929, underwater body is 1.15. This is derived by
Vol. 33, pp. 53-74], finds that the rigorous method assuming an actual L/H ratio of 20, but an
gives a maximum angle of heel sensibly less than effective ratio of 10, since atlow speeds the ship
that derived from the approximate method. A behaves essentially as would its underwater hull,
further analysis was carried out by Guntzberger plus a superposed mirror image, drifting down-
and reported a few years later [ATM A, 1934, wind in infinitely deep water. At these low speeds
Vol. 38, pp. 341-355]. the effect of waves resulting from the broadside
E. A. Wright has published a photograph, with motion can be neglected. The drag coefficient
accompanying notes, of a destroyer model under- Cd of a flat plate of these proportions is, from
going a wind-resistance test (in a wind tunnel) Fig. 55.B, about 1.5, but the ship has few sharp
when heeled [SNAME, 1946, Fig. 25, p. 393]. edges like the thin plate, especially under the
Sec. 54.17 AIR AND WIND RESISTANCE OF SHIPS 287

bottom. In any case, too high a value of Co for operating propulsion device (s) due to the current
the lateral water resistance represents an unsafe flowing by them.
estimate, since the calculated rate of downwind A ship with a normal proportion of its total
drift is then smaller than isfound on the ship. bulk volume under water usually rides to the
The resistance to drift may be expressed by current rather than to the wind. This means
that the wind may blow at any bearing relative
(54.x) to the ship, and that the greatest drag due to
both current and wind may be expected when the
ship is riding head to the current, with the wind
The force causing drift is the wind drag of the about 30 deg on either bow. T. Thorpe and K. P.
ship at the relative wind velocity Wr ,
expressed Farrell, in the reference cited,
emphasize the effect
by of gusts and because the wind drag varies
squalls,
as the square of the maximum instantaneous
D^ = C^(Air>(0.5p^)4^Tf„' (54.iv)
velocity, assuming that it blows with this aug-
The lateral wind force is calculated from the mented velocity on the whole ship at once.
latter equation, substituted for the lateral Wind-drag forces on groups of moored ships,
resistance to drift Eq. (54.x), and this lying alongside each other, are given by M. E.
Rorut of
equation is then solved for the drifting speed Long in TMB Report R-332 of December 1945,
entitled "Wind Tunnel Tests to Determine Air
FDri.t .

the abovewater lateral projected area A a

If Loads on Multiple-Ship Moorings for Destroyers
is assumed equal to the underwater lateral area of the DD692 Class."

A and Co for wind drag is taken as 1.18, then

I, ,
The naval architect will require drag data on

for equal wind and drift drags moored vessels only infrequently. No attempt is
therefore made here to include, with or without

(1.18) (for air) TF^ = (1.15) (for water)(7Dri,t)' adaptation, any of the tables, graphs, or diagrams
I |
given in the references.
whence 54.17 Surf ace- Water Currents due to Natural
Wind. A of drift and leeway in
discussion
FLift 1.18(0.001189) particular, andwind resistance in general, is
of
TFi 1.15(0.99525) not complete without some mention of the surface-
water currents produced by a natural wind blow-
ing over a body of water. Some data are available
= 0.035 to relate the magnitude of this current to the
Wr wind velocity but without the necessary informa-
tion as to the height above the water surface at
It is to be remembered that, since the ship is
which the velocity is measured.
drifting downwind,
E. F. Eggert states that this surface current,
Wr = IFt.u, - F:,n,t. presumably more-or-less uniform for the draft
of a surface ship of moderate size, has a mag-
54. 1 6 Estimating the Forces on a M
cored Ship. nitude of 0.015 times the wind velocity [EMB
A brief discussion of the forces on a moored ship Rep. 264, Aug 1930, p. 1, based on data furnished
is included in Sec. 12.8. It is pointed out by T. by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey]. C. O'D.
Thorpe and K. P. Farrell [INA, 1948, p. 116] Iselin states that on the average the surface water
that a ship lying at a mooring is subject to forces moves at about 3 per cent of the wind velocity.
due to wind, waves, and tidal current. Sec. 12.8 This is twice the value just quoted. Further,
mentions that it is also subject to slope drag Iselin reports that the surface-water current
when the ship rides at anchor in an appreciable moves in a direction about 30 deg to the right of
current, with the moored end higher than the free the wind in the northern hemisphere (30 deg to
end. To
the usual resistance forces derived from the left below the equator) ["Oceanography and
relative motion of the ship and the water there Naval Architecture," SNAME, New Engl. Sect.,
is added the drag of the non-rotating or non- Jun 1954].
 CHAPTER 55

The Calculation of Appendage Resistance

55.1 General 288 Tandem 292
55.2 Scale-Effect Problems 288 55.8 Modifications in Drag for Appendages
55 3
. Customary Values and Proportions for Over- Abreast 293
all Ship Appendage Resistance 288 55 9 . The Drag of Exposed Rotating Shafts ... 293
55 4
. Classification of Appendages by Predominant 55. 10 Drag Data for Holes, Slots, and Gaps . .
'

294
Type of Drag 290 55 1 1
. Estimated Resistance of Discontinuities . . 294
55.5 Lift, Drag, and Other Data for Typical 55.12 The Resistance of Large Appendages Con-
Bodies Representing Appendages .... 291 sidered as Parts of the Ship 295
55.6 Allowances for Wake Velocities on Ap- 55 13. The Calculation of Appendage Resistance for
"

pendage Drag 292 Submerged Vessels 295

55.7 Shadowing AUowanoes for Appendages in 55.14 The Displacement of Appendages . . . . . 295

55.1 GeneraL Chaps. 36 and 37 list and This is to determine the hydrodynamic loads on
describe the use and effect of a considerable num- the various parts of the appendage, so that these
ber of fixed and movable appendages, respectively, parts may be made sufficiently strong and rigid
found on many types of surface vessels of normal to meet all service requirements.
form. Within the space available, this chapter 55.2 A great deal has
Scale-Effect Problems.
endeavors to furnish data by which the resistances been written in the technical literature about the
of the most common of these appendages are problems of assessing or determining the Correct
estimated or calculated. This is possible from resistance of appendages when added to a towed
several sources of information: or self-propelled model. An excellent resum^
covering all aspects of this situation in which the
(a) Drag coefficients of submerged geometric
ship designer is interested is presented by P.
bodies and shapes approximating those of the
Mandel [SNAME, 1953, pp. 493-495]. Despite
appendages
their efforts to solve the model-prediction problem,
(b) Observed drag data for various ship append-
the techniques and prediction procedures of
ages, generally from model tests
various model-testing estabhshments still vary
(c) Ranges of percentage of bare-hull resistance
rather widely.
for appendages of normal size and form.
The difficulty here is that almost all ship
The drags listed in (b) are determined separately appendages are completely submerged, they do
by towing a model and removing the appendages not make gravity waves, and hence dynamic
one by one. This involves some experience and similarity of flow is gauged by the Reynolds
knowledge as to just how much of each type of rather than by the Froude number. Only in
appendage to reproduce to small scale. This is exceptional cases, in model basins, can dynamic
especially true of representations ofcomphcated similarity on the i2„ basis be achieved while the
objects such as handrails, antennas, and fittings test of the model as a whole is being conducted on
on submarine models. a Froude-number basis.
Screw propellers which are prevented from It may be assumed by the marine architect

turning by casualty, or which are locked within that, until these problems are resolved by the
the ship for other reasons, constitute a special model-testing establishments, each one has good
kind of appendage, at least as far as drag is engineering reasons for its own procedure. Its
concerned. They represent a special case of the predictions of appendage resistance \vill, in its

situation where the propeller rotates at other
than a thrust-producing rate, and as such are
discussed in Part 5 of Volume III.
There is a second engineering reason for calcu-
lating or predicting the resistance of appendages.
own meet the needs of the ship designer,
opinion,
the shipbuilder, and the ship owner.
55.3 Customary Values and Proportions for
Overall Ship Appendage Resistance. It is often
necessary, as indicated in the latter part of Sec.

288
Sec. 5y.3 APPENnACE-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 289

TABLE 55.a Percentage Increases in Effective Power P^ to be Expected on Trials of Three Types of Ship
The source of these data is given in the accompanying text.

Ship Type
290 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 55.4

Lammeren, L. Troost, G. Koning [RPSS,

and J. An appendage is considered to add wetted
1948, p. 69]. They are reproduced in Table 55.a. surface and friction drag only if:

The graphs of Fig. 55. A show the increases in

effective power Pe for a large destroyer when (a) Its greatest dimension lies in the direction of
four types of appendage are added, one by one. motion; in other words, it has a low aspect ratio
(b) Its surfaces lie in the general direction of flow
The individual percentages may be obtained by
the proper subtraction, on the basis that the when the ship motion is steady
(c) Its thickness, as a fraction of its length in the
resistance effects of the four appendage types are
independent of each other. direction of flow, is small or neghgible.

A roll-quenching keel is an excellent example

for all the foregoing. Both long and short bossings

for propeller shafts and large skegs are considered
essentially as parts of the hull in that their wetted
surfaces are added to that of the hull. Docking
and resting keels are in the same category if their
edges and endings are fair and they lie in the lines
of flow. The friction drag R,, added by each is
then proportional to its wetted area <S. The
discussion of Sec. 22.9 of Volume I indicates that
there is as yet no definite rule for assessing the
proper for these appendages, and for deter-
72^

mining the Cf value for each.

The appendage is presumed to add pressure
drag only when one or more of the following
conditions obtain:
26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Ship Speed, kt Its greatest dimension lies across the flow,
(1)
Tq = I46 To = 1.98
and it has an appreciable or a high aspect ratio
Fig. 55.A Graphs Indicating Percentage Incre- (2) Its thickness, as a fraction of its length in the
ments OF Babe-Hull Resistance for Four Series direction of flow, is about 0.1 or more
OF Appendages on a Destroyer
(3) Its fore-and-aft length is short, say not
exceeding 0.02 the length of the ship. If wake
The graphs of Fig. 55.A indicate, for this model velocities are neglected, V and ;'(nu) are always
at least, that the percentage additions vary the same, for both the appendages and the ship as
somewhat with the ship speed. a whole. This is equivalent to saying that R,, for
Table 55.b lists the percentage differences of the appendage than about 0.02i2„ for the
is less
when a quadruple-screw
total bare-hull resistance ship. The arm of the strut for an exposed shaft
cruisei^ modelrun at three values of T, =
is is an example falUng within the limits of (1), (2),
V
V/ L, with all appendages, and when six series and (3).
of appendages are removed, one by one. Again the
percentage differences are found to vary some- Diving planes, short skegs, rudder support
what with the speed. horns, strut hubs, exposed shafts, guards, fixed
P. Mandel gives data on appendage resistance screw-propeller shrouding, and sound domes are
as a percentage of bare-hull resistance for five among the appendages causing pressure drag only.
types of ship, at three speed-length quotients A rudder,forming a continuation of the ship
if

[SNAME, 1953, Table 8 on p. 494]. Table 55.c may have its wetted area
hull or of a large skeg,
is adapted from the reference. included in that of the main hull, with its drag
55.4 Classification of Appendages by Pre- assumed as entirely frictional. If separate from
dominant Type of Drag. It is customary to the hull, like an underhung spade rudder, its

treat the resistance of each ship appendage as resistance is usually reckoned as a pressure drag
predominantly friction or pressure drag. This only.W. P. A. van Lammeren, L. Troost, and
avoids the complicated extrapolation method J. G. Koning give 0-diml drag coefficients for
customarily used for the ship prediction. seven types of rudders of varied section, all
Sec. 55.5 APPENDAGE-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 291

having an aspect ratio of 2.5 [RPSS, 1948, Fig. Form of Body

Dimension Reynolds Droq
Rotio Number Coefficient
216, p. 326].
55.5 Lift, Drag, and Other Data for Typical Sphere of p/' ^•\___U_
10= 0.50

Bodies Representing Appendages. Appendages Diameter J) 3(10^) 0.20

are also classified by types or shape of body, on
Hemisphere, "jT
the basis that, if they resemble certain geometric ConcQve to 33 >I0^
forms, there are 0-diml drag coefficient data Stream j. _^

available in the Uterature by which their resist- Hemisphere, "y

ances may be approximated. The shapes in this Convex to D . . ,
>I0^
Stream JL V 1^
category include symmetrical and asymmetrical
airfoils, and other parts of airplanes
fuselages, Ellipsoid,
<50o») 0.60
Major Axis
and which published drag data are
airships, for >5(I0») 021
-L to Flow
rather extensive. For example, W. S. Diehl gives
Ellipsoid, XI
f^ )\<^ ^M.8 >2(l0')
Mojor Axis
Dimension Re\(nolds Drag i Is^.^^
Form of Bodvj II to Flow U-
Ratio Number Coefficient J, i_

Circular
Flat Plate,
Normal
Stream
^IC^ =>I0'

l/d-0 >I0'
1
£
3
A Pfoj'acted
^b- >I0^ 1,16
Fig. 55.C Drag-Coefficient Values for a Group
Recto ncjular
Plote,
^-i 1.20
OP 3-DiML Geometric Shapes

Normal 1.50 The velocity vector U indicates the direction of uniform

to Stream
1.90 flow in each case

.1 drag and moment data on a great variety of these

^-0 >\0^ 1.12
elements, as well as on seaplane and flying-boat
1-" 1 0.91

K-T: 2 085 hulls ["Testson Aeronautical Fuselages and

Circular Cylinder, 4 087 Hulls," NACA
Rep. 236, 1926 reports, pp. 131-
Axis Ffarallel to Stream 7 099
150]. S. F. Hoerner, in his book "Aerodynamic
L/D" 1 0.63
z
Drag," 1951, devotes his entire Chapter VIII, on
T- 0.68
Circulor
^ 5 074 pages 121-155, to the drag of aircraft components.
Cylinder, I

10 0.82 He also gives a vast amount of 0-diml drag data,

Axis 20 090
Perpend icubr to Stream
applicable to appendages in water, in other
40 98
1.20 parts of the book.
L/d-5 >5(l0') 0.35 Figs. 55.B and 55.C present the readily available
0.34 geometric-shape data, with the values necessary
2-Diml Strut of Elliptic
for insertion in the 0-diml drag formula
Abt6(l0*)
Section _

D = Cr,^Ar,„,U'

c/t. 0.20
QIO Here Ap,„j may be 0.25tD\ 6(/i), L{D), or b(t),
0.06 as the case requires. These data are adapted from
0.063
2.-Diml StreomlJned Strut the^foUowing sources:
Q094
(a) "The Physics of Aviation," 1942, p. 75
Fig. 55. B Drag-Coefficient Values fob a Number (b) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,
OF Well-Known Geometric Shapes
J. G., RPSS, 1948, Fig. 26, p. 52
The velocity vector U indicates the direction of uniform (c) Rouse, H., EH, 1950, Table 2, p. 126; also Fig. 90 on
flow in each case p. 124.
292 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 55.6

As an example of the application of these data, velocity in the prediction of appendage resistance.
one may estimate the drag of the extensible This means that it is necessary to estimate the
sound-dome assembly shown in diagram 1 of probable actual velocity past the appendage
Fig. 55.D in Sec. 55.7. This is on the basis of no (or its several parts) from the known or estimated
hydrodynamic interference between neck and flow pattern around the ship, considering wakes
hull or between neck and head, and the absence of all the kinds listed in Sec. 11.2 of Volume I
of alternating cu'culation effects due to the and in Chap. For instance, in the example
52.
vortex trail. It may be assumed that the ship concluding Sec. 55.5, if the shape of the ship and
speed is 12.3 kt, that the water is salt, at 59 deg F, the sound-dome position in the ship were given,
and that no account is taken of variations in it could be estimated that for the 3.22-ft length
velocity across the boundary-layer thickness of of the neck the local velocity in the boundary
the hull. layer would average only 0.78 of the ship speed.
For the head, it could be predicted that, because
(1) For the neck, assume a diameter of 1.22 ft
of potential flow outside the boundary-layer
and a length below the hull of 3.22 ft. The L/D
cloak, the average velocity past the head would
ratio is about 2.64 and the c?-Reynolds number
be 1.04 times the ship speed.
for 12.3 kt, or 20.77 ft per sec, is Ud/v = (20.77)
The modified drag, not calculated here, might
(1.22)(10')/1.2817 = 1.98 niilhon. This is greater
not differ greatly from that derived in Sec. 55.5
than the value of 5(10'"') in the lower portion of
but the moment of the drag, taken about the
the box of Fig. 55.B, devoted to the circular
point of support at the hull, would be considerably
cyhnder, with its axis normal to the flow. For
greater. This is because the drag at various
this situation Co = 0.35, hence
^/-distances is proportional to the square of the
local velocity U, which increases with the' y-dis-
D (for neck) = 0.35^^^^ [(3.22)(1.22)](20.77)-
tance from the hull.
= 590.1 lb. Some appendages Ijdng abaft propulsion devices
are acted upon by augmented velocities, to
(2) For the head, assume a diameter of 2.11 ft
develop thrust-deduction forces. Because of the
and a length of 1.72 ft. The L/D ratio is about
V^ effect, the percentage increase in drag for a
1.23 and the Reynolds number is (20.77)(2.11)
given condition is at least twice the percentage
(10')/1.2817 = 3.419 million. This is greater than
augment of velocity.
the 5(10^) referred to in the foregoing but much
Those appendages (or parts of them) lying
less than infinity. Hence
within separation zones might have drag values
1 9905 of the order of zero.
D (for head) = 0.35 ^^^^ [(1.72)(2.11)](20.77)'
Shadowing Allowances for Appendages
55.7

= 545.3 lb.
inTandem. The shadowing allowance(s) for the
downstream unit(s) of a system of similar append-
The total predicted drag is then 590.1 + 545.3 =
ages in tandem, like the fins or portions of a
1,135.4 lb.
discontinuous roll-resisting keel, diagrammed in
A word may be said here about the drag of
Fig. 36. M
on page 553 of Volume I, or for any
some of the bodies represented on Figs. 55. B and
appendage lying downstream from another,
55. C after the cavitating range has been reached.
indicated in diagram 2 of Fig. 55. D, depends upon:
The drag Cd„ for a cavitation number
coefficient
o-(sigma) found to be related in fairly simple
is (a) Whether or not the after unit is actually

fashion to the non-cavitating drag coefficient, as downstream from the leading one, having in
described by P. Eisenberg [TMB Rep. 842, pp. mind the local direction of flow rather than the
19-20], who gives values of the variables for a overall direction of motion. If directly in the
few well-known forms. wake upstream unit, th« following one
of the
55.6 Allowances for Wake Velocities on may benefit from positive wake velocities due to
Appendage Drag. With friction drag varying as viscous flow or separation. If slightly to one side
a power of F in the range of 1.8 to 2.0, and pres- or the other it may suffer increased drag because
—
sure drag excluding that from wavemaking of the augmented velocity -\-AU left inthe water
varying as V, it is important that a reasonably that passed around the leading unit.
correct value be used for the relative water (b) The shape of the bodies, particularly their
Sec. 55.9 APPENDAGE-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 293

^^^^^H^ leading unit and the fore-and-aft distance to the

following For well-streamlined sections,
unit.
normal to the it may be the ratio between
flow,
the section length and the fore-and-aft center-
to-Center spacing.
(d) Whether the traihng unit is so close to the
leading unit as to modify the flow around the
latter, over and above what
it would be by itself

in an infinite stream, change the drag of the

and to
leading unit. When placed close enough behind to
kh^i lie in the separation zone of the leading unit, the

follomng one may have negative drag, as dis-

covered by G. Eiffel [Hoerner, S. F., AD, 1951,
Center-to -Centar DistanC'

_t____^
%^ Fig. 7.1, p. 93].

/struts for Guord-Skeq- !^^

\

Quantitative indications of what may be

Supp ort I^^'II;:^*^—^^— ^^__ _j-
expected when the two appendages or units are
in the form of struts are given by D. Biermann
Offset from (^ ^Length
-»^
u_ NACA
'

and W. H. Herrnstein, Jr., in Report 468

of 1933, entitled "The Interference Between
Struts in Various Combinations." Their conclu-
sions, to be found on page 522, indicate that
interference effects are to be expected if the
leading and following units are closer than 5
section lengths to each other, center to center.
S. F. Hoerner also gives a considerable amount
of interference drag data for airfoUs (or hydro-
foils), flat discs, strut sections, and cyhnders in
tandem [AD, 1951, pp. 83-84, 93-94]. A. Borden,
D. B. Young, and W. M. Ellsworth, Jr., discuss
the drag situation in "Hydrodynamic Induced
Vibrations of Cylinders Towed in Various Combi-
nations," TMB Report C-452, September 1951.
FISH-EYE VIEW 55.8 Modifications in Drag for Appendages
Abreast. The general situation relative to ad-
jacent appendages which must, to fulfill some
Fig. 55. D Definition Sketches for Appendages special be placed abreast
design requirement,
IN Varying Flow, Appendages in Tandem, and each other, is depicted in diagram 3 of Fig. 55. D.
Appendages Abreast Graphs indicating the single and combined drag
of two 2-diml circular rods and of two 2-diml
section shape they are long and slender, with
if streamlined strut sections, placed abreast, are
their axes roughly parallel. A leading unit of pubUshed by S. F. Hoerner [AD, 1951, Fig. 7.4,
circular section generates a long separation zone p. 95]. These show that, whenever practicable,
abaft it, in which the drag of the follo\ving unit is the center-to-center transverse spread should
diminished. On the other hand, a streamlined be at least 4 times the maximum transverse
leading unit leaves in its wake a trail of aug- section thickness tx For a spread of 2tx (or 2D)
mented velocities, in which the drag of the between the centers of a pair of circular cylinders

following unit is increased. drag coefficient Co of each

of infinite length, the
(c) Whether the wake velocities from the leading cyhnder is increased from its normal value of
unit, positive or negative as the case may be, are 1.2 to about 1.54.
largely dissipated by the time the following unit 55.9 The Drag of Exposed Rotating Shafts.
comes along. This is, as a rule, a function of the An exposed rotating shaft, such as that driving
ratiobetween the thickness and bluntness of the a screw propeller, generates two kinds of friction
294 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 55.10

drag, in addition to a lift forceby the Magnus flow component due to non-axial flow at the shaft
Effect. The latter is described and discussed in position, to be calculated presently.
Sec. 37.25 of Volume I and illustrated in Fig. Neglecting rotation and considering only the
37. Q. The shaft also generates a pressure-drag general flow in the vicinity, at an angle to the
force, to be described presently. Rotation of the shaft, the axial component of velocity is [(59.11)
shaft surface involves tangential friction and an cos 8 deg] or 58.53 ft per sec. The component
increase in torque to keep it turning. The forward normal to the shaft is [(59.11) sin 8 deg] or about
motion of the ship and shaft involves longitudinal 8.23 ft per sec. The Co of a 2-diml circular cylinder
friction, much the same as though the shaft were of L/D ratio 40/1.00 = 40 is, from Fig. 55.B,
covered by a casing which did not rotate. A about 0.98. The normal force expected to be
pressure drag, due to the oblique flow of water exerted on the shaft, neglecting the effect of
past the shaft, is exerted in the general plane of rotation, is then
flow, at right angles to the shaft. This drag may
or may not have a longitudinal
component, F = C„^Ap,„,C/=
depending upon the declivity and convergence
or divergence — of the shaft axis.
0.98(lf«5) [(40)(1)](8.23)='
Taking the last item first, the shaft is considered
as a fixed appendage in the form of a 2-diml
= 2,640 lb, for the single shaft.
circular cylinder, placed normal to a flow having
an effective velocity equal to that component of The drag of locked screw propellers is discussed
the actual velocity perpendicular to the shaft axis in Part 5 of Volume III.
and in the plane of that axis. In the absence of 55.10 Drag Data for Holes, Slots, and Gaps.
any better data, the actual streamline velocity What might be called reversed projections, in
may be taken as equal to the speed of the ship, the form of recesses and holes, are considered here
and the direction of flow as parallel to the hull in the category of appendages, especially if they
along an appropriate diagonal flowplane, indi- have physical dimensions corresponding to the
cated by surface (or preferably off-the-surface) appendages usually found on boats and ships.
flow markings, described in Chap. 52. This drag S. F. Hoerner has collected drag-coefficient data
force will have a vertical or lifting component for for holes and gaps, some based on a reference area
most ship installations, possibly having a slight equal to that of the opening in the fair surface
effect on the trim. and some based on the so-called frontal area of
The exact nature of the axial and tangential the downstream face [AD, 1951, pp. 55-56].
components of the viscous flow around an exposed A stagnation point may
be found here, as at Q
rotating shaft remain unknown in the present in diagram C but if not it may be
of Fig. 7.J,
state of the art. It is customary, therefore, to expected that some -|-Ap's are developed on the
neglect both friction-drag components on the downstream face.
shaft, unless the latter is excessively large and Because of the rather comphcated nature of the
rotates at high speed, or unless it is so long that drag effects, the marine architect is referred
it has to be supported by two or more bearings, directly to the Hoerner reference for such data
external to the hull. as he may need.
To give an idea of the magnitudes involved, The design of recesses to reduce their drag is

assume two each 12 inches in diameter,

shafts, discussed in Sec. 75.13.
revolving at 400 rpm, and having an exposed 55. 11 Estimated Resistance of Discontinuities.
length of 40 ft, lying at a mean angle of 8 deg The drag of any large discontinuity, invariably
to the lines of flow at a speed of 35 kt, equivalent attached to a muchbody such as a ship
larger
to 59.11 ft per sec. The layout of P. Mandel from an appendage project-
hull, as distinguished
[SNAME, 1953, Fig. 2, p. 466] shows the star- ing well away from the hull, is dependent upon
board shaft of a twin-screw arrangement of this the flow pattern around it. The latter is, in turn,
kind. The tangential velocity at the surface of affected by the presence of the boundary layer
one shaft, due to rotation only (neglecting cross on the large body, with its variation in local
flow due to non-axiality), is (12/12)x(400/60) = velocity across the boundary-layer thickness.
20.95 ft per sec. This is about one-third the forward In aerodynamics the resistance of discontinuities
speed of the ship and is about 2.5 times the cross- of this type fallsunder the heading of interference
Sec. 55.14 APPENDAGE-RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 295

drag, as developed at the junction of two essen- larger than for a surface ship, notwithstanding
tially dissimilar forms. Again the marine architect the greater total bare-hull resistance of the
is referred directly to S. Hoerner's "Aero-
F. entire vessel, including both the abovewater and
dynamic Drag," 1951, Chap. VII on pages 93-120, the underwater portions in the surface condition.
as embodying the essence of most of the known This is because of:

data in this Although written for the aero-

field.
(a) The provision of diving planes, and possibly
nautical engineer it should be intelhgible to and
also of fixed stabilizers, and rope and cable
useful for the marine architect who has read and is
guards, in addition to steering rudders
familiar with the previous chapters of the present
(b) The necessity for carrying one or more
book.
periscopes
55.12 The Resistance of Large Appendages
(c) The high drag of radio, radar, and other
Considered as Parts of the Ship. Large append-
antennas, and of the masts or supports for them
ages such as deep skegs and long bossings do not
(d) The hull discontinuities embodied in large
resemble bodies for which appUcable and rehable
main-ballast flood-valve recesses or large flooding
pressure-drag data are available. Further, a skeg
openings for the main-ballast tanks
or bossing of a given shape may produce different
(e) The provisions for normal handling of the
flow, velocity, and pressure patterns, depending
vessel as a surface ship and for safety of the crew
upon the form of the hull to which it is applied.
when working about the superstructure deck
There are companion interference effects here, both
(f) The provision of resting keels
of the ship on the appendage and the appendage
(g) The work and expense involved in fairing
on the ship.
and streamlining the abovewater portion of a
It is usually necessary to predict the drags of
vessel of the submersible type which is to spend
these large appendages by:
only a small portion of its operating time sub-
(1) Estimating the pressure drag from statistical merged.
percentage data, as in Sec. 55.3
For a craft in the category of (g) preceding, the
(2) Taking account of the increased wetted area
appendage resistance may well reach 80 or 90
of the ship; that is, the external area of the
or more per cent of the bare-hull resistance of the
appendage less the bare-hull area covered by it
craft as a whole. For a true submarine which still
when applied. This involves an increased friction
requires steering rudder (s) and some kind of deck
resistance Rp although, as explained in Sees. 22.9,
erection but must also carry diving planes,
45.22, and 55.4, there are no acceptable rules for
guards, and other excrescences, the appendage-
estabhshing the correct R^ values for these parts.
resistance ratio submerged may be as high as
(3) Determining the drag from model tests, run
2.0 or 3.0. P. Mandel mentions that, in some
with and without the appendage(s) in question.
cases [SNAME, 1953, p. 466], the appendages
55.13 The Calculation of Appendage Resist- added to a submarine may cause the total drag
ance for Submerged Vessels. The notes of the to be 5 times that of the bare hull alone!
preceding sections of the present chapter apply 55.14 The Displacement of Appendages. The
to the calculation of the resistance of all append- drag of an appendage is of course related to its
ages on submerged vessels, irrespective of their size, although many other factors are involved.
position relative to the hull. Those mounted on It may be of advantage to the marine architect,
top of the hull will, upon occasion, break the in the early stages of a preliminary design, to
water surface. In this case some pressure drag know the approximate size and volume of the
due to wavemaking, of an amount as yet undeter- average appendage, for ships of a rather wide
mined, is added to the pressure drag due to forward variety of tj^jes.
motion. It may
indeed be more necessary to Table 55. d gives some available information of
predict this added drag as a design load on the this kind, in the form of individual weights of
appendage, rather than as an increment of salt water displaced. From the data given, the
resistance of the vessel as a whole, because this percentages of the overall displacement can be
partly awash condition is not one for which calculated. While these data are by no means
resistance predictions are made. modern (Jan 1924) they may serve as the begin-
The ratio of appendage resistance to the bare- ning of a more comprehensive and up-to-date
hull resistance of a submersible is inherently compilation.
296 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 55.14
 CHAPTER 56

Observed Resistance Data for Models and Ships

56 1
. General Comments 297 56.7 Systematic Resistance Data for Parallel-
56.2 Resistance Data from Tests of Models of Middlebody Variations 306
Typical Ships 297 56 8 . Resistance Data for Very Low Ship Speeds . 306
56.3 Systematic Resistance Data from Model 56 9 . Rate of Variation of Model Residuary Resist-
Series; Taylor Standard Series with Con- ance with Speed 306
tours of fijj/A 298 56 10. Variation of Total Resistance of Model and
56 4
. Japanese Fishing- Vessel Standard Series . . 300 Ship with Speed-Length Quotient .... 308
56 5
. Gertler Reworking of Taylor Standard Series 56 . 1 1 Changes in Resistance with Changes of Trim
Data of 1954, with Contours of C^ . . . . 301 and Displacement 312
56 6
. Resistance Data for Very Fat Ships .... 303 56.12 Measured Thrusts and Towing Pulls on Ships 312

56.1 General Comments. This chapter gives the three editions of "The Speed and Power of
information as to the availabihty in the technical Ships" one form or another, the
contain, in
literature of observed resistance data on models resistance-speed curves of models representing
and ships of many types, particularly those tested many forms and types of ships, usually as parts
as systematic or methodic series to determine the of small groups or series. The period since World
effect of certain variables. Accompanying notes War brought a reafization of the necessity
II has
indicate, where necessary, the location of the for more systematic presentation of data of this
lines or body plans
of the models or ships. kind, as witness the work of the Swedish State
These data are supplemented by information Model Basin and of the David Taylor Model
concerning the resistance of unusual ship forms or Basin in reporting test data on numerous models
of more-or-less standard forms run at unusual of vessels of a given class. There is also a wider
speeds. realization of the fact that, for analysis purposes
Means are described for approximating the on the part of a number of workers, the most
resistance of ships when their exact shape is not comprehensive data on models and ships is none
known, when they have not been tested at model too complete.
scale at the speed desired, or when their displace- A leader in this respect has been the Rome
ments are different from the values for which Model Basin. In the annual reports of this
data are available. estabhshment ["Annali della Vasca Nazionale per
Some self-propulsion test data for typical le Esperienze di Architettura Navale"], of which
vessels, plus references to other published data, Vols. I through XI are in the TMB library, there
are to be found in Chap. 60. In almost every case are included very complete data sheets and
these give the predicted effective power Pe for graphs giving the results of tests on selected ship
the ship (or ship design) represented by the model. models of a rather wide variety of types. As
56.2 Resistance Data from Tests of Models of examples, there are included in Vol. X, published
Typical Ships. Attempts have been made from in 1941, test results for six models constructed to
time to time, by interested individuals, to list, the order of various Italian firms. For these
collect, and systematize the enormous mass of models there are given:
pubhshed data on the resistance tests of models.
With so much time and energy devoted to this (a) Tables I and the principal dimen-
II, listing

particular field, in the model basins of the world sions, form and other data for from
coefficients,

over the past seventy-five years, it is a pity that one to five displacement and trim conditions on
only a fraction of the existing test data are in a each model
form usable for analysis and design, and in loca- (b) Tables III and IV, giving the observed drag
tions available to the naval architect and marine Rt and speed V for the six models, at different
engineer. displacements and trims, with water temperatures
The graphic data published by D. W. Taylor in and other necessary data
297
298 HVnROnYNAMICS IN' SHIP DESIGN Sec. 563

(c) Tables V and VI, self-propulsion data for one most of them run at .several displacements, are
model and model propeller published by Jan-Olof Traung on pages 281-310
(d) Tables VII through XII, body plans, out- of the book "Fishing Boats of the World," re-
board profiles, details of appendages, and section- viewed in the first part of Sec. 76.12.These
area curves for the six models sheets are similar to the SNAME RD sheets
(e) I'able XIII, drawing of the model propeller described elsewhere but contain less information
tested per sheet.
(f) TablesXIV through XIX, curves of R^ ,Rb, There has recently been issued (November
and expanded P e for the six models 1955), Part 1 of a group of "Fishing Boat Tank

(g) Table XX, curves of self-propulsion data from Tests," comprising data sheets on 150 models of
the one model tested fishing Copies of this catalog may be
craft.
(h) Table XXI, curves of Ct for the six models obtained on application to the Fishing Boat
(i) Tables XXII through XXIV, curves of Cp Section, Technology Branch, Fisheries Division,
and Ct for the six models Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of
(j) Tables XXVand XXVI, friction-resistance United Nations, Rome, Italy.
coefficients / in the dimensional formula Rp = 56.3 Systematic Resistance Data From Model
jgyi.s25^
for varied lengths of both model and Series; Taylor Standard Series with Contours of
ship i2fl/A. To make possible the calculation of the
(k) Tables XXVII through XXIX, values of approximate residuary resistance of ships of
A'^^ A'^^ and A='^'' for all models. widely varied shape and proportions, D. W.
Taylor devised his now-famous Standard Series,
There have been published, to the date of with the thought that the residuary resistance of
writing (1956), some 160 SNAME Resistance
a ship could be predicted reasonably well from
Data sheets. These carry complete descriptive and the measured resistance of a model of the same
test data for the same number of models, repre- proportions.
senting a great variety of ship sizes and types.
Taylor's primary purpose was supplemented
The observed resistance data are supplemented by eventually by another, equally valuable if not
predicted resistance data for geometrically similar
equally important. This was the gradual but wide
ships of appropriate standard length, say 100 ft,
acceptance of the Taylor Standard Series residu-
400 ft, or 1,000 ft. An example of the latter is the ary resistance as the yardstick for evaluating the
Uner Normandie, RD sheet 39. Two sets of resist-
worth of a particular shape of hull. This is done
ance data sheets are included in Sec. 78.16, made
by comparing its residuary resistance to that of
up for the model tests of (1) the ABC ship with the Taylor Standard Series parent form of identical
the centerline skeg and transom stern, TiMB
proportions. So outstanding was the shape of this
model 4505, and (2) the ABC ship with the arch- parent form, derived from the hull of the British
type stern, TMB
model 4505-1. The RD sheets armored cruiser Leviathan [S and P, 1943, p. 181],
for TMB model 4505 were also published in it is a definite mark
that even a half-century later
7th ICSH, 1954 [SSPA Rep. 34, 1955, pp. 302- achievement to beat the Taylor Standard
of
304].
Series in that part of the speed range where
There are available, to accompany the whole optimum ship behavior is sought.
set of sheets:
The parameters varied in the Taylor series,
I. Explanatory Notes for Resistance and Propul- now known as the proportions of the models (and
ships), were:
sion Data Sheets, SNAME Tech. and Res. Bull.
1-13, Jul 1953 (a) Beam-draft ratio, B/H
II. Index to Model and Expanded Resistance (b) Displacement-length quotient, A/(0.010L)^,
Data Sheets Nos. 1-150, SNAME Tech. and Res. defined in Appx. 1
Bull. 1-14, Jul 1953 (c) Prismatic coefficient, Cp
III. Summary Sheets, 7 in number, containing (d) Speed-length quotient, T^ = V/ a/L, also de-
summarized data for RD sheets 1 through 160, fined in Appx. 1.
and additional information needed for analysis.
The parent form used by Taylor is described in
A series of 29 data sheets containing the model- Sec. 51.2. The lines and principal features of this
test data on that number of fishing-boat hulls. form, together with eight curves of section areas
Sec. 56.3 OBSERVED SHIP-RESISTANCE DATA 299

CONTOURS OF RESIDUARY RESISTANCE IN POUNDS PER TON OF DISPLACEMENT A

Beom-Draft Ratio

Q50 0.55 Q60 0,65 0.70

Lonqitudinol FVismotlc Coefficient Cp
300 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 56.4

for Cp values of 0.48 through 0.80, are shown in and icebreakers. During the years 1946-1949 a
Fig. 51. A, based upon data from the following group of Japanese, Atsushi Takagi, Takao Inui,
references: and Shoichi Nakamura, undertook the testing of
a standard fishing-vessel series covering 0-diml
(1) S and P, 1910, Vol. II, Figs. 79 and 80
S and P, 1933, Figs. 70 and 71, p. 191 fatness ratios of from 6 through 15, corresponding
(2)
(3) PNA, 1939, Vol. II, Fig. 28, p. 92 to a range of Taylor displacement-length quotient
(4) S and P, 1943, Figs. 184, 185, and 186, pp. 182-183. of 171 through 428. The B/H values were 2.2 and
3.0, while the Cp values were 0.55, 0.60, 0.65,
The end results, in the form of contours of
0.70, and 0.75. The range of Froude number F„
residuary resistance Rr
pounds per ton ofin
was 0.16 to 0.38, corresponding to a T^ of 0.537
displacement A for the given proportions, were
to 1.28.
pubhshed in the three editions of "The Speed
Following their procedure of putting all param-
and Power of Ships," as noted:
eters in 0-diml form, the Japanese plotted contours
1910, Vol. II, Figs. 81 through 120, covering a range of of specific residuary resistance C„ , where C„ =
r, from 0.60 through 2.00, for two B/H ratios, namely Z?^/(0.5pV'^'F'). The data were published in
2.25 and 3.75, and for various ranges of displacement-
final form in 1950 by the Fisheries Agency of
length quotient and prismatic coefficient
1933, Figs. 72 through HI, pages 193 through 271, Japan in a book entitled "Graphical Methods for
covering the same range of Tq A/(0.010L)', and Cp as
,
Power Estimation of Fishing Boats."
for the 1910 edition
1943, Figs. 189 through 240, pages 189 through 240,
covering a range of Tq of from 0.30 through 2.00, with the B/T
other variables remaining the same.

Two sets of contours from the latter reference

are reproduced in Figs. 56. A and 56. B. They were
selected to fit the ABC ship example of Sec. 57.6.
To use these contours, values of Rr/A are:

(a) Picked from two sheets for a B/H ratio of

2.25, (1) for a speed-length quotient just below
that desired and (2) for a speed-length quotient
just above it. The contours are entered with the
Cp value along the horizontal scale and the
A/(0.010L)' value along the vertical scale.
(b) Picked from two sheets for a B/H ratio of
3.75, (1) for speed-length or Taylor quotients
just below and (2) just above the desired value.
These are the same T, values as for (a) preceding.

The correct value of Rr/A

is then found by

linear interpolation between the B/H ratios

first,

of 2.25 and 3.75, and then between the two speed-

length quotients.
To illustrate this procedure an example is
worked out in Sec. 57.6 and Table 57. b for the
transom-stern ABC ship having the preliminary
characteristics listed as the fifth approximation in
Table 66.e of Sec. 66.11.
56.4 Japanese Fishing- Vessel Standard Series.
Because the Taylor Standard Series extended
only to a maximum displacement-length quotient
of 250, corresponding to a 0-diml fatness ratio
V/iO.lOLf of 250/28.51 or 8.77, it could not be
used for predicting the performance of fat, chubby
ship forms such as those of tugs, fishing vessels,
Sec. 56.5 OBSERVED SHIP-RESISTANCE DATA 301

more than 2.00 m or 6.56 ft in length; some of was subtracted to give the residuary-resistance
them were as short as 1.80 m, or 5.91 ft. There coefficientCr .

are no data to indicate the water temperatures at The method of correcting for the effects of
which these models were run nor what steps were transition flow is based on the assumption that
taken, if any, to insure turbulent flow throughout. at low Froude numbers the specific residuary-
Copies of these books, for those who wish to resistance coefficient Cr = Rr/(0.5pSV^) is

use the data, are to be found in: practically constant, as indicated in the left
The original data showed that
portion of Fig. 7.H.
(a) SNAME Headquarters in New York
in general Cr decreased with decreasing speed so
(b) Bureau of Ships Technical Library, U. S.
long as wavemaking resistance was important.
Navy Department
There was then a short range of speed for which
(c) Bureau of Ships Preliminary Design Section
Cr remained constant, after which, as the speed
(d) TMB Library.
was still further reduced, the coefficient again
56.5 Gertler Reworking of Taylor Standard began to decrease. This latter decrease was
Series Data of 1954, with Contours of Cr . When attributed to transition flow, and was ignored.
the American Towing Tank Conference decided The practically constant value of the coefficient
in 1947 to adopt the Schoenherr friction-resist- Cr is therefore used for all lower Taylor quotients
ance formulation it was realized that this pro- T„ and Froude numbers, down to values of
cedure would predict effective powers not directly T, = 0.5, F„ = 0.149.
comparable to those calculated from the original Although this procedure is not rigorous, a
TSS contours mentioned and illustrated in Sec. number of recent tests of TMB 20-ft models
56.3. which were towed with and without a turbulence-
The differences in the calculated effective stimulating device indicate that in general tur-
powers result from two causes: bulence stimulation results in no resistance change
formodels which experience only minor transition
(a) The differences between the friction resist-
and those only at the lowest speeds. Good
effects
ances obtained from the Schoenherr formulation
agreement was attained in most of these cases
and those from the old EMB 20-ft friction-plank
between the residuary-resistance coefficient curves
results in the model range
from the unstimulated experiments, faired in the
(b) The differences between the friction resist-
manner described, and those resulting from the
ances obtained from the Schoenherr formulation
tests with the turbulence-stimulating device.
in the ship range and from the Tideman data used
This seems to be especially true with forms having
by D. W. Taylor [Schoenherr, K. E., SNAME,
the TSS type of bow. Two 20-ft models of the
1932, p. 285; PNA, 1939, Vol. II, Table 9, p. 114].
Taylor parent form, having (longitudinal) pris-
Item (a) is reflected as a difference in residuary matic coefficients Cp of 0.613 and 0.746, were
resistance and thus requires that a lengthy cor- tested at the Taylor Model Basin in 1951. In
rection to made to D. W. Taylor's Rr/A con- both cases it was found that turbulence stimula-
tours to render them comparable to modern data. tion Avas required only at low speeds. The pro-
Item (b) merely requires a substitution of the cedure described in the foregoing gave reasonable
Schoenherr formulation with the appropriate agreement with the curves in the turbulent range
roughness allowance to correspond to the Tide- [Todd, F. H., and Forest, F. X., SNAME, 1951,
man data in the ship-prediction procedure. p. 678].
In view of this situation, plus the fact that Corrections for restricted-channel effects in the
water temperatures and turbulence stimulation Washington Basin were made by using the form-
were not taken into account in the original TSS ulas given in TMB Report 460 entitled "Tests of
was decided at the David Taylor Model
testing, it a Model in Restricted Channels," by L. Land-
Basin to reanalyze the original test data on the weber, dated May 1939, with the appropriate
Taylor Standard Series models. In the reanalysis, model and basin dimensions. This correction was
the methods and procedures employed were in most cases small; even for the fullest model of
essentially the same as those currently used at the series it amounted to a decrease in resistance
Carderock. A total-resistance coefficient for the of only 2 per cent.
model was computed, from which an ATTC The results of the re-analysis of the Taylor
1947 or Schoenherr friction-resistance coefficient Standard Series data, carried out by M. Gertler
502 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 56

B/H=3.00 Froude Number

Cp=0.62 VgL

11
0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18

1
0.19

1
0.20
1
0.21

1
0.22 0.23
II 0.24 0.25
II
0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29
1
Sec. 56.6 OBSERVED SHIP-RESTSTANCE DATA 303

and other members of the TMB staff, are given apparent. By moving right and left across the
in a form which employs a completely 0-diml page, the original Taylor contours show clearly
presentation [Gertler, M., "A Reanalysis of the the change in Rr/A for a change in Cp However, .

Original Test Data for the Taylor Standard in the range of T, or F„ where friction resistance
Series," TMBRep. 806, Mar 1954, Govt. Print. predominates, say below a T^ of 1.15, F^ of 0.342,
Off., Washington]. The faired resistance data are the selection of Cp is not made on the basis of a
given as curves of specific residuary-resistance minimum value of Rr/A. The effect of
coefficient Cr on a basis of both Taylor quotient A/(0.010L)' or F/(0.10L)' on residuary resist-
T, = F/VL and Froude number /^„ = F/V^. ance is shown well by both the Gertler reworking
Two of the major proportions used are, as before, and the original Taylor Standard Series contours.
the B/H ratio and the (longitudinal) prismatic The Gertler data have the advantage that, with
coefficient Cp . The scope of the series has been three B/H ratios, interpolation is easier and more
enlarged to include a third B/H ratio of 3.00 in accurate. Indeed, for many B/H values close to
addition to the ratios of 2.25 and 3.75 published 2.25, 3.00, and 3.75, and for a preliminary resist-
in the 1910, 1933, and 1943 editions of D. W. ance estimate, interpolation for beam-draft ratio
Taylor's "The Speed and Power of Ships." The may be omitted entirely.
intermediate values were obtained by interpola- Although never stated in print in so many
reworked data for the hitherto
tion, using the words it was felt by many that the Rr/A con-
unpublished EMB Series 20 which had a B/H tours of the 1910, 1933, and 1943 editions of "The
ratio of 2.92. Speed and Power of Ships" were rather "heavily"
Instead of Taylor's dimensional displacement- faired, probably because in some regions there
length quotient the Gertler reworking makes use were not many spots with which to establish the
of the 0-diml volumetric coefficient Cv = F/L3 ,
proper contour positions on the diagrams. Com-
expressed as a simple number times 10~^. This parisons of Pe for random models with the Pb
number, without the 10"^ factor, is exactly the values of the TSS models of the same proportions,
same as the ATTC fatness ratio F/(0.10L)'. The corresponding to theEHP/Taylor EHP ratios of
origirial T aylor wetted-surface coefficient Cws = the SNAME Expanded Resistance Data sheets,
S/'VAL, which is di mens ional, is replaced by when plotted on F or T^ produced what are
,

the 0-diml Cs = S/VVL. known as "angleworm" curves. Although many of

These and the remaining steps in the reworking these random models represented ships of superior
process are explained most comprehensively and and outstanding performance, their "angleworm"
meticulously by Gertler in the Preface and intro- curves showed rapid and often violent plus and
ductory portions of TMB Report 806, previously minus fluctuations in the values of [1 — EHP/
referenced. Taylor EHP], on a basis of variation in the speed-
The new
presentation differs markedly from the length quotient T^ .

Examining a pair of facing pages, repro-

original. When the TSS data were reworked in 1948-
duced as the two parts of Fig. 56. D, one sees the 1951, all "heavy" fairing was carefully avoided.
graphs of C^ for various volumetric coefficients Nevertheless, variations in the ratio of P^ to the
Cv = V/L\ or fatness ratios F/(0.10L)', extend- reworked TSS Pe values still occur. If not angle-
ing from the lowest speed-length quotient T, of worm in shape they are sinuous and irregular,
0.5 to the highest value of 2.0. All the humps and and they are not always consistent with the varia-
hollows in the complete range of Cr for any , tions of the original data. Additional comments
volumetric coefficient, are visible at a glance. on found in Sec. 57.6.
this feature are
The pair of facing pages embodied in Fig. 56.D 56.6 Resistance Data for Very Fat Ships. The
isused with another pair of pages, not reproduced lack of resistance data for ship forms of large
here, to derive a preliminary estimate of the 0-diml fatness ratio F/(0.10L)', for which the
residuary resistance of the ABC ship, by the Takagi Series described in Sec. 56.4 fills a partial
method described in Sec. 57.6 and illustrated in need, led to the analysis of EMB and TMB test
Table 57.c. The characteristic spot for the ABC data for 44 fat models by R. F. P. Desel and J. T.
ship values listed in that table is added to the Collins. The results are embodied in an MIT
figure. thesis submitted by them, dated 1952 [copy in
Gertler's data have the disadvantage that the the TMB Ubrary]. Although there were 13 tug
effect of variation of Cp on Rr/A is not readily models in the group, and 15 combinations of the
304 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 56.6

old U. S. Shipping Board parallel-middlebody tested in bare-hull condition, and others with
bows, midship portions, and sterns [EMB Series various combinations of appendages. The B/H
53, reported in S and P, 1943, pp. 70-72, 257-271], ratios varied irregularly but lay within the range
the models of the whole group forming the basis The form coefficients were calculated
of 2.0 to 3.0.
of this study were only loosely related. Some were on a basis of length on the waterline. Residuary
resistances were derived by using the ATTC 1947

065
1

Tq-y/VT /.b

\5///

Cp-0.58 |3/^//
10/ '

/ /
^
'////
10//

^^ \',i.'\

^26
7/ ^—J-
/
"'A^Jl]
/ '//

/ /
/ /

—r 'L
///
[0.\OLf / / / /
/
//
-H-
//
/

Fn-V/^

020 02/ 022 023 024 025 026 027 028 0.29 030

Fig. 56.E C„ Data for Fat Ships, Cp = 0.58

Q20 0.21 Q22 aZJ 024 025 026 027 0.26 029 030

Fio. 56.F Cfl Data for Fat Ships, Cp = 0.60

Sec. 56.6 OBSERVED SHIP-RESISTANCE DATA 305

friction formulation. Unfortunately, the speed

range extended only from Froude numbers of
0.20 to 0.30, corresponding to T, values of 0.672
to 1.007. Takagi's F^ range was from 0.16 to 0.38.
The thesis data thus derived are in the form of
contours of fatness ratio F/(0.10L)^ on a basis of
Cr and Cp for eight equidifferent values of Cp ,

plotted on ten sheets for as many different F„'s.

The cross-contours of fatness ratio, when plotted
on Cr and F„ for seven equidifferent values of
,

Cp appear in Figs. 56. E through 56. K. When

,

thus presented they resemble those for the Gertler

reworking of the Taylor Standard Series described
in Sec. 56.5.The Desel-Collins data for Cp = 0.72
are omitted because this is much too large a Cp
value for easy driving of a chubby, fat form.
Because of the unrelated forms and the rather
severe fairing necessary to achieve a regular
pattern of data it was not possible in this group
of models to indicate the humps and hollows
known and F^ For
to occur with change of speed .

this and other reasons the contours are shown as

broken lines. Although lacking the reliability to
be expected from tests of a comprehensive
systematic series, these data nevertheless furnish
an indication of residual resistance to be expected

14

13

12
306 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 56.7

rr-r (1) S and P, 1933, pp. 47, 67, 68, and Appendix D, pp. 299
1
0.35 0.95
through 327
Tq-y//r I6__/. /
(2) S and P, 1943, p. 50 and pp. 70 through 72; also
Appendix D, pp. 255 through 271
(3) Brief extracts from these data are given by K. S. M.
Cb-0.70

Ti
U Davidson in PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 67-69.

It is to be noted from the body plan of the

parent form, given on page 257 of reference (2)
above, that the Series 53 models had practically
// no bulb and were not patterned on the Taylor
Standard Series lines.
The analysis of these parallel middlebody data,
not completed for the 1933 and 1943 editions of
-/ "The Speed and Power of Ships," still remains to
be done.
V 56.8 Resistance Data for Very Low Ship
\/^ / ^
(0.101)"

/
:/3^ /
^ A
/
^
"7'
/
/
-7^ Speeds.

all
Published data on ship resistance pre-
dicted from model tests rarely include the range
the way down to zero speed, yet it is often
convenient to have some idea of the low-speed
Z-
X "'' ^^
/ resistance, or at least to
speed in this region.
know how it varies with

,^ The tables of Cp SNAME

Tech. and Res.
in
Bull. 1-2 of March
two small portions of
1952,
which are reproduced as Tables 45. c and 45. d of
F„=V/v5l
Sec. 45.9, extend down to an i2„ of 0.1 million,
corresponding to a fore-and-aft space dimension
O.ao 0.2) 022 0.25 Q24 0.25 Q26 Q27 02a 029 Q30
of about 0.73 ftand a speed of 1 kt. The Taylor
Fig. 56.K Cr Data for Fat Ships, Cp = 0.70 Standard Series contours [S and P, 1943] stop at
a speed-length quotient T^ of 0.30, F„ value of
guide in making resistance and power estimates about 0.089. The SNAME RD and ERD sheets
for ships having displacement-length quotients in carry down to a T^ and an F„ of about the same
excess of those of the Taylor Standard Series. value.
The data given are based upon the use of the A residuary resistance composed entirely of
Froude circular-constant system of notation. pressure resistance should vary as F" all the_way

56.7 Systematic Resistance Data for Parallel- to F = However, plots of i2„/A on V/Vh for
0.

Middlebody Variations. The first systematic low speeds in the Taylor Standard Series show
model test data on the effect of varied amounts of that it is the exception rather than the rule for the
parallel middlebody inserted between given exponent of the curve oi RrOhV to approximate
entrances and runs were those published by W. 2. This is due partly to the extremely low resist-

Froude [INA, 1877, Vol. XVIII, pp. 77-97]. He ances being measured but there appear to be
plotted curves of residuary resistance Rr for evidences of viscous and other effects not entirely
constant speed F
on a basis of length Lp of eliminated in the Froude model-testing procedure.
parallel middlebody, a procedure which has not An approximation to the residuary resistance
been improved upon to this day. The low points close to F = is derived from a plot of Rr/A on
in the Rr curves for a succession of speeds, or for V/'VL on log-log paper, somewhat similar to
a given speed, indicate the Lp values for minimum that of Fig. 30. B, for say three values of F/ = vL
residuary resistance. These are not necessarily the 0.40, 0.35, and 0.30. Extending the line in a
values for minimum total resistance. generally straight direction downward gives an
Data from tests of the 156 combinations of idea of the low value oi Rr on T^ desired.
EMB Series 53, tested in 1931 for the U. S. 56.9 Rate of Variation of Model Residuary
Shipping Board and plotted on the Froude Resistance with Speed. For certain lines of anal-
system, are pubhshed in: ysis it is useful to know the rate at which the
Sec. 56.9 OBSERVED SHIP-RESISTANCE DATA 307

residuary resistance of the hull of a model varies residuary-resistance formula Rjt — kV", for the
with speed in the equation Rr = fc(0.5p)SF". principal forms of ship hulls, there are plotted in
This matter was investigated many years ago by Fig. 56.L the values of n from model test data on
D. Kemp [INA, 1883, pp. 124-125]. He stated nine different vessels, as reported on the SNAME
that on the steam yacht Oriental the resistance RD sheets listed hereunder:
(total in this case) varied as about V^ in the low- RD sheet 39 Passenger ship Normandie
speed, range, but increased to about F"* in a T, 56 Tanker Tanker E [SNAME,
range of 0.82 to 1.04, F„ of 0.244 to 0.310. It is 1948, pp. 368-369]

known from measured .ship-thrust data that 74 Tug TCB Design TX-7
79 Cargo ship U. S. Mar. Comm. C-i
Rf for hull surfaces of normal roughne.ss varies cargo vessel
as slightly less than the square of the ship speed, 92 Ore ship Wilfred Sykes
probably of the order of the 1.9 or 1.93 power. 96 Destroyer tender U. S. S. Dixie
Although the absolute values of Cf cover a 119 Destroyer U. S. S. Hamilton
121 Heavy cruiser U. S. S. Pensacola
rather wide range, the rates of change of Cf with
ABC ship of Part 4 Transom-stern design.
V, as indicated by a plot of Cf on R„ (with L
and j'(nu) constant), are comparatively small.
The residuary resistances for these models were
That portion of the hull drag due to deflection of
calculated from the formula Rr = Cii{0.5p)SV^,
the water, separation, and similar effects is
using the values of residuary resistance coefficient
assumed to vary as V~. Unfortunately, since Rr
lO^Cjj fisted on the RD
sheets for a range of
includes these effects plus the drag due to wave-
speed-length quotients. These were, in turn,
making, it is still difficult to break up what has
calculated from the observed model resistance
hitherto been classed as residuary resistance into
data and the ATTC 1947 friction formulation, as
physical entities.
described in the SNAME Explanatory Notes
Analytic work on pressure drag due to wave-
accompanying the RD sheets. Technical and
making, described in Chap. 50, indicates that
Research Bulletin 1-13, July 1953.
what may be termed the V^ component is only
The ship wetted surfaces were obtained from
one of those acting. There are components of this
the model wetted surfaces by multiplying by
drag which vary as the 4th, the 6th, the 8th, and
X^(lambda). The Rr values were plotted on
higher powers of V. The expressions for these
log-log paper on a basis of T„ and F„ The velocity .

components are periodic in form, and they produce

exponents n were obtained by measuring the
humps and hollows in the predicted ship-resistance
slopes of the Rr curves at even T^ values. This
curve, similar to those due to surface-wave inter-
work is facilitated by the use of special log-log
ferences in model tests. It is to be expected,
David Taylor
plotting sheets, available at the
therefore, that graphs of pressure drag on a
Model Basin, which have a supplementary scale
basis of speed will show rather pronounced irregu-
of slopes around the margin, to which a slope
larities.
anywhere on the sheet is transferred by a set of
D. W. Taylor made up graphs of this type for
parallel rulers.
two groups of five models each, representing
A curve oi Rr increasing with V on Fig. 56. L is
400-ft ships. The two groups had Cp values of
associated with a finite positive value of n. If the
0.56 and 0.64, respectively, and five different
resistance remains constant with increasing V,
displacements, with ship values ranging from
then n = 0, whereas if R decreases as V increases,
1,920 to 11,520 tons. Using the formula Rr = aV"
which it does in certain speed ranges for planing
and plotting the velocity exponent n on a basis
and other craft, as shown on Fig. 53. D, n becomes
of ship. speed, he obtained the curves shown in
negative. Large circles on the n-curves indicate
Fig. 54on page 48 of S and P, 1943. For some of
the T, for the designed speed along the curve for
the models the residuary resistance varied at a
each ship.
rate exceeding the 11th power of the speed V.
The new velocity-exponent curves indicate that:
This diagram shows definite, rather narrow lanes
embracing all the n values over certain speed (a) The curves for various ship types by no

ranges, despite the 1 to 6 variation in displace- means follow the same pattern, nor do they fall
ment-length quotients. in lanes, as do D. W. Taylor's earlier data [S and
To determine whether there are systematic or P, 1943, p. 48]
characteristic patterns in the exponent n of the (b) The n-value for the big ore ship reaches 5.75
308 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 56.10

0.2 0.3 0.1 a5 0.6 0.7 O.S 0.9 1,0 I.I 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 I .6 1.7 I.S 1,9 2.0 2.1

Fig. 56.L Variation of Speed Exponent in Rbsiduart-Resistance Formula Rr = kV" FOR Nine Large Ships

at the designed T^ of 0.544. This indicates that expected that, at T^ values near the maximum,
the large volume on a given length, characteristic n will be negative. This occurs for the PT boat
of this ship, is carried at an unreasonably high in Fig. 53.D.
price in wavemaking resistance. The n-value is (f) There are irregularities in the n-curves
only slightly over 3.0 at a T, of 0.4. This reveals unexplained on the basis of wave interference
an acceptably low wavemaking drag for the lower alone.
speeds customary with this type when it was
first developed into large sizes in the early 1900's. 56.10 Variation of Total Resistance of Model
(c) For actual ships which are driven hard, and Ship with Speed-Length Quotient. It is use-

values of n exceeding 7.0, 8.0, and over are by no ful at times for the designer to be able to find
means unusual. High-speed ships may reach the quickly the total resistance of a ship in some

greatest n-value at a speed less than the maximum, everyday terms such as pounds of total resistance
with a greatly diminished n at that speed, as for per ton, expressed by flr/A, at say the designed

the heavy cruiser Pensacola and the destroyer speed,when only the type of ship and the approxi-
Hamilton in Fig. 56.L. The following footnote by mate Taylor quotient T, = F/vL or Froude
C. Rougeron is quoted from the U. S. Naval number F„ are known. For example, the Rt/^
Institute Proceedings, February 1953, page 190: value for a large, modern Great Lakes freighter
at designed speed is about 2 lb per ton, that of an
"Actually, the speed-power ratio increases in a some-
what more complicated manner. In a recent French Atlantic liner is some 10 lb per ton, and that of a
leader the 'direct' resistance is found to vary in
flotilla fast motorboat is of the order of 600 lb per ton.
proportion to the square of the speed at low speeds, to the H. M. Barkla has published a log-log plot showing
6th power of the speed in the vicinity of 28 knots; and only values of the ratio Rr/W on a base of T^ for
to the 1.35 power of the speed for speeds in the vicinity
eleven sailing-yacht and motorboat hulls, as
of 38 knots."
listed on page 237 of his paper "High-Speed
(d) Some planing craft show pronounced knuckles Sailing" [INA, 1951, Vol. 93]. The range of T, is
in the curve of Rr on V, with accompanying from 0.4 to 10 and of Rr/W from 0.004 to 0.3.
sudden drops in the value of n, as in Fig. 30.B. Barkla's resistance-weight ratio is 1/2,240 times
The data from which Fig. 53. D of Sec. 53.7 were the ratio Rt/^, when the latter is expressed as
plotted show no such sharp discontinuities but pounds resistance per long ton of weight.
they do reveal that at several points the resistance To provide data for a greater variety of water
levels out so that it varies with V at some power craft, both large and small, there have been
only slightly greater than 1.0. plotted on Fig. 56. M the values of flr/A, at the
(e) For high-speed planing craft it may be designed speed, of a considerable number of
Hec. 56.10 OBSERVED SHIP-RESISTANCE DATA 309

i^kl

4 5 6 7 8 S 10

Fig. 56. M Plot of /?r/A on T, for Many Vessels at Their Designed Speeds

vessels ofmany types. The data indicated by the are considerably larger than the apparent varia-
small circles on the figure are derived from cal- tions on the figure. It is possible that a single
culated values of the total resistance of the ship, meanline will not suffice in this region, especially
based upon model tests, at the speed listed in the in view of the large variations in characteristics
general-information block on the respective of vessels running at the same T, value. For
SNAME RD sheets. Unfortunately, the model instance, the upper circle at a T, of about 1.93
data on some sheets are for bare hull only; on represents a small patrol boat with a displacement-
other sheets they are for the hull plus simple length quotient of 93.4, while the lower circle at
appendages. This variation is considered not too a r, of about 1.985 represents the destroyer
important as the plot is intended for indicating Hamilton, with a displacement-length quotient
approximate values only. of only 40. The plot of Fig. 56.M does, however,
It is found that a single tentative meanline indicate regions of T^ where the data for certain
passes close to or through most of the designed- classes of vessels are to be found.
speed spots, regardless of the size or type of It is probable that, as more model data are
vessel or of the T, at which it runs. For the higher plotted in the upper right-hand corner of this
Tj values there is considerable dispersion in the graph, the final meanline will be considerably
few available spots, especially as the vertical lower than the one now indicated, especially for
scale is logarithmic and the variations in per cent high-speed craft of good to e.xcellent performance.
SIO HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Src. 56.11
Sec. 56.12 OBSERVED SHIP-RESISTANCE DATA 311

removed; sec the series of reports listed subsequently Resistance of TiOng Planks and Ships," INA,
in this section. 1934, pp. 284-320 and Pis. XXVI-XXXIII, and
"Experimental Investigations on the Frictional
The towing of ships, without their propulsion Resistance of Planks and Ship Models," Society of
devices, to determine their full-scale resistances Naval Architects of Japan, Dec 1934, Vol. LV.
directly, has been a subject of active discussion The INA paper described and gave the results of
towing tests on the destroyer Yudachi, on a so-called
among naval architects since about 1850. The
"plank ship," 77 ft long and 0.525 ft wide, as well
thought that it constituted the only valid method as on a tug (unnamed), having a length of 114.83
of attack on ship-resistance and propulsion ft and a displacement of 296.93 t. The displacement

problems was, in fact, put forward in the late of the plank ship was 3.356 t; its L/B ratio was 147.

1860's and early 1870's as one of the arguments
against the proposals of W. Froude to establish
the first model-testing basin. Froude, with his
usual wisdom and thoroughness, tackled both
the full-scale and the model problems. Under his
Included in the towing test was a 26-ft model of
the Hashike and of a 56-ft Vedette boat; see PI.
XXVI of the INA paper. Lines and other data of
the 300-t twin-screw tug are given on PI. XXXI of
that paper.
(6) U. S. S. YTB 602; 100-ft, 1,000-horse single-screw

supervision the hulk of H. M. S. Greyhound, less its harbor tug, early 1950's. This vessel was towed,
with its propeller removed, by the U. S. S. LSM
propeller, was towed for resistance in the early
458, the latter fitted with Kirsten rotating-blade
1870's but the results were somewhat disappoint- propellers. Due to surging of the towed vessel, the
ing, partly because of the excessive roughness presence of wake from the towing and other vessel,

(by modern standards) of the hull surface. factors, the test data are not up
to standard and

Since that time others have engaged in similar
(7)
projects,using improved methods and instru-
mentation. The full-scale towing tests for which
data have been published, including the Grey-
hound experiments, are listed hereunder:
have not as yet (1955) been fully analyzed.
British Shipbuilding Research Association, Lucy
Ashlon, 1950-1951. This was an ex-paddlewheel
steamer driven by abovowater gas-jet engines. The
complete set of test reports follows:
(a) Denny, Sir M. E., "B. S. R. A. Resistance

(1) Froude, W., H. M. S. Greyhound, about 1874. Report Experiments on the Lucy Ashion. Part I FuU- —
published by Froude in the paper "On the Experi- Scale Measurements," INA, 1951, Section on Int.
ments with H. M. S. Greyhound," INA, 1874, pp. Conf. Nav. Arch. Mar. Engrs., p. 40ff. The prin-
36-73 and Pis. III-XIII. The towing-test data cipal characteristics of the Lucy Ashion are:

from the Greyhound experiments have been ana- Lpp = 190.5 ft D = 7.177 ft (molded)
lyzed by A. M. Robb [INA, 1947, Vol. 89, pp. Cb = 0.685
6-15; abstracted in SBSR, 5 Jun 1947, pp. 568- B = 21.0 ft (molded) H = 5.0 ft, to bottom of
571; also TNA, 1952, p. 449]. hull proper
(2) Yarrow, A. F., British first-class torpedoboat, 100 ft A = 390 t S = 4,488 ft^ incl. append-
long, 1883. Report published by Yarrow in the ages
paper "Some Experiments to Test the Resistance Cp = 0.705 Cm = 0.972.
of a First-Class Torpedo-Boat," INA, 1883, Vol.
(b) Conn, J. F. C, Lackenby, H., and Walker,
24, pp. 111-117.
Double-ended ferryboat Cincinnati (for New York
W. P., "B.S.R.A. Resistance Experiments on the
(3)
harbor), 1896. Report published by F. L. DuBosque,
—
Lucy Ashion. Part II The Ship-Model Correlation
for the Naked-Hull Conditions," INA, 1953, p.
SNAME, 1896, Vol. 4, pp. 93-104, esp. pp. 93-94.
350ff. The first two parts were published as
(4) Yokota, A., Yaraamoto, T., Shigemitsu, A., and
B.S.R.A. Rep. 107 in 1952.
Togino, S., hull of 40-ft steam launch, about 1929.
(c) Lackenby, H., "B.S.R.A. Resistance Experi-
Report embodied in the paper "Pressure Distribu-
tion Over the Surface of a Ship and its Effect on
ments on the Lucy Ashion. Part III The Ship- —
Model Correlation for the Shaft-Appendage Con-
Resistance," Proc. World Eng'g. Congr., Tokyo,
ditions," INA, Apr 1955, Vol. 97, pp. 109-166
1929, Vol. XXIX, Part 1, publ. in Tokyo in 1931.
(d) Smith, S. L., "B.S.R.A. Resistance Experi-
The steel steam launch forming the subject of
these tests had an Lpp of 39.37 ft, an extreme beam
ments on the Lucy Ashion. Part IV Miscellaneous —
Investigations and General Appraisal," INA, 1955.
of 9.79 ft, and a draft of about 3.99 ft. The tests
included measuring the thrust at the thrust bearing (8) Nordstrom, H. F., hulk of Swedish destroyer Wrangel,
during self-propelled tests. Further details from about 1952. Report published as "Full-Scale Tests
this paper and additional general data relative to with the Wrangel and Comparative Model Tests,"
the tests are given in Sec. 42.10. Data from tests SSPA Rep. 27, 1953 (in English).
of one-third scale models of the launch are men- (9) Large-scale self-propelled model D. C. Endert, Jr.,
tioned also in Sec. 52.3. representing a Victory ship; about 1953. Full-scale
(5) Hiraga, hulk of Japanese destroyer Yudachi,
Y., trials of a Victory ship were conducted by the
about 1934. Reports published by Hiraga in the Dutch in conjunction with tests of five model
two papers "Experimental Investigations on the geosims, plus an independently powered 72-ft
312 HYDRODYNAMICS
model built of steel, named the D. C. Enderl, Jr.
One of the first installments of the published data
on this project was prepared by W. P. A. van
Lammeren, J. D. van Manen, and A. J. W. Lap,
entitled "Scale-Effect Experiments on Victory
Ships and Models. Part I, Analysis of the Resist-
ance and Thrust Measurements on a Model Family
and on the Model Boat D. C. Endert, Jr.," INA,
Apr 1955, Vol. 97, pp. 167-245.
(10) French minesweeper Aldebaran, about 1954. The
report of this work was published by R. Retail
and S. Bindel in a paper entitled "fitude k la
Mer de la Resistance ^ la Marche et de la Propul-
sion; Rapprochement avec le Module (Sea Trials
to Determine Towing Resistance and Propulsion:
Correlation with the Model)," ATMA, 1955. These
trials 'involved towing the minesweeper Aldebaran
with the mines weeperfSiriits (a sister ship), with
IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 56.12
the two propellers of the Aldebaran removed and
dummy hubs substituted. Otherwise the append-
ages on both vessels were the same, comprising
roll-resisting keels, twin rudders, exposed twin
propeUer shafts, and twin supporting struts.
Towline tensions were measured, both on the
towing and on the towed vessels. Shaft torques
were observed by torsion meter on the towing
vessel but no propeller-thrust readings were taken.
The vessels were 140.95 ft long on the waterline,
with a maximum waterline beam of 27.95 ft and a
mean draft of about 7 ft. The displacement with
appendages was 380 long tons.
(11) Silovi6, S., and Fancev, M., "Measurements on
M. V. Rijeka, with their Attempted Practical
Application," INA Autumn meeting, 1955, in
SBMEB. Apr
Yugoslavia; abstracted in 1956, pp.
264-266.
 CHAPTER 57

Estimate of Total Resistance for Surface and

Submerged Ships
57.1 General 313 57.9 An Approximation of Separation Drag . . 321
57.2 Summary of Kinds of Ship Resistance ... 313 57.10 Slope Resistance and Thrust 321
57.3 Ratios of Major Resistance Components . . 313 57.11 Ship Still-Air and Wind Resistance from
67 4
. Methods of Approximating the Total Resist- Chapter 54 322
ance of a Ship 315 57 12
. Calculating the Overall Wetted Surface and
67.5 Ship Friction Resistance Calculation from Bulk Volume of a Submerged Object . . 322
Chapter 45 310 57 13
. Drag Coefficients and Data for Submerged
57.6 Residuary Resistance Prediction from Refer- Bodies 322
ence and Standard-Series Data 316 57. 14 Pressure Resistance of Submerged Bodies as
67.7 Telfer's Method of Predicting Ship Resist- a Function of Depth 323
ance 318 57 15
. Resistance Due to Flow of Water Through
57.8 Analytical and Mathematical Methods of Free-Flooding Spaces 323
Predicting Pressure Resistance 321

57.1 General. This chapter covers methods Sees. 12.1 and 12.10 of Volume I and defined in
of estimating, calculating, and predicting full-scale Sees. 12.2 through 12.7. This subdivision, based
resistance data for bodies or ships, intended to run on the Froude theorem that the resistances due
on the surface or submerged, based upon available to tangential and to normal forces on the ship
information. It does not discuss the extrapolation are for the most part independent and therefore
of model-test data to full scale for any specific can be segregated, is repeated here in Table 57.
ship design. Descriptions of this procedure, at for the convenience of the reader. However, the
least as utilized by members of the American interactions listed in Sees. 12.1 and 12.10 are
Towing Tank Conference, are published in placed under a separate heading.
SNAME Technical and Research Bulletin 1-2, The following sections describe, in turn, various
entitled "Uniform Procedure for the Calculation means of estimating these different kinds of
of Frictional Resistance and the Expansion of resistance.
Model Test Data to Full Size," of March 1952. 57.3 Ratios of Major Resistance Components.
Details of the testing and extrapolating proce- Useful ratios in analysis and design are the per-
dures, corresponding to those in general use in centages of the friction and residuary resistances,
America, are described in Bureau of Construction according to the Froude subdivision, making up
and Repair Bulletin "The Prediction
7, entitled the total hull resistance. The solid line in Fig.
of Speed and Power by Methods in Use
of Ships 57. A, dividing the total Rt into friction R^ and
at the United States Experimental Model Basin, residuary Rr over a T^ range of 0.4 to 2.0, is
Washington," 1933. adapted from V. M. Lavrent'ev ["Marine Pro-
This chapter also gives some information con- pulsion Devices," Moscow, 1949, Fig. 37, p. 85].
cerning the resistance of fully submerged bodies The same original diagram is published by G. E.
resembUng submarines. These data may be found Pavlenko ["Soprotivleniye Vody Dvizheniyu Su-
of benefit to the marine architect when he is dov (The Resistance of Water to the Movement
called upon to approximate the drag of a non-ship of Ships),"Moscow, 1953, Fig. 5, p. 16, covering
form to be towed submerged. a range of F„ from 0.1 through 0.6]. The broken
57.2 Summary of Kinds of Ship Resistance. line is based on data from the SNAME RD
The various categories into which, in the present sheets for about twenty ships, more easily driven
state of the art, the resistance of a ship to steady than those of the Taylor Standard Series. It
straight-line motion is divided, are listed in includes a roughness allowance (lO')ACp of 0.4.

313
314 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 57.3

TABLE Classification and Subdivision of

57.a
THE Resistance op a Ship to Steady, Straight- 0,20 0.25 0.30 0J5 O.40| 0.45

Ahead Motion
I. Pressure Drag or Resistance, due to Normal Pressure
on the Ship

(a) Deflection drag and closing thrust for the hull proper
(b) Deflection drag and closing thrust for the hull
appendages
(c) Rg and cavitation drag,
Separation or eddying drag
for the hull proper and
appendages for the
(d) Wavemaking drag Rw for the hull proper and for
,

such appendages as may be near enough to the surface to OA 0.6 0.6 1,0 1.2 1.1 I. I.S 20
generate waves
(e) Drag due to the generation of spray roots and spray. Fig. 57. a Typical Percentages op Friction and
Residuart Resistances for a Range op Speed-
II. Friction or Tangential Resistance Rp on the Wetted Length Quotients
Area. This is considered to be either: The significance of the two graphs is explained in the
text
(a) Tanvis resistance, varying as Z7 or F to the first
power
(b)Tanqua resistance, varying as U^ or V^ The circled spots are values for the ABC transom-
(c)Some unknown combination of (a) and (b), varying stern ship designed in Part 4, for the sustained
as an unknown (and probably varying) power of f7 or F sea speed and trial speed, respectively.
between 1 and 2.
Both curves are loci of division points for de-
A different classification could be used here, embodying a
signed speeds at the various T^ and F„ values
subdivision into:
(c) Friction resistance on such hydrodynamically given. It is to be noted that the ratios of Rk to
smooth surfaces, flat or curved, as may be incorporated in Rf vary rather widely over the speed-length range
the ship indicated. If ships are overdriven the percentage
due to roughness superposed on
(d) Friction resistance
oi Rii may be up to twice as great as that shown
the hydrodynamically smooth surfaces, flat or curved.
in the figure. If underdriven, it may be only
III. Interactions between I. and II., as follows: two-thirds as large.

(a) Interaction effect of viscous or friction flow on the

pressure resistance due to wavemaking, and the reverse,
symbolized by Rwf
(b) Interaction effect of separation or
eddying on the
pressure resistance due to wavemaking, or the reverse,
symbolized by Rws
Interaction effect of viscous or friction flow on the
(c)

pressure resistance due to separation or eddying, or the

reverse, symbolized by Rsf •

IV. Air and Wind Drag and Resistance, embodying:

(a) Still-air resistance due to ship motion alone,

Rsa >

with a true or natural wind of zero 0.4 0.6 08 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.6 2.0

(b) Wind drag D,f, exerted always downwind from the

,

relative-wind direction. This drag has both transverse

Fig. 57.B Percentages of Friction and Residuary
and axial components, due to aerodynamic lift and drag. Resistances for Three Specific Cases
(c) Wind composed of the net axial
resistance iJwind >

force imposed by the wind, acting opposite to the direction Fig. 57. B indicates, for an EMB research
of ahead motion. The definitions of and distinctions
model, for the transom-stern ABC ship design,
between these terms are explained in Sees. 26.15 and 54.1
and for destroyers as a class, the variation of
and illustrated in Figs. 26.G, 26.H, and 26.1.
friction and residuary resistances throughout the

V. Gravity Forces Acting on the Ship:

intermediate and upper speed ranges of those
ships. EMB model 2861 is the subject of the
Slope drag Ds due to the inclination of the buoy-
(a) ,
first model pressure-distribution tests made by
ancy-force vector to the weight-force vector, with a force
component opposing motion E. F. Eggert [SNAME, 1935, pp. 139-150]. As
(b) Slope thrust Ts , similar to (a) preceding but with expected, in the low-speed ranges before appre-
a force component assisting motion. ciable wavemaking begins, the total resistance in
Sec. 57.4 TOTAL RE.Sl,STy\NCF. OF RODY OR SHIP 315

each case is largely frictional. In the high-speed This compares well, as a quick approximation,
ranges, at and near designed-speed T, values of with the value of 171,830 lb derived in Sec. 66.9
1.6, 1.7, or more, Rp is only slightly greater by the use of the Schoenherr mean friction line
than O.Sflr . and the Gertler reworked data of the Taylor
57.4 Methods of Approximating the Total Re- Standard Series described in Sec. 56.5. Actually,

sistance of a Ship. sometimes necessary to

It is for the destroyer tender, the Ct at 20.5 kt would
estimate the total resistance of a ship at a given be higher than the figure quoted.
speed, usually the designed speed, when nothing One may, of course, pick a vessel from the
more is known of it than its principal dimensions SNAME RD and ERD sheets having proportions,
and weight displacement. The ship in question shape, and form coefficients close to those .selected
ma}' not even be designed or the one making the for the vessel being designed. Reference to the
estimate may never have heard of it before. The appropriate SNAME ERD sheet gives directly
ship has not been tested in model scale and there the values of total resistance Rt , total resistance

is no opportunity of doing so before the resistance per ton of weight Rt/^, and Pb for a geosim
estimate is required. vessel having a "standard" length of 100, 200, 400,
A crude approximation of the total resistance, or 1000 ft, as indicated on the sheet. The total

for a speed V, is given directly by the formula resistance of the geosim ship of the length under
design is then determined by correcting for the
Rt = Cr(0.5p)SF' (57.i)
difference in friction resistance due to the differ-

ences in length and in speed between the reference

where Ct is estimated for the T, or F^ in question
ship and the "design" ship. This scheme, or a
by reference to the full-scale values for one or
modification of it, has the advantage that curves
more similar ships of nearly the same size, such
oi Rt and Pe can be constructed for a range of
as those listed in the SNAME RD Summary
Tj or F„ considerably greater than will be en-
Sheets. The wetted area S is taken as the value
coimtered in practice. The full-scale data on the
for the similar ship or is derived by the Cs
SNAME RD Summary Sheets are for the
coefficient of Sec. 45.12.Care is required that the
designed-speed spot only.
reference ship is of about the same length as the
Another rapid method of approximating the
ship for which the total resistance is to be derived,
total resistance for the designed-speed spot is to
so that for a given T, or F„ the Reynolds number
pick the value of Kt/A, at the proper T^ , from
R„ and the specific total friction drag coefiBcient this value
the meanhne of Fig. 56.M. Multiplying
Cp are both nearly the same.
by the weight displacement A gives fir at once.
For example, in the early stages of the ABC
For example, the i2j./A value for the ABC ship,
design, described in See. 66.9, the total resistance
at a T, of 0.903, is 10.2 lb. Multiplying by 17,300
is required to furnish a first approximation of the
tons, the displacement at an early stage of the
shaftpower. Reference to the SNAME RD design, gives a total resistance of 176,400 lb. This
Summary Sheets indicates that the destroyer quoted earlier in
compares with the 171,830 lb
tender of RD sheet 96 closely resembles the ship
the section.
being designed. The latter sheet indicates that
time available, to estimate
It is customary, if is
the appendages are limited to a half -rudder only.
separately the friction resistance Rp and the
For the tender, at its designed speed of 20 kt,
residuary resistance Rr hy the methods of the
the value of the total specific resistance coefficient
two sections following, using model-test data
Ct is 3.023(10^^) and the wetted surface S is
from a parent form such as the Taylor Standard
46,509 ftl The designed speed V for the ABC Series. They are added to give the total resistance
ship is 20.5 kt, or 34.625 ft per sec; the numerical
Rt This method enables the designer to draw
value of V is 1,198.9. Then, for the ABC ship,
.

curves of estimated Rp Rt and Pp for a very

, ,

on the assumption of the same Ct and the same

large range of Taylor quotient T^ or Froude
S, and for roughly the same speed,
number F„ .

Strictly speaking, the use of standard-series or

Rt = Ct{0.5p)SV^
reference datafrom models or ships of different
= 3.023(10~')(0.9905)(46,509)(1, 198.9) shape, even though of thesame dimensions and
proportions and having exactly the same form
= 166,960 lb. coefficients, requires the use of a shape-correction
316 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 57.5

factor. For example, it has to be decided whether may have rather wide flat surfaces on top, to
the shape contemplated for the design will have provide walking space on the superstructure
less (or more) resistance than the standard-series deck. The transverse curvature along portions of
or reference hull of the same proportions. This is the deck edges, even though they are rounded, is
afforded, after a fashion, by the EHP/Taylor likely to be more severe than along the bilge
EHP or "angleworm-curve" ratios of the SNAME corners of a surface vessel.
ERD sheets. However, with many such ratios 57.6 Residuary Resistance Prediction from
at hand, to formulate anything
it is still difficult Reference and Standard-Series Data. It is pos-
approaching systematic rules for guidance in sible to approximate the residuary resistance of
this matter. A bulb bow carried by the new a surface ship, at a given speed V, or at a series
design, if appropriate, will reduce its resistance of speeds, by assuming that it is the same as the
below the Taylor Standard Series value. This is residuary resistance Ra of a model having the
one reason why the resistance of the ABC tran- same proportions. Data of this kind can be found
som-stern design, determined by model test, is in the SNAME RD sheets and similar sources.
less than the values calculated earlier in this Continuing the discussion of Sec. 57.4, it is
section. somewhat risky to rely on the proportions Cp ,

Most books on naval architecture give several B/H, and A/(0.010L)' (or ^/(O.IOL)') as com-
formulas and methods for predicting the total prising the sole as well as the preponderant
resistance and effective power of ships in the influences on residuary resistance, neglecting the
design stage, perhaps before the lines aredrawn shape factors entirely. What appear to be minor
and certainly before models are built and tested. differences in shape or proportions often produce
For example, G. E. Pavlenko describes no less appreciable changes in resistance. These will not
than eleven methods, dating from 1899 to the be explained, and can not be allowed for, until
present, . including Taylor's Standard Series, our present (1955) knowledge of ship hydrody-
Ayre's method, and Doyere's method, for finding namics is considerably extended.
the resistance and effective power of merchant The calculation of values of Rr/A for a range
and. naval vessels of different kinds ["Soprotiv- of speeds and a given set of proportions, by
leniye Vody Dvizheniyu Sudov (The Resistance assuming that these are the same as for a TSS
of Water to the Movement of Ships)," Moscow, "phantom" ship of exactly those proportions,
1953, pp. 305-379]. takes it for granted that the shape of the proposed
In all these cases, however, it is most important ship is as good as (and no better than) that
of the
to note the limitations on each formula, graph, TSS This does not prevent a designer,
ship.
table, or method, as given in the text. If no however, from estimating that his proposed hull
limitations are mentioned, they should be sought will have x per cent less or y per cent more
in other references or directly from those who residuary resistance than the TSS "phantom"
prepared and published them. hull. The difficulty here, as mentioned previously,
57.5 Ship Friction Resistance Calculation from is the lack of systematic and reliable data for
Chapter 45. The methods used and the numbers selecting the x- and y-values.
required for a calculation of the ship friction The contours of Rr/A for the Taylor Standard
resistance, including all types of roughness, are Series are described in Sec. 56.3. Two sets of them,
set forth in detail in Sees. 45.12 through 45.20. for V/Vl = 0.90, are illustrated in Figs. 56.A
The method for calculating the wetted length and These contours are intended to be used
56. B.
and thje wetted area S for planing hulls is dis- for ships having the same proportions Cp B/H ,

cussed in Sees. 45.24 and 53.6. and displacement-length quotient A/(0.010L)^.

The method of calculating the friction drag of The designer may apply, as x- and y-values,
a submerged submarine is essentially the same increments or decrements of Rr/A.
as for a surface ship, except for the inclusion of An illustrative example of the Taylor Rr/A.
the entire outer area, surrounding what is de- method, for the fifth approximation of character-
scribed elsewhere as the bulk volume. The trans- istics in the preliminary design of the transom-
verse curvature of the lower part of the hull of a stern ABC ship described in Part 4, is given in
submarine is, as a rule, relatively less than for the Table 57. b. The basic data for this stage of the
bilge corners on a large surface ship with flat or design are listed in the right-hand column of
nearly flat floors.However, a submersible hull Table 66. e in Sec. 66.11. The proportions required
Sec. 57.6 TOTAL RESISTANCE OF BODY OR SHIP 317

for this calculation are Cp = 0.62, B/H = 2.808, 16,400 t to give the predicted total /?« of 65,829
and A/(0.010L)' = 123.6, while the value of lb, for the "phantom" TSS ship having the
r„ at the designed speed selected for this example proportions of the ABC ship.
is 0.908. The displacement is assumed here as No allowance is made here for the difference
16,400 tons. between the salt-water specific gravity of 1.024
The linear interpolations described in Sec. 56.3 for all the TSS data and the specific gravity of
are set down in Table 57. b, adapted from D. W. 1.027 for the ABC ship.
Taylor's Table VIII-A [S and P, 1943, p. 63]. The method of predicting the residuary resist-
The characteristic spots drawn A and
in Figs. 56. ance of a given ship from the "phantom" Taylor
56. B indicate the coordinates of Cp = 0.62 and Standard Series ship having the same proportions
A/(0.010L)' = 123.6 for both B/H ratios (of is rather different when the Gertler reworked
2.25 and 3.75, respectively), at a T, of 0.90. The TSS data are employed. These are described in
values of Rr/^ for this speed-length quotient Sec. 56.5 and a sample calculation is set down in
were picked from the originals of Figs. 56. A and Table 57. c. The ship selected is the fifth approxi-
56. B, drawn to a scale over three times larger mation of the ABC design, hsted in Table 66.e of
than that of the reproductions. Normally it is Sec. 66.11, but the basic data now involve the
not possible to determine the values of Rr/A by wetted surface S and the fatness ratio F/(0.10L)^.
inspection to more than three significant figures, These are, from Table 66.e, 44,759 ft' and 4.327,
indicated in Table 57.b for a T, of 0.95. respectively. The mass density p is taken as
The derived value of /? a/A of 4.014 lb per ton 1.9905 slugs per ft^ for "standard" salt water.
is then multiplied by the displacement A of The volumetric coefficient F/L^ of the Gertler

TABLE 57.b Residuaby-Resistance Prediction for ABC Ship From Taylor's Rr/A Contours
The characteristics and proportions listed correspond to those of the fifth approximation in Table 66.e in Sec. 66.11.
The method illustrated here is adapted from D. W. Taylor's Table VIII-A in his "The Speed and Power of Ships,"
1943, page 63. One particular pair of contours required here is reproduced in Figs. 56. A and 56. B.
The calculation is made for one speed only, 20.5 kt (the designed speed), at a T, value of 0.908.
Length on waterline, L = 510 ft Beam, fi = 73 ft

Displacement, A = 16,400 t Draft, ff = 26 ft

A 123.6 Cp = 0.62
B =
2.
(0.0 lOL)' H
B/H - 2.25 2.808 - 2.25
= 0.372
1.50 1.50

1
318 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 57.7

TABLE 57.0— Residuary-Resistance Prediction for ABC Ship From Gertler's Cr Contours
The characteristics and proportions listed correspond to those of the fifth approximation in Table 66. e of Sec. 66.11.
The Cr contours are given in TMB Report 806, "A Reanalysis of the Original Test Data for the Taylor Standard
Series," by M. Gertler, March 1954. One particular pair of contours required here is reproduced in Fig. 56.D.
The calculation is made for one speed only, 20.5 kt (the designed speed), at a T, value of 0.908.

Length on waterline, L = 510 ft Draft, H = 26 ft

Displacement volume, V = 574,000 ft' V/(0.10Ly = 4.327

Wetted surface, S = 44,759 ft^ B/H = 2.808
Beam, S = 73 ft Cp = 0.62
20.5 kt =0= 34.62 ft per sec 0.5p = (0.5) (1.9905) slugs per ft' = 0.9953 slugs per fts

1
Sec. 57.7 TOTAL RESISTANCE OF BODY OR SHIP 319

XIV-XVII. These plates contain several of the G. Birkhoff, B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky, and J.

Telfer extrapolation diagrams.
Kotik [SNAME, 1954, p. 361], it affords a plau-
(4) Horn, F., "Die Weiterentwicklung des Modellver-
sible separation of the total specific resistance
suchsverfahrens zur Ermittlung des Schiffswider-
standes (The Further Development of Model Test coefficient Ct into components, as well as an
Methods to Obtain Ship Resistance)," Schiffbau, excellent visual representation of those com-
16 Nov 1927, pp. 504-510, esp. Fig. 507 1 on p. ponents. Further, it visualizes the ship roughness
Telfer, E. V., "Frictional Resistance and Ship Re-
(5) allowance and illustrates rather forcibly the
sistance Similarity," NECI, 1928-1929, Vol. XLV,
discrepancies which still exist because of inade-
pp. 115-184
(6) SNAME, 1932, Fig. 13, p. 89, for three models of the quate model-testing techniques, lack of complete
U. S. S. North Carolina (old) series knowledge of scale effects, and similar factors.
(7) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., "Propulsion Scale Effect," The diagram of Fig. 57. C, deliberately drawn
NECI, 1939-1940, Vol. 51, p. 115ff in schematic fashion, illustrates most of the fea-
(8) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,
tures mentioned. The formula for the smooth,
J. G., RPSS, 1948, pp. 39-40 and Fig. 13
Telfer extrapolation diagrams have been prepared for flat-plate, turbulent-flow friction line is assumed
(9)
the Lucy Ashton family of models; see the references for simplicity to be an explicit function of Cf and
hsted under (7) in Sec. 56.12, esp. INA, 1953, log Rn so the Cf line is straight when plotted on
,

Fig. 20 opp. p. 372 and Fig. 23 opp. p. 378; also

those coordinates. The horizontal gap between
INA, Apr and 13 opp. p. 122
1955, Figs. 12
the model range and the ship range is deliberately
(10) Birkhoff, G., Korvin-Kroukovsky, B. V., and Kotik,
J., "Theory of the Wave Resistance of Ships,"
closed to enable the features to be shown to
SNAME, 1954, pp. 359-396, esp. Fig. 1 on p. 361 better advantage. It is assumed that the average
(11) Acevedo, M. L., Comments on Skin Friction and roughness allowance to be added to the friction
Turbulence Stimulation, 7th ICSH, 1954, SSPA
line representing hydrodynamic smoothness is
Rep. 34, 1955, pp. 110-117, esp. p. 115
practically zero at the point Bi and increases as
(12) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., van Manen, J. D., and
Lap, A. J., "Scale Effect Experiments on Victory indicated by the long-dash line B1B2 correspond- ,

—
Ships and Models. Part I Analysis of the Resist- ing to the line CC on Fig. 45.E.
ance and Thrust-Measurements on a Model Family The vertical distance between Ci and Ai or ,

and on the Model Boat D. C. Endert, Jr.," INA,
Apr 1955, Vol. 97, Figs. 21 and 22 on pp. 184-185
and Fig. 25B on p. 232
(13) Sund, E., "On the Effects of Different Turbulence-
Exciters on B.S.R.A. 0.75-Block Models
Various Scales," Norwegian Model Basin Rep. 11,
Aug 1951. Figs. 1 through 11 on pp. 19-22 embody
between C2 and Bj is a measure of that portion
,
of the total specific resistance Ct which corre-
sponds to the separation drag, at speeds below
Made to which there is practically no wavemaking drag.
However, as i2„ increases toward the ship range,
the hne C1C2 is not extended straight to C3 but ,

on Reynolds
specific total resistance values, plotted
number, for four models having scale ratios of 15,
beyond C2 becomes parallel to B1B2 occupying ,

22.5, 30, and 45. the short-dash position C2C4 .

(14) Pavlenko, G. E., "Soprotivleniye Vody Dvizheniyu At small values of R„ in the small-model range,
,

Sudov (The Resistance of Water to the Movement the boundary-layer thickness 5 (delta) increases
of Ships)," Moscow, 1953, Fig. 154, p. 250. The
rapidly as the absolute model size diminishes.
diagram given is not exactly that of Telfer but the
graphic method is the same, including the addition
Even though stimulating devices on the small
of a roughness allowance to the friction resistance models render the flow completely turbulent the
for the ship. boundary-layer thickness is so large in proportion
that the transverse velocity gradient at a given
The graphic procedure has several definite point along the run is smaller than it is at the
advantages. First, it is easy to visualize the corresponding point on the even
full-size ship or

agreement (or otherwise) of the several spots for on a model normal size. This means, by refer-
of
model tests at a given T^ or F„ with the inclined ence to Fig. 7.B on page 124 of Volume I, that
extrapolation line for that speed-length ratio. the port and starboard separation points on the
The analysis is made
easier by plotting R„
still small model are farther forward than on the large
on a log scale and Ct on a uniform scale because model or on the ship. The separation zone is thus
the extrapolation hues are then all straight (or wider and the separation drag is larger. Further,
very nearly so) and parallel, depending upon the on the small model, there is a curvature effect,
friction formulation used. Indeed, analysis by transverse in particular, which adds to the specific
any method other than a graphic one might be friction resistance Cp to be expected at that R„ .

intricate and laborious. Second, as pointed out by As a third item, listed on Fig. 57. C, the small
320 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 57.7

Re'ynolds Number R^ Line of Constant Froude Number Fn

at which Wave- for Models of All Sizes and for the Ship
mokinc^ Resist-
Rbjnolds- Number Abscissa for each
ance Beqins Circle IS Determined by Usinij Same
on the Small Absolute Value of V as in the
Model Respective Froude Number and Same
L as for the Respecti\
Model orShip^~~^^

Loq of Reynolds Number, on Uniform Stale

Fig. 57.C Schematic Representation of the Telfer Extrapolation Diagram to Illustrate Various
Resistance Factors

model has a greater effective volume, in proportion as D2 and D3 both lie on a line parallel to
to its length, because of the greater relative H2H3H4C4. Almost certainly Di Dj and D^ do , ,

displacement thickness 5(delta) of its boundary not, as may be noted by consulting the many
layer. Because these three effects increase as the diagrams in the references listed earlier in this
model size diminishes they give the impression, section.
apparently not real, that the basic friction line
The accuracy and reliability of the Telfer
should be steeper in this region.
method therefore rest heavily upon several
If there are no effects other than those which
factors, as yet not properly resolved:
have been enumerated, and if the wavemaking
and other normal-pressure drags vary only as V' (a) Exactly the proper degree of turbulence
in the normal model and ship ranges, it should be stimulation on small models to insure that the
possible to extend a hne such as D2D3 by drawing transition from laminar to turbulent flow, and the
it parallel to C2C4 At a ship R„ corresponding
. onset of separation, if any, occur at the same
to the F„ value for this line, the point D4 should relative positions along the length as on the large
give the total specific resistance coefficient for the model and on the ship
ship at the given F„ value. Similarly, other lines (b) The correct allowance for roughness of the
such as E2E3 could be drawn, so that the complete This is of course equally
full-scale ship surface.

Cr curve HiGiDj for the ship would be predicted. important, whether or not the Telfer method is
Rarely is it found in practice that points such employed.
Sec. 57.10 TOTAL RESISTANCE OF BODY OR SHIP 321

(c) Wisdom, experience, and perhaps intuition equal to the surface slope. If, in turn, the latter
to know how to draw a series of parallel extrap- can not be determined, the change of trim of the
olation lines, in semi-log or any other known body or ship, reckoned from its attitude in level
type of plotting, when the lines joining the water at the same loading, may be used for the
corresponding spots for the different geosims are slope angle B, provided account is taken of the
neither straight nor parallel. change of trim caused by the ship's speed through
the water.
Although it has been most useful for analysis,
It is reported that water will flow with a surface
the Telfer method manifestly does not lend
slope as small as 0.125 inch (0.0104 ft) to the
itself, in its present stage of development, to
statute mile. In this case sin 6 is only 2(10~°).
routine predictions of ship resistance, where the
The slope drag of a 10,000-ton ship on such a
forces must be given in numbers of certain units.
slope is about 45 lb. The slopes of many navigable
57.8 Analytical and Mathematical Methods of
rivers are of the order of 5 to 8 ft to the statute
Predicting Pressure Resistance. The use of pure
mile, in which case sin 6 may vary from 0.001 to
analytical or mathematical procedures to calculate
0.0015 [Durand, W. F., RPS, 1903, p. 119;
the pressure resistance of a body or ship due to
Nowka, G., "New Knowledge on Ship Propul-
wavemaking, as of 1955, is described in Chap. 50.
sion," 1944, BuShips Transl. 411, pp. 4-5]. The
This method has not yet progressed to the stage
slope thrust on a 1,000-ton barge floating down
where a quantitative design prediction for a ship
such a river is from 1 to 1.5 ton, 2,240 to 3,360 lb,
of normal form is a practical proposition. Further-
sufficient to give it a sizable differential down-
more, the pressure resistance due to eddying or
stream speed. This may be 3 or 4 kt over and
separation can only be approximated, and the
above the river speed in the middle of the channel,
resistances due to the interactions listed in III
sufficient to render it controllable by its own
of Table 57. a can not as yet be estimated by any
rudders.
known method.
For convenience, Table 57. d gives values (1) of
57.9 An Approximation of Separation Drag.
the natural sine of the slope angle d and (2) of the
It is explained in Sec. 7.9 of Volume I that separa-
tion may occur, and cause added drag, abaft
TABLE 57. d Slope Drag and Thrust Data for
certain discontinuities in the forebody. Although Varying Water-Surface Slopes
explained, this drag unfortunately can not be
estimated with any degree of assurance. Drop in
An estimate of the separation drag on the
afterbody or run of a ship requires first an approxi-
mate delineation of those hull areas bounding
the separation zone. Several methods for making
this prediction are described in Sec. 46.3. Means
of estimating the drag due to — Ap's in separation
zones are discussed in Sec. 46.5.
Some differential pressures have been observed
at selected points on the transoms of certain
square-stern models, but at the time of writing
the data are incomplete and the results inconclu-
sive.
57.10 Slope Resistance and Thrust. It may
be assumed for a calculation of slope drag or
thrust on a body or ship, described in Sec. 12.7,
that the effective-slope angle in the equation
Ds (or Ts) = W
sin ^(theta) is that of the con-
stant-pressure water subsurface passing through
the center of buoyancy CB. If this subsurface is

not plane (flat) along the ship length, its slope

is measured at the CB position. If the subsurface
slope is not known it may be assumed roughly
322 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Snr. 57.11

slope drag Dg (or thrust Ts) in lb for a ship Vb . The area (Sb of a submarine is that of the
weight W of 1 long ton, covering a range of water- outer hull, or of the pressure hull with outer
level drops per 100 ft horizontal distance varying tanks, plus that of the superstructure, deck
from 0.02 to 10.0 ft. These correspond to a range erections, fairwaters, and all appendages except
of d from 0.01 deg to 5.7 deg. The values so those in the "short" category defined in Sec.
derived may then be related directly to the values 45.12. The area Sb of a submerged object in
of total resistance Rt per ton of weight displace- general is the area bounding the portion which
ment A, mentioned in the sections preceding. For pushes the water aside as the object is self-

example, the 100-ft version of the 944-t barge on propelled or dragged along.
SNAME RD sheet 141 has a value of fir/A of The bulk volume V^ is the entire volume within
2.414 lb per ton at a speed V of 4.03 kt. If drifting the wetted boundary, whether all of that volume

down a river having a surface slope of about is buoyant and weight-supporting or not. Any
0.12 ft per 100 ft, the slope thrust is sufficient to Hquid in free-flooding spaces lying within the
overcome the hydrodynamic drag for a 4.03-kt overall boundary is considered as solidified or
speed through the water. If steered properly the frozen in place, so far as resistance to motion is
barge would go at least 4 kt downstream through concerned. For instance, the bulk volume of a
the water. If the current velocity in way of the whale with a mouth full of water includes the
barge were say 3.5 kt, its speed past the banks or volume of that water because, for this example
over the bed would be about 7.5 kt. at least, it moves along with the animal. However,
For the ABC ship of Part 4, ascending the the overall wetted surface does not include that
river to Port Correo, it may be assumed that of the inside of its mouth, because there is no
under certain flood conditions, with a river friction drag on that surface affecting the body
current of 4 kt in that portion of the channel motion.
section occupied by the ship, the drop in surface The 0-diml bulk fatness ratio is defined as the
level is 0.1 ft per 100 ft. The corresponding slope volume Vb or Vs to the quantity
ratio of the bulk
drag from Table 57. d is 2.24 lb per long ton of (O.lOLo^)^, where Lqa is the overall external
weight displacement. Assuming a value of W length of the hull when submerged. Values of bulk
16,000 t at this stage of the voyage, the calculated fatness ratio, for submersibles and submarines of
slope drag is 35,840 added to the
lb. This is to be varied type and service, range from about 3.4 to
ship's hydrodynamic drag. At the same time the 5.4, with values rising to 8.5 for craft intended
current speed is subtracted from the ship's speed for .special .service.
through the water, say 15 kt, to give a speed of The overall maximum-section area ^4.y of a
11 kt made good over the ground. submerged body or submarine, as projected on
57.11 Ship Still-Air and Wind Resistance from the y-z plane, is measured to the same external
Chapter 54. To all the resistances derived or boundary as the bulk volume. It is customary to
mentioned in Sees. 57.5, 57.6, 57.9, and 57.10, take this area as the maximum transverse pro-
where appropriate, there should be added the still- jected area or frontal area, even though the deck
air or the wind resistance of the abovewater hull, erections and fairwaters forming a part of this
of upper works, and of all projections from both. area lie in a different transverse plane than that
The ship creates a relative-wind speed Wr equal of the maximum section of the main hull.
to its own trial speed V, even though there is 57.13 Drag Coefficients and Data for Sub-
no natural wind blowing over the trial course. merged Bodies. There are many technical papers
The significance of still-air resistance, wind and reports in existence giving resistances, drag
drag, and wind resistance is described in Sec. coefficients, and similar data for fully submerged
26.15 and illustrated in Figs. 26.G and 26.H. The bodies, most of them bodies of revolution intended
methods of estimating and calculating them are to serve as basic shapes for airship hulls. Un-
described in Chap. 54. fortunately, the validity of many of these data
57.12 Wetted Surface
Calculating the Overall are questionable, because of:
and Bulk Volume of a Submerged Object. A
prediction of the pressure and friction drag of (a) A and 1920's of
practice of the 1900's, 1910's,
any submerged object, by any one of several testing wind tunnels at Reynolds
models in
methods, requires first a calculation of the numbers too small to produce flows that were
overall wetted surface Sb and of the bulk volume dynamically similar to those expected on the
Sec. 57.15 TOTAL RESISTANCE OF BODY OR SHIP 323

prototypes [Wuinblum, G. P., TMB Rep. 758, separation decreases with depth because more
May 1951, p. 1] external pressure is available to create a pressure

(b) Uncertainties as to the interference effects of gradient which will turn the water to follow the
supporting struts attached to the sides of the body slopes in the run. Of the quantitative nature

bodies, with their axes normal (or nearly so) to of this around streamlined submerged
effect

the body axis bodies not much

is known, except that at infinite

depth there is sufficient pressure to turn the water

(c)Towing models in water at inadequate sub-
and picking up wavemaking drag around any corner, however sharp. This is on the
mergence,
basis that, if the water did not so turn in any
when the latter was supposed to be absent.
region, a cavity or void would be left, in which the
S. F. Hoerner abstracts most of the modern pressure would be substantially the vapor pressure
(1940-1950) drag data for streamlined bodies on of water. The decreasing-pressure gradient toward
pages 67-72 of his book "Aerodynamic Drag," this cavity would then be very large, and would
pubhshed in 1951. Both Hoerner and W. S. Diehl immediately generate sufficient lateral force to
give extensive drag data on a great variety of deflect the water and cause it to follow the surface.
fuselage and hull shapes and components in the Although in practice there appears to be no
references listed in Sec. 55.5. actual void, the turning effect nevertheless
It is necessary in all these cases to differentiate remains.
clearly between published Co values for total A third factor enters here, primarily because it

drag, including friction,and the Co values for is necessary to rely upon model tests in air or
pressure drag only, often called "form drag" in water for practically all pressure-drag data. This
the literature. Induced drag becomes a factor is the interference effect of the struts or supports
when the submerged bodies run at yaw or pitch necessary to hold the model in the wind tunnel,
angles and develop circulation around them- in the water tunnel or channel, or in the model
selves because of this effective angle of attack. basin. If attached to the top, bottom, or sides of
57.14 Pressure Resistance of Submerged the body, the struts interfere with the flow
Bodies as a Function of Depth. Sees. 10.16 and pattern and change the velocity and pressure
10.18 of Volume I emphasize that pressure resist- fields. If attached at the stern, a single longi-
ance due to wavemaking remains a factor in the tudinal support or "sting" interferes with any
motion of a submerged body or simple ship, often separation zone that may exist there.
of considerable importance, until the submergence It is unfortunate that many of the published
is great enough to produce a flow pattern sub- drag data on submerged bodies are to be taken
stantially similar to that at infinite depth. It is with caution, because in these cases:
not possible to establish an arbitrary limit for
this depth of submergence h, reckoned to the (1) The type, nature, shape, and position of the

body without taking into account the sub-

axis, supporting struts are not described or shown in
mergence-Froude number of Sec. 10.17, the ratio the test reports
h/Lw , the L/D ratio, the form of the body or (2) The depth of submergence of bodies tested
ship, and other factors. A square-bowed body in water is not known, nor are there any data of
obviously needs more depth to eliminate surface record concerning visible or measured wavemaking
wavemaking than one with a tapering bow. A on the surface.
body or ship of normal L/D ratio, reasonably well
streamlined and having a transverse section not 57.15 Resistance Due to Flow of Water
drastically different from that of a circle, with no Through Free-Flooding Spaces. The flow of
topside appendages or protuberances, is reason- water through the free-flooding spaces of both
ably free of pressure drag due to wavemaking at surface ships and submarines in straight-ahead
a submergence, to its top, of three times its motion is discussed in Sec. 20.9 of Volume I.
vertical diameter. There it is mentioned that free-flooding spaces
G. P. Weinblum tackles this problem for stream- which extend for a considerable distance forward
Uned bodies of revolution in TMB Report 758, of and aft, so far that openings through the shell
May 1951, on an analytical and mathematical at the forward end lie in a. +Ap region while
basis corresponding to that described in Chap. 50. those at the after end are in a — Ap region,
Sec. 7.2 points out that pressure drag due to may be expected to have longitudinal flow
324 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 57.15

through them. The action is much the same as no circulatory

free-flooding spaces so that little or
the flow through a heat exchanger with its inlet flow occurs in any one compartment. Another
forward and its discharge aft. The energy re- method is to so fashion the flooding (and venting)

quired to maintain this flow within the free- openings that entry and egress, and circulatory
flooding spaces is necessarily taken from that flow, is discouraged.
developed by the propulsion device (s). Eddying, with separation drag, is liable to
It not possible at present (1955) to calculate
is occur around the edges of shell openings improper-
this effect in terms of numbers; the designer must ly formed. While this drag may be minute for
resort to large-scale model tests. However, one any one opening it can assume sizable proportions
method of eliminating this waste of power is to for multiple openings, such as often occur by
fit (if practicable) transverse bulkheads within the the hundreds in submarines.
 CHAPTER 58

Running-Attitude and Ship-Motion Diagrams

58.1 General 325 Shallow and Restricted Waters 328
58.2 Data for Predicting Sinkage and Change of 58.5 Changes of Attitude and Trim of Ships with
Trim in Open, Deep Water 325 Fat Hulls 329
58.3 General Conclusions as to Changes of Level 58.6 Variation of Attitude and Position of Planing
and Trim with Speed 325 Craft with Speed and Other Factors . . . 329
Data on Sinkage and Change of Trim in 58.7 References to Published Data 331

58.1 General. The diagrams in this section, For the fifth approximation to the hydro-
representing the in-motion trim attitude of models dynamic features of the ABC ship of Part 4,
and ships of various proportions and shapes, covered in Sec. 66.11 and listed in Table 66.e,
supplement the general discussion in Chap. 29. the Cp is 0.62 and the fatness ratio F/(0.10L)' is
These data are likewise related to the wave- 4.327. To estimate the probable sinkage and trim
profile data of Chap. 52, since the trim attitude from Fig. 58.A, at a T, of 0.908, the 0-diml change
for displacement-type hulls at sub-planing speeds of level of the bow is found by inspection and
is related directly to the wave profile. interpolation to be —0.46 per cent or — 0.0046L.
Data for Predicting Sinkage and Change
58.2 For the stern it is —0.145 per cent or — 0.00145L.
of Trim in Open, Deep Water. It is beheved With a waterline L of 510 ft, these work out as
that most of the large model-testing establish- — 2.35 ft and —0.74 ft, respectively. The change
ments have a great amount of data on file relating of trim at 20.5 kt, by the bow, is 2.35 - 0.74 or
to the change of level and trim of ship models 1.61 ft, corresponding to an angle of (1.61/510)/
undergoing test. Unfortunately, most of the 0.01745 = 0.181 deg.
published data apply to single ships or models, It is significant that, at the trial speed, the
here and there, or to hull forms of unrelated and designed load draft at the FP, reckoned to the
unsystematic proportions and shape. Examples undisturbed water surface at a distance, increases
of this are the data presented by D. W. Taylor from its nominal at-rest value of 26.00 ft to
[S and P, 1943], where in Figs. 21-25 on page 24 28.35 ft, an augment of 9 per cent. What is more
of the reference there are only trim indications to the point, the freeboard at the FP decreases
and no numerical data, and where in Figs. 84-93 by 2.35 ft at the same speed, without any com-
on page 73 there are given data on ten more-or-less pensating advantages.
unrelated models. W. P. A. van Lammeren, Published change-of-trim data on self-propelled
L. Troost, and J. G. Koning give change-of-trim models are almost nonexistent, possibly because
data on only one model [RPSS, 1948, Fig. 38, experimenters thought that there would be little
p. 88]. J. L. Kent and R. S. Cutland present some or no difference in level or attitude between the
change-of-trim data for models of high-speed model when towed bare hull and when self-
ships [INA, 1935, Vol. 77, p. 81ff and Pis. XI, propelled with appendages. Figs. 58. B and 58. C,
XII]. H. Lackenby shows the change of trim, for embodying the data for TMB models 4505 and
several different conditions, of the 190.5-ft Lucy 4505-1, representing the transom-stern and arch-
Ashton and its 16-ft model, for a range of ship stern variations of the ABC ship hull of Part 4,
speeds from 6 to 15 kt [INA, Apr 1955, Vol. 97, show that for this design at least the changes in
Fig. 15 on p. 124]. leveland attitude with speed are significantly
The published data of D. W. Taylor on the ten different.
models referenced have been incorporated in one 58.3General Conclusions as to Changes of
set of graphs, embodied in Fig. 58. A. These Level and Trim with Speed. Despite the handi-
endeavor to present the information in somewhat caps enumerated in Sec. 58.2, it is possible to
systematic fashion, although this is difficult when draw certain rather comprehensive conclusions
based on data from only ten models. from the available model-test data on change of
325
326 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 58.3

Change of Level of Bo
For Cp=0.55 to 0.65

-6.98
y /
10.52

NOTE: These Data Apply to De.zp Water Onl\j\

0.2 0.4 0,6 0.6 1.0 1.2 \.A 1.6 l.fl 2 2,2

Fig. 58.A Graphs Summarizing the Data of D. VV. Taylor for Change op Trim in Deep Water
Sec. 5S.3 RUNNING-ATTITUDE DIAGRAMS

Trim of
-0.3 0.16 Deq b^ Bow at
Designed Spaed

Solid Line is for Model Towed Bare Hull

BriDken Line is for Model Self-Propelled witli Appendaqes'

FP Qt Woterllne
5-0.7 ABC SHIP TMB Model 4505 Beginning at Bow

T- , V

.mI,,J L
I'^.YTi
1.2

Fig. 58.B Non-Dimensional Change-of-Trim Data for TMB Model 4505, Representing Transom-Stern
ABC Srap, When Towed Bare Hull and When Self-Pkopelled

Fig. 58.C Non-Dimensional Change-of-Trim Data for TMB Model 4505-1, Representing Arch-Stern
ABC Ship, When Towed Bare Hull and When Sblf-Propblled

level and trim with speed. These are based upon veloped by changes in hydrostatic pressure in the
the conclusions previously formulated by D. W. surface waterline region predominate over those
Taylor [Sand P, 1943, pp. 72-74], taking account due to Ap's resulting from hydrodynainic action
of test data on many models other than the ten (2) Vessels of the displacement type, having the
listed on page 73 of the reference. So many vari- waterline area concentrated near amidships, and
ables enter the picture, however, that it is difficult, large waterline areas for their length, drop
ifnot impossible to extend them over the entire bodily about in proportion to the fineness of
range in which the marine architect is interested. their waterline endings and to their displacement-
The modified conclusions, taken with the graphs length quotient or fatness ratio. The drop is
of Fig. 58. A, enable reasonably precise predictions greater with smaller prismatic coefficients Cp
to be made for the running attitude of vessels because of the rather direct relationship between
not too different from the normal forms: Cp and Cw indicated in Fig. 66.H. For vessels
,

having Cp values less than 0.65, with fine water-

(1) For displacement-type vessels, supported line endings and the waterline area well con-
primarily by buoyancy, the vertical forces de- centrated amidships, the bodily settlement and
328 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 58.4

the trim by the bow increase with the displace- (8) The center of gravity of ordinary (non-
ment-length quotient or fatness ratio. planing) vessels rarely rises to or above its original

(3) At low and moderate speeds, below a T, of at-rest level at any practicable speed. Since the
1.0,F„ of 0.3, both bow and stern settle, the bow effect of the passage of the vessel is to depress the
somewhat more than the stern, for the reasons water immediately surrounding it, there may
given in Sec. 29.2 of Volume I be an impression, at very high speeds, that the
(4) Vessels having Cp values higher than 0.65, vessel does rise above its original level.
with full ends, level off at a T, of 1.0 or just below. (9) Vessels of special form and planing craft,
For T, values in the range 1.0 to 1.2, there may when driven to their designed high speeds, do
be oscillations or perturbations in the trim values. rise bodily. Their behavior is described and illus-

At greater values of T^ the stern may be expected trated in Sec. 29.3, on pages 415-417 of Volume I.
to drop much more than the bow.
58.4 Data on Sinkage and Change of Trim in
(5) As the speed is increased beyond a T, of 1.0, Shallow and Restricted Waters. The general
for vessels with Cp values of 0.65 and below, the
subject of change of level and trim, at various
bow settles more slowly. It reaches its lowest level speeds in shallow and restricted waters, is dis-
at a Tj of from 1.05 to 1.30 (averaging about 1.15) Volume Only
cussed in Sees. 18.7 and 35.7 of I.
and then rises rapidly. The bow reaches its at-rest
sufficient information is given here to enable the
level in a T, range of 1.3 to 1.5, beyond which it
marine architect to predict the sinkage and change
continues to rise.
of trim in confined waters in quantitative terms.
(6) The stern settles more and more rapidly These are important because of the extremely
beyond a T^ of about 1.1 or 1.2. Thereafter it limited bed clearance with which large vessels
settles much more rapidly than the bow rises, so transit certain canals, channels, and shoal areas,
that the ship as a whole continues to settle while and the desire to maintain the highest practicable
the trim by the stern is rapidly increasing. speed while doing so.

(7) At a T, of about 1.7 to 1.8, the stern is Fig. 35. D

on page 530 of Volume I reproduces
settling less rapidly than the bow is rising, so that some trim data given by D. W. Taylor for a
bodily settlement reaches its maximum. The scout-cruiser model. Fig. 58. D indicates the 0-diml
stern does not change level much beyond a T^ sinkage of bow and stern for three depth-draft
of 2.0, while the bow always rises with increase ratios h/H over a wide range of speed-length
of speed. As a result the vessel is rising bodily at quotient T^ and Froude number F„ Paulus gives
.

speeds beyond a T^ of about 2.0. similar data for the German torpedoboat S119 in

TABLE 58.a Characteristics of Prototypes for Which Trim Data are Presented in Figs. 58. D and 58.E

Name of Vessel
Sec. 58.6 RUNNING-ATTITUDE DIAGRAMS 329

by D. G. Davies in reference (12) of Sec. 58.7 for

lake freighters having very highCp values, reveal
that at the low speed-length quotients customary
in confined waters the ship trims by the bow, just
as in deep water. This means that, if the initial
keel or bottom slope is zero, and if the speed is
too high, the ship touches the channel bed at its
forward end.
58.5 Changes of Attitude and Trim of Ships
with Fat Hulls. In former years, excessively fat
and full forms like large scows, barges, and pon-
toons, could rarely be towed or propelled at
speeds through the water high enough to change
their attitude and even in shallow and
trim,
restricted areas. Sinkageand squat was therefore
not much of a problem. With the advent of higher
speeds and more powerful tugs and pushboats, the
marine architect is left with little or no model
OZ 04 0.6 0.8 1.0 I.E 1.4 16 18 20
Toylor Quotient Tu'V/Vt data or full-scale observations for predicting the
changes in normal bed clearance likely to be
Fig. 58.D Non-Dimensional Change-of-Thim Data
FOR High-Speed Scout Cruiser op D. W. Taylor encountered by these craft in given areas. This
situation is aggravated by the possibility of
towing blunt-ended and full forms through
reference (4) of Sec. 61.22. Other data are listed regions where the water is shoaler than expected,
in Sec. 58.7. and where the position of a craft upon a solitary
It is obvious from the short-dash graphs for wave will have a large effect upon the actual bed
h/H = 2.38 in Fig. 58.D that the sinkage and clearance.
change of level are greatly affected by the position In ETT, Stevens, Report 279 of January 1945
of the vessel on the solitary wave which travels there are given on page 15 the change-of -level
through the shallow water at the speed Cc = \gh. data for the two groups of models having dis-
This critical speed can change rapidly with depth, placement-length quotients A/(0.010L)^ of 300
as can the normal sinkage due to the Bernoulli and 400, and Cp values of 0.50, 0.60, and 0.70.
contour system and the ship's Velox-wave The characteristics of these models are listed in
system, so it must be remembered that a pre- the referenced report and in SNAME RD sheets
diction of sinkage and trim for a nominal constant 105-110.
depth is that and no more. 58.6 Variation of Attitude and Position of
For the prediction of the sinkage and change of Planing Craft with Speed and Other Factors.
trim in the cargo-vessel category, W. H. Norley The matter of bodily rise of a planing craft above
has published rather complete data on the be- its position at rest, together with the changes in
havior of the models of four vessels in three trim which occur throughout the whole speed
depths of shallow water as well as in deep water range, are described and illustrated in Sees.
[TMB Rep. 640, Feb 1948]. The graphs of Fig. 29.4 and 30.2 of Volume I. In fact, the sinkage and
58. E give the 0-diml sinkage of both bow and trim are related to the whole planing behavior.
stern for the four ship designs whose character- This, in turn, as brought out in Chap. 77, is a

istics are listed in Table 58. a. The data represent most important function of both weight and
self-propelled conditions for both models and power.
ships. Unfortunately, there are no known data by
An example of the use of these graphs, involving which the trim and vertical position of a planing
extrapolation to lower h/H values than those craft may be estimated or predicted directly,
given, is worked out for the ABC ship of Part 4 corresponding to those in Fig. 58.A. Possibly
in Sec. 72.8. there will never be a simple procedure for deter-
The data derived by Norley for full-bodied mining these values, because of the considerable
and blunt-ended vessels, as well as those derived number of parameters that are intimately
330 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 5S.6

TQ\^lor Quotient Tq-tTt^ Ta^ylor Quotient To- rn=

0.4^ ^'- 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 ''^0.5
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1

-0.1
Sec. 5S.7 RUNNING-ATTITUDE DIAGRAMS 331

appreciable until the water depth approaches or Vol. X, pp. For this ve.sael, L„l was
.'502-508.
138.5 ft, Bx was 15.0 ft, and H (mean) was 4.25 ft
is less than the beam of the planing form. In
(2.75 ft forward and 5.75 ft aft). The trial displace-
view of the known performance of displacement- ment was 98 tons, with a displacement-length
type vessels under similar circumstances it is quotient of 36.88. Cb was 0.425, Cx was 0.755, and
not surprising that the drag and the trimming CwL was 0.687. Cp from the foregoing, was 0.563.
,

moment about the trailing edge of the planing At a speed of 24 lit the change of trim was about
5 inch es, or 4.17 ft. At this speed, T, = 24/
form also increase with diminishing depth of
V138.5 = 2.04; F„ = 0.608. The trim by the
water. Other features accompanying these changes stern was about 1.72 deg.
are described by K. W. Christopher [NACA On page 507 of the reference it says of the Morris
Tech. Note 3642, Apr 1956]. that "she traveled on the back slope of a wave
58.7 References to Published Data. As is with a normal disturbance of the surface of the
water."
the case with quantitative experimental or ob-
(4) White, Sir W. H., MNA, 1900, pp. 466-467, 475-477.
served resistance data in shallow water, the For the Yarrow 80-ft torpedoboat mentioned in
greater part of the pubhshed information appears this reference, at aT, of 2.07, F„ of 0.616, the
in the older technical literature. However, all of trim by the stern was about 2.5 deg.
ittogether by no means covers the needs of the (5) Durand, W. F., RPS, 1903, pp. 121-123
(6) Saunders, H. E., and Pitre, A. S., "FuU-Scale Trials
marine architect and ship operator of today
on a Destroyer," SNAME, 1933. Table 6 on p. 251
(1955). Some of the available references follow:
gives the trim data for the U. S. destroyer Hamilton
(1) Yarrow, A. F., "Past Torpedo Boats," Cassier's (DD 141) for a range of speeds from 20 to 35.6 kt.
Mag., Jul 1897, Vol. XII, p. 294 (7) Davidson, K. S. M., PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 107-108
(2) Anderson, M. A., and Gillmor, H. G., U. S. torpedo- (8) Havelock, T. H., "Note on the Sinkage of a Ship at
boats Talhot and Gwin (both old), ASNE, May Low Speeds," Zeit. fiir Ang. Math. Mech., Aug
1898, Vol. X, pp. 493-501. These vessels were 1939, pp. 202-205
99.5 ft long by 12 ft wide by 3.81 ft mean draft (9) Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1943, Figs. 21-25, p. 24;
(2.1 ft forward and 5.54 ft aft). The change of Figs. 84-93, p. 73
trim at speeds of about 21 kt "amounted to about (10) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,
41 inches (3.41 ft)." This corresponded to a T, of J. G., RPSS, 1948, p. 88
21/V'9a5 = 2.10, Fn = 0.625, and a trim by (11) Sund, E., "On the Effects of Different Turbulence-
the stern of about 1.95 deg. Exciters on B.S.R.A. 0.75 Block Models Made to
The displacement was 45.75 tons and the dis- Various Scales," Norwegian Ship Model Basin
placement-length quotient 46.4. Cb was 0.413, Rep. 11, Aug 1951, esp. pp. 3, 4, 12, 13, and Fig.

Cx was 0.743, and Cw 0.659. From these data, 12 on p. 23

Cp was 0.556. (12) Davies, D. G., "Changes in Draft in Shoal Water,"
(3) Gillmor, H. G., and Anderson, M. A., "The U. S. SNAME, Great Lakes Sect., Apr 1955; abstracted
Torpedo Boat Morris (old)," ASNE, May 1898, in SNAME Bull., Jul 1955, Vol. X, No. 2, p. 39.
 CHAPTER 59

Predicting the Performance of Propulsion Devices

59.1 Relationship to Other Chapters 332 59 10. Performance of Miscellaneous Propulsion

59 2
. Estimate of Propulsion-Device Efficiencies . 332 Devices 339
59.3 Open- Water Test Data for Model Screw 59. 11 Area Ratios, Blade Widths, and Blade-Helix
Propellers 333 Angles of Screw Propellers 340
59.4 Performance Data from Screw-Propeller 59 12. Pertinent Data on Flow Into Propulsion-
Design Charts 335 Device Positions 341
59 5
. Performance Data on Paddlewheels and 59 13. Data on Induced Velocities and Differential
Sternwheels 335 Pressures 343
59 6
. Bibliography on Paddlewheels 335 59.14 The Thrust-Load Factor and Derived Data . 345
59.7 Test Results on Rotating-Blade Propellers . 337 59.15 Approximation of Screw-Propeller Thrust
59.8 Available Performance Data on Hydraulic- from Insufficient Data 346
Jet, Pump-Jet, and Gas-Jet Propulsion 59 16. Relation Between Thrust at the Propeller
Devices 337 and at the Thrust Bearing 347
59.9 Performance Data on Controllable and Re- 59.17 Estimates of Thrust and Torque Variation
versible Propellers 338 per Revolution for Screw Propellers . . . 348

59.1 Relationship to Other Chapters. The to drive a single device isx horses, without
form, use, behavior, and performance of many specifying whether this is an indicated, brake,
types of ship-propulsion devices are described in shaft, or propeller power.
Chaps. 15, 16, and 17 of Part 1 and in Chaps. 32 59.2 Estimate of Propulsion-Device Efficien-
and 33 of Part 2. A rather complete discussion of cies. The matters relating to and the factors
the aspects of efficiency of propulsion devices in governing the efficiency of various kinds of ship-
general is found in Chap. 34. The application of propulsion devices are discussed at considerable
data on and values of efficiency in the powering length in Chap. 34. For the naval architect and
estimates for vessels is covered in Chap. 60. marine engineer who wishes absolute or quantita-
Notes, rules, and procedures for the design, utili- tive values of propulsion-device efficiency, there
zation, and adaptation of the many forms of are the following:
propulsion device to the many types of ships are
described in Chaps. 69, 70, and 71 of Part 4. (a) For screw propellers, the expected open-water
Cavitation and its effects, as applied to screw efficiencies jjoCeta) and the probable range of

propellers in particular, are discussed in Chap. 47. efficiency for selected characteristics or for charac-
The present chapter endeavors to present, in teristics commonly used are found readily from
some of the quantitative
concise but useful form, the numerous groups of screw-propeller design
information required by the marine architect charts listed in Sec. 70.4
who sets out to design a combination of ship and (b) For other types mechanical propulsion
of
propulsion device. While a great deal of analytic devices, acting directlyon the water surrounding
work has been done along these lines, the designer the ship, there are some published data on syste-
who is called upon to fashion and proportion the matic series, such as the paddlewheel data
propulsion device (s) for a particular ship is to a referenced in Sec. 59.6, and some comparisons of
large extent forced to work ahead from the known efficiency to be found here and there in the tech-
performances of existing installations. Unfortu- nical literature. Two examples of these are the
nately, published data on the behavior of pro- efficiency curves for (1) screw propellers within a
pulsion devices is often inadequate for purposes fixed shrouding such as a Kort nozzle, (2) Voith-
of predictiort and design. Further, it is often Schneider rotating-blade propellers, and (3)
imreliable in the sense that the quantitative paddlewheels in the three sets of graphs of Figs.
data are not completely defined. For example, 34. M
and 34. N. However, one serious short-
the source may state that the power developed coming of data such as these is the lack of ade-

332
Sec. 593 PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE 333

quate and precise definition for the information

presented. Only rarely are the particular forms
of propulsion device, corresponding to the
efficiency curves,diagrammed or illustrated. The
graphs or accompanying text do not always state
whether the efficiencies are maxima, averages, or
service values.
A rather large array of tabulated data derived
from the self-propulsion tests of shallow-draft
vessels with tunnel sterns is published by A. R.
Mitchell [lESS, 1952-1953, Vol. 96, pp. 125-188].
These data do not, unfortunately, include values
of the screw-propeller efficiencies but they do
embody information on wake and thrust-deduc-
tion fractions and on propulsive coefficients.
H. Mueller has presented, for screw propellers
of four different P/D ratios and for three varia-
tions of the current (1955) rotating-blade pro-
peller, two sets of graphs showing variations with
334 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 593

^0.15

\0.\0

?0.05

0.00
Sec. 59.6 PROPULSION DEVICE PERFORMANCE
pp. 601-619]. The Cq and Ct plots in these figures
embody dimensional data. This paper gives no
drawings of any of the model propellers but all
the TMB model numbers are included, and the
drawings are on file at the David Taylor Model
Basin.
59.4 Performance Data from Screw-Propeller
Design Charts. The systematic data derived
from the open-water tests of a multitude of series
propellers, made in model basins all over the
world, are published in the form of charts suitable
for use in ship and propeller design. Thirteen
kinds of screw-propeller-series charts are listed
and described in Sec. 70.4. Comments on and
comparisons of these charts are to be found in
Sec. 70.5, while Sec. 70.6 describes and illustrates
the procedure to be followed in making perform-
ance predictions from three of these chart types.
Other examples illustrating the manner in
which screw-propeller performance is predicted
from published propeller charts are found in
Sees. 66.27 and 77.35, and in a paper "Propeller
Coefficients and the Powering of Ships," by F. M.
Lewis [SNAME, 1951, pp. 612-620].
The calculation of screw-propeller performance,
by a method derived from analytic considerations,
is covered by J. G. Hill in Appendix 2 of his 1949
SNAME paper, pages 161 and 162.
59.5 Performance Data on Paddlewheels and
Stemwheels. In 1916 E. M. Bragg published a
paper on "Feathering Paddle-Wheels" [SNAME,
1916, pp. 175-180, Pis. 90-98] in which he gave
several sets of charts, intended to provide the
designer with the same sort of information from
systematic series as was included on the screw-
propeller charts of that day. Unfortunately, these
data are not readily applied by one who needs
design a modern paddle wheel.
To meet this need H. Volpich and I. C. Bridge
undertook, in the early 1950's, to make systematic
tests on a new series of models and to present the
designer with tabulated and graphic information
readily adaptable to his problems. The
installment of these data appeared in the paper
"Paddle Wheels; Part I, Preliminary Model
Experiments" [lESS, 1954-1955, Vol. 98, Part V,
pp. 327-372], It is understood that at the time of
writing (1955) this systematic test program is
still underway and that Part II of the report will
appear in 1956. The data in this series of papers,
taken with those of F. Gebers in reference (31) of
Sec. 59.6, should go far toward filhng, for the
paddlewheel designer, the need which has been
335
met by the availability of many design charts
for the screw-propeller designer.
59.6 Bibliography on Paddlewheels. There
appears to be no lengthy list of references ap-
pended to any of the better-known published
papers and books on paddlewheel propulsion. The
list given hereunder is by no means complete
but it may serve the reader as a source of back-
ground information, as well as a source of experi-
mental data and of information useful in design:
(1) Napier, J. R., "On the Effects of Superheated Steam
and Oscillating Paddles on the Speed and Economy
of Steamers," Trans. Inst. Engrs. Scot., 1863-
1864, Vol. VII, pp. 86-102, Pis. V and VI. The
"oscillating" paddles mentioned in the title of this
paper are the feathering paddles of today. The
table on p. 90 gives the principal paddlewheel and
blade data for the steamers Concordia and Berlin.
These vessels originally had radial wheels but were
later altered to carry feathering wheels of smaller
diameter and higher rate of rotation. On these
feathering paddlewheels the blade spacing was
only slightly greater than the blade width, the
blade faces were flat, and the blades were appar-
ently made of wood rather than iron.
(2) Rankine, J. W. M., "Shipbuilding: Theoretical and
Practical," 1866, pp. 248, 251. Rankine refers to
the preceding paper by J. R. Napier.
(3) Riehn, W., "tjber die Wirkungsweise der Schaufel-
rader und der Schrauben bei Dampfschiffen (On
the Operation of Paddlewheels and Propellers in
Steamers)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 1884,
Nos. 18-22
(4) Pollard, J., and Dudebout, A., "Theorie du Navire
(Theory of the Ship)," 1894, Vol. IV, pp. 179-193
(5) Lovell, L. N., "American Sound and River Steam-
boats," Cassier's Magazine, Jul 1897, pp. 459, 482
Durand, W. F., RPS, 1903, pp. 164-169, 198-203
(6)
(7) Paddle steamer C. W. Morse, Marine Engineering,
Jun 1904, p. 279 ff
to (8) Kaemmerer, W., "Raddampfer ftir die Anatolische
Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft, erbaut von den Howaldts-
werken in Kiel (Paddlewheel Steamer for the
Anatolian Railways, built by the Howaldt Works,
Kiel)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 12 Nov 1904,
pp. 1725-1729. Figs. 9 and 10 on p. 1726 show the
arrangement of a 4.5-meter (14.75-ft) outside
first diameter 8-bladed paddlewheel with the eccentric
for the feathering mechanism centered ahead of
and slightly helow the wheel center.
(9) Hart, M., "Note sur le Changement des Roues des
Paquebots Le Nord et la Pas-de-Calais (Note on
the Alterations to the Paddlewheels of the Channel
Steamers Le Nord and Pas-de-Calais)," ATMA,
1906, Vol. 17, pp. 169-186 and Pis. I through VIII
(10) Ward, C, "Shallow-Draught River Steamers,"
SNAME, 1909, Vol. 17, pp. 87-88
Feathering paddlewheel, Schiffbau, 27 Dec 1911, pp.
(11)
210-211
(12) Teubert, O., "Binnensohiffahrt (Inland-Waters Ship
336 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 59.6

Operation)," Leipzig, I, pp. 224-442.

1012, Vol. tcilungen aus der Schweiz (Some Information
A later edition of this book was published in 1932. about Shipbuilding Progress in Switzerland),"
(13) "Experimental Tovvboats," House (of Representa- Schiffund Werft, 1 Mar 1943, pp. 74-77
tives), 63rd Congress, 2nd Session, Document 857, (24) Gardner, J. H., "The Development of Steam Naviga-
1914, Vol. 27. This report gives the results of many tion on Long Island Sound," SNAME, HT, 1943,
comparative tests run at the Univ. of Michigan, pp. 97-134.
Ann Arbor, on models of radial and feathering (25) Helm, K., "tJber den Heutigen Stand der Schaufel-
paddlewheels, with many parameters varied. On radfrage (On the Present Status of the Paddle-
p. 15 of the report there are listed ten conclusions wheel)," HSVA Rep. 881, 26 Jun 1944 (copy in
drawn from an analysis of these paddlewheel tests. TMB library). This report contains a treatise on
(14) Bragg, E. M., "Feathering Paddle-Wheels," SNAME, paddlewheel developments and includes curves for
1916, pp. 175-180 and Pis. 90-98. It is believed that paddlewheel design.
many and charts of
of the data this report were (26) "The Bristol Queen: A Modern Paddle Steamer,"
based upon the work described in the preceding SBSR, 6 Mar 1947, pp. 224-227. The article gives
reference. photographs of the model feathering paddlewheels
(15) Sehaffran, K., "Modellversuche mit Schaufolrad- tested and of the self-propelled model of this vessel.
Propellern (Model Tests with Paddle Propulsion (27) Barr, G. E., "The Histor3r and Development of
Devices)," STG, 1918, Vol. 19, pp. 475-520. Machinery for Paddle Steamers," lESS, 20 Nov
Describes tests made on a number of models of 1951, Vol. 95, Part 3, pp. 101-148. Paddlewheels
feathering wheels, together with correlations with are discussed on pp. 128-130, with numerous
trials on several paddle steamers, the Hugo Marcus illustrations. There is a list of 7 references on pp.
on the Elbe and the Thommen on the Danube. 138-139.
The efficiencies of the model paddlewheels do (28) Deetjen, R., "Erfahrungen mit einem speziellen
not exceed 0.50 in any case. Schaufelradantrieb fiir verkrautete Gewasser (E,x-

Fig. 7 on p. 486 is a construction drawing of a perience with a Special Paddlewheel for Use in
pair of paddlewheels side by side on a single shaft, Water with Weeds)," Schiff und Hafen, Mar 1952,
each pair with its own feathering mechanism. pp. 80-81
(16) Sadler, H. C, and Kirby, F. E., "Design of Pa.ssenger (29) Henschke, W., "Schiffbautechnisches Handbuch
Vessels for the Great Lakes," SNAME, 1925, pp. (Shipbuilding and Ship Design Handbook),"
101-108. PI. 81 shows the design and dimensions Berlin, 1952, pp. 193-195
of the feathering paddlewheels for the large (30) Ostend-Dover Paddle Packet Marie Henriette of
vessels of the Greater Detroit class. 1893, SBSR, 15 May 1952, p. 630
(17) Schoenherr, K. E., "Model Tests with Paddlewheels," (31) Gebers, F., (with a contribution by F. Horn), "Daa
EMB Rep. 176, Sep 1927. Gives curves of efficiency Schaufelrad im Modellversuch: Zwei Berichte der
1)0 and characteristic curves for a number of Schiffbautechnischen Versuchsanstalt, Wien (The
variations of radial wheels onl^r. Paddlewheel in Model Test: Two Reports of the
(18) Zilcher, R., "Leistung und Wirtschaftlichkeit von Vienna Model Basin)," Vienna, Springer, 1952
Flusschleppern verschiedener Antriebsart (Power (book in German).
and Economy of River Tugboats with Various (32) Krappinger, O., "Schaufelradberechnung (Paddle-
Kinds of Propulsion)," WRH, 22 Dec 1927, pp. wheel Calculation)," Schiffstechnik, Aug 1954, pp.
556-561 30-36. This paper gives a number of graphs
(19) Baird, G., "Notes on the Development of Tug-Boat embodj'ing the results of model tests, in a form
Machinery During the Past Forty-Six Years," useful to the designer. No translation known to be
NECI, 1935-1936, Vol. LII, pp. 89-102 and available in 1955.
D19-D22. This paper depicts, on pp. 98-99, two (33) Volpich, H., and Bridge, I. C, "Paddle Wheels:
tug paddlewheels of the feathering type, with 6 Part I, Preliminary Model Experiments," JESS,
and 8 blades, respectively. 1954-1955, Vol. 98, Part 5, pp. 327-372. A bibli-
(20) Suberkriib, F., "Der Radschiffsantrieb (Paddlewheel ography of 8 items appears on p. 359, several of
Ship Propulsion)," Schiffbau, 15 Mar 1939, pp. which are listed here.
115-119 The paper gives a brief general history of paddle
(21) Gras, V., "Dieselelektrische Schaufelrad-Schlepper propulsion and paddle research with a comment on
Szechenyi (Diesel Electric Paddle Tug Szechenyi)," the scarcity of experimental data for wheel design
WRH, 15 Aug 1939, pp. 247-256. Figs. 3, 4, and and analj'sis. Important deviations from the laws
15 on p. 250 show a direct electric-motor drive to governing screw-propeller performance are noted
the paddlewheel shafts. There are double paddles on and the purpose of the present investigation put
each wheel, end to end. forward. The apparatus used in testing two sizes
(22) Blumerius, R., "Das Diesekadschiff (The Diesel of model wheel is described. The results of experi-
Paddlewheel Ship)," Schiffbau, 15 Sep 1939, pp. ments with a radial and a feathering 9-float wheel
326-327; 15 Oct 1939, pp. 349-357. Fig. 21 on at one immersion are given in detail for both wheel
p. 354 gives the lines of the Danube River vessel sizes and are discussed, together with methods of
Stadt Wien, which has a peg-top underwater mid- presentation. As the results are incomplete for
ship section. design purposes, proposed future work is outlined;
(23) Kretzschmar, F., "Einige Schiffbautechnisclie mit- this will be published in a second paper.
Sec. 59.8 PROPULSION DEVICE PERFORMANCE 337

Part II of this paper was presented to the lESS A few other references, additional to those
on 13 Mar 1956. embodied in Sees. 15.13, 15.14, and 37.22, are:
(34) "Quarter-Wheel Tugs for the Sudan," SBMEB, Deo
1955, pp. 705-700. This reference describes the (3) Kempf, G., and Helm, K., "Ergebnisse naturgrosser
six tugs of the Tagoog class, 125.5 ft long overall, Schleppversuche mit dem Motorschiff 'Augsburg'
32.0 ft beam, and 3.0 ft draft, driven by a pair of (Results of FuU-Scale Towing Tests on the Motor-
radial-blade sternwheels, one on each quarter. ship Augsburg)," WRH, 15 Oct 1931, Vol. XII,
pp. 347-348
(4) Betz, A., "Grundzatzliches zum Voith-Schneider-
59.7Test Results on Rotating-Blade Pro- Propeller (Fundamentals of the Voith-Schneider
pellers. Many open-water tests of rotating-blade Propeller)," HPSA, 1932, pp. 161-170
propellers, principally of the Kirsten-Boeing and (5) Mueller, H. F., "Die Steuerkraefte des Voith-Schneider
Propellers (The Steering Force of the Voith-
the Voith-Schneider types, have been made by
Schneider Propeller)," WRH, 1 Jul 1938, pp. 202-204
the old Experimental Model Basin and the David
(6) "Cycloidal Propulsion on Army Vessel {Truman O.
Taylor Model Basin at Washington, by the Olson)," Naut. Gaz., Mar 1950, p. 25.
Netherlands Model Basin, and by other testing
59.8 Performance Data on Hy-
Available
establishments. Unfortunately, the published
draulic-Jet, Pump- Jet, and Gas-jet Propulsion
results of these tests are rare. The most useful
Devices. It is unusual, yet unfortunate, to find
data, although not in the form of the usual
that in a search for performance data on hydraulic-
characteristic curves, are those presented by
jet propulsion to supplement the descriptions of
Dr. Hans F. Mueller in his paper "Recent
Sees. 15.8, 32.5, and 34.13, most of the pubUshed
Developments in the Design and Application of
[SNAME, May data are largely historic. It is known that an
the Vertical Axis Propeller" 1955,
English patent was granted to Toogood and
pp. 4-30]. Two of his graphs are reproduced as
Hayes, as far back as 1661 [Schoenherr, K. E.,
Figs. 59. A and 59. B in this chapter.
Dr. Mueller advises the author [unpubl. Itr.
PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 122]; also that Benjamin
to HES of 4 May 1955] that the pubhcation of
Franklin made a proposal for jet propulsion of

open-water test data on rotating-blade Voith- a boat in 1775. K. E. Schoenherr states, in the
reference cited, that jet propulsion was actually
Schneider propellers, corresponding to those
mentioned in Sec. 59.3 for screw propellers, were applied by James Rumsey in 1782 to propel an
80-ft ferryboat between Washington and Alex-
not made available in the technical literature for
andria, Va.
two reasons. First, those responsible for the
development of these devices in the I930's were Most of the references on the older forms of jet

the data they had

propulsion might almost be termed ancient. The
hesitant to release until
design rotating-blade
newer references are almost equally remote from
perfected a practical of
the modern (1955) marine architect because most
propeller which could compete with the best
screw propeller. Second, a great deal of the open-
of them are in a classified status. Among the
older references are:
water testing with models was done at the Nether-
lands Model Basin in Wageningen during the (1) Brin, C. B., "On the Efficiency of Jet Propellers,"
INA, 1871, Vol. XII, pp. 128-149
German occupation of that country in World
(2) White, W. H., "The Water-Jet Propeller," MNA,
War II. The latter data are in existence but have 1882, pp. 532-538; MNA, 1900, p. 587ff. These
never been published. references mention installations on the:
Dr. Mueller points out that references (1) and (a) Waterwilch, 1866

(2) which follow may be of help to a designer (b) Swedish torpedo boat, 1878
(c) British Admiralty torpedo boat, 1881
employing this type of propulsion device. So far
(d) German naval craft
as known, these two references have not been Hydromotor, Fleischer, 1879; Engineering,
(e)
translated into English. London, 9 Sep 1881
(f) American jet-propelled boat.

(1) Mueller, H., and Helm, K., "Der Massstabeinfluss (3) "Verso la Soluzione del Problema del la Propulsion
beim Voith-Schneider-Propeller (Scale Effect En- Idraulica (Toward a Solution of the Problem of
countered with the Voith-Schneider Propeller)," Hydraulic Propulsion)," by Dr. Giacomo Biichi,
WRH, 15 Dec 1942, pp. 334-338 Engineer, La Marina Italiana, Feb 1935, pp. 45-57.
(2) Mueller, H., "tjber das Zusammenarbeiten des Voith- ONI, U. S. Navy, Transl. 76 (copy in TMB Ubrary).
Schneider-Propellers mit dem Schiff (On the Inter-
action of the Voith-Schneider Propeller and the One of the most systematic accounts is recorded
Ship)," Schiff und Werft, Jun 1944, pp. 113-119. by J. Pollard and A. Dudebout, in their "Theorie
338 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 59.9

du Navire" [1894, Vol. IV, p. 201], from which the flow either astern or ahead. The jets issuing from
following is translated. The comments in paren- the vessel may
be deflected so that they act as
theses are those of the present author: rudders. One jet may be reversed so that the boat
turns on its axis; when both are reversed the
"379. Principal Examples of Turbine-Propulsors of the
stopping action is very powerful.
First Kind.
"As examples of the application to (ship) propulsion 59.9 Performance Data on Controllable and
of the turbine-propulsors of the first kind (in which the Reversible Propellers. Open-water test data and
water passes through the turbine radially), we will give performance characteristics of controllable and
them in chronological order:
reversible propellers, defined and described in
"The Enterprise, built in 1853 by John Ruthven; this
Sec. 32.19 of Volume I, are found only rarely
vessel was not successful and was (later) converted into
a sailing ship Rupp gives open-
in the technical literature. L. A.
"The same year by Seydell at Stettin,
Albert, built the water characteristic curves derived from tests of
ran successfully on the Oder for ten years a model representing the controllable propeller
"The Seraing II, built about 1860 by Cookerill, at the installed and tested on the U. S. Navy tug
same time as the identical ship Seraing I, fitted with
articulated (feathering?) paddlewheels
YTB 502 [SNAME, 1948, pp. 278-279]. The
"The Jackdraw, on which, in 1863, the British Admiralty graphs in Fig. 6 on page 279 of this reference
attempted, but without success, an application of hy- embody characteristics for five different pitch
draulic propulsion settings of this propeller. The propeller itself,
"The Nautilus, constructed in 1863 for the British
shown in Fig. 4 on page 277 of the reference, has
Admiralty, which on trials on the Thames achieved a
the following features:
speed of 10 kt
"The English armed gunboat Watenvitch, built in the Number of blades, 4
same year, successfully underwent comparative trials with
Diameter, 9.50 ft
the Viper, of the same type, fitted with twin screws
"The Rival, built in 1870 by the German Navy, proved Pitch at Q.IR, helix angle 20 deg, ahead position,
a failure, due partly to an excess of draft over the predicted 7.60 ft
draft Developed-area ratio. Ad/ An 0.502
,

"A torpedo boat with hydraulic propulsion, built in Mean-width ratio, 0.268
1878 by the Swedish Government, to be tested compara-
tively with a ship of the same type fitted with two screws
Blade- thickness fraction, variable.
"A torpedoboat of the second class, built by Thorny-
More extensive open-water data are given by
croft and Company in 1882, for the British Admiralty, and
which was run through comparative trials with a similar W. B. Morgan in reporting the tests of a series of
ship having a single screw propeller controllable propellers with 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6
"Finally, a rescue or lifeboat recently (1894?) con- blades [TMB Rep. 932, Nov 1954]. In this case
structed by R. and H. Green of Blackwall (England), three different hubs were used, to which the proper
for the National Lifeboat Institution. It was fitted, by
number of blades were clamped. The report
Thornycroft and Company, with an internal hydraulic
propulsor, intended to prevent damage from shocks,
includes a model propeller drawing, with five
beaching, or running foul of another ship." sets of characteristic curves for normal ahead
A table on page 203 of this reference gives 20 items of operation. Morgan publishes, as Fig. 7 of his
technical data for the: report, the open-water characteristic curves of
(a) Waterwitch

(b) Viper
the 4-bladed controllable propeller, TMB model
(c) Two Swedish torpedoboats with hydraulic propul-
3227, when run in the astern direction, xjalled

sion and with screw propellers "back driving."

(d) Two Thornj'oroft torpedoboats, with hydraulic L. C. Burrill discusses the "Latest Develop-
propulsion and with screw propellers. ments in Reversible Propellers" [IME and IN A
A discussion by Pollard and Dudebout of the screw-
joint mtg., 1949, pp. J3-J32] as applying to three
turbine is to be found on pages 206-210 of the reference
cited earher in this section.
types developed in Europe but unfortunately he
includes no open-water test data for models or
One of the few modern references describes a any of these propellers.
full-scale pi'ototypes of
new ferryboat with so-called hydraulic-reaction More van Aken and K. Tasseron
recently, J. A.
propulsion, built by the Etablissements Billiez have published a paper entitled "Comparison
[Nav. Ports Chant., Jul 1952, Vol. 3, p. 418 (in Between the Open-Water Efficiency and Thrust
French)]. One pump on each side of the vessel of the Lips-Schelde Controllable-Pitch Propeller
takes in water through a converging conduit and and those of Troost-Series Propellers" [Int.
discharges it through a valve which directs the Shipbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol. 2, No. 5, pp. 30-40].
Sec. 59.10 PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE 339

A contribution by R. F. P. Desel, entitled sion Devices. The arrangement and

general
"Controllable Pitch Propellers in Ship Propul- method of operation of the Hotchkiss propeller
sion," appeared in Bureau of Ships Journal, are illustrated schematically in the diagram of
April 1956, pages 2-6. Fig. 59. Da. A drawing showing the use of a Gill
59.10 Performance of Miscellaneous Propul- axial-flow propeller in a hydraulic propulsion
device is reproduced in Fig. 59. Db.
Water Intake Through &rille\
It has not been possible to find in the technical
literature any published systematic performance
Water Discharge Aft, Forming
Propulsive Jets. data on these and other types of miscellaneous
Under Bottom propulsion device, corresponding to the orthodox
of Boat
characteristic curves for screw propellers. The
Centerline of Ship-""''^ following may
be mentioned as sources of refer-
for Single-Unit D
ence information on the Hotchkiss propeller:

(1) Hotchkiss, D. V., "The Hotchkiss Internal Cone

Propeller," The Shipbuilder, 1931, p. 180
(2) SBMEB, Apr 1937, p. 188. Illustrates "60-in Worm-
Drive Cone Propellers for Wood Vessel." Also
May 1937, p. 321, and Jul 1937, pp. 382-384.
(3) The Motorship, 1937-1938, p. 110
(4) A lifeboat fitted with Hotchkiss cone propellers is

illustratedand described on pages 45-50 of the

13 January 1938 issue of Shipbuilding and Shipping
Record. The following is quoted from pages 45-46:
"The Hotchkiss system of propulsion consists
of cones constructed of steel and provided with
rotary impellers. One side of the cone is cut away,
Inflow from
Inflow " Outflow. forming an aperture in contact with the water,
Forward
Downward
which divides into inlet and outlet portions.
and Aft
As the impeller rotates, the centrifugal force of
Fig. 59. Da Explanatory Diagram for the the water causes it to be projected tangentially
HoTCHKiss Propeller from the larger end.

Fig. 59. Db Longitudinal Section Through a Hydraulic Propulsion Device Utilizing a Gill Axial-Flow
Propeller
This drawing, reproduced from page 111 of the July 27, 1939 issue of Shipbuilding and Shipping Record, shows a Gill
propeller (marked "rotor") with a close-fitting fixed shroud ring. In other installations the ring is attached to the blade
tips and rotates with the propeller.
340 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 59.11

"Water is drawn in through about two-thirds propeller-design discussion of Chap. 70 of the

of the length of the opening, measured from the
present volume.
smaller end. The water flows into the cone in the
direction of rotation and the resultant spiral flow
It is often convenient, when laying out propeller
causes the water to leave the cone with increased apertures and edge clearances by the rules laid
velocity, thereby producing a reactive thrust down in Sec. 67.24, to know the approximate
which takes effect upon the internal surfaces of maximum blade width for a screw propeller
the cone."
having Z blades and a specified (or approximate)
(5) SBSR, 10 Feb 1938, p. 176; 2 May 1940, pp. 444-445.
expanded-area ratio As/Ag or for a propeller
The latter reference contains rather detailed draw- ,

ings of a 25-ft launch equipped with a double-cone
propeller designed by Donald V. Hotchkiss
operation on the Irrawaddy River where floating
debris and weeds are encountered. A grille is pro-
vided to exclude "objects which might damage the
impellers if drawn into the intakes."
(6) Baader, J., "Cruceros y Lanchas Veloces (Cruisers
and Fast Launches)," Buenos Aires, 1951;
on p. 221 illustrates a Hotchkiss propeller
the side of a vessel
having a given mean-Avidth ratio Cm/D. The
for maximum width will depend to some extent upon
the blade outline and shape but approximate
values can be derived for blades of average shape,
to permit establishing aperture and edge clear-
ances in the preliminary-design stage. The broken-
Fig. 175 line graph of Fig. 59. E enables a designer to
fitted in
Expanded Chord Cf^

On pages 358 and 359 of the September 1952 issue of Left-Hand Scole is Rotio of
(7) ^eon Expanded Chord Length i

The Motor Boat and Yachting there is an article,

with drawings, about a small cone propeller installa-
tion suitable for dinghies. The following is quoted
from page 358:
"Advantages of the system are that there is no
projection outside the hull so that the draft of a
craft using it is much reduced; the cone propeller

can pass through weed beds, or over ropes or

other obstructions without fouling, by reason of
the self-clearing grids provided; installation is a
simple matter and the cones can be installed in
the most suitable part of the boat. A further
important advantage is that the impeller can be
employed to pump out the bilges, by providing
piping connected to the small end of the cone."

For the Gill propeller, the available information

is somewhat more scanty:

(a) Gill, J.H. W., "Der Hydraulische Schiffsantrieb fiir

besondere Fahrtverhaltnisse (The Hydraulic Ship
Propulsion for Special Ship Operating Conditions),"
Bull. Tech. du Bureau Veritas, 1921, p. 199
(b) The Shipbuilder, 1921, p. 24
(c) The Engineer, 1921, Vol. 1 of that year, pp. 140, 172
(d) MENA, 1923, p. 345
(e) SBSR, 19 Aug 1926, Vol. 28, pp. 202-204; 1939, Vol.
54, pp. 111-115.

59.11 Area Ratios, Blade Widths, and Blade-

Helix Angles of Screw Propellers. The various
blade-area ratios of a screw propeller are defined
rather precisely in Sec. 32.8 of Volume I and in
the "Explanatory Notes for Resistance and
Propulsion Data Sheets," SNAME Technical
and Research Bulletin 1-13, July 1953, page 16.
The expanded-area ratio Ae/Aq , also known
rather indefinitely as the blade-area ratio or the
disc-area ratio, is the one employed almost
exclusively in this book, particularly in the
Sec. 59.12 PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE 341

propeller design of Chap. 70. It could and should Table 59.b lists the blade-helix angles <j) for a
be increased when making the revisions to the series of ten 0-diml radii x', and for five pitch-
preliminary design described in Sec. 78.18. diameter ratios covering the range normally
In the event the mean-width ratio of a partic- encountered in ship work. The pitch is assumed
ular screw propeller is not known, it can be deter- constant at all radii for this tabulation.
mined by the formula 59. 12 Pertinent Data on Flow Into Propulsion-
Device Positions. The flow into the positions

2Z
m
1
-
(59. i)
occupied by propulsion devices around a ship
hull is discussed in and covered by various
sections in Chaps. 17, 33, 52, 60, 67, and 69. The
duplication and repetition involved are considered
by the great importance of this phase of
justified
Table 59.a lists the blade-helix angles <^(phi) for hydrodynamics as applied to ship design, and
ten values of 0-diml ratio x' = R/Rm„x for EMB by the necessity for devoting increased thought
model propeller 2294, used as the stock propeller and study to it in the future. The present section
for the self-propulsion tests of the transom-stern calls attention to a few particular features of this
ABC ship model, TMB 4505. A drawing of this flow, and lists a number of sources of published
propeller is reproduced in Fig. 78. L. material available for reference.

TABLE 59. a Derivation op Blade-Helix Angles for TMB Model Propeller 2294
Fig. 78. L is a drawing of this propeller, used as the stock wheel for the self-propelled test of TMB Model 4505, repre-
senting the transom-stern design of the ABC ship of Part 4.
The helix angle is given for the tip section, even though the blade width there is zero.

X' = R/Rua.
342 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 59.12

One such feature applies to the element of a screw propellers, the effective velocity is assumed
screw-propeller blade on which the instantaneous the same as the nominal incident velocity.
incident-A'elocity vector impinges in a plane not In the latter case, diagram 1 of Fig. 59. G of
normal to the blade axis, corresponding to the Sec. 59.13 indicates that for a thrust-load factor
non-axial flow situation described in Sec. 17.7 Ctl any kind of ship
of 24, rarely reached in
and depicted in diagram 1 of Fig. 17. D. It is service, the convergence angle of the inflow jet,
again emphasized that for this case the effective at the propeller tip, is about 19 deg. The cosine
velocity across the blade is the incident velocity of this angle is 0.9455, but it must be remembered
UR times the sine of the angle which that velocity that the lift and the thrust for any blade element
vector makes with the blade axis, as projected of thickness dR vary as the square of the incident
on a plane passing through the base chord of the velocity. The on the tip blade
effective thrust
blade element and the blade axis. The situation element therefore appears to be reduced by the
here corresponds to that of the flow over an factor (1 — cos' B), where 5(theta) is the conver-
airplane wing with sweep-back. The effective gence angle. For the case mentioned this is
velocity of the air stream, for generating lift, is [1 - (0.9455)'] or about 0.106.
the component of the speed vector l3'ing normal Applying also to Fig. 59.G of Sec. 59.13, the
to the blade axis, in a plane generally parallel to graphs of Fig. 59. F indicate the ratios of the
the wing. This is equal to the stream velocity inflow-jet and outflow-jet diameters to the diam-
times the cosine of the angle of sweepback [Collar, eter of an imaginary actuator-disc propeller, for
A. R., "Aeroelastic Problems at High Speed," a range of thrust-load coefficient values up to 6.0.
Jour. Roy. Aero. Soc, Jan 1947, pp. 15-16]. The data given are for positions 3D ahead of and
Theoretically, this situation should apply also 2iD abaft the disc position, respectively.
to a screw-propeller blade with skew-back, and Only in the case of systematic variations in
to converging flow of an inlet jet when
the inflow, occurring over most of the disc area, is it
approaching the propeller disc. In the former possible to predict their effect on propeller per-
case,throughout most of the length of the blade, formance. For instance, general prerotation in
the local blade-axis directionis not normal to the inflow jet, in a direction opposite to that of
the tangent plane of the local incident flow. the propeller, results in a slower rate of rotation,
However, since the effect and the magnitude of a reduction in power absorbed, and (usually) an
sweep-back have not as yet (1955) been incor- increase in efficiency for the generation of a given
porated in any of the analysis or design phases for propeller thrust.

Thrust-Load Coefficient C^l

2.0 2.4 2,8 3.2 3.£ A.O

0-7 1=1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I M I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 11 I I I 1^07

0.0 0.4 0.& ).2 1.6 2D 2.4 Z.8 3.2 3.G 4.0 4.4 A.& 5.2 5.G G.O
Thrubt-Load Coefficient Ctl

Fig. 59. F Graphs Indicating Ratios of Inflow- and Outflow-Jet Diameters to Disc Diameter of an Ideal
Screw Propeller
Sec. 59.13 PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE 343

The following references may be found useful 59.13 Data on Induced Velocities and Differ-
by the reader who wishes to pursue further the ential Pressures. It is explained in Sec. 16.3 of
study of inflow to a screw propeller: Volume induced flow and the contrac-
I that the
tion of the jet passing through the imaginary
(1) Wood, R. MoK., "Multiplane Interference Applied to
Airscrew Theory," ARC, R and M
639, 1919-1920,
actuator disc representing a screw propeller are
Vol. 2, pp. 553-576 functions of the thrust-load factor Ctl at which
(2) Betz, A., "Development of the Inflow Theory of the the actuator is assumed to be working. The
Propeller," NACA Tech. Note 24, Nov 1920
relative magnitude of the — Ap ahead of the disc
(3) Betz, A., "The Theory of the Screw Propeller,"
NACA Tech. Note 83, Feb 1922
and the +Ap
abaft the disc for any given Ctl is
Munk, M. M., "Notes on Propeller Design-Ill. The similarly a function of that thrust-load factor,
(4)
Aerodynamical Equations of the Propeller Blade indicated by the graph of Fig. 16. B on page 249
Elements," NACA Tech. Note 95, May 1922 of Volume I. Here, utilizing the Bernoulli Theo-
(5) Lock, C. N. H., and Bateman, H., "The Measurement
rem, the ratio
of Airflow Round an Airscrew," ARC, R and M
1955, Nov 1924, pp. 385-399 3 + VCtl + 1 (59. ii)
Weick, F. E., "Propeller Design: Practical Application
(6)
of the Blade Element Theory-I," NACA Tech.
1 +3VCrL + 1
Note 235, May 1926 At zero speed of advance, where Ctl has a
(7) Weick, F. E., "Aircraft Propeller Design," McGraw- nominal value of infinity, the ratio of — Ap to
Hill, New York, 1930
4-Ap reaches its low limit of 0.333 [Troost, L.,
(8) Helmbold, H. B., "Goldstein's Solution of the Problem
of the Aircraft Propeller with a Finite Number of
IME, Mar 1946, Vol. 58, p. 14].
Blades," NACA Tech. Memo 652, Dec 1931 Numerical values of the ratio of half the induced
(9) Glauert, H., "Airplane Propellers," AT, Vol. IV, 1936. velocity far astern, 0.5 f// , to the undisturbed

Longitudinal Scale in Terms of Hodius R

\z 1 ob 1

Fig. 59.G Theoretical Jet Outlines, Axial- Velocity Distribution, and Axial-Pressure Distribution
FOR an Ideal Screw Propeller
344 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 59.13

stream velocity U^ at a distance, are listed in

Table 34. a on page 508 of Volume I for a range
of thrust-load factor Ctl of from 0.040 to 360.0.
These ratios are indicated graphically in Figs.
34. D and 34. E on page 510 of that volume.
In diagram 1 of Fig. 59. G there are plotted, to
scale, the longitudinal jet outlines for the liquid
passing through an imaginary actuator disc from
6i2 or 3Z) ahead to QR or 3Z) abaft the disc
position, at varied thrust-load factors. If R is the
radius of the actuator. Table 59. c gives the theo-

T.\BLE 59. c Inflow- and Outflow-Jet Diameters

AT %R Ahead and Astern of an Imaginary Actuator
Disc of Radius R
The values tabulated are entirely theoretical, for an
ideal liquid and no external interferences.

Thrust-load Ideal efficiency. Inflow-jet Outflow-jet

factor, Ctl vi radius radius
Sec. 59.14 PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE 345

_ .^. r ^T(for all propellers)

_
.
~
ror this model,
,

Lf-i - -rz . ^ /•, \T727

0.5p 2 Ao(.for all propellers) V/f(avera()i

M''
--K-
.,--K
JfT'
1
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I III I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ITl
07 0.8 0.9 3CP3
Taylor Quotient, Tc^ • V/C
346 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 59.15

19

18

17
Sec. 59.16 PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE 347

course of a conversion project, to estimate the (10) 17,000 = 170,0001b to (15) 17,000 = 255,000
screw-propeller thrust long before the propeller is lb thrust.
selected or Only the proposed ship
designed. Selecting a TD/Q value from the Prohaska
speed may be known, or at most the power and logarithmic propeller chart in Fig. 70. B, by the
rate of rotation of the engine. method diagrammed in Fig. 70. A, gives the ratio
A rule-of-thumb often used involves the dimen- TD/Q = 5.8 for a P/D ratio of 1.00. Again
sional relationship T = kPs ,
where in English taking the power as 17,000 horses for this example,
units T is in lb, Ps is in horses, and k varies from and the rate of rotation from Sec. 70.6 as 109.2
30 on a tug exerting bollard pull at zero speed to rpm or 1.82 rps, the expected torque at the de-
a range of 10-15 for normal propulsion. For high- signed speed is found by
speed racing motorboats it may drop to 3 or less
17,000(550)
[Spencer, D. B., Pac. N. W. Sect., SNAME, = 817,600 ft-lb.
2im 6.2832(1.82)
2 Feb 1951].
It is pointed out in Sec. 34.7 of Part 2 and Sec. With a propeller diameter of 20 ft, the thrust
70.5 of Part 4 that there is a rather definite prediction works out as
relationship between the thrust T and the torque
developed by a screw propeller when working T =
7 817,600 =
Q 5. 237,104 lb.
V 20
imder any given set of relatively steady condi-
tions. The torqueto be exerted by a propelling From the open-water test data of the stock
plant is determined from assumed or
readily model propeller selected for the transom-stern,
known values of the shaft power and the angular TMB 2294, presented in Fig. 78.Mc, the value of
rate of rotation n. The thrust may be estimated the fraction K^/Kq at a real-slip ratio of about
with equal facility by one or the other of the 0.25, corresponding to a J-value of 0.735, is

following 0-diml equations, depending upon the found to be

information available at the time of the estimate:
TD 0.148
= 5.58
Thrust-torque factor Q 0.0265

TD = Hence
—p^ a value derived from propeller charts
817,600
T = 5.58 = 228,110 1b.
from open-water model propeller 20
Kc
data. From Sec. 70.6 the predicted propeller thrust,
worked out at a later stage of the ABC ship
The latter relationship is easily derived from design, is only about 193,500 lb. The thrust
available plots, provided the pitch ratio and other derived from the self-propelled model test, taken
principal characteristics of the propeller approxi- from Fig. 78. Nb for the 20.5-kt designed speed,
mate those which will probably be used in the isonly 172,170 lb. The range of prediction covered
contemplated design. The TD/Q ratio varies only by the preceding examples is rather large, but at
slowly with the real-slip ratio Sg or advance least the estimated values are conservative.
coefficient J. In any case the open-water data 59.16 Relation Between Thrust at the Pro-
give appropriate values for any desired real-slip peller and at the Thrust Bearing. For a propeller-
ratio or advance coefficient. thrust estimate of the type described in the pre-
At a later stage in a ship design the propeller ceding section, it is usually assumed that the
thrust is estimated from T = R/{1 — t), where thrust bearing takes the whole propeller thrust.
the hull resistance R and the thrust-deduction Actually, the thrust-bearing load equals the
fraction t are estimated as described in Sees. propeller thrust only when the friction effects in
57.4 and 60.9, respectively, or are found from the bearings between the propeller and the forward
self-propelled model tests. end of all elements attached to and working with
Using the ABC ship as an example for the the shaft are neglected, and when the shaft
successive stages of this estimate, the rule-of- declivity in the running condition is zero. Other-
thumb method, with /c-values of 10 to 15 for wise the thrust-bearing load equals the propeller
normal propulsion, and for an estimated shaft thrust plus or minus an axial component of the
power of 17,000 horses, gives a range of from weight of the propeller, shaft, and all engine
348 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 59.17

parts whose longitudinal position is fixed by the (3) The -|-Ap's exerted over the projected axial
thrust bearing, depending upon whether the area of the hub abaft the blades, as well as the
axial weight component is directed forward or — Ap's exerted over the forward exposed area
aft. The axial friction effects in the various shaft of the hub, outside the shaft, are measured in
and machinery bearings, with the parts rotating model tests and reckoned in ship trials as part
at any speed above very slow, may generally be of the thrust exerted by the blades.
neglected. The axial weight component is usually
For high-speed vessels such as destroyers, in
a secondary factor in the selection or design of a which the attitude changes materially from the
thrust bearing, but it is a factor of importance in
at-rest to the running condition, the actual shaft
the analysis of shipboard thrust measurements,
declivity at any .speed is a combination of that
where its magnitude is often appreciable, com-
built into the ship (or that imposed by the par-
pared to the propeller thrust [SNAME, 1934,
ticular loading condition) and the running trim
pp. 151-152]. at that speed. Assuming a change of trim from
Fig. 59.L, adapted from Figs. 13 and 14 on zero to full speed of 1.5 deg, not uncommon in
pages 151-152 of SNAME, 1934, illustrates
these craft, the axial weight component of the
diagrammatically several types of machinery, the rotating parts of one main propelling unit is
weights of each to be included in the computation
changed by the sine of this angle, or some 2.6
for the axial component, and the manner in which
per cent. This may amount to 3 per cent or more
the various forces are combined at the thrust of the full-speed thrust [SNAME, 1933, pp. 268,
bearing. As further refinements, not always
275, 277].
carried out in practice:
59.17 Estimates of Thrust and Torque Varia-
(1) The weight of the propeller and of those tion per Revolution for Screw Propellers. The
portions of the shafting completely surrounded by reasons for the generation of thrust and torque
water may be reduced by the buoyant forces of variations on the blade of a screw propeller as it

the water on those parts rotates, and for the application of offset forces and
(2) Part of the measured thrust is due to the bending moments on the shaft, are described in
hydrostatic head over the section area of the Sees. 17.3 through 17.7, 17.12, and Sec. 33.13 in
shaft where it enters the hull stuffing box Volume I. The equalization of the thrust and
Jaw Couplinq with No
Fore- and- Aft Restraint

Forces Zi|T andA^T are the Products of the Wcltjhts W, and

W2 and the Sines of the Respective ArKjIes of Declivity,
with Friction Effects Nei^lected

When Calculating the Total Weiqhl

of the Rotating Parts, the Weiqhls
of the Propeller and of the Shaftino
Sections Surrounded b"y Water are
to be Diminished b'^ the Buoyancy
of that Water

On Slow-Speed and Medium-Speed

Vessels the Chanoe of Trim and of
Shaft Declivity Due to Speed Through
the Water is Usually Neqli(jible.
Sec. ?9.17 PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE 349

torque for all angular positions and the reduction Investigation of Propeller Shaft Failures"
of the bending moments is a design problem of [SNAME, 1952, pp. 314-381], have given the
long standing. Nevertheless, the advent of higher wake-survey diagram of a single-screw ship,
powers per on vessels carrying
shaft, especially together with the calculated variations in pro-
propellers abaft skegs, and the increasing emphasis peller thrust, propeller torque, and other factors,
on freedom from vibration, has made it necessary on a base of angular position of the propeller.
to devote much more intensive and thorough These are supplemented by measurements of the
study to this project than was formerly the case. axial, torsional, and bending .strains on the proto-

A great deal of clever experimentation, carried
out in the period 1940-1955, has demonstrated
that the variable forces and moments can be
large enough not only to produce objectionable
motion of the machinery parts and generate
vibration in both hull and machinery but to
account for actual breakage of the propeller
shafts at sea.
Several decades ago R. J. Walker and
Cook gave some data on wake and torque
tionsencountered on the single-screw tankers
San Florentino and Sa7i Fernando [Mar. Eng'g.,
type propeller shaft. Figs. 59. M
and 59. N are
adapted from Figs. 33 and 34, respectively, of the
paper. A list of 20 references is to be found on
pages 364-365.
Supplementing the foregoing, E. P. Pana-
gopulos and A. M. Nickerson, Jr., made further
full-scale tests on a larger vessel. The results of
this investigation were published by them in a
S. S. paper entitled "Propeller-Shaft Stresses under
varia- —
Service Conditions The S.S. Chryssi Investiga-
tion" [SNAME, 1954, pp. 199-241]. This paper
is concerned largely with the bending stresses in

May 1921, p. 395]. They reported variations in the propeller shaft but Fig. 23 on page 227 is a
torque ranging from a maximum of 1.35 times graph showing the variation in the calculated
the mean, at a blade position of about 102 deg, thrust of- one blade throughout a single complete
to 0.59 times the mean at a position, for the same revolution. The thrust varies from about 15,000
blade, of about 143 deg. Here the 12 o'clock lb at the 9 o'clock position to 126,000 lb at 12:20
position is taken as deg, with angles increasing o'clock, to 42,000 lb at 4 o'clock, and to 123,000
in a clockwise direction, looking forward, cor- lb at 6:36 o'clock.
responding to diagram 1 of Fig. I.E. In the plane A realistic look at this situation indicates
of symmetry at the disc position the wake definitely that an analytic procedure must be
fractions were found to vary from 0.536 at developed whereby the magnitudes, directions,
6 o'clock in the tip circle to 0.627 at 12 o'clock in and positions of the variable forces exerted by one
that circle. At 4:30 o'clock the wake fraction was
0.041; at 10:30 o'clock it was 0.255.
Diagrams of thrust and torque variations on a
basis of angular position around the shaft axis,
for the single blades of a 3-bladed screw propeller,
and for the overall propeller, are given in Fig. 218
on page 281 of the Russian book "Korabelnye
Dvizhiteli (Marine Propulsion Devices)," written
by U. I. Soloviev and D. A. Churmack under the
scientific supervision of I. G. Hanovich, Moscow,
1948. These page and figure numbers are the
same in the Bureau of Ships (Navy Department)
Translation 408 of this book, March 1951.
A paper by J. R. Kane and R. T. McGoldrick
[SNAME, 1949, pp. 193-252] was devoted to an
analysis of the longitudinal vibration of marine
propulsion-shafting systems, resulting from varia-
tions in the thrust forces with angular position of x'=R/Rm,
the screw propeller. On pages 231-232 this paper
Pig. 59.M Variation of Thrust-Load Coefficient
lists 20 references.
OF A Screw Propeller with Dimensionless Radius,
More recently, N. H. Jasper and L. A. Rupp, on a Basis of Dimensionless Radius, At Four
in their paper "An Experimental and Theoretical Angular Positions
350 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 59.17
Sec. 59.17 PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE 351

l.b
352 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 59.11

10,000

8,000

^ 6,000
n
8.

S4,000

2,000

480

460

420
Sec. 59.n PROPULSION-DEVICE PERFORMANCE 353

Qz{(l) is the torque per blade at the angle Q The mean thrust is

F zifi) is the transverse tangential force per blade 2,

at the angle %. Then 7'M„a„ = tt f T{Q) dQ
^T Jo

Tzid) = I T{x' , e) dx' Similarly, letting the total torque for all blades at
'^"''
any one blade angle be Qi6), then

7, / dx' and
Hx
1 r^"'
If the total thrust for all blades at one blade Qivipan = TT 1 ^^^) '^^
'"'
angle is designated as T{B), then "

z '\ Setting [F{d)]^. equal to the total horizontal

/ 2
Ti^) = Zl
"'
^z( ^ + -^1 transverse force of all blades at any one blade
angle, and [F{e)], equal to the total vertical
For a 4-bladed propeller, where Z = 4, the fore- transverse force of all blades at any one blade
going becomes angle,

ne) = Tz{6 + 2^p) + Tz{e + 2^) [Fie)i = t Fz{e + ^f) cos [e + ^f)
+ T.(. + ?fl) + Tz{e + f) [Fie)i = t Fz{e + f ) sin {e + f)
 CHAPTER 60

Ship-Powering Data for Steady Ahead Motion

60.1 General 354 60 1 1
. Determination of the Propulsive Coefficient . 375
60.2 Estimation or Calculation of Effective and 60.12 Data from Self-Propulsion Tests of Model
Friction Power 354 Ships and Propellers 377
60 3 . Trim Changes on
Effect of Displacement and 60 13
. Merit Factors for Predicting Shaft Power . . 380
Power
Effective 355 60.14 Shaft-Power Estimates by the Ideal-Effi-
60 4 . Methods and Factors Involved in Predicting ciency Method 383
Shaft Power 358 60.15 Estimating Shaft Power for a Fouled- or
60.5 Axial-Component Wake-Fraction Diagrams Rough-Hull Condition 385
at Propulsion-Device Positions 358 60 16
. Increasing the Power and Speed of an Exist-
60.6 Three-Dimensional Wake-Survey Diagrams 360 ing Ship 387
60.7 Interpretation and Analysis of the TMB 60.17 Powering for Two or More Distinct Operat-
Three-Dimensional Wake Diagram . . . 362 ing Conditions 388
60.8 Estimating the Ship- Wake Fraction .... 368 60.18 Backing Power from Self-Propelled Model
60.9 Prediction of the Thrust-Deduction Fraction 370 Tests 388
60.10 Finding the Relative Rotative Efficiency . . 374

60.1 General. Although not always expressed One caution against all methods of estimating
in so many words, one aim of naval architects and and predicting ship power is that they shall be
marine engineers for the past century or more based on test and other data that are as compre-
has been to find an adequate method of calculating hensive as possible. Limiting one's basic data to
directly the power necessary to drive a given ship those for one kind and size of ship may be mis-
at a given speed. By direct calculation is meant a leading or result in downright inaccuracies for
determination of the ship power in the early borderline cases.
stages of the design, directly from the data on 60.2 Estimation or Calculation of Effective
paper, using whatever handbook or reference data and Friction Power. The derivation of towrope
that may be necessary, but without the building or effective power for a ship, when its resistance
or testing of a model. The discussion in this chapter is found by the procedures described in Chaps.

is limited generally to methods of direct estimate 56 and 57, involves only one simple step in
or calculation. multiplication, since Pe = RtV. When the
Chap. 57 describes methods of estimating the resistance is not known, either by estimate,
total hull resistance Rt making
oi ship forms, calculation, or test, its value is by-passed, so to
use of several different methods and various speak, by having the marine architect determine,
sources of test data. Certain of the powers used in a single step, the probable effective power for
in ship design are derived readily from this a given ship form.
resistance. Others, like the shaft power, can not Many graphs and tables for finding the effective
be calculated directly nor can they be estimated power for ships have been prepared and published
easily. over the years. It is difficult to assess their
It is emphasized here, as elsewhere in Parts 3 validity and usefulness because of uncertainty as
and 4 of the book, that the ship designer needs to what basic data were used and how reliable
several different methods to give the required these data were in the first place. In most cases,
engineering answers. Choice as to the method the graphs and tables cover vessels of one type
selected, which of several successive
or as to only; possibly even of a small range of size or
approximations is to be used, depends upon the shape. For example, J. C. Robertson and H. H.
time available for finding the answer, and the Hagan, in their paper entitled "A Century of
precision required in it. A rule-of-thumb procedure Coaster Design and Operation" [lESS, 1953-1954,
may be most appropriate for one situation yet Vol. 97, pp. 204-256, esp. Fig. 3 on pp. 212-213],
highly unsuitable for another. give curves of brake power Pb for this type of

354
Sec. 60.3 SHIP-POWERING DATA 355

ship on a base of displacement_weight for W selected vary as to type they vary only little in

various values of T, = V/'VL, where V is those proportions affecting hydrodynamic resist-

(apparently) the trial speed in kt. H. Volpich, in ance. A great many additional sets of contours
a discussion of this paper on pages 236-239 of would be needed to cover the whole ship-design
the reference [also SBSR, 20 May 19.54, pp. 634, field.

636], gives a nomogram (Fig. 12) for the power Bates' effective-power data are based upon test
approximation of single-screw diesel-driven coas- resultsfrom the Taylor Standard Series of models
ters embodying deadweight carrying capacity, and from miscellaneous EMB models. While ship
ship length, brake power, and ship speed. It is forms have changed somewhat since this analysis
useful for a quick and ready approximation to the was made, the data should still serve for quick
power of a small ship. estimates of effective power for vessels of the
J. L. Bates has published contours of constant proportions listed.
effective power P e for fast yachts having lengths is found by a
Since friction resistance for a ship
in the range of 100 to 500 ft, speeds in the range direct calculation in any case, the friction power
of 10 to 20 kt, and the following ranges of form is derived invariably by the formula Pp = RpV.
coefEcient: The difficulties in determining the effects of
roughness, described in Chap. 45, are of course
(a) Prismatic coefficient Cp from 0.62 to 0.66
reflected in a determination of the friction power.
(b) Displacement-length quotient A/(0.010L)^
Numerical values of friction power are rarely
from 40 to 45
employed in ship design but they are useful in
(c) Maximum-section coefficient Cx from 0.75
illustrating the effects of changing the wetted
to 0.83. These curves are to be found in MESA,
area and of surface roughness.
September 1921, pages 678-680. Similar contours
60.3 Effect of Displacement and Trim Changes
of constant effective power, for speeds in excess
on Effective Power. Knowing the effective power
of 22 or 23 kt, are to be found in the 1920 edition
of the Shipbuilding Cyclopedia [Simmons-Board-
P E for the designed displacement and trim of a
given vessel, usually as the result of a model test,
man, New York].
it is often required to estimate the Pe for a
Contours of constant effective power for vessels somewhat different displacement of that vessel;
of fine underbody, comprising yachts intended possibly also for a different trim. Designer's and
primarily for ocean cruising, coastal passenger operator's requirements, besides calling for the
vessels, gunboats, and certain seagoing tugs, are effective-power variations corresponding to the
given by Bates in Figs. 3-5 on pages 681-683 of usual 10 per cent light and heavy displacement,
the MESA reference. The curves cover a Cp of often extend to the so-called ballast condition,
0.56, a range of displacement-length quotient of especially for cargo vessels. Here the weight
from 100 to 150, and a range of Cx of from 0.87 displacement for a cargo-vessel design may
to 0.93. Representative vessels in the selected approach half the designed value, and the trim
groups have, according to Bates, the charac- by the stern of that vessel may be 0.3 or more of
teristics listed in Table 60. a. its designed draft.
Here again it is noted that while the craft As an aid in estimating these effective-power

TABLE 60. a Characteristics of Selected Vessels in the Powering Groups of J. L. Bates, 1920-1921

The references from which these data were taken are listed in the accompanying text.

Longitudinal
Displacement, V
Type Length, ft Prismatic
long tons
Coefficient, Cp
(1^ VI
\100>

Passenger vessel
356 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.3

changes without recourse to additional lengthy It is to be noted that, because of the arithmetic
calculations or model tests, data have been of the situation, the exponent n is extremely
analyzed from the tests of some two dozen models sensitive to changes in the power ratio. For
of ships of various types. The aim of this analysis example, for a displacement ratio (A — 5A)/A
is to determine the exponent n in the relationship of 0.9, and a power ratio [{Pe for 0.9A)/(P£
forA)] of 0.9, the exponent n = 1.0. For the same
Pe for ± gA)
(A SA F± b¥
displacement ratio and a power ratio of 1.0, the
Pe for A ¥ exponent n = Avhereas for a power ratio of
0,
or Pe for (A ± sA) (60. i) 0.81 the value of n = 2, since 1.0 = (0.9)° and
0.81 = Thus, while the possible selections
(0.9)".
f„..A,(^)" of n for a given T, from Fig. 60. A vary rather
widely, the range of estimated Pe derived from
It may be expected that these relationships will
them is rather small.
vary somewhat with speed-length quotient; pos-
To avoid multiplying large numbers by factors
sibly also with hydrodynamic ship proportions
very close to unity, which is the case when sA is
such as prismatic coefficient and fatness ratio.
small, and to avoid taking powers, the following
Fig. 60. A gives a tentative mean line for a
formula can be used:
variation of n in Eq. (60.i) with T„ or F„ as well ,

as a lane in which the majority of n values may Pe = A-A"

be expected to lie. They conform reasonably = =

cIPe /,:nA""' f/A or bPe hiA"~' sA
well for SA, bW, or 5¥ values ranging from +0.18
to —0.40, and for large-trim as well as zero-trim whence
changes accompanying the changes in displace-
bP, n(5A) "n(5A)"|
ment. The lane appears to be as valid for large and bPs = Pf (60. ia)
Pe
gA or bW percentages as for small ones.
In general the exponent n is greater for a For small percentage changes in the displacement
-t-5A or -\-bW than for a - SA or - bW, especially A, Eq. (60. ia) is more accurate than Eq. (60. i)
when r, > 1.0, F„ > 0.30. and easier to evaluate.
The plotting of Fig. 60. A is based only indirectly Take for example the ABC ship of Part 4,
on physical reasoning. The hulls which are less at a T^ of 0.9. Assume that the effective power
deeply immersed, more deeply immersed, or Pe for the designed displacement and trim is
inclined with trim by the bow or stern, can only 11,902 horses, equal to the estimated 10,820
in exceptional cases be geosims of the designed horses of Sec. 66.9 plus 10 per cent for appendages
underwater hull. Further, because of the different and other factors. Assume also that n is selected
proportions in each case, the surface waterline from the mean line of Fig. 60.A as 0.72. Then for
changes, the wetted surface varies, and the flow a partial-load displacement of 16,400 — 2,425 =
pattern is different. 13,975 t, as listed in Table 66.f of Sec. 66.16,

[ ^

5 0.8
Sec. 60 J SHIP-POWERING DATA 357

representing a reduction — sA of 14.8 per cent

from the designed value, the corresponding rela-
tionships are, from Eq. (60.i),

Pe for (16,400 - 2,425) tons

Pb for 16,400 tons
"
- "
(16,400 2,425) 1°
= P 16,400 J

If A = 16,400 tons is taken as l.OOOA, and

2,425 tons as SA or 0.1 48 A,

Pb for (1 000-0.148)A ^ [" (1.000-0.148) 1°"

P for 1.000 A L 1-000 J
= 0.8911

This gives P^ for 0.852A = 0.8911 (11,902) =

10,606 horses.
The reduction in effective power is only 10.9
per cent while the reduction in displacement is
14.8 per cent. This appears disappointing. It must
be remembered, however, that if the displacement
of the given vessel is increased by 14.8 per cent, a
similar calculation indicates that the effective

TESTS OF US. MAR. COMM.

358 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.4

be considered typical for medium and large single- It is with experience, to estimate the
possible,

screw vessels as a class. propulsive coefficient rjp directly, as is done for

Thei-e are in the archives of many ship-model the first approximation to the shaft power of the
testing establishments numerous sets of graphs ABC ship in Sec. 66.9 of Part 4. It is extremely
similar to those of Figs. 60.B and 60. C. In these difficult, however, to analyze this kind of experi-
the effective powers, and sometimes the friction ence and to set it down as a design rule. An
powers and other factors, are given for selected attempt to do it is setdown in Sec. 60.11.
ship models when run at widely different dis- A procedure for the preliminary estimate of the
placements and trims. For cases similar to these, shaft power of merchant ships recently described
where the light displacements vary by some 30 by V. Minorsky [Int. Shipbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol.
and 45 per cent, respectively, from the heavy or 2, No. 9, pp. 226-229] is in reality a dimensional

normal-load displacements, the range is rather version of the Telfer merit factor described in
large making estimates of effective-power
for Sec. 34.10. It takes the form
changes by the graphs of Fig. 60.A.
60.4 Methods and Factors Involved in Pre- Powering factor = V
V'Ps
dicting Shaft Power. The preliminary design of
a ship can not proceed very far until the shajt as compared to the 0-diml
power Ps needed to drive it at the designed speed
is determined in some manner. It is customary to Telfer merit factor M WV (34.xxiv)
gLPs
estimate or to predict this power by one or more
of a series of methods, involving successive The latter is assumed in Fig. 34.1 on page 518 of
approximations. However, to afford a better Volume I to vary in some manner as Fl with ,

understanding of the procedures underlying some further variations for better-than-average or less-
of the early approximations, the later approxima- than-average performance. The expression of V.
tions are described first. The discussion here is Minorsky uses only a single average factor, which
Umited primarily to screw propulsion. varies somewhat with block coefficient Cb and
The shaft power Ps is obtained directly from speed-length quotient "F/vL.
the effective power P^ by dividing the propulsive G. Deparis, in his paper "Etude Comparative
This is simple
coefficient T?i.(eta) into the latter. des Cargos; Puissance des Moteurs (Comparative
but estimating the proper value of tip is not. Study of Cargo Vessels; Propelling-Plant Power)"
From Eqs. (34.xv) and (34.xvi) of Sec. 34.7, [ATMA, 1955, Vol. 54, pp. 499-549], describes
methods whereby "guestimates" may be made of
Vp = Voiv hJvr = Vo^
— w propelling-plant power and speed on a basis of
I
useful load, in an early stage of the preliminary
The value of 770 is known for the working range design. The factors given are based upon a study
of a considerable number of screw propellers of the characteristics of many ships, including
suitable for driving a wide variety of ships. undoubtedly the inefficient as well as the efficient

Published data can be supplemented by informa- ones.

tion obtained from model basins which have J. E. Burkhardt discusses several methods of
tested many propeller models. However, the estimating ship power [ME, 1942, Vol. I, pp.
working range of the advance coefficient J is 22-28] but all of them are covered in the present
also rather large, and tjo may vary rather rapidly book, in one form or another. Descriptions of
with J in that range. A J-value may be chosen, other methods of predicting shaft power are
for a propeller not too heavily loaded, just under embodied in Sees. 60.13, 60.14, and 60.15.
(less than) the J-value for maximum 170 . 60.5 Axial-Component Wake-Fraction Dia-
Estimating the hull efficiency rja involves grams at Propulsion-Device Positions. Charac-
estimates of both the thrust-deduction fraction t teristics of the wake at propulsion-device positions
and the wake fraction w. Methods of accomplish- are discussed in Chap. 11. Methods for indicating

ing this, in advance of or without self-propulsion the situation graphically with respect to wake
tests of the ship model, are described presently in velocity and direction over the whole thrust-
Sees. 60.8 and 60.9. Estimating the probable value producing area are described there, specifically
of the relative rotative efficiency jjk is described as applying to a screw propeller.
in Sec. 60.10. There is a great amount of published data on
Sec. 60.^ SHIP-POWERING DATA 359

wake, some of it listed subsequently in this section, wicklungen der Schiffbau-Versuchstechnik (New
E.xperiences and Developments in the Technique
in which only the fore-and-aft or direction-of-
of Ship Trials)," WRH, 1 Nov 1930, pp. 437-442,
motion components of the actual wake velocities esp. Figs. 5, 5a, 8, and 9. English version in TMB
are indicated, as described in Sec. 11.4. The Transl. 3, Dec 1930.
preponderance of these data might lead a marine (d) Weitbreclit, H. M., "Mitstrom und Mitstromschrau-
architect to believe that this method of wake ben (Wake and Wake-Adapted Propellers)," WRH,
15 Dec 1930, pp. 505-507, esp. Figs. 6, 7, and 8
representation is adequate. The fore-and-aft
(e) Wake-fraction diagrams, indicating the variation in
actual-velocity components do indeed serve as the
this fraction around a propeller tip circle, for
basis for the orthodox wake fraction in everyday sterns with V- and U-sections, are shown on page
use for powering estimates and for some analytic 254 of a paper by Dr.-Ing. E. Foerster entitled
work. Nevertheless, it is important to realize "Speed and Power of Ships" [MESA, May 1930].
These indicate a minimum wake fraction of about
that they tell only part of the story so far as flow
0.42 for the U-shaped run and of about 0.18 for
at the propeller positionsis concerned. The the V-shaped run. Similar diagrams, showing the
reasons for this are set down in Chap. 11 and in variations in wake fractions around a screw-
Sec. 60.7 following. The 3-diml representation of propeller disc behind different forms of bossing, are

Fig. ll.F and of Figs. 60.D through 60. J in Sec. given at the bottom of pages 256 and 257 of the
reference quoted.
60.6 of the present chapter gives a far more
(f) Weitbrecht, H. M., "Uber Mitstrom und Mitstrom-
adequate, more accurate, and more useful indica- schrauben (On Wake and Wake-Adapted Pro-
tion of the flow situation in which the propeller pellers)," STG, 1931, Vol. 32, pp. 117-133; also
must work. Figs. 23(a), 23(b), and 23(c) on p. 350, SNAME,
Additional reasons for making use of a 3-diml 1950
(g) Kempf, G., Mitstrom und Mitstromschrauben (Wake
wake diagram which shows the true water veloc-
and Wake-Adapted Propellers)," STG, 1931, pp.
ities, both magnitude
in and direction, are
134-152. This paper contains a considerable number
brought out in Sec. 60.7. of contour diagrams, showing longitudinal com-
It is true that the plotting of wake-survey ponents of velocity and wake fractions, and other
diagrams in terms of contours of longitudinal- features. Fig. 25 on p. 793 of SNAME, 1955, is

velocity components F(l — w) or of wake fraction

w reveals certain features not well illustrated by
the TMB 3-diml wake-vector diagrams of Figs.
ll.F and 60.D through 60.K of Sec. 60.6. For
example, the wake-contour diagram for
adapted from one of these diagrams.
(h) Baker, G. S., "Wake," NECI, 1934-1935, Vol. LI,
pp. 303-320 and D137-D146. Shows wake-survey
diagrams for a number of models.
(i) Yamagata, M., "Wake Measurement by a Working
TMB Propeller," 3rd ICSTS, Berlin, 1934, p. 67

twin-skeg model 3898, published in SNAME, (i) Yamagata, M., INA, 1934, pp. 286-396, esp. pp.
387-388 and PI. XXXIX.
1947, Fig. 32 on page 121, reveals the general
(k) Michel, F., "Stromungserregte Resonanzschwing-
pattern of wake irregularity more vividly than ungen (Resonant Vibration Caused by Flow),"
the 3-diml survey diagram of Fig. 22 of the WRH, 1 Feb 1939, pp. 29-31
reference, was constructed.
from which it (1) German twin-screw ship Tannenberg. Contours of
equal fore-and-aft wake fraction are given by G.
A brief of sources embodying wake-survey
Kempf in WRH, 15 Jun 1939, pp. 167-174, especi-
diagrams with contour and other plots of local An English version of this paper
ally pp. 170-171.
fore-and-aft velocity components or wake frac- isfound in TMB Transl. 91, Jul 1941, where the
tions is given here for the benefit of the reader: wake-survey and analysis diagrams appear on pages
10 and 11.
(a) Calvert, G. A., "On the Measurement of Wake
XXXIV, (m) Twin-skeg Manhattan, contours of equal longitudinal
Currents," INA, 1893, Vol. pp. 61-67 and
and and 5 on PL II are components of wake velocity abaft one skeg and
Pis. I, II, III. Figs. 3, 4,
early wake-survey diagrams showing true wake for a considerable distance beyond ; SNAME, 1947,
Fig. 32, p. 121
speeds, in the lines of flow, as percentages of the
ship speed. Calvert endeavored to account for the
(n) Troost, L., "The Effect of Shape of Entrance on Ship
Propulsion," INA, 1949, pp. 169-170. Contours are
observed wake velocities by combining the wave
given of equal wake fraction (axial component only)
wake with the viscous wake but a rather large dis-
crepancy remained because he did not take into over the propeller disc of a small coaster, together

account the wake due to potential flow. with graphs showing the circumferential variation
of the wake fraction for various radii.
(b) Kempf, G., "The Wake of a Ship in Relation to that
of its Model," SBSR, 14 Feb 1924, pp. 194-196. (o) Harvald, S. A., "Wake of Merchant Ships," Danish
Describes wake wheels or vane wheels and gives Technical Press Copenhagen, 1950, esp. p. 80
liner. Two dia-
results of model tests. (p) Normandie, transatlantic passenger
(c) Kempf, G., "Neue Betriebserfahrungen und Ent- grams of the wake magnitudes abaft the outboard
360 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.6

bossings, made before and after alterations, are diagram 2 of Fig. 17. C. Here, in the 12 o'clock
given by F. H. Todd,SNAME, 1949, Figs. 26 and blade position, the actual inflow-velocity magni-
These and other wake diagrams for the
27, p. 234.
tude is U A sec ^(theta) while the effective velocity
Normandie are published by F. Coqueret and P.
Romano in SNAME, 1936, Figs. 1-4 on p. 135 and with respect to a blade element is Ua . It is the
Figs. 9-10 on p. 139. latter which is measured by a device that records
(q) Henschke, W., "Schiffbautechnisehes Handbuch (Ship- or indicates only the fore-and-aft or direction-of-
building and Ship Design Handbook)," 1952, p. 132.
motion velocity components. For the special case
Shows wake diagram for twin screws abaft bossings.
considered, and for the 12 and 6 o'clock blade
(r) Van Manen, J. D., Int. Shpbldg. Prog., 1955, Vol. 2,
positions, the instrument indications are valid.
No. 8, pp. 162-163
(s) Kinoshita, M., and Ikada, S., Int. Shpbldg. Prog., For other blade positions, however, such as
1955, Vol. 2, No. 9, Fig. 7, p. 237. those at or near 3 and 9 o'clock in the special
situation considered, there is actually a large
60.6 Three-Dimensional Wake-Survey Dia- increase in incident or resultant velocity and
grams. If ail the wake-velocity vectors are not effective angle of attack for the downward moving
motion but are generally
parallel to the direction of blade and a large decrease in both for the upward
parallel to each other and to one plane which moving blade. Taking account of the induced
contains the plane of the shaft, there exists what velocities increases these differences. The fact that
might be called simple non-axial flow. Such a the lift varies as the square of the relative velocity
flow might occur at a single-screw position under at which the blade elements move still further
a wide, flat stern, sloping upward and aft at a increases the difference.
nearly constant rate. Non-axial flow then occurs Typical 3-diml wake-survey diagrams on ship
in the vertical plane, corresponding to that in models, made with the TMB 13-orifice spherical-

TABLE 60.b Data Accompanying Wake-Survey Diagrams of Figs. 60.D Through 60.H
All tests were made at the David Taylor Model Basin. The Taylor quotients are based on the ship lengths listed.

Model tested
Sec. 60.6 SHIP-POWERING DATA 361

ELEVATION OF PORT SIDE

LOOKING FORWARD

R' 8.2 ft

Propeller Tip Circle^-.^^ IT^S

A-J^i^lZ?--^

Values for
Circles Shown
with Broken Lines
ore Extrapolated

Fig. 60.D Wake-Survey Diagram for a Twin-Screw Naval Vessel, U.S.S. Terror

head pitot tube, are reproduced in Fig. ll.F of Diagrams such as those listed in the foregoing,
Part 1 and Figs. 60. D througli 60. J of the present which carry a multitude of survey points, may
section. The diagram of Fig. 60. D is for a wing become cluttered up and confusing if they include
propeller position on a twin-screw stern of noi'mal the section lines for the portion of .the afterbody
form, while those of Figs. 60. E through 60. H are or run just forward of the propeller position.
for single-screw sterns with centerline skegs, These section lines, however, are important
representing variations of the U. Maritime S. features in the wake analysis because they show
Administration C4-S-la or Mariner class. Numeri- the shape of the ship just ahead of the propeller
cal data pertaining to these five are listed in position. For a comprehensive analysis they
Table 60.b. The diagrams of Figs. 60.1 and 60.J, should be available on or with the wake-survey
adapted from Figs. 32 and 33 of a paper by H. R. diagram, drawn preferably to the same scale.
Neifert and J. H. Robinson [SNAME, 1955, pp. Appended is a partial list of additional 3-diml
525-526], are for the light and intermediate load wake-survey diagrams of the TMB type, as
conditions, respectively, of a model of the Victory published in the technical literature:
ship Lt. James E. Robinson.
(a) Twin-skeg Manhattan design; wake over propeller
Fig. 60. K, for comparison, depicts the wake disc abaft skeg and for considerable distance beyond;
situation at the tail of a torpedo, in theform of a SNAME, 1947, Fig. 22, p. 115
body of revolution but with two vertical and two (b) U. Maritime Commission, C-3 cargo vessel, TMB
S.

horizontal fins ahead of the propeller positions. model 3534; SNAME, 1947, Fig. 45, p. 146
Fig. 60. M
of Sec. 60.7 is a wake-survey diagram
(c) U. S. Maritime Commission design for a transatlantic
liner, TMB model 3917; SNAME, 1947, Fig. 58,
for the propeller position on the transom-stern
p. 151
ABC ship which is designed and described in (d) U. S. Maritime Administration Mariner design,
Part 4. "closed stern," TMB Model 4358W-1; SNAME,
362 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.7

definitiondiagram of Fig. ll.E. Since it is most

important to an interpretation and analysis of
the 3-diml wake-survey diagram that the geo-
metric relationships be clearly understood, the
definition drawing is repeated here as Fig. 60.L.
The survey diagram is drawn on a sheet repre-
senting a transverse plane on the ship or model,
passing through the longitudinal center of the
propulsion device. For a model running at other
than zero trim, and for a screw propeller mounted
on a shaft having both declivity and convergence
(or divergence), this plane is very nearly normal
to the direction of motion. It is close enough to
the plane of the disc, in both position and direc-
tion, to serve all engineering purposes. The various
vectors drawn on this sheet represent simply the
projection upon it of the incident velocity vectors

Fig. 60. E Wake-Survey Diagram for TMB Model

4358W-1, Representing a Variation of the Mariner
Class Hull

1953, Fig. 17, p. 176. This diagram is the same as in

Fig. 60.E.
(e) U. Maritime Administration, Mariner design,
S.
"open water" or "clear water" stern, TMB model
4358W-3; SNAME, 1953, Fig. 16, p. 126. This
TMB Model
diagram is the same as in Fig. 60. G. 4358W-2
(f) Wake-survey data for a model of the T-2 class tankers
were published by N. H. Jasper and L. A. Rupp,
SNAME, 1952, Fig. 25a, p. 347. Four afterbody
sections at and adjacent to the stern are shown on
this diagram.

60.7 Interpretation and Analysis of the TMB

Three-Dimensional Wake Diagram. The method
of plotting the projections of 3-diml incident-
velocity vectors at propulsion-device positions, Baseline 210 deq

and of indicating the magnitude of the wake Fig. 60.F Wake-Survey Diagram for TMB Model
fractions and the transverse velocity components, 4358W-2, Representing a Variation of the Mariner
is described in Sec. 11.6 and illustrated in the Class Hull
Sec. 60.7 SHIP-POWERING DATA 363

of the water flowing through the disc position.

Using the techniques available as of the date of
writing (1955), the propulsion device is not work-
ing when the wake measurements are made, so
there are no inflow and outflow jets and there is
no race contraction.
The presence of what might be termed "inter-
secting" vector projections, of which there are
both horizontal and vertical rows in the torpedo
wake diagram of Fig. 60. K, means that the
flowlines are converging at the base points of the
vectors. The stream tubes meeting abaft the
fins obviously can not cross each other, as do the
vectors, although there may be some mixing due
to flow irregularities. Rows of "intersecting"
vectors of this kind are found abaft skeg and
bossing terminations on ship models, and some-
times abaft shaft struts, if the measurements are
sufficiently numerous.
Visual inspection of the wake-fraction numerals,

Fig. 60.H Wake-Survey Diagram for a Model

Representing a Variation of the Mariner Class
Hull

or the sketching of contours of equal wake

fraction, indicates whether or not these values
change in a reasonably uniform manner in all
directions across the disc. It is to be expected that
the numerical values of the wake fractions will
increase progressively toward the adjacent hull,
because of the retarded flow due to viscous wake
within the boundary layer. Large or sudden
changes in a transverse direction across the wake-
survey plane are indications of longitudinal
discontinuities in the flow; possibly also of partial
separation or incipient eddies.
On rare occasions there are indications of
longitudinal vortexes in a pattern of so-called
"pinwheel" vector projections, appearing to have
rotational components about a common center.
Fig. 60.G Wakb-Survet Diagram for TMB Model This center may lie within or without the wake-
4358W-3, Representing a Variation op the Mariner survey field. A wake survey for the wall-sided
Class Hull ship of Fig. 25.F of Volume I would show such a
364 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.7

1.0 OWL = 28.00 ft DWL= 28.00 ft

Lenqlh on Woterline,
Desianed 444.0 fl
Droft.for'd. 20.67 ft ^

Droft.Qft 24.50 ft "^'"^

Displacement 11,606 1 240
Speed for test 17.55 kt
Taylor Quotient To ,
bosed
on Lpy^L 0.833
Plane of Surve\j
IS 6.323 ft ford, of AP 06,ll,08~

Third numeral Represents Moqnitude

of Tanqentiol Component of the 210
Wahe Velocitv 195 1
[/ ifflo \l
i65

Fig. 60.1 Wake-Survey Diagram for Victory Ship, TMB Model 3801, at 11,606 Tons Displacement

pinwheel provided an adequate number of blade meeting or following the flow at that
is

measurements were made. It would also show a position. For example, in the diagram of Fig.
characteristic feature of the presence of a longi- 60.D, for TMB
model 3594, the maximum meeting
tudinal-axis vortex through the disc
passing and following effects for an outward-turning
position of a screw-propeller. This vortex reveals propeller occur at 10:30 and at 4:30 o'clock,
itself by producing what may be called "opposite" respectively. For the former, at the intermediate
transverse-velocity components, along any one circle on the diagram, the wake fraction is 7.2
radial line within the disc or at any one blade per cent and the transverse component 15.5 per
position. One or more of these components may cent, so that 6 = tan"^ 15.5/(100 — 7.2) = about
indicate flow meeting the blade in its normal rota- 9.5 deg. The flow is meeting the blade. For the
tion while others on the same blade may indicate 4:30 o'clock position, 6 = tan"' 13.3/(100 - 2.1)
flow which follows the blade. = about 7.7 deg. The flow is following the blade.
The magnitude of the tangential or rotational At the 1:30 and 7:30 o'clock positions on that
incident-velocity components around a circle of circle, the meeting and following effects are
radius 72 in a screw-propeller disc, reckoned negligible. However, because of the radial com-
normal to the blade axis at any blade position, is a ponents, the effective velocity over a blade
rough indication of the amount by which the element at 1 :30 o'clock on that circle, with wake
Sec. 60.7 SHIP-POWERING DATA 365

!.0 DWL= 28.00 ft DWL-28.00ft

\ X ^.

s / / /
\ \ / / /
\ \ s
\ \ \ /
^
/
^ /
/
\ \ \
0.8 DWL = 2Z.40 ft \ \345\ O^^S / 15 /

Lentjth on Woterlme,
J)esigned 444.0 ft
Draft, for'd, 13.0 ft
Draft.oft 20.50 ft
Displacement 8,268 t
Speed for test 17.92 kt
To^lor Quotient Tt^, bosed
0.852
Plane of Survey
is 6.3i3 ft for'd, of AP
Third Numerol Represents Moqnitude
of the Tonqentiol Component of the
Woke Velocity

Fig. 60.J Wake-Survey Diagram for Victory Ship, TMB Model 3801, at 8,268 Tons Displacement

and 14.3 per cent in the vicinity,

fractions of 18.2 to take account of them. The result is that periodic
is only about [100 - 0.5(18.2 14.3)] = 83.7 + forces are exerted on the blades, which when
per cent of the ship speed. Here the pitot head transmitted through the propulsion-device bearing
automatically takes account of the cosine of the usually produce vibration in the ship structure.
angularity of flow. The foregoing is what may be termed a qualita-
The effect of the boundary layer is felt rather tive inspection and interpretation of wake-survey
noticeably on the tip circle at the 1 o'clock posi- data. It lacks a set of specific rules, not yet
tion, where the wake fraction is 34 per cent. formulated, to be used by the naval architect or
Sec. 11.10 points out that no model-basin marine engineer to discover flow features which
techniques in current routine use, and no graphic need correction, such as those mentioned pre-
or tabular representations which have so far been viously in this section. In the case of the finer
developed, take account of variations in wake- Normandie, these features were revealed only by
velocity magnitudes and direction with time. excessive vibration of the structure, which re-
If such variations exist, the current (1955) quired withdrawing the vessel from service to
observation methods average them out. Unfor- rebuild the four bossings. In the case of certain
tunately, the propulsion-device blades do not fail large combatant vessels of the U. S. Navy,
366 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.7

v-20.5 kt T„- 0.
Vectors Shown are
Sh ip Side 5hlp Centerline
Projections of
Designed Woterline
Actual Velocit\(
Rectors on Section at Sta. 19.18, opposite
Jronsverse Propeller Disc
meter/r\\pione .330

55.9,18,2^ ,,_^
79.3,6.4|
10.255
'

ft
35.5J8.7 1 I
tot

74.6,4-.6y

7452 ft

Numerals
Indicate
Wake Froctions

Fig. 60.K Wake-Survey Diagram for a Torpedo

WITH Vertical and Horizontal Tail Fins

these features were discovered during the con-

struction period and corrected by hull changes
before the vessels were launched.
There are a number of methods of quantitative
analysis,
wake
by which magnitudes and variations of
velocity are set down in graphic or tabular
^'t 4.1 9.4
4-
5.3,£ 4.4,10.1 R

form. Several of these are illustrated in the -pio. 60.M Wake-Survht Diagram for Transom-
references given in Sec. 60.5 for the plots of Stern ABC Ship, TMB Model 4505
longitudinal wake-velocity or incident-velocity
components. As described in Sec. 11.8, the (1) A series of radii is selected and the circum-
analyses take account of either radial or circum- ferential values for each radius are averaged, or
ferential variations when: (2) A series of angular positions is selected and

-Plane of Diagram on Poge

Vector on Wake.
Transverse ^°°°**=s==^ L^ertical Diagror
Ship Plane

Aciual ^ ^--Transverse Slope

a Velocitvy Veclor of Vector
\" "i of Liquid ,Vector and Numerals on
Woke Diogram

Fore- and- Aft ,

|

Componenls -__f \°t

of Actuol 2nJ Numeral is Length of Tronsverse
Velocity E Component on Percentage Scale
Vectors

Fig. GO.L DEriNiTioN Diagram for TMB 3-Diml Wake-Subvev Diagrams

Sec. 60.7 SHIP-POWERING DATA ',67

Plot of Averaoe Wake Fraction w on Radius

O.SO I?
ABC Ship
Transom -Stern Desiqn
0.15 i
TMB 4505
Model 0.10 a
EMB Model Propeller 2294
Data Token from Wake
0.1 0.2 03 0.4 as 0.6 0.7 0.8 03 1.0
JDiQ<^rQm at Propeller Position R/RMqx

'0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Anc^ular Position, deo, Measured Clockwise From Top Center; see Diaqrom

Fig. 60.N Wake-Analysis Diagram for Transom-Stern ABC Ship,

Applying to Fig. 60. M

the radial variations for each position are aver- development of the future, is given by N. J.

Brazell [SNAME, 1947, pp. 146-149], but the

present author does not intend that these remarks
Fig. 60.M is a plot of the 3-diml wake survey
shall be construed as an endorsement of all the
for the transom-stern ABC ship of Part 4, made
detail steps and the calculation methods employed
at the designed speed. Fig. 60. N is a graphic
in that reference.
analysis of these data, prepared as a preliminary
Finally, the model or ship propeller acts as an
step to the design of a wake-adapted propeller for
averaging or integrating instrument by taking
this vessel, described in Chap. 70. Values of wake
account, degree by degree around a revolution,
fraction w are plotted in Fig. 60.N for three
of the multitudinous variations in magnitude and
0-diml radii, corresponding to x' = R/Run^ of
direction of the incident-velocity vectors for the
1.00, 0.727, and 0.453, on a basis of angular
complete range of radius from hub to tip. How-
position around the shaft axis. Averages for the
ever, because of the variations in direction as
complete revolution give
well as magnitude, involving changes in effective
R of 1.00 w = 0.1923
angle of attack, thrust, torque, blade loading, and
Rt. the like, no direct analytic procedure has been
0.727 0.1693 devised for averaging actual wake velocities at a
screw-propeller position.
0.453 0.1568
By finding the speed of advance Vo at which
A plot of radial variation for wake fractions, when the same propeller, when tested in open water,
averaged around the entire circumference at each produces the same torque (or thrust) as when run
0-diml radius, is given in the upper right-hand behind the model or ship, one assumes that the
corner of the figure. average speed of advance V^ "behind" is the
A somewhat more comprehensive method of same as the speed Vo in the "open." Then knowing
analysis, probably representing more nearly the the speed V of the model or ship, the wake
368 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.S

fraction w is (F — Va)/V. This is known insome model self-propulsion tests. Taylor's values are
quarters as the "analysis" wake fraction. That it plotted in graphic form in diagram 1 of Fig. 60. 0,
can be considerably different from the arithmetic together with more recent data from TMB model
mean of the several wake fractions derived from tests. They suffice for a rough estimate of w for

a 3-diml wake-survey diagram, when averaged
over a complete revolution of the propeller, is
indicated by the short-dash horizontal
upper right-hand corner of Fig. 60. N. Here the
mean nominal wjake fraction, representing the
arithmetic mean of the values of the average
wake fraction for the nine 0-diml radii from 0.2
through 1.0, is 0.1735. For comparison, the wake
fraction Wt (for thrust identity with the open-
water test), for the transom-stern ABC model,
the designed speed at an early stage of a pre-
liminary design, despite the inconsistency of some
line in the of the values. Taylor's data, forboth single-screw
and twin-screw ships, are taken from S and P,
1943, Table XXV, page 121. Data from self-
propelled tests of the 10 tanker models are from
SNAME, 1948, pages 360-379; those for TMB
Series 60, the tanker Pennsylvania, and the
Schuyler Otis Bland are from SNAME, 1954.
J. Lefol in his paper entitled "Les Interactions

when self-propelled at a speed corresponding to entre la Carene et le Propulseur (Interactions

20.5 kt, is 0.190, indicated on Figs. 78. Nb and Between the Hull and the Propeller)" [ATMA,
78.Nc. 1947, Vol. 46, pp. 221-251], gives in Part VIII,
This single value of the wake fraction, either on pages 235-236, nine formulas for wake fraction,
estimated analytically or derived experimentally, taken from the published literature. Recently, in
is the value required for the shaft-power predic- his discussion of the 1956 SNAME paper by
tions of Sees. 60.4 and 60.14. F. H. Todd and P. C. Pien on the TMB Series
60.8 Estimating the Ship-Wake Fraction. 60 model tests, A. Q. Aquino proposes for single-
The discussion in this section concerning the screw vessels a formulation
prediction of wake fractions for ship propulsion,
Wr = (A constant)
as well as that in Sec. 60.9 for predicting thrust-
deduction fractions, is limited strictly to proce-
dures used in the early stages of a ship design,
+ Lxi)'L(6.5 - 5.5CpyA)iS - 2Cp^)J
before any self-propelled model tests are run.
- k[f(LCB)]
W. J. M. Rankine was among the first if not
the first naval architect to establish a procedure where D is the propeller diameter.
for estimating the wake fraction for a ship A comprehensive summary of existing pub-
propelled by a single screw. His method, published lished data on wake at screw-propeller positions,
in his 1866 book "Shipbuilding: Theoretical and as well as some not published, has been made by
Practical," page 249, was based on the expanded S. A. Harvald ["Wake of Merchant Ships,"
length of a curved line drawn on the body plan Danish Tech. Press, Copenhagen, 1950]. This is
of the ship in question. This curved line began at accompanied by a careful, studied analysis. The
the center of the propeller and crossed the lines paper is replete with graphs and plots but un-
of successive sections forward of the propeller at fortunately it lacks the flow and other diagrams
right angles to those lines until it reached the that would have assisted the reader, and that
maximum-section line. The ratio of the expanded might also have changed some of the author's
length of this curved line to the length of the run ideas and conclusions. It is based solely on the
was the approximate wake fraction desired. longitudinal or axial component of the relative
Many other procedures for predicting the wake and the true-wake velocities, in the form of the
fraction in advance of model tests have been customary speed of advance and Taylor wake
devised and used since then, as listed in the partial fraction, and almost exclusively upon wake as
bibliography of Sec. 52.20. Among these proce- affecting one or more stern screw propellers.
dures is one of D. W. Taylor, published in tabular It is considered most significant that Harvald
form [S and P, 1933, Table XXV, p. 118; 1943, achieves his only major correlations with practice,
Table XXV, p. 121; PNA, 1939, Vol. II, Table 10 and his only really consistent ones, when he uses
on p. 149]. The data in these tables, as well as predictions based on theoretical analyses. In the
the data mentioned subsequently in this section, comparisons with empirical data, employing
were taken from special wake measurements on orthodox form coefficients and parameters, it
models or from wake-fraction values derived by becomes almost necessary at times to force
Sec. 60.8 SHlP-POWERlNG DATA 369

this analysis somewhat further ["Three-Dimen-

sional Potential Flow and Potential Wake,"
Trans. Dan. Acad. Tech. Sci., 1954]. Applied
Mechanics Reviews, May 1955, page 206, has
this to say of it:

"The Rankine bodies generated by various combina-

tions of sources and sinks, situated at isolated points or
distributed over lines and surfaces, are computed. The
purpose of the work is to compute by this means the
velocity field due to the ship's hull in the neighborhood of
the propeller. Since the effect of the ship's boundary layer
on the potential flow is neglected, the results should be
only roughly applicable for this purpose."

There is as yet nothing approaching a formula or

routine step-by-step procedure which a naval
architect can use while his ship design is progress-
ing.
Despite these intense analytical studies, S. A.
Harvald comes to the conclusion, in the 1950
reference cited earlier in this section, that the
empirical formula of K. E. Schoenherr [PNA,
1939, Vol. II, Eq. (110), p. 149] is, with slight
modifications, the naval architect's best known
0.05 QIC 0.15 OZO method of predicting the wake fraction for a
Thrust-Oeduction Fraction t given design, when the hull shape has been
Fig. 60.OGraphs fob D. W. Taylor's Predictions delineated and the screw-propeller position (s)
OF Wake Fraction and W. J. Luke's Prediction determined. The Schoenherr formula, without
OF Thrust-Deduction Fraction modifications but with standard symbols, as
employed for single-screw vessels of normal or
agreement. At their best, the relationships so nearly normal design, is
established are complicated, confused, and often
conflicting. w = 0.10
The use of the known features of the boundary
\j pyiu plJ 1
layer abaft a flat plate accounts for most of the + 4.51
(7 - 6Cpv)(2.8 - l.SCp)
radialand tangential (peripheral) wake variations
observed abaft normal forms of single-screw 1 r^ ——
sterns. The derivation of the potential-flow wake + 2\_H
fc' {Rake) (60. ii)

abaft bodies formed by various combinations of

sources and sinks in an ideal liquid gives a reason- where E is the height of the propeller axis above
ably consistent picture of the potential-wake the baseplane at the disc position,
Variations abaft ship forms of varying fullness, Dis the propeller diameter,

proportions, and size. B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky {Rake) is the rake angle of the propeller blade,
Uses this approach in his paper "On the Numerical measured in radians, and
Calculation of Wake Fraction and Thrust k' is a coefficient that has values of:

Deduction in a Propeller and Hull Interaction"

(1) 0.3 for a normal stern
[Int. Shipbldg. Prog., 1954, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp.
(2) 0.5 to 0.6 for a stern with
aftfoot cut
170-178]. However, an understanding of this
away.
paper requires a thorough knowledge of source-
and-sink phenomena and stream functions, La- This formula, despite its intricacy, is non-
gally's theorem, friction resistance, and the dimensional. An example of its application, to the

various kinds of flow around bodies of revolution transom-stern single-screw ship designed in Part
and ship-shaped forms. 4, is worked out presently.
In a still later paper S. A. Harvald carries on K. E. Schoenherr gives a second set of formulas
370 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.9

[PNA, 1939, Vol. II, Eq. (112), p. 149], for twin- 0.190; see Fig. 78.Nb. This is Wt , derived from
screw vessels with: thrust identity with the open-water test. The
value of Wo , derived from torque identity with
(a) Bossings and outward-turning propellers
that test, is 0.200.
w = 2iC^Yil - Ce) For vessels with tunnel sterns, there are little
(eO.iii) or no published data on the wake fractions to be
-1-0.2cosMy) - 0.02 expected [Harvald, S. A., "Wake of Merchant
Ships," 1950, p. 117]. For the arch-stern design
where jS(beta) is the slope of the bossing termina- of the ABC ship of Part 4, the self-propulsion
tion, measured in degrees curves of Fig. 78.1 indicate a wake fraction w at
(b) Bossings and inward-turning propellers the designed speed of only about 0.072.
In this connection it is of interest to note, from
w = 2{Cb)\1 - Cs)
(60. iv) the statements of L. Troost, that:
+ 0.2 cos' [1(90 - /?)] + 0.2
"Wake factors (based) on thrust identity depend on
(c) Propeller shafts supported by struts propeller loading (thrust-load coefficient). The more
heavily loaded the propeller, the smaller is the wake
w = 2(Cb)'(1 - Cs) + 0.04 (60.V) factor we find [6th ICSTS, 1951 (SNAME, 1953), p. 143].'

For the single-screw ABC ship, the data re-

The comments in parentheses are those of the
quired for the Schoenherr formula (60.ii) are,
present author.
from the SNAME RD sheet of Figs. 78.Ja and
60.9 Prediction of the Thrust-Deduction Frac-
78.Jb and the drawings of Chaps. 66 and 67: tion. It has been customary since the 1860's,
Cpv = 0.822 E = 10.5 ft when W. J. M. Rankine and W. Froude both
Cp = 0.621 D = 20.51 ft for the stock worked on problem [INA, 1865, pp. 13-39],
this

Bx = 73.08 propeller used on to base predictions of the thrust-deduction frac-

L = 510 TMB model 4505 tion of screw-propelled vessels upon the estimate
H = 26.163 ft k' = 0.6 of the wake fraction [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp.
Rake = 0. 149-150]. So far as known this procedure has
been limited generally to single-screw vessels.
Setting down the SchoenheiT equation and
In any case, it gave little or no credit to efforts,
substituting:
put forward by D. W. Taylor and others, to
w = 0.10 decrease the thrust deduction by thinning the
ship sections or "straightening" the surfaces of
CpvCpB\ 1
+ 4.51
L 7(7 - 6Cpy){2.8 - l.SCp)
the hull and its appendages ahead of the propeller
area is acted upon by
disc, so that less transverse
the —Ap's ahead of the disc. These efforts were
+ based upon the hope that the thrust-deduction
fraction would be reduced at a greater rate than
= 0.10 + 4.5[2:^??(|f)^3^]
the wake fraction, so as to hold the hull efficiency
to as high a value as possible.
1 W. J. Luke was among the earliest to give
[7 - 6(0.822)] [2.8 - 1.8(0.621)] empirical values of the thrust-deduction fraction
"1 that were of practical use to the ship designer.
1 r 10.5 _ 20^ _
+ 2 [26.163 73.08
^'^^^^j D. W. Taylor and others quoted these values
[S and P, 1933, p. 117; S and P, 1943, p. 120;
= 0.255
PNA, 1939, Vol. II, Table 9, p. 148; RPSS, 1948,
This value of 0.255 for the 20.51-ft stock pro- pp. 177-178]; they are plotted in diagram 2 of
peller compares with the value of about 0.24 Fig. 60.O, together with more recent data from
from Fig. 60.O, where Cb is taken, from the TMB model tests. They, hke the wake-fraction
fifth approximation in Table 66. e, as 0.593. As graphs in diagram 1 of that figui'e, suffice for
a matter of interest, the wake fraction determined rough estimates in the preliminary-design stage
from the model self-propulsion test with this of a ship of normal form.
propeller, at a speed corresponding to 20.5 kt, is C. H. Peabody, in his 1910 tests of the large.
Sec. 60.9 SHIP-POWERING DATA S71

independently powered model Froude, wisely For the transom-stern, single-screw ABC ship
included runs in which the single propeller was designed in Part 4, the estimate of the wake and
placed farther and farther abaft the sternpost, thrust-deduction fractions posed somewhat of a
varying from normal position to about 1.15D
its problem, because of the unorthodox stern shape
astern. Because of missing information it is not and the lack of empirical data upon which to base
possible to analyze Peabody's test data in the predictions. With little information for guidance,
manner presently to be described. Nevertheless, with a screw propeller of diameter larger than
his Table I [SNAME, 1911, p. 95] indicates that at normal, and with a tip clearance smaller than
the highest speed reached by this craft, the normal, it was guessed in Sec. 66.27 that the wake
thrust- deduction fraction / diminished from 0.35 fraction w would be as high as 0.30 and the thrust
to 0.077 for the range of propeller positions given. deduction as low as 0.20. The corresponding hull
In a paper "Vom Sog (Thrust Deduction)," efficiency r]„ of 1.143 seemed reasonable.
H. M. Weitbrecht discussed the physical aspects Whena stock propeller was selected to self-
of thrust deduction but pointed out that it was propel the model, by the procedure described in
not then possible to predict the numerical value Sec. 70.6, the wake fraction derived by Eq.
of the thrust deduction for a given ship form and (60.ii) was 0.261, using dimensions and parameters
propeller loading [Schiffbau, Schiffahrt, und corresponding to an early stage of the design.
Hafenbau, Jun 1938; English version in TMB The thrust-deduction fraction was derived from
Transl. 62 of Sep 1940]. Eq. (60. vi). The value of k for the latter was taken
K. E. Schoenherr and A. Q. Aquino, in the as 0.5, because of the contra-rudder shape pro-
period 1930-1940, made a careful review of the posed for the supporting horn and the underhung
existing literature on the ship-propeller interaction balance portion of the rudder. It seemed reason-
problem, undertook their own analysis, and able, further, to reduce the calculated value by
supplemented it with plotted observations from 15 per cent, because of the very thin skeg to be
the results of self-propelled tests on a great many placed ahead of the propeller. The predicted
models. Their work is described fully in TMB thrust-deduction fraction then worked out as
Report 470, published in March 1940. The
t = kiw)il - 0.15) = 0.5(0.261)(0.85) = 0.111
following rules for estimating the thrust-deduction
fraction, published by K. E. Schoenherr in 1939 It was realized at the time that a thin skeg
[PNA, Vol. II, pp. 149-150], were developed from ahead of a single propeller was Hable also to
this project: reduce the wake fraction. For a conservative
estimate, without the 15 per cent reduction in i,
(1) For the thrust-deduction fraction of single-
screw ships: the predicted hull efficiency rjn was

t = kw (60 .vi) t 1 - 0.131

= 1.176
1 1 0.261
where k = 0.5 to 0.7 for vessels with streamlined
or contra-rudders It is brought out in (2) and (3) of Sec. 78.17
= 0.7 to 0.9 for vessels with double-plate that the thrust-deduction and wake fractions
rudders with internal arms, attached derived from the model self-propulsion tests are
to square rudder posts appreciably different from those derived in these
= 0.9 to 1.05 for vessels with single-plate two sections.
rudders and external arms B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky gives the following
equation from H. E. Dickmann for the estimated
(2) For the thrust-deduction fraction of twin-
screw ships, specifically: value of the thrust-deduction fraction:

(a) Ships with propellers and shafts carried t = (w.) {w,)7,i (60.viii)
by bossings I + Vi + c,

t = 0.25W + 0.14 (60.vii) where w^ is the nominal potential-wake fraction

and rji is the ideal efficiency of the propeller. The
(b) Ships with propellers and exposed shafts
problem here is to find the value of Wp for which ,
carried by struts
there is no simple solution.
t = O.lOw + 0.06. An entirely different prediction procedure,
372 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.9

devised to take direct account of the factors which
develop the thrust-deduction force, is based upon
the rate of variation of — Ap with fore-and-aft
distance ahead of the propeller, and that of
-|-Ap abaft it. The assumption is made that these
pressures vary with distance in very nearly the
same manner as for a screw propeller working in
open water or an airscrew working in open air,
indicated by diagram 3 in Fig. 59.G. It is further
circles. The jet area increases rather slowly
immediately ahead of the propeller, even for the
large thrust-load factors expected in the free-
running operation of a normal ship with a not-to-
large propeller, as indicated in diagram 1 of
Fig. 59. G. The values of — Ap are relatively so
small, farther forward of the propeller, that the
refinement of increasing the disc areas seems not
justified by the approximate nature of the overall

assumed that, following D. W. Taylor's patent method. Moreover, the presence of the ship and
previously referenced, the — Ap's are so small at its appendages, either ahead of or abaft the

2 diameters ahead of the disc position that they screw-propeller position, distorts the jets out of
can be neglected. theirnormal axisymmetric shape. Little is known
The method is based upon a summation of of what happens when they are so distorted, of
longitudinal forces exerted upon certain selected the amount of hull surface covered by the water
transverse sections of the ship, lying within an in them, and the differential pressures in that
imaginary cylinder concentric with the propeller water.
axis.This cyhnder has the propeller diameter D, The foregoing "cylinder" procedure assumes
and extends both forward and aft from the disc that the rudder always develops a thrust-deduc-
position. tion force in the form of a drag, acting opposite

A similar imaginary cylinder in this position to the direction of motion, and that it always
was shown by G. Kempf many years ago [STG, contributes to the thrust deduction. However, in
1927, Vol. 28, p. 180]; also by E. F. Hewins as a the case of a contra-rudder, and some forms of
method of determining the wake fraction w streamlined rudder, each lying in a propeller
[Osbourne, A., "Modern Marine Engineer's Man- outflow jet, it is known that the hydrofoil action
ual," 1943, Vol. II, p. 2311], on the rudder produces a forward component of
For the analysis described here, the transverse lift which exceeds the drag. The rudder then

and 0.5Z) ahead of the

sections are at 2.0Z), l.OD, exerts a thrust force on the ship, and helps to
disc position. A fourth section is taken through push it along. Theoretically, the net thrust force
the maximum-area section of whatever rudder, Tr exerted by the helping rudder, mentioned in
rudder post, or horn combination lies abaft it. Sec. 34.8 of Volume I, should be subtracted from
Any other transverse-section positions could be the thrust-deduction force exerted on the hull
used if desired, and they could extend for more or appendage ahead. This can only be done when
than 2D ahead of the disc position. the amount of this thrust force is better known.
It assumed that the — Ap values at the three
is In practice, the "cylinder" procedure involves
positions ahead have the relative multipliers the following steps:
or weights of 5, 2, and 1, respectively, indicated
I. On the afterbody lines plan of the ship lay off
by the tabulation at the bottom of Fig. 67.V. and 2.0Z) forward
special stations at O.SZ), l.OZ),
The rudder section is given a multiplier or weight
of the propeller-disc position. A fourth station is
of 7 because it is usually closer than 0.5Z) to the
laid offthrough the maximum-thickness position
disc and the 4-Ap's in the outflow jet are greater
of the rudder. Using the coordinates of these
numerically than the — Ap's in the inflow jet for
special stations, draw the corresponding sections
a screw propeller producing thrust. These multi-
on the body plan, as in Fig. 33. A of Part 2 in
pliers are based upon the relative ordinate
— Ap Volume I or in Fig. 67. V of Part
a rudder4. If
magnitudes of the and -|-Ap curves at the
horn is thicker than the rudder, or if any other
transverse sections selected. They are still
appendage lies anywhere in the propeller outflow
somewhat arbitrary, and could be varied for a
jet, draw a section (or sections) representing the
re-analysis.
maximum transverse thickness of the horn or
Expanding the disc circles by amounts cor-
appendage.
responding to the enlargement of area of the
propeller inflow jet at the three selected forward II. Draw on the body plan, over the section lines
disc positions is considered not justified. The of the special stations, three circles, each repre-
same applies to contraction of the after disc senting the propeller-disc outline if moved sue-
Sec. 60.9 SHIP-POWERING DATA 373

cessively 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 propeller diameters sum of the multiples, 15 in the case of the ABC
along the shaft, forward of the propeller position. ship, to obtain a weighted-average area reading.
Draw other circles for stations abaft the shaft, Divide the weighted area reading by the propeller-
if necessary. If the shaft center is nearly or exactly disc area reading to obtain the 0-diml area ratio.
parallel to the centerplane and the baseplane,
VI. With this area ratio enter Fig. 60. P and pick
only one circle is needed on a body plan showing
off the estimated thrust-deduction fraction for
the hull.
the ship. The two graphs for this figure are still
III. Mark carefully the outlines of the special tentative, based as they are on the analysis of
stations lying within their respective projected data from a rather limited number of model tests.
disc circles. These outlines may be indicated by
colored lines on the working plan, or the respective The procedure for estimating the thrust-deduc-

areas may be marked by different types of hatch- tion fraction for a rotating-blade propeller, and
ing, as in Fig. 33. A. for designing the hull to keep the augment of
resistance small, is essentially the same as for a
IV. With a planimeter, or by any other suitable
screw propeller. Instead of the imaginary cylinder
means, determine the area of the propeller disc
of circular section an imaginary rectangular tube
covered by the section of the hull and of the rudder
(or horn or other appendage) at each of the
is projected forward of —
or abaft —
the basket
assembly of blades, for a distance equal to twice
special stations. In the same manner, determine
the blade length or to the diameter of the blade-
the area of the propeller disc. As only the ratios
axis circle, whichever is the greater.
of areas enter in this analysis the planimeter
All the foregoing indicates that determination
readings can be used directly, without converting
of the thrust-deduction fraction in any given ship
them into absolute area units.
case is still largely empirical, and as highly
V. Multiply the area readings by suitable mul- uncertain. The problem is now (1955) being
tiples, as indicated in the tabular portion of attacked along analytic lines, as it should have
Fig. 67.V. Total the products and divide by the been years ago. It is hoped that this attack will

0.30 Line for Area Line for Area \"~

Factor Includino Factor ExcludincjV
0.28
Rudder Area \ RudderX'
0.26 ^ Iwilfred Sijkes^>#

0.24
T-5
Victorvj Ship Tanker Victorjj.^^ Ship
^0.22

f0.20
AF58^ :v Fsef^ T-5
• Tanker
ABC Ship, Arch Stern Baker's 56C, EMB Mod&]J§2Z>
J 0.18

:o.i6
K Moriner-
iralamancQ Class
;0.I4 J UJ i .^ j^950 Export Ships,
TMB Model 3917, TwjjV Skpqs
I
0.12

0.10
+iTwin-Ske(^ Manhattan, TMB Model 3898
I'O.Oe
DE 1006 ^ABC Ship I
o Area Foctor Includes Rudder
^ronsom Stern
1-0.06
T • Area Foctor Excludes Rudder

0.04 ^ Plotted Values of tare from

Seif-Propelled Model Tests
0.02

^ 0.02 0.04 Q06 006 0.10 QI2 014 QI6 018 Q20 0.22 024 026 028 0.50 Q52 034 056 058 040 042 044 Q46 0.48
Area Factor -(Averocje Weighted Hull Area Within Disc Cvjlinder)-^ (Propeller Disc Areo)

Fig. 60.P Graphs for Predicting Thrust-Deduction Fraction for Single-Screw Ships by the "Cylinder"
Method
374 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.10

continue unceasingly until a logical and reliable agree reasonably well with the experimental data" [INA,
1953, Vol. 95, pp. 446, par. 8(4)].
prediction procedure is available.
60.10 Finding the Relative Rotative Efficiency. However, the calculations involved are laborious,
The physical and analytical basis for relative
at least with desk-type computers, and the values
rotative or thrust-torque efficiency, as applied to derived are generally in line with the empirical
a screw propeller working behind a model or ship, values previously used.
is described in Sec. 34.7 of Volume I. Further
If a condition is assumed in which the torque
comments on this factor are embodied in Sec.
Q behind the ship is the same as Qo then a value ,

34.16. of 77fi greater than unity indicates that the thrust

It is necessary to estimate or predict the prob- T exerted by the propeller behind the ship is
able value of the relative rotative efficiency riji
greater than To in open water. The service con-
when the expression [rio{vH)vR] is used to estimate
ditions are such, therefore, as to make the pro-
the propulsive coefficient r/p This prediction,
.
peller more pushing the ship than
efficient in
however, is much more easily mentioned than
when it is just pulling itself along in open water.
made. Additional information concerning the values
K. E. Schoenherr gives a few comments con- of 7?B to be expected on single-screw ships is found
cerning this factor. In the absence of any more in the following reports of self-propelled models:
reliable and authoritative information these
comments have acquired the nature of a pre- (a) Ten tanker models; SNAME, 1948, Fig. 32,
diction rule. He states that: p. 416

"The average values of the relative rotative efficiencies (b) TIMB Series 60 parent models and related
determined in the tests worked out to be 1.02 for the single- models; SNAME, 1954, Figs. 12(a) and 12(b) on
screw models and 0.985 for the twin-screw models. pp. 141-142. The values of rjR range from 1.04
"It should be emphasized that the foregoing formulas
to 1.01, with an average of about 1.02.
are valid only for merchant ships of normal form operating
at speed-length (T,) values below unity" [PNA, 1939, (c)Todd, F. H., and Pien, P. C, "Series 60—
Vol. II, p. 150]. The Effect upon Resistance and Power of Varia-
tion in LCB Position," SNAME, 1956. Tables 18
More recentb^ L. C. Burrill and C. S. Yang
through 22 list the relative rotative efficiency
have calculated the overall thrust and torque,
(as e„ in that text) for a wide range of speeds on
including the K^ and Kq values, for a group of
all the models tested.
screw propellers operating in certain assumed wake
distributions over the propeller disc, corresponding For the reader who wishes to undertake some
to the conditions behind several hypothetical own, the value of the relative
of this analysis on his
ships [INA, 1953, Vol. 95, pp. 437-460]. By rotative efficiency tjb is derived from the self-
calculating the same quantities for the same propelled test of a ship model by the following
propellers working in a uniform flow, simulating procedure. The case used as an example is that
open-water tests, they are able to predict the from the self-propelled test of TMB model 4505-1,
thrust-torque factors ToD/Qo and TD/Q for the representing the arch-stern design of the ABC
"open-water" and the "behind-ship" conditions, ship undertaken in Chap. 67:
respectively. From the discussion of Sec. 34.7 in
Volume I, the relative rotative efficiency is then (1) The basic data are:

(a) The propeller diameter D, in this case

TD
24.22 ft
T„D Q
(b) The wake fraction w, indicated on
where D is the propeller diameter, the same behind Fig. 78.1 as 0.072 for 20.5 kt
the ship as in open water. (c) The thrust-deduction fraction /, taken
As a result of their analysis Burrill and Yang from the same figure as 0.175
conclude that: (d) The rate of propeller rotation n, of
". .the quantity designated relative-rotative-efiiciency
. 90.1 rpm or 1.502 rps
has a real meaning, in terms of the method of analysis (e) The propulsive coefficient vp of 0.686
usually adopted, and its value can be estimated by calcu-
440-441 (f) The hull efficiency j;„is (1 - /)/(l - if)
lation, in the manner described in the paper [pp.
of the reference cited]. The numerical values obtained or (1 - 0.175)7(1 - 0.072) = 0.889.
Sec. 60.11 SHIP-POWERING DATA 375

The illustrative calculation is made for the de- did not trouble to analyze fully all the data
signed speed only; this is 20.5 kt or 34.62 ft per sec. available to him.
(2) The speed of advance V a is the ship speed The situation was well described by K. C.
V times (1 — w). In numbers, for the example Bamaby in the early 1940's ["The Coefficient of
cited, this is V^ = 34.62(1 - 0.072) = 34.62 Propulsive Efficiency," INA, 1943, pp. 118-141]
(0.928) = 32.127 ft per sec. Then and it has not improved materially up to the
time of writing (1955), despite publication of the
32.127
J = = 0.883 data to be mentioned presently.
nD 1.502(24.22)
In tables published with his 1943 paper,
(3) Consulting the characteristic curves for TMB Barnaby gave many values of t/p for a number of
model propeller 1986 used on the test in question, different types of ships, based primarily on a
as shown in Fig. 78. H, the value of the real or variation of ?jp with VI VL
or Taylor quotient
working efficiency rjo for a J-value of 0.883 is r„ . However, in his later book "Basic Naval
0.750; this value is indicated by a note and an Architecture" [1948, Art. 187, pp. 242-244], he
arrow on Fig. 78.H. From the general expression presents these values on a basis of absolute ship
Vp = Voivif)'nR , the relative rotative efficiency is length, but subdivided for single-screw, twin-
screw,and quadruple-screw propulsion.
0.686
= 1.029. W. P. A. van Lammeren, L. Troost, and J. G.
Voivn) 0.75(0.889)
Koning present values of propulsive coefficient
For the single-screw transom-stern ABC ship r\p for single-screw ships, for twin-screw ships,
the self-propulsion model tests with a stock pro- and for latter presumably all
coasters (the
peller, reported in Figs. 78.Na, 78.Nb, and 78.Nc, single-screw based upon the rate of
vessels),
gave a propulsive coefficient rjp of 0.761 at the propeller rotation n [RPSS, 1948, pp. 284-288].
designed speed. For the advance ratio J at which D. W. Taylor gives only general information on
the propeller operated in this test, the value of this subject and that of little help to the designer
»7o from the characteristic curves of Fig. 78.Mc of a modernship [S and P, 1943, p. 178].
was 0.685. The hull efficiency rin , based on the Since the efficiency of propulsion depends upon
thrust delivered by the model propeller, was a combination of the open-water or working
1.148. By the relationship between these four propeller efficiency 770 the hull efficiency t//,
, ,

sets of 77-values, and the relative rotative efficiency ?;« , it should

respond to variations in those efficiencies with
0.761
= 0.968 the factors which control them. Among these
„„(„„) (0.685)(1.148)
may be mentioned:
This value is well below the one that would
(a) Type of propulsion device, whether open
have been predicted by Schoenherr. Since it is
screw propeller, shrouded screw propeller, paddle-
less than 1.00, it works to the ship's disadvantage.
wheel, rotating-blade propeller, or their equiva-
There is no present explanation for it.
lents
60.11' Determination of the Propulsive Co-
(b) Relative position of ship and propulsion
efficient. A great deal of guessing was involved
device, involving tip and aperture clearances,
in the estimates of propulsive coefficient rip in
shape of hull near the propulsion devices, and
the days before model basins made tests of self-
other similar factors
propelled models. Since that time, naval archi-
(c) Thrust-load factor Ctl which limits the,
tects and marine engineers have rehed heavily
ideal efficiency 57/ and the 0.8-value of that
upon the results of individual model tests to
efficiency, illustrated in Fig. 34.
supply them with needed information as to the
(d) Wake and thrust-deduction fractions, and
shaft power to be installed in the ship built from
the combination of the two
a particular design. The result is a dearth of
(e) Characteristics of the flow at the propulsion-
systematic data by which to predict the correct
device position (s), determining the relative
propulsive coefficient for any given case. One
rotative efficiency.
might say that in the days when one had to make
this estimate in order to power a ship there was Consideration of (a) leads to the conclusion
insufficient background information to do it. that entirely separate sets of prediction data are
When the designer no longer had to make it he required for each type of propulsion device.
376 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.11

Figs. 34.M and 34. N give some not-too-recent (3) A variation is to be expected with type of
values of tjo for several types; Figs. 59.A and 59. vessel because of the characteristically different
present more recent data on a few different types, hull shape, relative hull and propulsion-device
In both series of diagrams the propeller efficiencies position, and nature of flow at the propulsion
are based upon the thrust-load factor Ctl device. A free-running, single-screw tug with a
For a given ship resistance to be overcome, or short, chubby
hull and a propeller abaft it would
a given propeller thrust to be produced, with be expected to have a different rjp than a long,
constant wake and thrust-deduction fractions, slender, high-speed, single-screw patrol vessel
the thrust-load factor Ctl increases and the with its propeller more or less under the hull,
actual propeller efficiency ijReM diminishes with (4) Within a single category as to number of
decreasing diameter, while the rate of rotation n propulsion devices and within a single type of
increases. This is because the thrust-load factor device, assuming a constant thrust T and a
Ctl =
T/{Q.5pA^Vl) increases as Ao diminishes, constant wake fraction w, the value of j?^ dimin-
the real or working efficiency tjo decreases as ishes with a decrease in the thrust-producing
Ctl increases, and t/p decreases with tjo Since . area of the device, corresponding to the disc area
the advance coefficient J usually decreases as ^o of a screw propeller. The reasons for this are
r/o decreases, indicated by Fig. 78. H, and since explained in a preceding paragraph,
n = y^/(Ji)), a reduction in the thrust-producing (5) For a good hydrodynamic design of both
area causes both J and D to diminish, and ship and screw propeller, based upon data such
results in an appreciable increase in the rate of as set forth in this book, the following values of
rotation n. The foregoing accounts for the moder- propulsive coefficient rip should be achieved, on
ate falling off of propulsive efficiency with increase the basis of a clean, new hull, at the designed
of rpm, revealed by W. P. A. van Lammeren, speed:
L. Troost, and J. G. Koning [RPSS, 1948, Figs, (i) Single-screw vessels of the merchant and
193 and 194, pp. 285-286]. generally similar types, with speed-length quo-
The effect of the wake and thrust-deduction tients or fatness ratios in or near the design lane
fractions, singly or in combination, is exceedingly of Fig.66.A 0.82 to 0.72
complex, so much so that no general or detail (ii)Twin-screw vessels of modern (1955) mer-
rules have been formulated to predict their effect chant and similar types, having fatness ratios as
upon propulsive efficiency. Characteristics of the in (i) preceding 0.73 to 0.65
flow at the propulsion-device positions are (iii) Triple-screw vessels; no adequate systematic
related to the relative positions of the device and data for vessels having three propellers nearly
the hull. Not enough is known of these effects, having larger center wheels
alike, or for vessels
both physically and analytically, to predict absorbing more power than each of the wing
reliable and precise values of -qp in the pre- wheels
liminary- or contract-design stage. (iv) Quadruple-screw vessels of the liner
upon the reasoning in the
Nevertheless, based type 0.65 to 0.60
foregoing, upon data derived from the trials of (v) Single-screw tunnel or arch-stern vessels
many ships, and upon experience, a few prediction 0.68 to 0.55
guides are set down: (vi) Double, triple, and quadruple-screw tunnel-
r-,\ u-
-r^ J- u 11 ii
(1) For ships driven by screw propellers, the
number and consequently the position(s) of the
wheels carried by each puts them in different
stern vessels for operation in shallow
, .

f'}^''^^'^'^
^°''
, ,

^^*;
\\i
'^"^^^
^
..- and re-
^^^. ^ ..
^-^^ to 0.45
'^'^. ^' ^^^^ ^"^
„ , •„„ f ic i
categories so far as propulsive coefficients are
1 • •
i^"^
nshmg* craft, iff ^f^^
propelled by single screws
j

concerned, indicated both by W. P. A. van

averaging
.',
about
n79t
0.65.
nrc
'

Lammeren and by K. C. Barnaby in the latter's

latest publication. This is elaborated upon in For speeds other than the designed value, the
(5) following. propulsive coefficient may vary rather widely
(2) For equally good hydrodynamic designs there [Barnaby, K. C, INA, 1943, pp. 118-141].
is no reason why the propulsive coefficient rip Below the designed speed, the value of rip is
should vary with absolute ship or propeller sizes, usually greater than at the designed speed; at
provided the sizes are adequate to avoid scale effect higher speeds, it is usually less. For the transom-
Sec. 60.12 SHIP POWERING DATA 377

stern model of the ABC ship, as self-propelled, peller position(s) with respect to the hull and
Fig. 78. Nc indicates a maximum r}p of about 0.78 appendages, a model propeller drawing, a set of
at 15 kt for the ship, a value of 0.76 at the de- characteristic open-water test curves of the
signed speed of 20.5 kt, and a diminished value propeller (s), and perhaps a wake-survey diagram
of only 0.70 at about 22.4 kt, assuming that there as well for each propeller position. This is one of
is enough reserve of power to drive the ship that the reasons for the rather comprehensive and
fast. elaborate form adopted for the SNAME Pro-
The designer is again reminded that the pro- peller Data and Self-Propulsion Data sheets,
pulsive coefficient is to be regarded solely as a samples of which are reproduced in Figs. 78. Ma
means of predicting a shaft power from an esti- through 78. Nc.
mated or known effective power. It is not to be
I. Single-Screw Vessels
taken as a measure of merit in itself. A high
value of yjp may be associated not only with a (a) High-speed cruisers of the U. S. S. Wampanoag and
Ammonoosuc classes of 1867. Self-propulsion data
high value of effective power Pe but also with a
derived from tests of EMB model 2569, with EMB
high shaft power Ps Thus a model test of
model propeller 685, were published by James Swan
design A may predict for speed V
an effective [SNAME, 1927, PL .36]. This plate gives the principal
power Pe of 7,200 horses, a shaft power Pg of dimensions only. The text of the paper is on pp.
9,000 horses, and an vp = Pe/Ps of 0.80. For 43-54.
(b) Cargo ship, U. S. Mar. Comm. Cl-S-Dl design, with
the same speed V, a test of design B, to meet
a reinforced-concrete hull of straight-element form.
exactly the same performance specifications,
350 ft by 54 ft by 26.25-ft draft; displacement
may predict an effective power Pe of 8,100 10,590 tons. Body plan shown in Fig. 76.C. Repre-
horses, a shaft power Ps of 10,000 horses, but sented by TMB model 3754M. Prediction data
an 7]p of 0.81. Thus, a ship built to design B, from self-propulsion test 2, in ballast condition, at a
displacement of 6,200 tons and a trim of 6 ft by
having a greater tj^ would actually require a
,

the stern, are given in Fig. 60.S.

heavier and more expensive propelling plant,
and more fuel to drive it, than a ship built to
design A, with a lower r)p This is the reason for
.

stressing the use of a merit factor —

and an estimat-
ing or predicting factor as well which takes —
account of shaft power directly.
60.12 Data from Self -Propulsion Tests of
Model Ships and Propellers. For the designer
who is laying out a vessel not unlike many which
have been run self-propelled in model scale in
the past, there are available in the technical
literature a considerable number of graphs which
give model test data in the form used for many
years by the Experimental Model Basin and the
David Taylor Model Basin [Bu C and R Bull. 7,
1933, Fig. 8, p. 31]. Several of these graphs are
reproduced as Figs. 60.Q through 60.T, of which
Fig. 60. Q gives data for a U. S. Maritime Com-
mission C-2 design, and Fig. 60.R for a Great
Lakes bulk ore carrier, the Philip R. Clarke.
Others are listed hereunder, with the type or
name of ship, or both, and with enough source
information to locate them in the Uterature.
In many cases, including the figures hsted, the
graphs are not accompanied by the necessary
information to understand, to analyze, or to
make use of them fully. This pertinent informa-
tion should include a body plan and enough of
the adjacent part of the ship to show the pro-
378 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.12
Sec. 60.12 SHIP-POWERING DATA 379

Twin-Screw Mine-Lavjer with normal form of stern. Self-propulsion curves

TMB Model 5594 are given by Fig. 15 on p. 110 of SNAME, 1947;
Model Propellers 1975,1976 general characteristics are in Table 1 on p. 109.
SNAME RD 5heet 98 (j) Twin-skeg tanker of extreme beam, adapted from (i)
Conditions for This SPTest: preceding. TMB
model 3821, for which complete
W= 6,700t self-propulsion curves are given in Fig. 16 on p. 110
H- 17,5 ft
Trim, Zero 5=28,510 ft^ of SNAME, 1947. The general characteristics of the

Rudder Horn, Shafts, Struts prototype vessel are found in Table 1 on p. 109 of
the reference.
D= IZ.67 ft; P- 13.92 ft;Z = 3
(k) U. S. Maritime Administration 622-ft 23-kt design,
Cm/D = 0.252-, to/D = 0.043
Propellers Turnino Outward TMB model 4424, ETT model 1448-1, for which
Test 3, 6Jun 1940, ot EMB complete self-propulsion data arc given in SNAME,
1955, Fig. 4, p. 730. The body plan and character-
istics of this vessel are given on pp. 728-729 of the

reference.

III. Quadruple-Screw Vessels

(a) Large Atlantic liner S. S. Normandie (later U. S. S.

Lafayette); SNAME RD sheet 39; also PD and
SPD sheets, not yet numbered (1955).

The technique of predicting, from the test

results on model ships and propellers, the shaft
power, the rate of rotation of the propulsive
device (s), and other factors in the full-scale ship
performance has not yet (1955) been perfected
so that scale effects are reliably eliminated.
R. B. Couch has published a model-ship com-
II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 parison, reproduced here in Table 60. c, in which
Ship Speed, \\t the ratios of model prediction to ship performance
are given for ten different ships [6th ICSTS, 1951,
Fia. D.T Self-Peopelled Model Test Curves
FOB A Twin-Screw Naval Vessel Table IV, pp. 146-147]. The comments which
follow are adapted from those of Couch, as
(d) Minelayer U. S. S. Terror (CM5); EMB model 3594 published on page 145 of the reference cited:
and EMB model propellers 1975 and 1976. SNAME
RD sheet 98. Fig. 60.T reproduces the self-propul- (1) The model-ship comparisons of Table 60.
sion data of Test 3, dated 6 Jun 1940. are in general based on the identity of predicted
(e) Medium-size Atlantic liner America; SNAME, 1940,
and measured shaft power Ps The model pro-
pp. 9-49, esp. Fig. 2 on p. 11. The first portion of
pulsion tests were run at the ship point of self-
this paper was abstracted in SBMEB, Aug 1940,
pp. 278-286; the self-propulsion data curves were
propulsion with all appendages fitted; in other
published on p. 286. The tests were run on EMB words, the theoretical added friction on the model
model 3525 with EMB model propellers 1803 and was compensated for by helping the model along.
1804.
The ship-trial data were corrected to zero relative
(f) Medium-size Atlantic liners Constitution and Inde-
wind. Where thrustmeters were fitted the com-
pendence. SNAME RD sheet 158; SNAME PD
and SPD sheets not yet numbered (1955). parisons show close agreement on thrust in some
(g) Atlantic liner Manhattan, with normal V-type stern instances. Uncorrected open-water propeller data
and bossings, as represented by model 3041.EMB were used throughout.
A complete set of self-propulsion curves is given in
A detailed analysis of the values tabulated
(2)
Fig. 20 on p. 114 of SNAME, 1947. Table 3 on p.
113 gives complete general characteristics of this
is not available. It is hoped that such an analysis
vessel, willshed further light on the scale-effect problem.
(h) Twin-skeg Manhattan design, model 3898. ATMB However, certain trends may readily be noted:
complete set of self-propulsion curves is given in (i) In all cases the rate of propeller rotation
Fig. 21 on p. 114 of SNAME, 1947. Table 3 on p.
for the model is higher than for the ship
113 gives complete general characteristics for the
(ii) In nearly all cases the ship wake fractions
hypothetical vessel represented by this model,
(i) Twin-screw tanker of extreme beam, Sun Shipbuilding are higher than those of the models
and Dry Dock Company design, TMB model 3817, (iii) On the assumption of thrust-deduction
380 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.13

TABLE 60.C Propulsion Factor-s for Ship and Model for Various Types of Naval and Commercial Vessels

Ship identification
Type of vessel
Sec. 60.13 SHIP-POWERING DATA 381
TABLE 60.C— (Continued)

Ship identification
Type of vessel
382 HVnRODYNAMICS IN .SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.13

TABLE 60.C— (Continued)

Ship identification
Type of vessel
Sec. 60.14 SHIP POWERING DATA
III I

0:3 . 05 0.6 3.7 0.6 0.9 \J0 I I.I TB"

T-r.^

250
1)

200:
T Weiqht-Speed- Power Foctor-
where W is in lonq tons, V m
6.88

kt, fg in
—p
horses

£ 60
' 30
:e:

Loke Tank- Corqo Ships,

reiqhters ers Liners, Corners Destrouers and Destrouer Escorts

"0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 O.ia 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 026
±J
Froude Number squared - {y/'^aL.)

Fig. 60.U Tentative Mbanline for Selecting the Weight-Speed-Poweb Factor for an Average Vessel

Using the tentative meanline of Fig. 60. U as

M = 0.61 LPs
(16,573)(20.5)'
(510)(13,243)
12.895
an indicator for estimating the probable shaft
This is nearly 36 per cent greater than the mean-
power of an ABC ship design of average merit,
the estimated power is worked out in Sec. 66.9.
line value given by Fig. 34.1, indicating that the
60.14 Shaft-Power Estimates by the Ideal-
merit-factor method of estimation still requires
considerable development.
Efficiency Method. A method of deriving the
propulsive coefficient jjp from the ideal and real
An alternative merit factor makes use of a
efficiencies of a screw propeller under a given
somewhat simpler O-diml relationship in the
thrust-load condition is described fully in Sec.
form of
34.11 of Part Volume I. An ampUfied version
Weight-Speed-Power Factor = WV (60.x)
2,

of that description is given here for the con-

Ps
venience of the reader.From the effective power
This is, in fact, the Telfer merit factor M divided and the propulsive coefficient the shaft power is
by the Froude number squared, indicated as one found. This method also enables the designer
of the terms in Eq. (34.xxiv) on page 517 of to select a suitable P/D ratio for the propeller,
Volume I. When WV/Pg is plotted on a basis of and to approximate its rate of rotation n.
F^ , as in Fig. 60.U, itindicates a dispersion for Assuming that this procedure is to be used in
vessels of supposedly normal design as great as the early stages of a ship design, it is necessary
that evidenced in Fig. 34.1 for the Telfer merit to estimate or determine the total ship resistance
factor. Indeed, with a plot having a uniform Rt and , to select values of the wake and thrust-
instead of a log scale of ordinates, the dispersion deduction fractions w and t, and of the relative
in both would be much greater. It is apparently rotative efficiency tjr , which appear reasonable
true that the propulsive merit of some vessels is for the design in question. The ship speed V is

vastly superior to that of others. assumed to be known, as are the number of

384 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.14

propellers. If the propeller diameter D is not using the basic values from the self-propulsion
tentatively fixed, several solutions may be worked test of the ABC transom-stern model, to deter-
out, each for a different diameter. mine the agreement (or otherwise) with the self-
The necessary formulas for this calculation are propelled model predictions for the 20.5-kt trial
taken from Sec. 34.11: speed. The basic conditions assumed are:

F., = V{\ - w) T =
Ttq Rt = 160,120 lb, from Fig. 78.Nb
1 - t D = 20.51 ft, for stock propeller actually used,
from Fig. 78.Ma
Pe = RtV = V = 20.5 kt = 34.62 per sec
«'(l^) ft

Wt = 0.190, from Fig. 78.Nb

1 - t
t = 0.070, from Fig. 78.Nb; vht = 1.148

\ — w Va = F(l - w) = 34.62(1 - 0.190) = 28.042

ft per sec
Ctl = ^2t^3
^
in 0-diml form (34.xxvii) T = Rt/{1 - t) = 160,120/(1 - 0.070) =
pD VaVii 172,170 lb

PcChorses)
p^ = R^V = 160,120(34.62) = 5,543,350 ft-lb
Ctl = 290.68 per sec.
p[Z>=(ft)][Fj(kt)]„„ (34.xxviii)

in dimensional form. Then, from Eq. (34.xxvii),

When several propellers are to be used, D^ is — 2.546Pb

Ctl
replaced by 2Z)' = Dl + Dl + Dl + Dl as , pD VaVh
appropriate. The effective power P^ is always
2.546(5,543,350)
the total ship figure. ^
~ (1.9905)(20.51)'(28.042)'(1.148)
With the calculated 0-diml value of Ctl , the
curves of Figs. 34.B, 34.C, or 34.E are entered = 0.666
and a value found for the 0.8-ideal efficiency.
is

This is taken to be the actual operating efficiency

It may be simpler and quicker for the user to

of the propeller, as yet not designed, and is

calculate the thrust-load factor by
equal to the open-water efficiency r]„ of some T
propeller at some advance ratio / = VA/inD). C TL ^
The position of the Ctl point along the 0.8- AoVl
ideal-efficiency curve of Fig. 34. G indicates, by
reference to the efficiency curves of the three 172,170
(0.99525)(20.51)'(0.7854)(28.042)'
Wageningen an approximate value of
propellers,
the pitch ratio P/D which may be expected to = 0.666
produce the most efficient propeller under the
circumstances. Consulting the open-water charac- This is somewhat smaller than the 0.700 of

teristic curves of some "stock" propeller which diagram 3 of Fig. 59.1 because the latter is cal-

has this pitch-diameter ratio, and entering the culated for a final-design wheel diameter of
open-water efficiency curves with the rjo value 20.0 ft.

from the 0.8-ideal-efficiency curve, give at once From Table 34.a, or Fig. 34. B, the correspond-

the advance ratio / = F^/(nZ>). With the values ing ideal efficiency r], is 0.873 and the 0.8-ideal
of Va and D previously used, the rate of rotation efficiency or real efficiency r/Re„i is 0.698. This is

n is found. A nomogram for solving Eq. (34.xxviii) the working efficiency of the propeller at 20.5 kt.
is embodied ETT,
Stevens, Technical Note
in Consulting the open-water curves for the stock
145; working out a number of
this facilitates propeller in Fig. 78. Mc the advance coefficient
solutions for a different combination of assump- J for 7,0 = 0.698 is 0.769. Then J = VA/inD),
tions. whence
A portion of this problem is worked out for an 28.042
early design of the ABC ship in Sec. 66.27,
JD (0.769)(20.51)
sufficient only to derive a value of Ps . A some-
what more complete example is worked out here, = 1.778 rps or 106.7 rpm.
Sec. 60.15 SHIP POWERING DATA 385

This compares with the value of 109.7 (or 1.82G a self-leveling (commercial) type of anti-fouling
rps) derived from the self-propelled model test; paint, to be 10 months out of dock, and to have
it indicates that the real or working efficiency of an increase in specific resistance due to fouling of
the propeller was somewhat less than 0.8 of its Af.CF(10^) = 1.25, corresponding to the long-dash
ideal efficiency. predicted ABC ship curve of Fig. 45. L. It is

Taking a Jj-value of 0.748, as determined by
thrust identity from Fig. 78. Nb, the real efficiency
J/Reai or the open-water efficiency tjo from Fig.
78. Me is only 0.686. Assuming a value 1.02
for the relative rotative efficiency,
assumed that for half of the open-sea portion of
a voyage under these circumstances, heavy
weather has slowed the ship to an average of
17.7 kt. For the remaining half, therefore, in
order to meet the sustained speed of 18.7 kt, the

= = = ship is called upon to average 19.7 kt. Can the

riP ria{vH)riB 0.686(1. 148)(1.02) 0.803
ship do it, when fouled, with 95 per cent of its
Since this is in excess of the -qp = 0.761 derived
maximum designed power?
from Fig. 78. Nc, it indicates that the assumed
relative rotative efficiency is too large. The last From Table 45.f of Sec. 45.18:

example of Sec. 60.10 shows that actually tjr ^pCf for the plating is taken as 0.0 since any
was only 0.968. Using an T/p-value of 0.803 would roughness here is obscured by the deterio-
have given a shaft power of ration of the anti-fouling paint coating
and the presence of the fouling itself
P., = ^=
T)P
5,543,350
(550) (0.803)
12,551 horses. AsCf for structural roughness is assumed as
0.1(10"')
This is less than the predicted shaft power of AcCi? for coating roughness is assumed as
13,243 horses from Fig. 78. Nb. It emphasizes the 0.1(10"'), covering deterioration of the
statement of D. W. Taylor, made several decades paint
ago, that: AfCf for fouling, from the long-dash line of Fig.

"It is better to underestimate relative rotative efficiency

45.L, is taken as 1.25(10^')
tlian to overestimate it. Underestimation results in a Then SAC^ is (0.0 -|- 0.1 -|- 0.1 + 1.25) (10"') =
slightly larger propeller tiian overestimation" [SNAME, 1.45(10"').
1923, pp. 69-70].
For the "make-up time" speed j)f^ 19.7 kt or
60.1S Estimating Shaft Power for a Fouled- 33.27 ft per sec, T, = 19.7/ V510 = 0.872,
or Rough-Hull Condition. A recommended de- F„ = 0.26. At this T, , the specific residuary
sign procedure for building into a ship a sufficient resistance coefficient Cs is, from Fig. 78. Jc,
speed margin to enable it to maintain an estab- 0.94(10^'). The Reynolds number R„ for this ship
lished schedule despite the handicaps of winds, speed, in standard salt water, from Table 45. b of
waves, fouling, and other factors is described in Sec. 45.4, is 1,324 million, for which the specific
Sees. 64.3, 65.3, and 69.9, and
Table 64.d, all in friction resistance coefficient Cp from Table 45.
in Part 4 of this volume. It should be possible is 1.48(10"'). Then Ct + Cp + XACp = (0.94 +
eventually to predict the effect of each of these 1.48 + 1.45)(10"') = 3.87(10"').
handicaps in quantitative terms, provided the The wetted surface of the ship is, from Fig.
conditions to be met are specified in some detail. 78.Ja, 69.85 times X^(lambda) for the ship or
Considering the problem of fouling, or of (69.85) (650.25) = 45,420 ft'. Then for the fouled
serious deterioration of the paint coating on the ship.
underwater hull, the situation is presumably
worst just before the end of a dry docking interval. Rr = Cr[~)SV'
As a check on the speed and power margins
incorporated in the design, which are intended = (3.87)(10~')f— |^V45,420)(33.27)'
to be adequate all through this interval, it should
be possible to estimate the propulsion perform- = 193,640 lb,

ance in the foul-bottom as well as the clean-

whence
bottom condition.
One acceptable method is worked out here for Re „„ =
p = KtV (193,640)(33.27)
^/^ n-,,,
= 11, /13 horses.
the transom-stern hull of the ABC ship, designed 550
in Part 4. The ship is assumed to be painted with For the fouled ship, at 19.7 kt, it is estimated
386 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.15

that the wake fraction w has increased from the the same when the bottom is both clean and foul,
0.190 of Fig. 78.Nb to 0.210. The thickening of
{<\^\ ('?o)Foul('?/r)Foul
the boundary layer, and the increase of viscous-
VoViT
wake assumed to have
velocity due to fouling are
(0.677)(1.120)
a greater effect on increasing w than the augmented = 0.921
(0.717)(1.148)
Ctl has on reducing it, as described by L. Troost
in Sec. 60.8. It is assumed further that the thrust- R. W. L. Gawn states, on page 247 of his paper
deduction fraction t has increased from 0.070 to "Roughened Hull Surface" [NECI, 1941-1942,
0.115, because of the greater thrust-load coefficient Vol. LVIII, pp. 245-272], that "Relative rotative

Ctl at which the propeller must operate. At this efficiency is less when the surface is rough,
increased Ctl the inflow jet will have a somewhat . . but he gives no numerical values.
. ,"

larger diameter in way of the skeg, so that the Interpolating from the r)p = EHP/SHP
— Ap's will act on more of the stern area; this is values in Fig. 78. Nb, the value of rip for the clean
another reason for increasing t. ship at 19.7 kt is 0.769. For the fouled ship at the
For the clean ship, at 19.7 kt, tj^ from Fig. same speed it is estimated to be 0.769(0.921) =
78.Nb is 1.148 but for the fouled ship it is 0.708. Hence

, ^ _ (1 - Ofou. _ (1 - 0.115) _ ,„„ Ps =

11,713
=
U^JFoui - _ - _ - ^-^^^
,
0.708
16,540 horses.
^^ ^^^^^^ (^ Q 210)

The speed of advance Va for 19.7 kt, fouled, is This is about 3,290 horses more, or about 25
7[(1 - w)f„„,] = 33.27(0.79) = 26.28 ft per sec. per cent in excess of the 13,250 horses required to
By interpolation from the values of 10~^ T propel the clean ship at 20.5 kt, as predicted by
from Fig. 78.Nb, the thrust T at 19.7 kt, for the the self-propelled model test. It is not much less

clean ship, is 152,600 lb. Then for a ship carrying than the whole margin
clean-bottom power
a propeller of 20.51-ft diameter, corresponding to required to provide the speed differential from
the stock model propeller, Va = VO- — w) = 18.7 kt (predicted Ps of 9,320 horses) to 20.5 kt
33.27(1 - 0.190) = 26.95 ft per sec, and (predicted Ps of about 13,250 horses), namely
3,930 horses. It corresponds to an average increase
T
in shaftpower Ps of only about 2.5 per cent per
A,Vl month, or about 0.08 per cent per day, yet when
considered as an additional power expenditure it
152,600 seems large.
0.639
(0.99525)(20.51)'(0.7854)(26.95)'
For the designer who is to recommend a
For the fouled ship at 19.7 kt, T = Rr/(l - t) definite amount of shaft-power reserve to the
= 193,640/(1 - 0.115) = 218,800 lb. Then owner, the situation definitely calls for an investi-
gation of the use of hot plastic anti-fouhng paint
Tfou,
\S^TLJ-i instead of the older type of self-leveUng paint.
A„[(F^)P„„,]^ From Table 45.f of Sec. 45.18:
I
ApCp for the plating is taking as 0.0, since any
218,800 plating roughness is obscured by the hot-
(0.99525)(20.51)'(0.7854)(26.28)'
plastic paint coating and the fouling
= 0.963 A.sCf for structural roughness is assumed to be

0.1(10"'), as before
From a larger-scale version of Fig. 34. G or
AcCp to cover the initial roughness of the hot-
from Fig. 70.B, for a PjD ratio of 1.0, the value
from the
plastic paint is taken as 0.5(10"'),
of the real efficiency ijReai for a Ctl of 0.639 is
margin of Fig. 45. L
left
0.717. For a Ctl of 0.963 on the fouled ship, and
ApCp for fouhng only, from the dot-dash fine of
a P/D ratio of 1.00, the value of the real efficiency
Fig. 45.L, is 0.11(10"').
'/Real is 0.677. It is not possible to pick the latter
value from the open-water characteristic curve Then 2ACf is (0.0 + 0.1 + 0.5 -1- 0.11)(10"') =
of Tjo because the J-value and the rate of rotation 0.71(10"').
n in the fouled condition are not known. The values of Cr and Cp for the clean ship at
If the relative rotative efficiency t\R is assumed 19.7 kt are 0.94(10"') and 1.48(10"'), respectively.
Sec. 60.16 SHIP-POWERING DATA 387

as before. Then for the fouled ship C^ = Ck + in Fig. 78.Nb, the value of nr for the clean ship
C,. + SAC;. = (0.94 + 1.48 + 0.71)(10-') = at 19.7 kt is 0.769 as before. For the fouled ship
3.13(10"'). With a wetted surface of 45,420 ft^ at the same speed it is taken to be 0.769(0.961) =
from the preceding example, the total resistance 0.739. Hence for the fouled ship with hot-plastic
of the fouled ship is paint, at 19.7 kt,

p — Ea — 9,474
i2i Ct\ £ -sf JTs — = 12,820 horses.
r,p 0.739

= 3.13(10-')(i^^)(45,420)(33.27)' This is less than the 13,250 horses required to

drive the clean ship at 20.5 kt.
= 156,610 lb, With a shaft power Ps of about 11,200 horses
to drive the clean ship at 19.7 kt, from Fig. 78. Nb,
whence
an increase of 16,540 - 11,200 = 5,320 horses is
P. =Ze.F = ^^^^«53:^ = 9,474 horses. required to overcome 10 months' fouling on the
self-leveling paint, whereas an increase of only
Since the ship with the hot-plastic coating is 12,820 - 11,200 = 1,620 horses suffices to over-
expected not to be as heavily fouled as with the come both the initial roughness of the hot-plastic
self-leveling paint in the preceding example, paint and 10 months' fouling on that paint.
it is estimated that the wake-fraction w is in- Against this advantage must be placed the addi-
creased only from 0.190 to 0.200, and that the tional shaft power that would be required to
thrust-deduction fraction has gone up from 0.070 drive the ship with hot-plastic paint, at all

to only 0.100. For the clean ship, at 19.7 kt, speeds, when just out of dock few and for a

ii]h is 1.148 as before but for the fouled ship it is months thereafter. This and other powers can
be calculated by the method described.
(1 - Ofo (1 - 0.100)
(wFoul — 1.125 60.16 Increasing the Power and Speed of an
(1 - M')f„ (1 - 0.200)
Existing Ship. Marine architects are often called
The speed of advance V a for 19.7 kt, with the upon to increase the speed of a ship already
lighter fouling on the hot-plastic paint, is built, eitherby improving its form and retaining
F[(l - i«)f„„i] = 33.27(0.80) = 26.62 ft per its power plant, by changing its power plant and

sec. For the fouled ship at 19.7 kt, T = Rt/{1 - not its form, or by both.
= 156,610/(1 - 0.10) = 174,010 lb. Then In the matter of the power which can be de-
livered to and absorbed by a single screw pro-
^F°"'
(C ^ .

peller or other propulsion device, embodying a

^o[(FJp„„,]^ question which invariably arises whenever the
matter of increased power is considered, it is to
174,010
be remembered that shaft power is a function of
(0 .99525) (20 .5 1)'(0 .7854) (26.62)'
both torque delivered to the propeller and the
= 0.747 rate of rotation of the shaft. A given shaft can
often be run at a higher rate of rotation at the
The thrust-load factor Ctl for the clean-bottom
same torque but only rarely can the same screw
condition is 0.639, the same as for the preceding
propeller be expected to absorb the increased
example. Similarly, TjReai for this factor is 0.717.
power and to drive the ship efficiently at the
For a Cri of 0.747 on the fouled ship and a P/D
rpm and ship speed.
increased
ratio of 1.00, the value of T/u,ai is, from Fig.
It is conceivable that lengthening, fiiiing, or
34.G or Fig. 70.B, 0.703. Assuming as before
otherwise altering an existing ship, designed for
that the relative rotative efficiency jjb is the
slow speed, may enable the altered ship to be
same for both clean and foul bottom,
driven at an increased speed with the same total
(^?p)i (^7ci)Foiil('?g)l resistance Rt or effective thrust T{1 — i). The
increased friction dragmay be more than com-
pensated for by the reduced pressure drag due to
(0.703)(1.125)
= 0.961 wavemaking and separation. However, the fact
(0.717)(1.148)
that the ship speed is increased, automatically
Interpolating from the t/p = EHP/SHP values raises the power by a corresponding amount,
 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 60.17

even though no additional thrust is necessary to shaft of a windmilling propeller, plus all those
propel the ship at the increased speed. parts of the machinery which can not be un-
Skeg and stern endings that are too bkint, clutched from it, have to be lubricated continu-
ahead of a screw propeller, and insufficient ally during such an operation.
clearances, may always be expected to generate 60.18 Backing Power from Self-Propelled
vibratory forces and moments. At low speeds Model Tests. A discussion of reversing and
these may be of small magnitude and hence not backing included under maneuvering in Part 5
is

objectionable. At higher speeds, however, a of Volume III. However, it is stated here that
propeller developing increased thrust and absorb- model-basin establishments equipped to conduct
ing greater power may generate vibratory forces self-propulsion tests can carry out steady-state
and moments that are by no means acceptable. tests of this kind in the astern direction. Fig. 60.
Air leakage from the surface may be initiated or embodies the results of such a test on EMB
augmented because of the greater — Ap's in the model 3594, representing the minelayer U. S. S.
blade fields. Cavitation may become a factor, at Terror. Fig. 60. T contains data for the ahead
least in the region of the upper blades, because self-propulsion tests of this model at the same
of the greater blade-section speeds, possible displacement and trim. It is to be noted that the
greater propeller diameter, and diminished depth thrust-deduction fraction in the backing con-
of submergence of the blade sections in the upper dition is very large, as might be expected, and
blade positions. Fitting a propeller with wider that the wake fraction is still positive. The pro-
blades, in an old aperture, actually diminishes pulsive coefficient is less than 0.40.
the clearances, when they should be increased. H. F. Nordstrom presents the test results and
60.17 Powering for Two or More Distinct an analysis of the self-propelled experiments on
Operating Conditions. Exerting the maximum models of fishing boats, in which astern thrust
thrust at low towing speeds, combined with was achieved (1) by reversing the direction of
developing the greatest practicable free-running rotation of the 2-bladed propellers when set for
speed for shifting quickly from one operating normal ahead running and by angling the
(2)
area to the next, is mandatory for any tug blades to give reverse pitch [SSPA Rep. 2, 1943;
worthy of the name. Economical propulsion at summary and some figure legends in English].
cruising speed, combined with efficient propulsion
at high or top speed, is a design problem for any Twin
patrol vessel. Both economical and efficient pro-
pulsion, on the surface as well as submerged, is
practically a "must" for every type of sub-
mersible, as well as some types of pure submarine.
Each of the foregoing is perhaps more of a
design than a calculation problem, or perhaps
more a problem of operation than of design. The
operator and owner usually must decide how much
one condition is to be favored over the other.
Sec. 67.15 mentions the proposals and actual
installations of the past in which designers have
attempted to meet the problem of driving a ship
with one or two propellers under one operating
condition and with two or more under another
condition. This still involves running one set of
wheels in both ranges, usually at different ship
speeds and rates of rotation. It may be done by
varying the pitch mechanically or accepting a
reduction of efficiency in one or both conditions.
Permitting one or more propulsion devices to
free-wheel while the others are driving means
some added resistance due to the windmilling
action of the free wheels. Furthermore, each
 CHAPTER 61

The Prediction of Ship Behavior in

Confined Waters
61.1 General 389
61 2
. Typical Shallow-Water Resistance Data . . 389 61.
61 3
. The Quantitative Effect of Shallow Water on
Ship Resistance and Speed in the Sub-
critical Range 390
61.4 The Square-Draft to Water-Depth Ratio . . 393
61.5 Features Associated with the O. Schlichting
Procedure 394
61.6 Practical Cases Involving a Given Depth of
Water 396
61.7 Case la: To Find the Shallow- Water Speed
from the Deep-Water Resistance-Speed
Data 397
61.8 Case lb To Find the Shallow- Water Resist-
:

ance from the Deep-Water Resistance-

Speed Data 400
61 9
. Case Ic To Find the Deep-Water Speed and
:

Resistance When the Shallow- Water Speed

and Resistance are Measured 400
61 10
. Limiting Case of 2 Per Cent Speed Reduction
in Water of a Given Depth 403
61.11 Cases 2a and 2b To Find the Limiting Depth
:
390 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.3

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Ship Speed, kt

Fig. 61. a Resistance and Trim Data fob a Torpedoboat in Water of Varied Depth

There are, in the literature, a considerable number water, are only slightly less than the maximum
of typical graphs giving the variation of resistance trims by the stern at the lesser (critical or near-
and power with speed for ships running in shallow critical) speeds. Unfortunately, Paulus does not

water. They are derived in part from tests on give the lines or even the principal dimensions of
models and from ship trials. One set of
in part torpedoboat SI 19 forming the subject of his
curves, derived from a model test and illustrating investigation.
the principal features, including the change of Most
of the model-test data referred to in the

level at bow and reproduced in Fig. 35.D.

stern, is
Another set, derived from the trial results of a
ship, is adapted from a set of graphs given by the
German naval constructor Paulus in Fig. 2 on
page 1872 of reference (4) in Sec. 61.22. The latter
data are presented in Fig. 61. A. Others are to be
found in the references cited in the list at the
end of this section.
Paulus' data for the German torpedoboat
SI 19 reveal that the maximum trim by the stern
occurs at a speed shghtly less than that for which
the increase in indicated power Pi (over the deep-
water P,) is a maximum. Also that the trim
becomes less than the deep-water trim at a speed
very slightly higher than that for which the
shallow-water Pi drops below the deep-water P,
The trims at the higher speeds, in all depths of
firstparagraph of this section are suspected of
giving resistances and powers that are too high,
because of the restricting effect of the model-
basin walls, added to the effect of the false bottom
or other device used to simulate the shallow water.
For example, in reference (34) of Sec. 61.22,
where the shallow-water drag tests were intended
to simulate behavior in open water of 13 meters
depth, the hydraulic radius R,i works out as
only about 9.5 m. For unhmited water of 13 m
depth, Rh is also 13 m. A more classic example is
W. Froude's full-scale towing tests on the Grey-
hound in the early 1870's, unquestionably made
in water that was too shallow for the size of the
vessel [Robb, A. M., TNA, 1952, p. 449].
. 61 .3 The Quantitative Effect of Shallow Water
on Ship Resistance and Speed in the Subcritical
Sec. 613 PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 391

Range. The quantitative eiTect of shallow water W. P. A., RPSS, method has a
1948, p. 56]. This
of unlimited extent on the resistance and speed partly theoretical and partly experimental basis.
of ships is expressed in at least three different Some of its assumptions are open to question
ways, when the basis of comparison is a combina- but it has the merit that it works, as an engineer-
tion of resistance and speed in unlimited deep ing solution to the shallow- and confined-water
water: problems. It will undoubtedly give way in time
to a more rigorous treatment but in the meantime
(1) The effect of limited depth on ship speed at
it produces results in fair agreement with observed
constant (or at a given) resistance
model and ship data.
(2) The depth upon resistance
effect of limited
The basis of 0. Schlichting's method is illus-
for a speed equal to a given deep-water speed
trated graphically by Fig. 61.B, adapted from
(3) Depths of water of unlimited extent beyond
one of Schlichting's illustrations (Fig. 6 in the
which there is no shallow-water effect on either
reference cited). The point Ai represents the
resistance or speed.
relationship between the total resistance Rt^ in
The discussion in this section is limited to ship unrestricted deep water and the corresponding
speeds less than the critical speed Cc of a wave of ship speedV„ achieved with a given power. This
translation in water of the given depth h, where may be assumed as the customary design point
Cc = Table 72.a of Sec. 72.3 lists values
{9h)°-\ for a normal deep-water ship. Unless otherwise
from 2 through 40 ft.
of Cc for a range of depths h indicated, the subscript <» (infinity) in this
The problem of the wavemaking resistance chapter applies to the value of a designated
only in shallow water, and in confined waters as quantity in water of infinite depth and width.
well, has been tackled on a purely analytical or The total resistance Rt«, is composed of the usual
theoretical basis by Sir Thomas H. Havelock, friction resistance R^^ and a pressure resistance
J. K. Lunde, and others. One of Lunde's contri- Rwo, , which assumed by Schlichting to be
is

butions is his paper "On the Linearized Theory due entirely to wavemaking. These components
of Wave Resistance for Displacement Ships in are indicated at the right of the diagram.
Steady and Accelerated Motion" [SNAME, 1951], The wavemaking resistance Rwo is associated
in which Part 2, on pages 50 through 60, applies with a train of deep-water waves, belonging to
directly to resistance due to wavemaking in the Velox system, whose speed is the same as the
shallow water of imlimited extent as well as in a ship speed, so that the crests and the troughs
canal. A more recent contribution is that of A. A. occupy certain fixed positions relative to the ship.
Kostyukov entitled "Resistance of Bodies in a The fixed relationship between the wave length
Fluid to Motion near a Vertical Wall" (in Russian) L,ra. and the speed c„ of these waves, assuming
[Dokladi Akad. Nauk, SSSR (N.S.) 99, 1954, they are of trochoidal character and form, is
pp. 349-352]. This paper is abstracted briefly in given under (2) of Sec. 48.4. Squaring the equality
Applied Mechanics Reviews, December 1955, given there,
page 534, number 3846.
None of the existing (1955) analyses in the cl=Vl^ 2-K
foregoing category form to be readily
is in a
useful to the marine architect. There have been In shallow water the speed of a trochoidal
a number of much more practical solutions pro- wave of the same length Lwa, is less than V„ If .

posed for this problem but many of them do not Ca is thisspeed for a water depth h, the ratio
embody parameters which appear logical or between c^ in shallow water and Ca, or F„ in
scientific. deep water is, from Sec. 18.10 and Fig. 48.N
What appears to be the most satisfactory of Sec. 48.15, expressed by
method of deahng quantitatively with these
matters was developed some years ago in Ger-
many by Otto Schhchting ["Schiffswiderstand
(61. i)
auf beschrankter Wassertiefe; Widerstand von
Seeschiffen auf flachem Wasser (Resistance of = <;tanh
(^1^2
Seagoing Vessels in Shallow Water)," STG, 1934,
Vol. 35, pp. 127-148; EngUsh version in EMB When the ship passes from deep water into
Transl. 56, Jan 1940; also van Lammeren, shallow water of depth h, it can not make the
392 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.3

Speed Voo of Ship in Deep Water of Unlimited Extent

Celerity c„ of Deep-Woter Wave of Speed V^ and Lenqth Lwq

Celerity c^, or Speed Vj of Wove of Lenqth L'^qq

Resistance
J
Rwco Due to
Wovemokinq in
Deep Wotsr ot
Speed Voo

Resistance
Rpoo -Due to
Friction in
I

I
Deep Water
at SpeedVjj,
I

Fig. 61. B Definition Diagram for the Shallow- Water Speed-Resistance Determination of 0. Schlichting

waves alongside it, of the Velox system, travel especially in the limited space between the ship
any faster than it does. The wave of translation bottom and the water bed, explained in Sec. 18.2,
or solitary wave which may go on ahead in a the ship in shallow water has to move faster
restricted channel does not enter into this dis- relative to thewater which closely surrounds it.
cussion. Experience reveals that the crests and In other words, it must overcome a total resist-
troughs of the Velox waves remain in essentially ance greater than Rn to maintain the speed c*
the same positions along the length of the ship or Vi . The resistance represented by the point
as in deep water. However, the ship slows down Bi in the figure is increased to that represented
by the ratio of the wave speeds in shallow and in by the point Dj Unfortunately, it is not possible
.

deep water, given by the ratio c,JV„ of Eq. (61.i). to derive a simple expression for predicting or
It may be assumed that, despite a change in calculating this increase. Schlichting therefore
profile due to increased wave height hw in the assumes that the resistance Rtu remains the same
shallow water, and other second-order changes, as at the speed V , but that the ship slows down
the pressure resistance jB,^„ at the slower speed until its total resistance again drops to Rjh .

C/, is was at the speed V„ in deep

the same as it This involves a ship speed over the ground slower
water. Here, and in what follows, the subscript than Vi The new reduced speed is V^ repre-
. ,

/ applies to values at an intermediate speed sented by the point C, on the shallow-water

V — I Ch . Again it is assumed that wavemaking resistance curve of the diagram of Fig. 61. B.
is responsible for all the pressure resistance. The amount of the first speed reduction Ac or,
The situation regarding resistance and ship better, the ratio between the speed c^ and the
speed is now represented graphically in Fig. 61.B unlimited deep-water speed V„ is determined
,

by the point Bi The pressure resistance Rw^

. solely from theoretical considerations, indicated
remains the same as at A, but the friction , by Eq. (61. i). The speed C/. or V i is for convenience
resistance is diminished from Rf^ to Rfi that , called here the Schlichting intermediate speed or
is, from its value at the point Ei to its value at the shallow-water wave speed. The ratio between
the point Fi . The total resistance at the speed this intermediate speed and the shallow-water
Vi is diminished from Rt^ to Rn, ,
solely by the ship speed V^ being sought, or the further speed
amount of this reduction. The ship speed is reduction AVp due to potential flow, is most
diminished from F„ to V i . determine theoretically. It is therefore
difficult to
A second effect now enters the picture. Because derived from experiment data on models tested
of the greater augment -\-A.U of stern ward in shallow water. The sum of the constant
velocity due to potential flow in the shallow water. wavemaking resistance R^y^ plus the friction
Sec. 61.4 PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 393

resistance Rfi at the intermediate speed F/ is

applied as the resistance Rrk to the model shallow- Notched Retjions ore Moximum iSections of Area Axj
water resistance-speed curve at the point Cj ,

giving the desired shallow-water speed Vh

One feature of the diagram of Fig. 61.B is

important. Since the abscissas represent wave

velocities and ship speeds, and since the ratios Broken-Line Squares Have Areos Equal to Ax in Each Cose
between the several velocities and speeds are the and Sides Equal to (Ax) Known as "Square Droft"
,

items of primary interest, the horizontal scale

Fig. 61. C Definition Skktch for Term
may be laid off in values of what is known as the "Square Draft"
critical-speed ratio {V„/\/gh), _V„/\/'gL, the
ship speed V, or even (VJ-VgL), as may be by Rfi , described briefly in Sec. 18.11, and dis-
found most convenient, or in all of them together. cussed further in Sec. 61.14.
The only requirement is that the water depth h Fig. 61. C indicates that, for broad, shallow
and the ship length L remain constant in the vessels under which the bed clearance may often
problem, and that all the ratios be a function of V.
61.4 The Square-Draft to Water-Depth Ratio. The Center Scale Gives the Value of the Ratio

0. SchUchting found that the ratio V^/Vi is a vhere

h
function of a 0-diml parameter, namely the
Ax is the Mox^ 10,000
square root of the maximum section area Ax of mum-Section
I 8.000 —
the ship, divided by the water depth h. This Area
appears logical because the increased potential- = 20
h IS the Woter
6,000
5,000
—
Depth, in the 4,000 —
flow velocity under the ship, where most of the ^ 15
Same Units
water flows in its passage around the hull, is a
function of the space occupied by the ship.
Although a ship of given maximum section area,
corresponding generally to a ship of given overall
size, may have a draft deeper than normal, with

less bed clearance, compensated for by the

this is
fact that the beam
less than normal. In
is then
this case more of the water flows around the
sides, and less under the bottom. If the beam is
very large in proportion to the draft, more water
flows under the bottom but with the greater bed
clearance there is then more room for it.

In any case the relationship developed by

Schhchting appears to remain reasonably valid
for ships of varied form as well as for all speeds
below the critical speed of translation of a natural
solitary wave in shallow water. It may be some-
what optimistic in predicting slightly too small
a speed reduction for the general case, and it
may be oversimplified, but it is acceptable until
something better is worked out. The square root
of the area of the maximum section, a linear
dimension, is called for convenience the square
draft. It is the draft of the equivalent ship having
a square maximum section of the given area Ax ,

with a beam-draft ratio of 1.0. For shallow water

of unlimited lateral extent the square draft
(Ax)"'^ is related to the water depth
For h.

dimen-
restricted channels it is related to a linear Fig. 61.D Nomogram for Determining Square-
sion known as the hydraulic radius, symbolized Draft TO Water-Depth Ratio
394 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.5

be measured only in inches, the value of the the shallow water of depth h, it will run at the
square draft may actually exceed the water speed F„ This does not mean that it overruns
.

depth. Fortunately, the relationships previously the shallow-water Velox-system waves traveling
described continue to be reasonably valid under at the speed V, in the depth h but that it runs
these conditions. in waves which are the shallow- water counter-
Fig. 61. D
a nomogram, designed and kindly
is parts of a deep-water Velox-wave system traveling
furnished by Professor H. L. Seward, by which the at faster speed V„
some AV„ + .

value of the ratio -\/A^/h is determined by inspec- Itimportant to remember that the Schlich-
is

tion when the values of Ax and h are known. This ting procedure involves resistances rather than
nomogram is applicable to any system of units powers. To be sure, the effective power Pe is
provided h is expressed in a length unit and Ax derived directly from Rr when V is known for
in the same unit squared. any given condition but there is no simple method
In shallow water of unlimited extent the hy- of estimating the shallow-water shaft power
draulic radius Rh equals the depth, so that Psh when the deep-water shaft power Ps is known.
Rjf = h. The nomogram therefore gives values The relationship Va,/^/~gh controls the ratio

of 's/'A^/Rh under these conditions. Vi/Va, , of intermediate speed to deep-water ship

61.5 Features Associated with the O. Schlich- speed, independent of all reasonable absolute
ting Procedure. Several features of the Schlich- values of Fo. ,
provided the intermediate speeds
ting procedure require explanation and emphasis. remain well below the critical speed Cc = 'Vgh.
If sufficient power is available, corresponding to Similarly, the relationship y/Axlh controls the

the shallow-water resistance at the point Gi in ratio Vhiyi of shallow-water speed to inter-
,

Fig. 61. B, and is applied to drive the vessel in mediate speed, independent of the deep-water

D.3
Sec. 61.5 PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 395

The Center Scale Gives the Value of the Rotio

speed F„ again provided that the intermediate
,

Va, Speed of Ship in Unlimited Deep Water

speed remains well below the critical. -y^ Speed of Wove of Translation in Depth h
Referring back to Fig. 61. B, the solution in the By the Intersection of o Stroicjht Line Drov^n
various cases presented in practice involves Between q Point on the Rioht-Hond Scole at
finding points such as Gi and Hi when the position the Ship Speed V^o in Deep Water and a
Point on the Left-hand Scole at the Depth
of Ai is known, or in finding the depths of water h of the Shallow Water Under Considerotion
for which G, and H, lie at certain positions
The Value of Q is Token as 32.174 ft per sec^
relative to Aj .

This is not as easy as it looks or sounds because,

90
is not available, for a typical ship, a -5p
first, there —5
family of curves giving the resistances for a —4 10
Vqh-
series of speeds, in waters of many different —3
depths. Second, the pairs of points such as Ai
and Ci in Fig. 61. B are not directly related to
-2D
each other. Both the speed and the resistance are
different for the two spots of a pair. When making
calculations of the kind represented graphically
— JC _ — M_
by this figure it is generally necessary to plot two
?.
— 0.5 —^
resistance-speed curves, one for shallow water
-2
of the given depth h and one for deep water, 025
marking the companion spots Ai and Ci on each.
— O.E
Example:
0.15
Assuming that the water depth h is known, the V„- 10 kt.or 16.89 ft per sec 7 -4
plots are conveniently made at values of the Depth of Water h-28ft 6 —
Va./'vgh (using a range of -p^ot
— 0.08
critical-speed ratio Point R» 0.563 0.07
— 0.06
speeds F<„), because it is then easier to determine — 0.05

the intermediate-speed position c^ or Vj for the 3 —

point Bi . A small range of the critical-speed 250 C
— 0.03 25-
O.0Z5
ratio,embracing from three to five points, rather -300 5
— O.Oi
close together, is adequate if the problem is of - 400 ^"

limited application. If the water depth h is not -500 %

known it may be convenient to plot the resistance - 600 'S
-^"'
curves on a basis of ship speed V or of Froude -700 t
-800 ^
number F„ depending upon the nature of the g.
"
,
L 1000
problem.
The ratio of the intermediate speed F/ to the Fig. 61. F Nomogram for Determining Critical-
Speed Ratio
deep-water speed F„ , called hereafter the wave-
speed ratio, is determined by inspection from a
of Fig. 61.G, in which the ratio V JV i is plotted
theoretical curve giving Vj/V:^ on a basis of
on a basis of the square-draft to water-depth
critical-speed ratio V„/\'gh. Fig. 61.E shows
ratio \/~Axlh,. The curve determined by Schlich-
two parts of such a curve; the shorter is a large-
scale edition of a portion of the longer one, for
ting [STG, 1934, Fig. 9, p. 135;EMB Transl. 56,
easier reading in the lower critical-speed range.
Jan 1940, Fig. 2, p. 3; EMB Rep. 460, May 1939,
Fig. 9, p. 11] has been modified by:
The nomogram of Fig. 61.F, also designed and
generously furnished by Professor Seward, gives by (1) Decreasing slightly the potential-flow ratios
inspection the value of the ratio V^/y/gh when YulV I for small values of the square-draft to
the deep-water speed V^ and the water depth h water-depth This was done to bring the
ratio.
are known. There is a double scale for F„ by , potential-flow ratios in agreement with those
which the right-hand line may be entered either determined by L. Landweber for restricted
in ft per sec or in kt. channels [EMB Rep. 400, May 1939, p. 11].
The ratio of the shallow-water speed V^ in a (2) Increasing the potential-flow ratios YJYi
depth h to the intermediate speed F/ called , rather markedly for the larger values of the square-
hereafter the -potential-flow ratio, is determined by draft to water-depth ratio because tests made in
inspection from experiment curves such as those other model basins indicate conclusively that
396 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.6

!J~
 Sec. 61.7 PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 397

(2) When the depth of shallow water is to be under the several cases of the first class. The
determined: vessels selected are those for which SNAME
Case 2a. On the condition that the shallow-water Resistance Data sheets are available. The results

resistance shall not exceed a given frac- would be about the same for other vessels having
tion of the deep-water resistance, say nearly identical resistance-speed curves.
a given speed
1.02, for 61.7 Case la: To Find the Shallow-Water

Case 2b. On the condition that the shallow-water
speed shall not fall below a given frac-
tion of the deep-water speed, say 0.99,
for a given resistance.
Cases 2a. and 2b. are discussed in Sec. 61.11.
A Umiting case in the first class involves a
determination of the reduction in speed for a
specified depth when this reduction does not
exceed 1 or 2 per cent at the most. A similar case
in the second class involves a determination of the
minimum depth at which the effects on speed and
resistance shah be minor, say plus
and 2 per cent, respectively.
Some problems encountered
with the deep-water ship performance as a basis.
Others require that the deep-water performance
Speed from the Deep-Water Resistance-Speed
Data. The first example, numbered 61.1 for
convenience, covers Case la of the preceding
section. There, working from predicted deep-
water data as to the speed and resistance of a
ship, it is desired to determine the shallow-water
speed, in a depth the same total resistance
h, for
deep water. The region for which shallow-
i^r as in
water data are desired is at and just below the
designed speed of the vessel.
Example 61.1. The ship selected is the ore carrier
covered by SNAME RD sheet 9, represented by TMB
and minus 1
model 3818. The ship is 370 ft long by 64 ft beam by
17.5 ft draft, with a displacement of 8,850 long tons.
in practice start The designed speed is 12.5 kt, for which T, = 0.65,
Fn = 0.194. The ship runs from deep water into a shallow
estuary 24 ft deep. If the actual deep-water speed
is 13

kt, slightly greater than the designed speed, what is the

be predicted from the shallow-water behavior.
speed in the estuary with the same total resistance?
In either case, the relationship between total and Briefly stated, the procedure is to construct a resistance-
friction resistancewith speed in deep water must speed curve for the given depth of shallow water, and then
still be known. These may be found: to determine, from this curvej the ship speed at which
Rth is the same as for deep water. Referring to Fig. 61.B
(a) From the usual effective- and friction-power in Sec. 61.3, this requires:
curves derived from tests of ship models
(a) The construction of (Rto, — V„) and (Rpa, — V„)
(b) By calculation from i^„ and full-scale Cg ,
—
curves for deep water, such as those through Ai Ji and
Cf and Ct values on the
, SNAME RD Summary El - H
Sheets for vessels that are identical or nearly so (b) The determination of the positions of the points Bi
(c) By calculation from tests on standard series and Ci for a series of selected points Ai
models or models of similar (c) Drawing an (Rti, — Vh) curve through the Ci spots
ships.
(d) Picking off the ship speed at Hi for which Rn equals

To draw curves of full-scale deep-water friction Rt^ In detail, the Vi and V^ values are to be found for a
.

series of Va, values. At each point Ai a line AiBi is to be

resistance and of total resistance, based on ship
drawn parallel to EiFi giving the ordinates of Bi and Ci
speed, such as those through Ei —H and through
, .

Ai — Ji of Fig. 61. B, respectively, requires at The and the water are

basic conditions for the ship
first set up, and the numerical values derived from which
on each, and preferably five. To
least three spots
the desired data are obtained. From the RD sheet men-
obtain these, necessary to work from the
it is
tioned, the maximum-section coefficient Cx of the ship is
F„ and Cr values on the SNAME Expanded 0.9922 and the wetted surface S of the model is 87.82 ft'.
Resistance Data sheets rather than from the The scale ratio X(lambda) of the model is 370/20.274 =
SNAME Summary Sheets. The tables which 18.25, so that X' is 333.06. The
ship wetted surface is thus

follow illustrate the principal steps in these (87.82) (333.06) or 29,249 This latter value may also
ft^.

be taken directly from the SNAME RD Summary Sheet

calculations, as well as the derived values for each
listing this vessel. It is assumed that the deep-water and
step. In all tables theATTC 1947 or Schoenherr estuary surfaces are at sea level, where g = 32.174 ft per
meanline has been used for calculating the friction sec', and that both bodies are salt water at 59 deg F,

resistance Rp at a, standard temperature of 59

,
where the mass density p(rho) = 1.9905 lb-sec' per ft*,
deg F, 15 deg C, for standard salt water. The and the kinematic viscosity v{n\i) = 1.2817(10"') ft' per
sec.
value of ACf is taken as 0.4(10"') in all cases.
The area of the maximum section is 64(17.5)0.9922 =
There follow four practical examples illustrat- 1,111.3 ft'. This is very close to the Ax of the model
ing a suitable procedure for problems falling times X', or 3.342(333.06) = 1,113.0 ft'. The value of the
398 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.7

STEPS 1 Colculote or Deten

for Deep Woter
2. Calculate V;j„//SR Values Cornespondinc^
and Plot Groph af Rjm °" Mao/i^
i Calculate CRfo„-V„) Values ond Plot
on F?T and Veo /y^h" Scales
4. Fix Ag ot Selected V„/y^ Ratio
5. Determine Vi/v,^ from Fiq. 61-E
ond Draw Ordinate for Vj/y^fi
6. Prow AgB;^ Porollel to EgF^

0.5a 0.54 0.56 QSa 0.60 0.6E 0,64 066 0.68 0.70 0.7Z 0.74 0.76 0.78 03Z Q84 0.86 088 Q90
Cnticol Wave-Speed Ratio -^-

Fig. 61 .H Diagram Illustrating Construction op a Shallow- Water Resistance-Speed Curve From a

Deep-Water Curve

square draft '\/Ax is 33.34 ft, whence \/Ax/h is, by- provided the horizontal scales are consistent. The hori-
calculation or from Fig. 61. D, 1.389. Even with a bed zontal scale to be used is therefore strictly a matter of
clearance of 24 — 17.5 = 6.5 ft, the square draft is much convenience, provided it is based on a velocity.
larger than the actual water depth. The first step in the solution is to find the full-scale
The value of the critical-speed ratio Va,-\/gh for a ship values ofRrm and Rpa, for the range of values of
speed of 13 kt, or 21.96 ft per sec, and a depth of 24 ft, is Va>/\/gh from 0.60 through 0.90, so that the deep-water
found from Fig. 61. F, or by calculation, to be 0.790. In curves may be plotted. This is possible by using the
this case a range of Vco'\/gk of 0.60 to 0.90 appears to be values of {IOsjCr for a series of values of F„ for the speed
ample for the abscissas of the points corresponding to range in question, available on SNAME ERD sheet 9
Ai and Ei in Fig. 61. B. Instead of using a horizontal scale for a 400-ft ship. These particular values apply to a geo-
of ship speed V, as in Fig. 61.B, the abscissas of the new metrically similar ship of any length.
diagram for this case, reproduced as Fig 61.H, are plotted The Cfl values for a range of F„ from 0.1637 to 0.2233
on a base of VatyTgh, to facilitate entry into the VjlYa> are set down as the first line of entries in Table 61.a. A
curves of Fig. 61. E. short calculation, as listed in the upper part of that table,
It is again pointed out that when the water depth h indicates that this range of f„ gives a range of critical-
and the ship length L are fixed, as in this case, the Kpco speed ratio Vo,/Vyk of from 0.6425 to 0.8765 for the
and Rrm curves, whether plotted on a base of Ya, of , given estuary depth of 24 ft. The method of working out
Vm/y/gh, or of Va>/\/gL, have e.xactly the same shape, the friction and the total deep-water resistances Rf^o and
Sec. 61.7 PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 399

Rtoi for these spots is indicated by the successive lines of Rth = Rtcd — Rfoi + Rft However, it is easier and
Table 61. a. Plotting these values gives the curves through quicker to draw the line A2B2 on the graph, parallel to the
A2-K2 and through E2-F2 of Fig. 61. H. corresponding segment of the friction-resistance curve
The next step is to derive the values of Yhlyfgh for (that is, for the same range of Vco/\/gh), and to mark
five (or more) selected values of Vm/\/gh. These latter the point B2 at its intersection with the vertical line for
may correspond to the five Fn's of the first line of Table the corresponding Vi/\/gh ratio. The ordinate of B2 gives
61. a or, what is slightly easier for plotting, to certain the ordinate of C2 and value of Rn for the corresponding
principal abscissas on the diagram of Fig. 61.H. In this point on the shallow-water curve. Through the six points
example the value of Vo:,/\/gh for the 13-kt speed happens such as C21 through C26 the shallow-water Rn-V curve
to lie at one of these points, namely 0.790. is drawn, remembering that the abscissas are really
The method of determining the values of Vh\/gh for values of Vai/^/gh. A horizontal line drawn from A2,
the selected values of V^l\fg]\ is set down in Table 61. b. where Vai/\/gh is 0.790, representing the 13-kt ship
The Fz/Fco and Vhiyj ratios give the values of the ab- speed, to the point Ho ,
gives the value Vh/\/gh of 0.643.
scissas Vail\/ gh for the horizontal locations of the points Since s/gh is, from Table 61. a, equal to 27.79 ft per sec,
B2 and C2 on Fig. 61. H, corresponding to the points Bi Vk is (27.79) (0.643) or 17.87 ft per sec, equivalent to
and Ci on Fig. 61.B. Determining the ordinates of a series 10.58 kt. This is the answer desired. The speed reduction
of points such as B2 and C2 for a series of points such as is (13 - 10.58) /13 = 2.42/13 or about 18.6 per cent.
A2 enables the shallow-water total-resistance curve Using the contours published by O. Schliohting [STG,
C21-C25 to be laid down. TMB Transl. 56, Fig. 9, p. 11 van Lammeren,
1934, Fig. 9; ;

The value of the total resistance at the point B2 on W. P. A., RPSS, 1948, Fig. 30, p. 57]_to determine the
Fig. 61. H may be derived from that at a selected point Ao speed loss, V^/Vgh is 0.790, (V^/VghY is 0.624, and
by picking off the value TJ^a, at A2 and using the formula y/ Axlh is 1.389. Entering with these arguments, the

TABLE 61. a Calculation op Dbep-Watbr Resistance-Speed Data for Example 61.1, Plotted on P^g. 61.H
Data marked with an asterisk (*) are taken from SNAME RD sheet 9. The value of aCj? is 0.4(10"').

F. = F./VffL*
400 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.8

TABLE 61.b Derivation op Values op Vnly/gh From Selected Values op Critical-Speed Ratio V„/y/gh

Selected values of F„/v^

Sec. 61.9 PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 401

of the friction-resistance curve in the region wave-speed ratio Vi/V„ applied to the tentative
,

between Vi/'\/gh and V^/wgh it is necessary deep-water speed F„ gives a ship speed V
,

to calculate Rp for a speed somewhat higher than equal numerically to the intermediate speed
Vi so that the point E3 may be plotted. It is previously determined from the potential-flow
well, in fact, to calculate Rp for a series of ship ratio, then the tentative speed F„ and the ,

speeds, say the ones corresponding to the F„ critical-speed ratio V^/y/gh, are the correct
values in the speed range under consideration on ones. Otherwise, the process is repeated until the
SNAME ERD sheet 2. This is done in Table 61.c intermediate speeds and the speed ratios are
for the example set up subsequently in this sec- numerically the same.
tion, and the results are plotted in the long-dash Having found the proper value of V^/'s/gh
hues of Fig. 61.1. and the speed F„ erect this ordinate on Fig.
,

The problem is now to find the speed V„ for 61.1; it is the one on which A3 is located. Then
which the intermediate speed V i is the correct through B3 draw a line parallel to F3E3 meeting ,

one for the specified depth. It is known, first, the V„/\/gh ordinate at A3 This is one point
.

that Foo is definitely greater but probably not on the desired {Rt=, — F„) curve. The remaining
too much larger than Vj also that the value; points are located in the same way.
V^/'Vgh is greater than Vi/y/gh by exactly With the (i^Too — F„) curve as derived in this
the same ratio. Entering the theoretical curve manner there may be plotted for comparison and
of Fig. 61. E with the known ratio Vj/'Vgh, a reference the deep-water resistance-speed curve
value of F„ and a ratio of V i/V„ are selected for as predicted from model tests or as calculated
trial at a value of 'V„/'\/~gh somewhat larger from standard series or other data. An example
numerically than the given F^/V^. If the of this case follows.

0.55 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 060 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.6 6
I

STEPS

1. From Observed Data

Plot (Rjh-Vh) Curve

2. For Q Selected Value

ofVh, Calculate Vh/V^

3. With Vf^/Vj Ratio picl<-

ed from Fig. 61. G, Det-

ermine Vj/-yQh

4. From Point C3 Draw

Horizontol Line to B3

5. For Voo/y^ Value

Slightly Greoter thon
at Bj, Determine

^l/X» Ratio and Tent-

ative Vooyfj^ from Fio

). Frorn Tentative Volue

""f
M»/v^ '^i"'^ Corr-
esponding Volue of

Vj/Vjo ond Check for

Aoreement with
Vi/Ygh Ratio at B3

: When Correct Vo<,/VqTi

is Known, Draw B3A3
Parallel to F3E3. Det-
ermine Aji.etc. in Some
Manner and Draw (Rtoq-Voo)'
Scale for Ship Speed Vh in Depth h Mo'y Be Added Here

FiG.'^ei.I CoNSTBUCTioN OF A Deep-Wateb Resistance-Speed Cubve Fbom a Known Shallow-Watbb Cubve

402 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.9

TABLE 61.C Calculation of Ship Friction Resistance For Case l.c

The data marked with asterisks (*) are from SNAME RD sheet 2.

V/VgZ or Froude number F„*

Sec. 61.10 PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 403
TABLE 61.d Calculation of Two Spots on Deep-Water Speed-Resistance Curve from Known Shallow-
Water Speed-Resistance Curve

Selected Vh for ship

404 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.11

0.55

oafl-
0.50

0.99 ° 040

-n 0.35

8 0.995 ^

5
025
Speed Reduction for ABC 5hip in 175 feet of
E 998 ^
;§ e 0.20
0999 "

§ 0.15
^
To Find ApproKimate Speed Reduction
0.10
Enter Dioqrom with Values of ^/^/h
and Voo/V^h^ Qfid Interpolate Between Contours
0.05

Ami
0.4
0.1
V
CrilicQl Wave-Speed Ratio

Intermediote- Speed Ratio rj^ 0,999 0995 0.99 QS

^00

Fig. 61.J Geaphs for Determining the Limiting Water Depths for Various Small Speed Reductions

reductions of 1.0, 0.5, 0.2, and 0.1 per cent, VAi/h at M on Fig. 61. J, namely 0.393. The limiting
depth h is therefore h = \/I^/0.393 = 42.6/0.393 =
respectively.
108.4 ft. For depth the critical-speed ratio can not
this
While the statement of this example, and of exceed 0.4, represented by the point N. The limiting ship
others in this chapter, gives the impression of speed F„ = O.iVgh = 0.4 [32.174(108.4)]''-'^ = 23.62

straining at small quantities, the principal ft per equivalent to 13.98 kt. Water deeper than 108.4
sec,

purpose of the example is to illustrate the method. ft must therefore be found in order to run a valid sea
trial at 20.5 kt.
A secondary purpose is to carry the calculations Assume that a region having a depth h of 175 ft is

to a limit beyond which they would probably tentatively selected. The square-draft to water-depth
never go in practice. ratio is then 42.6/175 = 0.243 and the critical-speed ratio
From the 2 per cent curve of Fig. 61. J it is [(20.5)(1.6889)l/\/32.174(175) = 0.461. Entering Fig.
61. J with these values a point is found (marked by the
appears that at critical-speed ratios V^/'Vgh
distinctive circle) at which the predicted speed reduction
below 0.4, in the region AB, only the square-draft only about 0.3 per cent. This is well within the 1 per
is
to water-depth ratio -VAx/h influences the speed cent limit. The 175-ft depth is therefore adequate.
reduction. At the liigher critical-speed ratios,

but at values of \/^A^/h below about 0.1, in the

61.11 Cases 2a and 2b: To Find the Limiting
region DE, only the critical-speed ratio F„/ 'vgh Depth for a 2 Per Cent Increase in Resistance.
affects the speed reduction. At greater values of Turning to Cases 2a and 2b of the second class of
both ratios, in the region BCD, both have an Sec. 61.6, involving a determination of the limiting

effect in diminishing the speed.

depth of unrestricted shallow water in which the
resistance for a given speed is increased by say
Example 61.11 1. To show how this family of graphs is
2 per cent, or at which the speed for a given
used, take the case of the ABC ship designed in Part 4,
resistance is diminished by say 1 per cent, a
forwhich Ax is 1,815 ft^ and VH- is 42.6 ft. The limiting
depth at which the ship can run slowly, with a reduction simplified and approximate procedure is again
of only 1 per cent in speed, is found from the value of justified. Water depths in navigable waters are
Snc. 61.11 PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 405

almost never uniform, so that when a limiting be assumed that R = kV^, in which case dR =
depth is determined, someone must decide 2kV{dV). For any small range in which k and
whether it is to be looked upon as a mean or as a V may be assumed constant, a 2 per cent increase
minimum depth. in resistance is therefore reflected by a 1 per cent
For slow and intermediate-speed ships of increase in speed. This is the basis for the state-
normal or full form, having a relatively large ment that at the limiting depth the shallow-water
maximum-section area, the limiting depth h is speed Fa shall be not less than 0.99 times the
almost certain to be large enough to make the deep-water speed F„ for the given deep-water
limiting critical-speed ratio V^/'vgh, as well as resistance Rto, .

the ratio \/ Ax/h, rather small, as they are in Since the speed reduction may be due to a
the region HK of Fig. 61. J. Indeed, the first decreased Velox-wave speed or to augmented
may be so small as to make the wave-speed potential flow around the ship both factors must
ratio F;/F„ practically unity; see the first be considered. As the depends upon the
first

example following. On the other hand, for a fine, critical-speed ratio V„/-vgh and the second
fast ship running at higher critical-speed ratios, upon the square-draft to water-depth ratio
the depth h is so great in proportion to the square 'VAx/h, they can not easily be put upon a
draft '\/~Ax that the value of the potential-flow conunon basis except to say that for any given
ratio Vh/Vi may be practically 1.00, as in the conditions the value of h to be determined must
region FG of Fig. 61. J; see the second example be the same for both.
following. The ratio V,/V„ then becomes the The speed reduction due to either factor man-
sole factor in determining the depth. ifestly can not exceed 0.01. From Fig. 61.E the

The approximate method described here gives value of the critical-speed ratio V^c/vgh can
quickly the limiting depth of unrestricted shallow not exceed 0.658, for which F//F„ = 0.99. From
water in which a ship must run to insure that its Fig. 61.G the square-draft to water-depth ratio
shallow-water total resistance Rth does not a/aI/Zi can not exceed 0.393, where VJVi =
exceed 1.02 times deep-water total resistance
its 0.99. Below a critical-speed ratio of 0.40 the inter-

i^T-oo The basis of this method is that the resist-

. mediate speed Vi is practically equal to the deep-
—
ance varies as a certain but undetermined — water speed F„ so that this part of the theoretical
power of the speed in any narrow speed range or curve need not be considered. Below a square-
at any selected speed. As a rough average it may draft to water-depth ratio of 0.1 the shallow-water

Critical-Speed f?Qtio Voo/Vqh, where Voq Is Wave Speed m Deep Woter and CQ_='^fqii is Critical 5peed
0.400 0.538 0.567 0.586 0.602 0.614 0&Z4 0.634 0.642 0.652 0.658
0.515 0555 0577 0.595 0.608 0.619 0.629 0.638 0.647 0655

0.993 Vj

0.386 0370 0.353 0334 Q3I3 0291 0265 0235 0199 0.138
0.393 0378 0.36Z 0344 0.323 0302 0.278 0.251 Q2I8 QI75 0.000
Square- Draft to Depth Ratio ''{K^/h, where h is Shallow-Water Depth

Fig. 61. K Diaqrajh for Determining the Limiting Water Depth for a Speed Reduction op 1 Per Cent
406 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.11

speed T',, is practically equal to the intermediate potential-flow effect limits the depth of water. At the
extreme left of Fig. 61.K, where Vh/Vt = 0.990, the
speed V
In the ranges of critical-speed ratio
I .

square-draft to water-depth ratio s/Ax/h is 0.393,

and square-draft to water-depth ratio between whence the Hmiting depth h is 40.00/0.393 = 101.8 ft.
those mentioned the sum of the speed reductions Assuming on the other hand that all the speed reduction is
due to both causes can not exceed 0.01 for the due to wave effect, for an intermediate-speed ratio Vi/Va,
depth to be determined. This is on the basis that of 0.990 the critical-speed ratio Vo,/Vgh is 0.658. Then
for small values of these differences, not exceeding F„ /r T„
= 0.658,
,

whence \//i
.

=
0.01, they may be determined accurately either
0.658 Vfif
by addition of the differences or by multiphcation
of the corresponding speed ratios. For example,
0.99(0.99) = 0.9801 while {1.0 - [(1.00 - 0.99) + h = (16.889)'

(1.00 - 0.99)11 = 0.9800. (O.QdSyg (0.433)(32.174)

Fig. 61. K is a diagram for use in calculating the = 20.5 ft.
required limiting depth. Unfortunately, until
For any square-draft to water-depth ratio less than the
further developed, it involves a trial-and-error
lowest value 0.393 at the extreme left of the diagram of
procedure. end of the
At and beyond the left
Fig. 61. K, the limiting depth is greater than 101.8 ft,
diagram the speed reduction of 0.01 is assumed whereas the common value for h is somewhere between
to be due entirely to augmented potential flow that value and 20.5 ft. The critical-speed ratio Va:,/\/gh

while at and beyond the right end it is due entirely is therefore smaller than 0.658. In fact, it may be smaller
than 0.400, at the left end of the diagram. For a value of
to reduced wave speed in the shallow water.
Va,/Vgh = 0.4,
Between the ends both effects occur, and they
are additive, as for EA + AH = EH. Here EA = VI 285.27
=
h 55.4 ft.
is the speed reduction due to wave speed, cor- (O.-ifg (0.16)(32.174)
responding to the right-hand scale, while AH is The fact that it is not possible, within the limits of the
that due to potential flow, corresponding to the diagram, to achieve a common value for h indicates that
left-hand scale. The values of each are taken the potential-flow effect is the determining one while the
wave-speed effect is zero. The required depth is therefore
from the theoretical and experimental curves of
101.8 ft.
Figs. 61.E and 61. G for a critical-speed ratio of
For the 20-kt speed assume, as a starter, that the point
0.602 (top scale) and a square-draft to water- A represents the operating condition. Here the square-
depth ratio of 0.323 (bottom scale). draft to water-depth ratio is 0.323, and the depth deter-
The method of using the diagram is explained mined from that ratio is 40/0.323 = 123.8 ft. The cor-
responding critical-speed ratio is 0.602 and the depth
in the examples which follow. The nomograms
derived from it is
of Figs. 61. D and 61. F may be entered for ready
determination of the values y/Ax/h and V^/ 'vgh, = F =
(33.78)'
=
h 98.4 ft.
or these values may be calculated, as in Examples {0.&02yg (0.36)(32.174)
61. IV, 61.V, and 61.VI. It is obvious that the first depth is slightly too large and
To take care of the situation on low-speed and that the square-draft to water-depth ratio should therefore
high-speed ships, where the total resistance may be larger than 0.323. Assume a value of 0.362, at the point
B. This gives a depth h of 40/0.362 = 110.5 ft. The corre-
vary at less or more than the square of the speed,
sponding critical-speed ratio of 0.567 gives a depth of
additional diagrams of this type may be con-
structed from the data on Figs. 61. E and 61. G, (33.78)'
110.3 ft.
for overall speed ratios correspondingly greater (0.567)V
or less than 0.99. The estimate of the position of B was excellent in this case,
so that no further computation is necessary.
Exainple 61. IV. For the sake of simplicity, since only
For the 30-kt speed, assume the point C where the
the deep-water speed and the square-draft enter into the
square-draft to water-depth ratio is 0.199 and the critical-
problem, it is assumed that the vessel selected for this
speed ratio is 0.647. Then h = 40/0.199 = 201.0 ft, and
example has a maximum-section area of 1,600 ft', with a
square draft of 40.00 ft. It is desired to find the limiting
depth of water, at sea level, in which the resistance does ^^ = ?7r?^ = 190-6 ft.
(0.647) g
not exceed 1.02 times the deep-water resistance at speeds
of 10, 20, and 30 let. These speeds are equivalent to 16.89, Making another calculation for the point D, where the
33.78, and 50.67 ft per sec, respectively; g = 32.174 ft square-draft to water-depth ratio is about 0.209, gives a
per sec2, ^/g = 5.672. limiting depth h of 40/0.209 = 191.4 ft.Using the critical-
For the lowest speed of 10 kt assume first that the speed ratio of 0.645, the depth is
Sec. 61.12 PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 407

2,921.4
/. = ^^^=
(0.645) g
191.8 ft. h =
(0.567)'^ (0.3215)(32.174)
= 282.4 ft.

therefore approximately These two values of h are close enough so that the
The limiting depth required is

192 ft.
To determine the limiting depth at which the
shallow-water effects become negligible, for
practical purposes, it may
depth corresponds to a condition where the shal-
low-water resistance does not exceed 1.005 of
the deep-water resistance. As the resistance may
again be assumed, for a first approximation, to
vary between the square and the cube of the
larger of the two may be assumed as the limiting one.
it might be well to set the minimum depth as
In this case
290 ft.
all Example 6 l.V I. At the opposite extreme, assume a
be assumed that this motorboat having a maximum section area Ax of 6.25 ft",
running at 9.5 kt, or 16.05 ft per sec. What is the limiting
depth of unrestricted shallow water in which the speed
with a given deep-water resistance does not drop below
0.998Fco ? The value of g is taken as 32.174 ft per sec".
As a starter, consider that the overall velocity ratio
Fft/Fco = 0.998is made up of the two ratios Vh/Vi =

ship's speed, an increase in resistance of 0.005 0.9997 and Vj/V^ = 0.9982. These values are admittedly
arbitrary but with a little experience they can be estimated
corresponds to an increase in speed of the order
rather closely. Then from Fig. 61. K, at a Vh/Vr ratio of
of about 0.002. Similarly, limiting the resistance 0.9997, the square-draft to water-depth ratio \/ Axlh is

in shallow water to that encountered in deep 0.115. Hence, transposing.

water involves a speed reduction to the order of

0.998 y„ in the shallow water whose depth is to K
VAx V6.25 =
21.7 ft.
0.115 0.115
be determined.
If the product of the VJVi and the 7//7„ For a Vi/Vcc, ratio of 0.9982, the critical-speed ratio
ratios is to exceed 0.998, the values of both ratios Vaily/ gh from Fig. 61. K is 0.563. Again transposing.

must be Assuming that the value

close to 1.000. Yl (16.05)'
= = 25.3
of the VJV
speed ratio must exceed 0.998,
I
hn
fir(0.563)' (32.174)(0.563)'
ft.

examination of the corresponding curves of Fig.

61. K shows that the value of Ax/h must be W The potential-flow effect
draft to water-depth ratio
is so small here that the square-
is somewhat indeterminate.
less than about 0.218, regardless of the size of apparent that, because of the greater
Nevertheless, it is
the ship. Furthermore, the percentage of critical depth required to produce the assumed wave-speed ratio,
velocity must be less than 0.567, regardless of the the latter factor is also the determining one in this case.
speed. This is equivalent to shrinking the diagram The minimum depth is therefore of the order of 25 or 26 ft.
K to the point where the vertical limits
of Fig. 61.
61.12 D. W. Taylor's Criterion for the Limiting
on both end scales are 0.998 and 1.000. Two
Depth of Water for Ship Trials. A simple formula
values of the limiting depth h are first derived
is given by D. W. Taylor for the minimum depth
from the two relationships given. If they are
of water involving "no increase of resistance"
In,

not nearly the same the depth h is determined

[S and P, 1943, p. 79]. This is the dimensional
by trial and error as before.
expression:Minimum depth = 10 (draft //)
Example 61.V. The data for this example are taken (F/a/L), where the depth h, the draft U, and
from SNAME RD sheet 39; TMB model 3796. A liner of the length L are in ft, and the speed V is in
62,660 tons displacement, 962 ft long by 117.8 ft beam kt. Taylor gives the following limitations for this
by 34.39 having a Cx of 0.981, is expected to
ft draft,
formula:
run at a speed of 32 kt. What is the limiting depth of
unrestricted shallow water in which the speed with a "1. To abnormal form or proportions up
vessels not of
given deep-water resistance does not drop below 0.998 Fa> ? to a block coefficient Cg of 0.65
No account is taken of other ship-performance factors 2. For speeds for which V /\/l is not greater than 0.9
such as possible vibration. 3. The formula may be of use beyond the limits indicated
The maximum-section area Ax of the ship is 117.8 above, but in such cases (it) needs to be applied with
(34.39)0.981 = 3,974 ft^. The square draft VaI is 63.03 caution and discretion."
ft. The speed of 32 kt is equivalent to 54.05 ft per sec.

The value of g is taken as 32.174 ft per sec^. Despite these limits, expressly stated, this
By the potential-flow criterion alone (point F on Fig. formula has been used rather widely for estimating
61. K), the ratio y/Ax/h is 0.218 and the limiting depth
minimum depths of water in which to conduct ship
is 63.03/0.218 = 289.1 ft.
trials.
By the critical-speed criterion alone (point B on Fig.
Taylor's formula as it stands is not consistent
61. K), the value of V^iy/gh is 0.567 and the limiting
depth is dimensionally, for the reasons given in Appendix
408 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.13

2 of Volume I. It can be made so, as explained the effect of shallow water on ship speed and
there, by substituting 3.367F„ for the Taylor resistance in the subcritical range are somewhat
quotient F/VX, whereupon it becomes tedious, and are not well suited to making the
on-the-spot estimates often required. Further-
/iMin = 33.67(/0Fn (61. ii)
more, they give no indication, not even approxi-
Applying this formula to the liner of Example mate, as to what may be expected in the super-
61.V, where the draft H is 34.39 ft and the Froude critical range, which may easily be reached under
number F„ at the designed speed of 32 kt is certain conditions in practice.
54.05/ V32. 174(962) = 0.307, the predicted A means of making predictions as to relative
value of /iMin = 33.67(34.39) (0.307) = 355.5 ft. speeds and resistances in shallow and deep water
This is compared to a limiting depth of 290 ft by inspection serves a certain purpose in design
for a ARr„ of 0.4 per cent, as derived in Sec. procedure, although it is admittedly neither
61.11, Example 61.V. Taylor's formula is there- adequate, accurate, or reliable. The simplified
fore conservative or perhaps on the safe side. procedure of Sec. 61.10 and Fig. 61. J could be
61.13 Predicted Shallow-Water Resistance by extended to cover speed reductions from 2 per
Inspection. The procedures described in Sees. cent up to 5 per cent, and possibly up to 10 per
61.5 through 61.11 for determining quantitatively cent, provided the differences between the shallow-

Contours Are Ratios of

Indicated Power Pi in Shallow Water
Indicated Fbwer F] in Deep Water

Region of
Greatly Augmented
Power

^.
0.294- ±=(=
/LOO
^'t.O .1.5^ ^'1.25

1 1 ; ^^z&^
III
Reqion of IReduced Power,
i.oa •'..^•695 Less ,than in Deep Water

^^0.110 IZS,- —"

Pi(5hallow)
Line for Equal and Equal
^ p^^p^
Ji2
Ship Speed V
|SolitaryWave Speed Vqh"
03 0.4 0.5 0.6

4.0
Sec. 61.14 PREDICIED BEH/WIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 409

water and deep-water total resistances at points Closed Duct

b
such as C, and A, on Fig. 61. B could be neglected. Hydraulic Rodius
For estimates of the change in total resistance -- / "-, R bh
at the same speed, when moving from deep to '^
shallow water, the problem is considerably more 1.
difficult, since the answer depends upon the slopes

of the graphs of Rr on V in the region being Open Channel

investigated.
Because of the lack of reliable methods for
transforming increased total resistance in shallow
water to terms of increased power, discussed in
Sec. 61.16 following, there is some merit in a Shollow Water of Unlimited Extent
prediction method by inspection which endeavors
="^ Rh'H
to predict the increased power directly. Even
though a ship is rarely pushed in shallow water ^\^^^^\W\^^\"^\\^\\\"
to speeds which would be considered normal if the
water were deep, it is helpful to know approxi- Sh|p

mately how much power would be required under

bh-Ax
H b+2h+G
these circumstances.
A graph suitable for such a purpose is the partial
diagram at the top of Fig. 61.L, having contours
W n\\\\\\\1o:\\\\\\\V 4-

of the ratio (shallow-water power) /(deep-water Channel with 5emi -Circular Cross 5ection
power) plotted on appropriate arguments. Follow-
ing the procedure developed by 0. Schlichting,
y^ <^^?x. • "
Rh = —^=0.5Rr
0.5rrR(?

these are y/Ax/h and V/y/gh, where F is a

given speed, in either deep or shallow water, and
"Vgh is the solitary-wave speed in water of
depth h.

The contours in Fig. 61.L are indicated as Fig. 61. M Definition Sketches for Hydraulic
tentative, since they are derived from isolated Radius
data observed on one series of ship trials, that of
the German torpedoboat S119', see reference (4) of these cases the value oi Ax has to be estimated,
of Sec. 61.22. These data are recorded graphically as was done for the SI 19. Available data from
in Fig. 61. A. They are reduced, in the lower model tests are, by the method of analysis
diagram of Fig. graphs indicating the
61. L, to described, out of line with the ship data and with
ratios of indicated power Pj in shallow water to each other. It seems clear at this stage (1956)
Pj in deep water, for four depths of shallow water, that all the pertinent variables in the confined-
on a basis of the ratio V/'S/gh, the same as for water situation have not been taken into account.
the upper diagram in that figure. It is assumed 61.14 Calculating and Using the Hydraulic
for this reduction that a depth of water h equal Radius of Channels. As is explained presently,
to 0.951L, indicated in Fig. 61. A, represents predictions of the effect of the sides and the bed
deep water. It is further assumed that the pris- of channels upon ship make use of
resistance the
matic coefficient Cp of this vessel is 0.64, from characteristic channel dimension known as the
which Ax is calculated to be 45.5 ft^ and vAx hydraulic radius, rather than the water depth h
is 6.75 ft. The four graphs of the lower diagram used for shallow-water predictions. For a closed
of Fig. 61. L therefore represent indicated-power duct with no solid body inside it this is the ratio,
ratios at Va^/K values of 0.110, 0.137, 0.206, described in Sec. 18.11, of the transverse duct
and 0.294. or flow area to the wetted perimeter of the duct.
Reduction of full-scale ship data in similar This situation is depicted at where
1 in Fig. 61. M,
fashion, from the references of Sec. 61.22, gives h, h, and Rn are aU drawn to the and same scale,
contours which are extremely difficult, if not Rh has the dimensions of a length. An open
impossible to reconcile with those of Fig. 61. L, so channel with no ship in it, as in diagram 2, has
much so that they are not included here. In most wetted perimeter on only the bottom and the
410 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.15

two sides. With the same water area as the duct, serves as such, apparently because of the very
its Rh'is, larger. For an open channel with a ship, large bed clearance under the largest (and
as at 4, Rh is the ratio of (1) the cross-section area widest) flat-bottomed model that towed in it. is

of the water in the channel to (2) the wetted Since more of the water goes under the bottom
perimeter of the solid boundaries of both channel of a model with a large B/H ratio than with a
and ship. In shallow water of infinite width, small one, the effect of small bed clearance
when 6 —* CO, the depth h, the ship girth G, becomes greater as the B/H ratio increases.
and the ship section area ^4^ become negligible Unfortunately, not enough is known of these and
with respect to the water-area and width factors. other effects to take account of them quantita-
The hydraulic radius Rh then becomes equal to tively at the present time.
the depth h, as at 3 in the figure. For a rectangular 61.15 Estimating the Effect of Lateral Restric-
canal this is expressed in symbols as: tions in Shallow Water in the Subcritical Range.
Since the speed of a wave of translation in a
b is large
bh bh restricted channel depends only on the depth of
Rh = compared to = -r- = h appears plausible to assume that
b + 2h +G other factors ,„, ...,
the channel, it

(61.111) O. Schlichting's theoretical assumption concern-

ing the equality of pressure resistance due to
Assuming a waterway with horizontal bottom wavemaking at the speed F„ and V, remains
and vertical sides, not occupied by a ship, the valid for these restricted channels. The second
hydraulic radius is related to the water depth h assumption of SchUchting concerning the speed
in the following manner: correction due to the potential flow around the

Width 6 in terms of h 50 100 200

Rh in terms of h 0.33 0.60 0.833 0.909 0.962 0.990

For open channels of non-rectangular and ship hull requires modification to take account of
irregular sections, with ships in them, the hy- the width of the channel. The relationship devel-
by exactly the same
draulic radii are determined oped by L. Landweber [TMB Rep. 460, May
procedure, governed by the same rule. Example 1939, p. 10] involves, instead of the depth of
61. VII, in the next section, illustrates the method. water h as before, the hydraulic radius. The
Studies made in connection with the prepara- necessity for taking full account of the lateral
tion of Fig. 61. L, combined with analyses under- restrictions is emphasized by the following
taken (in 1956) subsequent to those reported in comments, quoted from a discussion by F.
the remaining sections of this chapter, indicate Rayner on page 114 of a paper by A. F. Yarrow
rather definitely that shallow-water effects cannot fINA, 1903]:
be correlated on the basi s of the single "trans- ". .one of the greatest difficulties in towing on inland
.

verse" parameter 'VAx/h, nor can confined- waters is the friction between the boats and the sides and

water effects be correlated solely on a basis of bottom of the water way. I have myself seen, on some of
V Ax/Rh- This applies particularly to effects the narrow canals, steam barges almost stationary when
going through what are called, in canal language, "bridge
associated with the potential-flow ratio of Sec.
holes," where you get the minimum width, and conse-
61.5, between the shallow-water speed Vh and
quently enormous friction; as soon as the boat gets away
the Schlichting intermediate speed Vi Analyses .
from the bridge, she shoots ahead."
of the blocking effect of model basins upon the
ship models towed in them indicate that the The ratio -vAx/h, relating the square draft
interference effects are negligible even when, to the water depth, then becomes \/Ax/Rh ,

because of the limited width of the basin, the relating the square draft to the hydrauUc radius.
hydraulic radius of its section is not much more The fact that Landweber used, in the reference

than half of its actual depth. By this criterion, the cited, a value twice as large as that defined here
basinis by no means the equivalent of unlimited was compensated for by his use of a factor 2 in

deep water of the same depth. Nevertheless, it the ratio of square draft to hydraulic radius.
 Sec. 61.16 PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 411

When the substitution of Ru for h is made, the potential flow. Since the points corresponding to Ai and
Bi of Fig. 61. B coincide, the friction resistance does not
potential-flow ratio Vh /Vi for confined waters
come into the picture, nor is it necessary to construct any
becomes a function of y/ Ax/Rh for the restricted
deep-water and restricted-channel resistance curves.
channels. A procedure corresponding exactly to Entering the extrapolated broken-line portion of the
the Schlichtingmethod described in Sec. 61.5 can curve of Fig. 61. G for a square-draft to hydraulic-radius
then be employed. This means that Fig. 61. ratio of 1.67, the value of the potential-flow ratio Vk/Vi
serves for making the numerical calculations as
is 0.783. Since F/ = Va> in this case, Vh = 0.783Fco =
0.783(13.51) = 10.6 ft per sec or 6.28 kt. This is the
before, provided the user remembers that the
required speed.
upper scale is a square-draft to hydraulic-radius
ratio. It is pointed out in Eq. (61.iii) of Sec. 61.14

From the theoretical curves of Fig. 61.E and that when the channel width b becomes large in

the experimental curves of Fig. 61. G the speed proportion to the channel depth h, as when a
and the resistance of a ship in a restricted channel shallow river Avidens into a shallow estuary, the
can then be computed when its deep-water speed term 2h in the expression for the hydrauhc
and known. The procedure to be
resistance are radius drops out, leaving simply the quotient
followed is the same as for computing shallow- hh/b, whereupon the hydraulic radius Ru becomes
water resistance; several examples follow. equal to the depth h.

The question now arises, what constitutes

Exam-pie 61.VII.Take the case of the 370-ft shallow-
water ship of Example 61.1 preceding, moving in the
unrestricted shallow water? This is difficult to
channel depicted at 1 in Fig. 61.N. The essential model answer explicitly because it depends upon the
and ship data are given on SNAME RD sheet 9, covering maximum-section area of the ship being con-
TMB model 3818. What would be the actual ship speed sidered with the water and upon the square-draft
at a resistance equal to that for 8 kt in deep water? The
to hydraulic-radius ratio. Put i n a nother way,
ship has a maximum section area Ax of 1,111.3 ft^ and the
water is at sea level, with a temperature of 80 deg F. The the effect of using the ratio '\/ Ax/Rh instead
value of the square draft y/Ax is 33.34 ft. The value of of the ratiovA^/Zi, where is the restricted- In,

g is 32.174 ft per sec^. water depth, depends to some extent upon the
The section area of the water around the ship, using position of the ratio point along the graph of
the values in diagram 1 of the figure, is
Fig. 61. G. At small values of the ratio vAxA,
(35)^ toward the end of the diagram, the potential-
left
= [(250)(35)] + flow speed ratio F^/F/ changes very little with
2
change in water depth. In any case, one or two
35^
+ [(.o.e)(f)] 1,111.3 calculations involving the hydraulic radius, along
the lines ofExample 61. VII, should clear up the
= 9,311.7 ft' matter readily. When the channel width becomes
from 100 to 200 times the depth, the table in
The wetted perimeter, including that of the ship, is
Sec. 61.14 indicates that the restricted channel
P = 250 + 35 cosec (45 deg) has become the practical equivalent of open,
unlimited shallow water.
+ 35 cosec (30 deg) + 61.16 Lack of Reliable Data on Power and
= 467.5 ft. Propulsion-Device Performance. No satisfactory
The hydraulic then 9,311.7/467.5 = 19.92 ft,
radius is
method has yet been developed for estimating

only a little more than half the channel depth. The the increase in shaft or propeller power, the
Va^/Rh ratio is 33.34/19.92 or 1.67. change in rate of propulsion-device rotation, or
The equivalent "rectangular" depth Aeq of the channel the variations in other propulsion factors due to
is the section area without the ship, divided by the surface
shallow and restricted waters. E. A. Wright
width, or (9,311.7 +
l,111.3)/(250 35 -|- 60.6) = +
10,423/345.6 = 30.16 ft.
touches briefly on these matters [SNAME, 1946,
The value of Vao is 8 kt or 13.51 ft per sec. Then Fig. 10, p. 381]. The present unsatisfactory
situation due partly to the limitations imposed
is
13.51
0.43. by various kinds of propelling machinery on the
•v/32. 174(30. 16) combinations of rotational speeds, torques, and
From the theoretical curve of Fig. 61.E, the correspond-
powers developed by them. The usual ship-
ing value of the intermediate speed ratio Vj/Va, is 1.00 performance data are rarely of much help because,
and Vi = Va, Hence all the speed reduction is due to
. for example, the throttle setting may be held
412 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.17

Width of Wate Sorfoce A^- IHI 3 ft^ whatever improved performance he can from the
345.6 ft ^ /%- 33,34 ft
ship ui deeper and more open water.
I Wetted Girth 98 fl (opprox.)

U-eo.eftU—
When the ship speed is reduced because of the
diminished velocity of the Velox-wave system in
shallow water, the speed of the ship through the
—
surrounding water in other words, its relative

Wetted Perimeter is Shown in Heavy Lines

—
speed is correspondingly reduced because the
water stands still, generally speaking, while the
Hvdrovilic Radius Ku-
Net Area
o :
TT Trzi
of Water Seotion (less Ax)
— TTT — —
' " .,,^,
Watted f
,

Perimeter, Includino that of Ship wave moves by. This is the reason why the friction
resistance is reduced when the ship slows from
its deep-water speed to its intermediate speed.

The ship resistance Rt is reduced by this

decrement in Rp represented by the ordinate
,

MBi in Fig. 61. B, but not by as much as it would

ForDeterminincj
^^^^
Vj/y^
Vo„/y^, ond V^/y^
be for a corresponding speed reduction in deep
i

water. Thus point Bj in the figure is higher than

of Non-Uniform Depth, Use the Etjuivolent Depth hgg
point L. For the mtermediate speed F/ therefore, ,
E<iuqI to (Water-Section Area)/(WQter Surface Width)'
the shallow- water power, RrhiVi), is greater
Offset from Centerlii
than it would be for the same speed in deep
water. The rate of rotation drops by a ratio
somewhat greater than Vj/V^ assuming the
,

wake fraction w constant, because of the greater

resistance that must be overcome and the greater
thrust to be developed. Furthermore, as the
l^pical Suez Lonol Profile of j
About 1950 as Given b>y thrust loading at point Bj is greater than it
R. Brand, "Moneuverinfj of Ships." 3NAME, 1951. Fici.lO, p. 241, would be at point L, the propeller efficiency
with Larqe Ship in Offset Position
drops slightly, still further increasing the power
at the point L.
As the ship speed diminishes from the inter-
mediate value Vr to the shallow-water value V^ ,

with no change in total resistance, the effective

power P E diminishes, as do the thrust T and the
speed of advance V a unless the augmented
,

T^picol Test Condition in the Sho

Water Basin at the I low-
backflow occurs in a region occupied by the
David Ta-^lor Model Basin, for which the H-ydraulic. Radius is propulsion device(s). From here on, the data are
Appreciably Less Thon the Water Depth h scanty and the analysis is nearly nonexistent.

Fig. 61.N Explanatory and Illustrative Sketches At a low value of V^/'s/gJi; the
sufficiently

FOR Equivalent Depths and Hydraulic Radii op ship speed is reduced solely because of the ratio
Restricted Channels \/ Ax/h. The speed drops from F„ to V^ but the
resistance remains the same. All the water ahead
constant and all other variables allowed to change. of the ship has to get around astern, it must flow
The water depths may fluctuate widely with backward in this process, and the backward
ship location in the shallow area or along the flow is much faster close to the ship. The ship
channel; the resistances and perhaps the speeds thus has to move against what amounts to a
fluctuate with them. contrary current in the channel, so that the lost
Unless a ship is designed for special service in of speed is equal to the effective velocity of this
confined waters, only rarely does it have any counter current. Assuming that the ship moves
great reserve of power to match the increase in through the water close around it with the same
resistance in the shallower channel depths and relative speed, the shaft power and rate of rota-
narrower widths, assuming that it is advisable tion of the propulsion device (s) should remain
or permissible to maintain the deep-water speed. substantially the same as at the speed V„ in
If it is so designed, the limiting conditions become deep water.
the basis of the design, and the operator gets 61.17 Data on Confined-Water Operation at
Sec. 61.19 PRF.niCTEn BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 413

p. 396]. Similar data are to be found in some of

AllDimensions on this the references of Sec. 61.22.
N Diatjram Are in Meters 61.18 Data on Offset Running Positions and
Steering in a Channel. Few published quantita-
tive data are available on the offset running of a
ship between canal walls, or alongside a single
wall, as depicted in Figs. 18. G and 18. H and
described in the accompanying text of Sees. 18.5
and 18.6 of Volume I; see also Fig. 61.0. The
Yowinq Moment N
two outstanding sources appear to be:
Acting to 5wi no
Bow Away From (1) Garthune, R. S., Rosenberg, B., Cafiero, D., and
Near Bonk Olson, C. R., "The Performance of Model Ships in
Restricted Channels in Relation to the Design of a
Ship Canal," TMBReport 601, August 1948.
\ Loterol Force Section 4 of this report covers the behavior of models
NActinq Away From'
in central and offset positions, in varied depths of
Near Bonk
channel, both towed and self-propelled, and with
different rudder angles.During many of these tests
Offset From the ship model was stationary in a current of moving
Centerline of water. Yawing moments, lateral forces, and rudder
Conal angles to maintain equilibrium conditions are
given in terms of the other variables.
(2) Brard, R., "Maneuvering of Ships," SNAME, 1951,
pp. 229-257. This paper reports the results of tests
on three ship models in a model channel represent-
Centerlina of Conol
ing the Suez Canal [SNAME, 1951, pp. 232-242].
Graphs of lift, drag, and yawing moment coefficient,
Cy Ci and
, , C respectively, are supplemented in
,

Figs. 10 and 11 of the reference by graphs of lateral

forces and turning moments for a rather wide range
Width of Prism at
it BottomI
Bottpml ^ rv
1^ ^' ^1 oee Dioqram 3
I

of yaw angles in three different lateral positions,

r p^ ** of Fiq.ei.N firston the canal centerline and then offset by 0.15
of WQter| Surface. and 0.30 of the 42-meter bottom width of the full-
scale canal section. The ship beam was 25.9 meters
Fig. 61.0 Diagram op R. Brard's Full-Scale or 25.9/42 = 0.617 of that width, and its draft was
Prototype of Model 111 in Full-Scale Suez- 10.4/13 or 0.8 of the canal depth.
Canal Section
From Brard's Fig. 10 on page 241 of the refer-
Supercritical Speeds. If supercritical speeds are ence the lateral force on the ship represented by
reached, as they can be on many fine, fast vessels Paris model 111 was, at the maximum offset,
in shallow-water areas where there are no limita- found to be zero at about 1.2 deg yaw angle away
tions on squat, on the eroding action of waves from the near bank. From Brard's Fig. 11 on
along the banks, and on interferences with other page 242 the value of the turning-moment
craft, the shaft power at certain speed-length coefBcient C„ at this yaw angle was about 0.075,
quotients may fall below the value required in acting to swing the bow away from the near
deep, unUmited water. In Sec. 29.7 of Volume I bank. A rudder angle apphed toward the bank,
it is explained that a following vessel riding on to counteract this yawing moment away from it,
the front of a transverse wave created by a would set up a lateral force to push the ship
leading vessel is able to keep station at reduced away from the bank. Equilibrium would therefore
shaft power and with a reduced rate of rotation be achieved at a yaw angle less than 1.2 deg.
of its propulsion device(s). In actual cases, This is the reason why, to get the ship away
following have been able to hold
destroyers from the near bank and back into the center of
position with a 20 per cent reduction in rpm. the channel, rudder angle is appUed toward the
Data relating to the resistance, speed, and near bank!
change of trim of a heavy cruiser model running 61.19 Prediction of Ship Resistance in Canal
at a supercritical speed in a model channel are Locks. The force required to push or pull a
given by E. A. Wright [SNAME, 1946, Fig. 29, close-fitting ship into or out of a lock, discussed
414 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.20

in Sec. 35.12, is estimated by methods derived "There is some from a study of the sinkage
indication,
curves, that the sinkage may vary with the beam-draft
from model tests [EMB Rep. 189, Mar 1928].
ratio of the ship. It is recommended that a systematic
It is shown in the references cited that the
investigation with models in shallow water be made, the
augmented lock resistance 72i may be related to only variable being the beam-draft ratio, to obtain further
the open-water resistance Ra by the equation information on sinkage."

Very slight imevenness in a solid basin floor,

— 1 = kn (61. iv)
such as in the TMB shallow-water basin, com-
bined with bed clearances approaching zero,
where n is the ratio of the maximum-section area
make almost impossible to obtain accurate
it
Ax to the transverse clearance area between the
shallow-water resistance data with models. Bed
ship ma.ximum section and the lock boundaries.
The
irregularities in ship operating areas may have
coefficient fc is a number which has been
similar effects on full-scale resistance and power.
foimd by experiment to vary from 6.2 to 20 and
Unknown current magnitudes and directions at
over but whose average value may be taken as
about 11. Eq. (61.iv), shown graphically in
the several depths over an irregular bed may also
influence ship behavior in an unpredictable man-
Fig. 6 LP, should predict Rl/Ro within plus and
ner.
Until it is known what to observe, careful
experimenters will record all the data which can
conceivably have any bearing whatever on the
result, when they conduct ship trials in shallow
and restricted waters.
As an indication of some of the unexplained
anomalies which now exist, there are fisted here-
under some data given to the author in January
1949 by the then Captain Arleigh A. Burke,
USN, based upon his experience as commanding
Officer of the light cruiser U. S. S. Huntington
(CL107):

(1) When operating in the shallow waters of the

Resistance River Plate, with depths varying from 26 to 35
Fig. 61. P Graph for Determining Added Resist- ft, draft of the ship about 25 ft, it was possible

ance OF Ships When Transiting Canal Locks to achieve a ship speed of about 15 kt by making
revolutions for about 19 kt in deep water. How-
minus 25 per cent for entrance and exit speeds ever, when increasing the rate of propeller rota-
not exceeding 3 kt, as apphed to ships having tion above this value, it was stated that the ship
lengths of 600 ft or more. The model tests covered actually ran more slowly than 15 kt.
ranges of n from about 0.2 or less to 2.82. It is (2) It was found difficult to move the ship
perfectly feasible, however, to transit ships with sideways in shallow water. This included attempts
clearances so small that n is approximately 8 to move bow and the stern separately as
the
to 10. well as to move the ship bodily in crab fashion,
6L20 Unexplained Anomalies in Shallow and by the motion known as sidling.
Restricted Water Performance. It has been the (3) When passing through the Suez Canal the
experience of most analysts and experimenters on ship would keep herself more or less in the center
ship behavior in confined waters that no sooner of the channel without any appreciable steering.
have they found a rule which appears to predict If she sheered slowly toward one bank a positive
performance reasonably well than a case crops differential pressure would build up on the bank
up which upsets all their calculations. This side of the bow and push the bow back toward
indicates definitely one thing: There are certain midchannel. Having swung so that the bow was
actions and effects not yet known and taken into headed away from the shore the ship would
account, involving phenomena not now observed. work herself out from the near bank.
The following extract is from page 6 of TMB 61.21 Summary of Shallow- and Restricted-
Report 640, lebruary 1948, by W. H. Norley: Water Effects. Summarizino; the effects of
Sec. 61.22 PREDICTED BEHAVIOR IN CONFINED WATERS 415

shallow and restricted waters upon ship perform- Depth on the Speed of Torpedoboats)," Zeit. der
Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 10 Dec 1904, pp. 1870-1878.
ance, as described and explained in Chaps. 18
This paper contains records of trials of the German
and 35 of Volume I and in the preceding sections torpcdoboat SI 19, including wave-prolile and
of this chapter, the following items appear in change-of-trim diagrams for a series of speeds.
qualitative terms: (5) Rasmussen, A., "Some Steam Trials of Danish
Ships," INA, 1899, pp. 12-26 and PI. V, describing
(a) The draft below the still-water surface is tests on the Danish torpedoboats Makrelen and
Sobjornen
increased because of the deeper sinkage of the
(0) Rota, G., "On the Influence of Depth of Water on
ship in the intensified Bernoulli contour system INA, 1900, pp. 239-248,
the Resistance of Ships,"
(b) The changes of trim are augmented because giving the results of tests on Italian torpedoboat
of the intensified Velox-wave system models
(c) The overall sinkage and trim is a function (7) White, Sir William H., MNA, 1900, pp. 469-470
(8) Haack, M., "Nouvelles Recherches sur la Resistance
of the position and slope of the ship on the surface
des Carenes et le jFonctionnement des Bateaux
of a solitary wave of translation which may be
(New Investigations on the Resistance of Hulls
traveling near the ship and the Functioning of Ships)," ATMA, 1900,
(d) The pressure drag or resistance is increased Vol. 11, pp. 41-48. This is a discussion of shallow-

because of the constrictions imposed on the ship water performance, based upon the published data
of Captain Rasmussen and General Rota, in INA
velocity and pressure fields by the rigid boundaries
for 1899 and 1900, respectively.
(e) The slope drag or slope thrust encountered
Schiitte, "Neuere Versuche fiber Schiffswider-
J.,
(9)
is a function of the slope and the position of the stand in freiem Wasser (New Experiments on Ship
ship with respect to the solitary wave of trans- Resistance in Open Water)," Proc. Ninth Int.
lation Shipping Congr., Diisseldorf, 1902
(10) Durand, W. F., RPS, 1903, pp. 110-119. Covers the
(f) The slope drag may be sufficient, when it
"Increase of Resistance Due to Shallow Water or
changes sign and becomes a slope thrust, to Banks and Shoals."
to the Influence of
cause a decrease in total drag with an increase (11) Popper, S., INA, 1905, Part I, pp. 199-201 and Pis.
in speed, at a point just above the critical speed L-LIII

(g) The friction drag is increased, partly by the (12) Yarrow, H.; report on the trials of a Yarrow-built

augmented rearward motion of the water past
the ship and partly by the thinning of the bound-
ary layer, with consequent increase in velocity
gradient in the laminar sublayer, when the clear-
ances between the ship and the rigid boundaries
become small
(h) The ship vibration is generally
and magnified in shallow water.
destroyer, INA, 1905, Part II, pp. 339-343,
349-358, and Pis. LXXIX-LXXXI
(13) Marriner, W. W., INA, 1905, Part II, pp. 344-358
and Pis. LXXXII, LXXXIII
(14) Watts, Sir Philip, INA, 1908, pp. 69-70
(15) Watts, Sir PhiUp, INA, 1909, pp. 176-178 and Pis.
XV and XVI, reporting on trials of the British
intensified destroyer Cossack. The pertinent data for the two
measured-mile courses on which this vessel was
run are:

61.22 on the Effects of

Partial Bibliography (a) Skelmorlie mile, depth h = 240 ft, critical

Confined Waters on Models and Ships. A wave speed = 87.8 ft per sec or about 52 kt
(b) Maplins mile, depth h = 45 ft, critical wave
partial list of references follows on shallow- and
speed = 38.05 ft per sec or about 22.5 kt.
restricted-water effects and on the behavior of
ships in confined waters: (16) Sadler, H. C, "The Resistance of Some Merchant
Ship Types in Shallow Water," SNAME, 1911,

(1) White, Sir William H., "Notes on Recent Experience pp. 83-86
with Some of H. M. Ships," INA, 1892, pp. 160-186 (17) Baker, G. S., and Kent, J. L., "Effect of Form and
(2) Rasmussen, A., "The Influence of the Depth of Size on the Resistance of Ships," INA, 1913,
Water upon the Speed of Ships," Engineering, Part II, pp. 37-60 and Pis. Ill, IV. Fig. 5 on PI.
London, 7 Sep 1894. This article is reprinted in IV shows a 2-diml ship-shaped forebody in a
(5) following, pp. 18-20. uniform stream parallel to the longitudinal axis,

(3) Laubeuf, M., "Influence de la Profondeur de I'Eau and gives streamlines for the flow of the water
sur la Vitesse des Navires (Influence of the Depth around this forebody and between two parallel
of Water on the Speed of Ships)," ATMA, 1897, boundaries. The forebody was "shaped" by com-
Vol. 8, pp. 207-213. A partial translation is avail- bining 2-diml line sources and sinks with a uniform
able at the DTMB. stream parallel to the ship axis.

(4) Paulus, Naval Constr., "Versuche zur Ermittlung des (18) Taylor, D. W., "Relative Resistances of Some
Einflusses der Wassertiefe auf die Geschwindigkeit Models with Block Coefficient Constant and Other
der Torpedoboote (Tests of the Effect of Water Coefficients Varied," SNAME, 1913, pp. 1-8,
416 HYDRODYNAMICS
esp. pp.2-6 and Pis. 8-11, covering tests made
shallow water
(19) Havelock, T. H., "Effect of Shallow Water on Wave
Resistance," Proc. Roy. See, London, 1922
(20) Hecksoher, E., "Beziehungen zwischen Antriebskraft
und Geschwindigkeit bei verschiedenen Fahrwas-
sertiefen (Relation Between Propulsion and Speed
at Different Water Depths)," WRH, 22 Sep 1929,
pp. 368-370
N. H., and Johansen, F. C, "Wind Tunnel
(21) Lock, C.
Interference on Streamlined Bodies,"ARC, R and
M 1451, 1933
(22) Baker, G. S., SD, 1933, Vol. I, pp. 193-209
(23) Kreitner, J., den Schiffswiderstand auf
"tjber
Beschranktem Wasser (Concerning Ship Resist-
ance in Restricted Waters)," WRH, 1934, Vol. XV,
pp. 77-82. English transl. in BuShips (U. S. Navy
Dept.) Transl. 389, Sep 1950.
(24) Heiser, H. M., "The Effect of Shallow Water upon
the Resistance of Ships," USNI, Vol. 64, May 1938,
pp. 709-713. This is a restatement of the data
mentioned by D. W. Taylor in S and P, 1943, pp.
74-81 from W. H. White, INA, 1892, Rasmussen
(1899), Rota (1900), and Watts (1908 and 1909).
The author gives Taylor's dimensional formula
A^in = lOH(y/-\/L); see the comments on this
formula in Sec. 61.12.
(25) Schmidt, W., and Blank, H., "Geschwindigkeits-
anderung von Schiffen auf Flachem Wasser (Speed
Changes for Ships in Shallow Water)," Schiffbau,
15 Mar 1938, Vol. 39, pp. 100-103. Part of this
paper is an analysis of the shallow-water data
given by Rasmussen, Paulus, and Watts, in
references (4), (5), and (15), for the S119, Makrelen,
Sohjomen, and Cossack.
(26) Schmidt, W., and Blank, H., "Schiffsgeschwindigkeit
in Kanalen (Ship's Speed in Canals))" Zeit. des
Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 2 Jul 1938, Vol. 82, pp. 794-796
(27) Tupper, K. F., "Contribution to the Question of the
Effect of the Basin Walls on Ship Model Tests,"
Proc. Fifth Int. Congr. Appl. Mech., 1939, pp.
509-512
(28) Helm, K., "Tiefen- und Breiteneinfliisse von Kanalen
auf den Schiffswiderstand (Influence of Depth and
Breadth of Channels on Ship Resistance)," WRH,
1 Sep 1939, pp. 277-278; also HSPA, Part II,
Oldenbourg, Berlin, 1940, pp. 144-171. A list of 7
references appears on the last page. There is an
IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 61.22
in English abstract of this paper on pages 224-226
of the referenced HSPA volume.
(29) Comstock, and Hancock, C. H., "The Effect of
J. P.,
Size of Towing Tank on Model Resistance,"
SNAME, 1942, pp. 149-197
(30) Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1943, pp. 74-81
(31) Wright, E. A., SNAME, 1946, Fig. 29 on p. 396.
Describes model tests conducted in a restricted
channel at Newport News, with models towed at
both subcritical and supercritical speeds.
(32) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,
J. G., RPSS, 1948, pp. 17-19, 56-60, 74-76
(33) Lunde, J. K., "On the Linearized Theory of Wave
Resistance for Displacement Ships in Steady and
Accelerated Motion," SNAME, 1951, pp. 25-85,
esp. pp. 50-60 for a discussion of shallow-water
conditions
(34) Brard, R., "Maneuvering of Ships in Deep Water, in
Shallow Water, and in Canals," SNAME, 1951,
pp. 229-257, esp. Figs. 4, 5, and 6 on pp. 237-238
(35) Robb, A. M., TNA, 1952, pp. 444-449
(36) Schuster, S., "Investigations of Flow and Drag
Conditions of Ships in Motion in Water of Limited
Depth and Width," STG, 1952, Vol. 46, pp. 244-
288 (in German). The following review of this
paper by T. P. Torda is quoted from Appl. Mech.
Rev., Apr 1955, Rev. 1239, p. 180:
"An extensive discussion of existing literature
and theories is given. The problems of limited
depth, and ship motion is channels of limited
width, are discussed in the light of various theories
and experiments. In particular, the results of
model experiments are discussed. The theories of
wave form and wave propagation are extended and
hydraulic considerations are discussed. In conclud-
ing the paper, author notes that the problems of
limited depth and limited width of water are
different and cannot be treated by a uniform
theory. Author recommends the use of the nomo-
gram developed in the paper for the treatment of
actual problems of ship motion in limited waters.
Discussions of the paper by F. Horn, G. Weinblum,
W. Graff, R. O. Schlichting, H. Dickmann, and
Klindwort are given, together with the reply of
author."
(37) A list of 27 references, some of them quoted in the
foregoing, is given by G. S. Baker on pages 124-125
of his paper "The Effect of Shallow Water on the
Movement of a Ship," INA, Apr 1952, pp. 110-125.
 CHAPTER 62

Estimating the Added Mass of Water Around a

Ship in Unsteady Motion
62.1 General 417 62,5 Estimating the Added-Mass Coefficients of
62.2 Added-Liquid Masses for Some Geometric Vibrating Ships in Confined Waters .... 433
Shapes and for Selected Modes of Motion . 419 62.6 Estimating the Added-Mass Coefficients for
62.3 Comparison of a Vibrating Ship with a Vibrat- Vibrating Propulsion Devices 436
ing Geometric Shape 423 62 . Added-Mass Data for Water Surrounding Ship
62.4 The Change of Added Mass Near a Large Skegs and Appendages 438
Boundary 432 62.8 Partial Bibliography on Added-Mass and
Damping Effects 439

62.1 General. In Sec. 3.4 of Volume I there For the treatment in Parts 5 and 6 of Volume
is explained the concept of the added mass of III of ship motions inmaneuvering and wavegoing,
the entrained liquid surrounding a body or ship both of which involve unsteady motions, the
in unsteady motion. In a recent paper, K. Wendel added mass of the entrained water almost
gives a superb exposition of this concept in both always enters as a sizable factor. In general, the
physical and mathematical terms [STG, 1950, added masses are of the same order of magnitude
Vol. 44, pp. 207-255. EngHsh version in TMB as the ships themselves. For the design of a
Transl. 260 of Jul 1956]. Moreover, his discussion new ship, or for estimating the performance of an
is extended to cover the accelerative-force and existing one, numerical values must be known or
pressure features not treated in Sec. 3.4 or in estimated. Knowledge of the quantitative effects
the present chapter, as well as other modes of the entrainedwater in adding to the mass is
of motion. It should be possible for the reader also necessary in a study of body and ship
who is familiar with the preceding portions vibration in liquids, discussed at some length in
of Parts 1, 2, and 3
book to follow Wendel's
of this Sec. 20.11 of Volume I and in subsequent sections
development intelligently, and to derive great of this chapter.
benefit from it, even though some of the details magnitude
It is indicated in Sec. 3.4 that the
are passed over. His description of the derivation of the added mass is determined normally from a
of added liquid masses for ships which are heaving knowledge of the kinetic energy in the velocity
and rolling, with and without bilge keels, apphes field around the body for a given mode of motion.
to the discussion of wavegoing in Part 6 of This energy, in turn, is calculated from an ex-
Volume III. pression defining the velocity potential throughout
The effect of the added mass of entrained the field around the body.
liquid aroimd a body in unsteady motion, in a For practically every case cited throughout the
relationship of (1) the forces applied to the body, present chapter, where the added-mass coefficient
and (2) the resulting body accelerations, is often is derived by analytic instead of by empirical

called the inertia effect. The added mass itself is methods, the value is calculated on the basis of
sometimes called the accession of inertia for the the following assumptions:
body. In other quarters it is called the hydrody-
namic mass. Similarly, the 0-diml coefficients (1) The potential theory is valid for the case in

relating the added mass of liquid to the mass of hand. This means that the body is completely
the body, called here the added-mass (or added surroimded by an ideal liquid of great extent
mass moment of inertia) coefficients, are often in all directions, inwhich only potential flow
called the inertia (or moment of inertia) co- takes place. is without viscosity,
This liquid
efficients. These important definitions are dis- therefore no boundary layer exists.
cussed further in Sec. 62.2. (2) The flow pattern and the added mass of

417
418 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 62.1

entrained liquid are constant, independent of the
frequency or tlie amplitude of unsteady motion
(3) There are no discontinuities
surrounding the body or ship, which means that
no separation or cavitation exists
(4) There are no damping forces or moments
acting on the body or ship, because of the lack
of viscosity in the liquid
(5) For those modes of unsteady motion which
do not involve directly the speed of the body or
ship along its major axis, the added mass of the
entrained Uquid is independent of this speed
(6) For a body floating on water, in a state of
especially in regions where — Ap's exist because
of normal ship motions. Further, as R. Brahmig
in the liquid points out [TMB Transl. 118, Nov 1943, pp. 2-3]:
"Whereas the calculated hydrodynamic (added) mass
depends only on shape (of the body), its value may vary
with flow conditions in a real, eddying medium. A satis-
factory agreement of the calculated result with the mass
is therefore possible only when
increase in the actual flow
the flow patterns of the two differing phenomena are
identical."
There is damping of some sort in practically
all unsteady motion; certainly in all ship vibra-
tion. Assumption (6) requires that the flow

equilibrium, the kinetic energy and the added- pattern around the actual underwater ship form
liquid mass are assumed to be half of the respec- be half of that around the "double body." It
tive values for a fully and deeply submerged neglects the free-surface and gravity effects,
"double body" composed of 'the underwater form whatever they may be, and the dissipation of
plus its mirror image above the free surface of energy by waves generated around the sides of
the liquid the ship and moving away from it.
(7) For some of the analytic procedures developed Despite all these drawbacks and disadvantages
to determine the kinetic energy in the Uquid the data derived from potential theory have been
surrounding the underwater hull of a surface most useful. In many cases the simplifying
ship, such as the 1929 method of F. M. Lewis, assumptions have only minor influences, and in
described in Sec. 62.3, it is assumed that the most cases one can be reasonably certain that the
ship has vertical or wall sides all around at the effect of factors not allowed for are definitely
surface waterline. This means that there is no additive or subtractive.
discontinuity in the "double body" at the surface- It is again emphasized here, as' is pointed out
water line level. in Sec. 3.4 and illustrated in Fig. 3.F, that the

(8) So far as the 3-diml effects of finite length added mass of the liquid set in motion during
and tapering ends on the added mass of entrained acceleration or deceleration is primarily a func-
liquid are concerned, the effects on the underwater tion of the mode of motion of the body or ship.
hull of a surface ship areassumed to be half of That mode must be known or assumed before
those on an elliptic ellipsoid having the same one sets out to estimate or to calculate the added-
proportions of length, beam, and draft. mass effect. For example, in the case of an ellip-

soid of revolution, the field kinetic enei'gies and

No great study is required to reahze that in added-liquid masses are by no means the same
practice, with ships and their parts, practically for (1) translational motion in a given plane
none assumptions are truly valid. When
of these parallel to the major axis and (2) bending or
the ships and appendages are moving through a flexural vibration, with two nodes and three
real liquid Uke water, they are surrounded by loops, in the same plane. For a 2-diml body of
boundary layers, but the viscous effects appear rectangular section they are not the same for
to be minor except for very small bodies. There translational motion in a plane parallel to the
is increasing evidence that the added-liquid long sides as for that type of motion in a plane
masses around a vibrating or oscillating body parallel to the short sides.
change with frequency and amphtude of vibra- The latter difference is illustrated quantita-
tion, especially at the higher frequencies. This tively for the floating box of unit length and
means that the motion not that of a body in an
is rectangular section of Fig. 62. A of Sec. 62.2,
ideal liquid, surrounded only by potential flow. having a beam 2a and a draft a. The added-
E. Schadlofsky, in reference (14) of Sec. 62.8, liquid mass for up-and-down unsteady motion
went so far as to say that for these reasons it was is 0.76pTra^, while for right-and-left sidling motion
hopeless to attempt an added-mass determination the added-liquid mass is 0.25p7ra".
by analytic methods. At high frequencies and The mass of the floating box, for unit length,
large amplitudes there may easily be cavitation. is 2pa'. Therefore the virtual mass of both box
Sec. 62.2 ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS 419

and entrained liquid, for unit length and for It is equally important that he know what is

up-and-down unsteady motion, is thb + vii, = meant by inertia coefficients, mentioned in Sec.
2pa' + 0.76pTa = (2 + 0.767r)pal The virtual- 62.1. In most technical books and papers the
mass coefficient, from Sec. 3.4, is (wib + mi)lmB or inertia coefficients, linear and angular, correspond
to the added-mass coefficients described in the
—
(2 -V 0.767r)pa" ^
~ 2 -\- 2.388
= 2.19 foregoing, for translational and rotational motion,
(^ VM
2pa' 2
respectively. Sometimes other names, or addi-
The corresponding added-mass coefficient is tional names, are applied to them to indicate the
simply mL/niB or exact mode of motion.
It is customary, although writers are by no
—
.76p7ra ' _ 2.388
= 1.19
i^AM means always specific in this matter, to base the
2pa^
inertia coefficientson the mass (or mass moment
This coefficient is always, by the definitions of of inertia) of abuoyant body which has the same
this book, equal to {Cvm — 1-0). mass as the identical volume of liquid would have.
62.2 Added-Liquid Masses for Some Geo- This is always the case for the added-mass
metric Shapes and for Selected Modes of Motion. coefficient defined here. A. F. Zahm, for one,
It is stated in Sees. 3.4 and 3.5 of Volume I that puts the matter this way:
the added mass of the entrained liquid around a
"Each inertia coefficient therefore is a ratio of the
body in unsteady motion, symbolized by m^ ,
body's apparent inertia, due to the field fluid, to the like
isdetermined by the combination of size, volume, inertia of the displaced fluid moving as a solid" [NACA
shape, and mode of motion of the body and the Rep. 323, 1929, Part V, p. 437].
mass density p of the surrounding liquid. The
mass density of the body, symbolized by mg ,
In this case the last four words are the important
is the ratio of its own mass mass of the to the ones, because the mass density for the sohd body
volume of liquid that it displaces. In the, general is then the same as for the liquid displaced by it.

case the added liquid mass m^ has no relation to This method breaks down for the infinitely thin
the body mass me . flat plate which has finite added liquid mass for

If the body is a 1-ft cube of cork its mass is unsteady motion normal to its plane but zero
small; if it is a 1-ft cube of lead, its mass is large. buoyant or displaced volume. However, it serves
However, for a given mode of motion in each very well for all practical purposes.
case, in a given liquid, the added mass of en- The foregoing is a necessary preliminary to a
trained liquid for each cube would be exactly discussion of the added masses of a variety of
the same. There is not much point, therefore, in geometric shapes and of ship hulls because of the
relating these cork and lead body masses to a presence, in the technical on this
literature
given added mass of some liquid surrounding subject, of certain form, shape, and proportion
them, for example water, while they execute this coefficients involving added mass. These can
unsteady motion. easilybe confused with the added-mass coefficients
If, however, the submerged 1-ft cube is of and the inertia coefficients for buoyant bodies,
heavy wood, so that its weight is exactly equal in which the displaced-Uquid mass equals the
to that of a 1-ft cube of the adjacent water in — body mass. The text endeavors to make the
other words, if the cube is buoyant then the — distinction clear as each of these form coefficients
ratio mi^lniB becomes most useful in ship design. is encountered.
It is called the added-mass coefficient, symbolized As a means toward this end, the lead of K.
by Cam The ratio (mt -\- mBiImB for a buoyant Wendel is followed in stressing the added-hquid
body is called in this book the virtual-mass masses themselves instead of the added-mass or
coefficient, symbolized by Cvm In some quarters inertia coefficients. These added-liquid masses
the latter name is applied to the former ratio, and added-liquid weights are the numerical values
and added-liquid mass is called virtual mass. In required by the marine architect; the coefficients
other quarters the added mass is called the are convenient tools with which to make early
hydrodynamic mass. It is most important, estimates, and the necessary tools with which to
therefore, in any discussion of this kind, that the conduct analytic investigations.
marine architect know exactly what is meant in There are a considerable number of geometric
every case. shapes or bodies for which velocity potentials
420 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 62.2

Added Moment
Form of Added Moss of
of Inertia of
and stream functions can be set up, applying to
Two-Dimensionol Bod\( Entrained Li({uid
simple modes of body motion. Of these bodies
Entrained Liquid
Mode of Motion Mode of the 2-diml elliptic-section cylinder, depicted near
Rod of Motion
the top of Fig. 62. A, is a well-known example.
Circular Section
mL"/Otra The velocity-potential expressions make it pos-
— *- Mode of Mode of sible to calculate, for an ideal liquid, the total
Motion Motion
amount of kinetic energy involved in the intricate

/oir(b^cos^a*- particlemotion around such a body, out to

Major A]<is a^ein^a,) when it moves in one of the
infinity distance,
given modes of unsteady motion. The result is a
Lonq,
HL'/Jira
Flat Plate •^l'qp^'^ function involving the square of the body velocity
K-2a >\
Ub and the power of the mass density p of
first
m|_"k|/)ira
_JjjJ<2/oira the Uquid, no matter what the shape of the body
a/b or the direction in which it is moving with respect
2b 2.23
1.98 94
to its own axis. From the kinetic-energy function
1.7 24 the added mass of the entrained liquid for the
Rod of Square r~2a~ 0.234
or Rectonqulor 015
corresponding mode of motion is readily deter-
Section 0.15 mined, as indicated in Sec. 3.4. In general, the
0.147
added mass of the entrained liquid can be calcu-
Square-Sectionr
ni_-k3/)1Ta
JL=k4/)ira^ lated for the motion of any body for which a
Rod with
Fins on
2L % velocity potential and a stream function can be
005 up and which the kinetic energy in the
the Corners
i_ Dl
set for
Vza^^ 0.25 flow can be derived.
' ^ Mode of 62.A contains diagrams of a number of
Fig.
Motion
2-diml geometric shapes, it indicates one or

tTH_"076/)ira JL=QII7/3ira'*
more modes of motion for each, and it gives the
added-mass values in terms of the mass density
p of the surrounding liquid and the physical
mi_-Q25/)Tra dimensions of the bodies. Most of the data in this
figure were derived from those given by K. Wendel
[STG, 1950, Vol. 44, pp. 207-255; English version
Floating mL"kg/jTra
in TMB Transl. 260, Jul 1956]; those for the
Rectonqulor \zz % general case of the 2-diml elliptic-section cylinder
are from L. M. Milne-Thomson [TH, 1950, p. 239].
Except as indicated in the diagrams, all the values
listed are for bodiessubmerged at a considerable
V///////////////A
depth in an expanse of liquid, so that at
infinite
infinite distances from the moving bodies the
particle motions are all zero. In a practical sense,
n|_= a76/)Tra^ JL-0.059/)Tra* therefore, the diagrams apply only to certain
appendages on a surface ship having a roughly
h-2a^-1 geometric shape, lying well below the surface,

0.61
and to fully submerged submarine vessels.
0.67 Fig. 62. B gives corresponding added-Iiquid-mass
085
m|_- kg/jtra data for a series of 3-dinil geometric bodies, and
for circular and elliptic discs, derived from data
on standard reference works on hydrodynamics
JL=0,055jO-rTa^ by Sir Horace Lamb and L. M. Milne-Thomson.
A considerable number of references dealing
Fig. 62. a Added-Liquid-Mass Values for Some Two-
with the added mass of entrained liquid around
dlmensional geometric shapes in unsteady motion
bodies of various types is listed on pages 100 and
All values given are for unit lengths normal to the page.
The respective modes of motion are indicated by the 101 of the book "Hydrodynamics," prepared and
double-headed arrows. published by the National Research Council,
Sec. 62.2 ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS 421

Added Moment G. P. Weinblum and M. St. Denis present, in

Form of Added Moss of
of Inertia of
Three-Dimenaional Body Entrained Liquid graphic form, values of the three linear and the
Entrained Liquid
three angular inertia coefficients for the elliptic
Sphere ellipsoid, again for translational motion along, or
'^/OTrSL^
for rotational motion about the three principal
axes. These data cover a range of ratios between
iL=-3-/)Tra m\_--j-jova. the semiaxes a, b, and c corresponding to the
proportions of normal ships [SNAME, 1950,
Figs. 6-11, pp. 189-190]. For use with added-mass
Circular Disc cIS Mode of values for the general ellipsoid, the body mass
Movinq Normal
to Its Plane Mode of Motion
Motion Wb of a buoyant ellipsoid in a liquid of mass
or Rototinq density p is (4/3)irpa6c.
About Q Diametei ^L=z|/'a= As set down in the SNAME paper and in the
list to follow, each of these linear (and angular)

Movi nq m l" ^z^^'"^^") inertia coefficients represents the ratio between

Broadside (1) the added-liquid mass (or mass moment of
inertia) about the complete elliptic ellipsoid to
(2) the mass (or the mass moment of inertia) of
the complete ellipsoid along or about the axis
specified, when it has the same mass density
as the displaced liquid. For a half-ellipsoid
representing the underwater body of a surface
ship, these added-mass (or added mass moment
of inertia) values are all halved but the ratios
and the coefficients remain the same.
It is interesting to note that, in some cases,
the mass of half of an elliptic ellipsoid is re-
markably close to the mass of the water displaced
by the underwater hull of a ship of the same
principal dimensions. For example, in the case
of the ABC ship designed in Part 4, a half-
ellipsoid having the same proportions and size
as the ship has the following dimensions:

Semimajor (longitudinal) axis a = L/2 =

510/2 = 255 ft, from Table 66.e.
Seraiminor (transverse) axis b = Bx/2 =
73/2 = 36.5 ft
Fig. 62.B Added-Liquid-Mass Valtjes for Some Semiminor (vertical) axis c = H {not H/2) =
Thrbe-Dimensional Geometric Shapes in Unsteady 26 ft.
Motion
The respective modes of motion are indicated by the The half-volume of this ellipsoid is (0.5) (4/3)
double-headed arrows.
Tabc. The weight of the buoyant half-ellipsoid is,
in lb, the half-volume times p times g. Hence the
Washington, 1932. Formulas giving the inertia weight displacement of the half-ellipsoid in salt

coefficients of a variety of 2-diml and 3-diml water at sea level is

shapes developed from the general or elliptic

l^(long tons)
ellipsoidhaving semiaxes a, b, and c, and enabling
the added masses (and added mass moments of 1 4\ -rrpgiabc)

inertia) of entrained liquid to be calculated for 2 3/ 2,240

translational motion along, and for rotational
3.1416(1.9905)32.174(2.55)36.5(26)
motion about the three major axes, are given by
2,240
A. F. Zahm [NACA Rep. 323, 1929, Part V,
Table VIII, p. 445]. = 14,490 1.
422 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 62.2

The weight displacement of the ship is 16,400 t.

The block coefficient Cb of an elUptic ellipsoid

(or of half such an elUpsoid) is [(4/3)7ra6c]/(8a?)c)

= 7r./6 = 0.5236. The block coefficient Cb of the

fifth approximation to the preliminary design
of the ABC ship is, from Table 66.e, 0.593.
The mass moment of inertia of the liquid
displaced by the buoyant elliptic ellipsoid is:

For rotation about the x-x or a-axis,

^pahcib'^ + c')

For rotation about the y-y or 6-axis,

-x%Trpabc{a' + c^)

For rotation about the z-z or c-axis,

rsT'pabcia + b').

The British Shipbuilding Research Association

has collected, and S. L. Smith has published
added-mass data for prolate spheroids, for bodies
of other shapes, and for surface ships having a
rather wide range of @
or L/V^^^ values [INA,
1955, pp. 525-561, esp. Fig. 12 on p. 542]. The

Yo-8
Sec. 62.3 ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS 423

TABLE 62.a Body Characteristics and Added Liquid-Mass Coefficients fob a Series of 31 Forms
424 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 623

general nature of the flow pattern for vertical and mean draft of 24.42 ft,
473], at a the corresponding
lateral unsteady motions, corresponding to 2-noded value by this method is
vibration in vertical and horizontal planes. The
problem how to estimate or to derive numerical
is
^AM — + 0.2 = 1.037 -f- 0.2 = 1.237
values for the added mass of entrained liquid, or
for the added mass moment around an
of inertia,
actual surface-ship hull in unsteady motion in However, the data from Table 1 of TMB
any or all of its degrees of freedom.
Report 1022, of May 1956, based on the 1929
The problem of most frequent application, and method of F. M. Lewis and the reduction factor
of J. L. Taylor for 2-noded bending of an ellipsoid
at least of major interest, is that of finding the
added- or virtual-mass coefficients for a ship in [SNAME, 1955, p. 471], give a Cam of only

vibration. This involves a separate and addi- — 0.978 for 2-noded vertical vibration.
Supplementing the an excellent
foregoing,
tional —
group of degrees of freedom. Many years
summary knowledge con-
of the adaptation of
ago H. W. NichoUs found that, for a rectangular-
cerning the added mass of the entrained water to
section model vibrating vertically, the added-
ship-vibration problems was given by F. H.
mass coefficient was approximated by
Todd in 1947 [SBMEB, May, Jun, Jul, 1947,
Vol. 54, pp. 307-312, 358-362, 400-403, respec-
Cj^M = 0.37
I + 0.20 (62.i)
tively; ASNE, Feb 1948, pp. 86-110, esp. pp.
101-104].
where B was the beam and H the draft of the
The use of a straight-line function embodying
model. For the model which he used. Cam worked B/H means
the ratio as a of determining the
out as 0.78. For a triangular-section model he
added-liquid mass for vertical vibration, de.'jpite
found it to be 0.70 [TMB Rep. 395, Feb 1935,
its unexpected applicability to many types of
p. 9].
ship, can at best be considered only a first approxi-
Much later it was stated by F. H. Todd
mation, to be used in an early stage of the design
[SNAME, 1947, Vol. 55, p. 160] that, for vertical
when the hull form is not yet known. Moreover,
vibration only:
it takes no account of the fore-and-aft distribu-
"In calculations on the natural frequency of ship hulls tion of the added mass of entrained hquid, other
(in 2-noded vibration), the total virtual mass of the hull
than to assume that it is the same as on all other
and water together varies from 2 to 4 times the ship
ships for which reliable data are available.
displacement. The variation is linear with beam-draft ratio,
and is given approximately by the line A somewhat different method, for use after
the ship is structurally complete but before it is
Virtual inertia factor = + 1.2 placed in commission, is perhaps more applicable

to shipappendages than to hulls proper. It

The virtual inertia factor is defined as the ratio of (dis- involves a comparison of the resonant frequency
placement + entrained water) to displacement." of the appendage structure in air with the reson-
ant frequency of the same structure in water.
Here the virtual inertia factor corresponds to the
The structure can be set in motion by a vibration
virtual-mass coefficient Cvm The added-mass
generator, first when the ship is on the building
coefficient Cam is Cvm — 1.0 or
ways or in the building dock, with the appendage
surrounded by air. It is again vibrated when the
Ca -1-0.2 (62. ii)
vessel is in the water, with the vibration generator
(above the water) imparting its periodic forces
where 0.2 is the viscous-resistance or damping through some kind of flexible connection with
factor. the appendage.
For the ABC ship of Part 4, the added-mass Then
coefficient approximated by this method would be
(.An A, J'
Cam = !(§) + 0-2 = 0.936 + 0.2 = 1.136 Uin WateJ
(62.iii)

For the Gopher Mariner at the heavy displace- (.A.A,>)^

ment [SNAME, 1955, pp. 436-494, esp. pp. 451,
Sec. 623 ESTIMATE OP ADDED LIQUID MASS 425

Because of the second powers involved, this section or hull of the ship is one-half of the value
method requires a very careful measurement of calculated for the whole geometric section or
both frequencies. geometric form far below the surface. For example,
A second method, of much more general if 2a is taken equal to 26 in the case of the sub-
application, is to develop procedures whereby merged rod of rectangular section, in Fig. 62. A,
the added-liquid masses (and mass moments of its lower half is identical to that of the floating
inertia) can be derived from the known values for rectangular box in the same figure, which has a
geometric shapes, as outlined in Sec. 62.2 and draft of a and a beam of 2a. For 2a = 26 of the
as listed on Figs. 62.A and 62.B. For many of the first case the added liquid mass m/, for the up-
geometric shapes for which the velocity potentials, and-down motion is 1.51p7ra^; for the second case
kinetic energies of the surrounding flow, and it is 0.767rpa^.

added-liquid masses are known, the lower halves
resemble roughly the underwater forms of ships
having the same size and proportions. For 2-diml
bodies, this resemblance applies to the
transverse sections of the surface ships under
investigation; for 3-diml bodies
whole underwater hull, as described for the half-
ellipsoid and the ABC ship of Part 4 in the pre-
ceding section. It is then assumed that the added
mass of the liquid surrounding the immersed
It is rare that any surface ship, except possibly
an old canal boat or a special barge, has a con-
stant transverse section, or one that could be
immersed termed average for the entire length. Manifestly,
the shape of the actual transverse sections, and the
it applies to the distribution of this shape along the ship length,
determine the flow pattern at different stations,
the kinetic energy in the surrounding unsteady
flow, and the added mass of the liquid. Further,
the boat, barge, or ship has a finite length, with

Unit Lenqth Between —»^ —»^ Mode of TrbnslQtionol Surroundinq Liouid is Assumed
Sinalc Amplitude
Planes Normal to Axis Periodic Motion in the to be Ideal and Liquid Motion
Vertical Plane is Entirely Two-DimensionQl

Mode of Motion of Ends

All Seqments Are of Circular Section
of Radius a^

In Both Cases, Two-Dimensionol Flow

isAssumed to Take Place About Each
Seament Independently, Between the
Ellipsoid of Revolution in Midposition -Lenqth of One Seqment tporollel Planes Indicated, Normal to
the Midposition Axes

--Midposition Axis

Ends Down. Hoc^aina In Dioqratns Z and 3

Deformation is by Pure Shear

Fig. 62.E First Stage in Transformation of Oscillating Cylindrical Bar to Ship Structure in 2-Nodbd
Vertical Vibration
126 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 623
ends; almost invariabl}' it tapers toward those characteristics are concerned, is made up of a
ends, so that 3-dinil flow is involved. number of separate but adjacent length seg-
At the time of writing (1956), the general pro- ments form of thick circular discs, indi-
in the
cedure whereby the underwater hull of a surface cated in diagram 2 of Fig. 62.E. The unsteady
ship is compared more geometric forms
to one or flow around each of these circular discs is assumed
to determine the added mass of entrained liquid to take place in vertical planes normal to the
has imdergone about a quarter-centurj^ of develop- straight or midposition axis of the rod, so that
ment, applying to one particular degree of for each segment the added-liquid mass is irpa'
freedom. This mode of motion, as mentioned times the length s of the segment. Although the
previously, is in addition to the usual six degrees discs near the ends move up and down with a
of freedom embodies periodic bending
in that it greater amplitude, and a greater velocity, than
or flexure in a vertical plane, usually with two the discs at the center, the added-liquid mass for
nodes and three loops or antinodes, such as that each segment is not changed because of this situa-
encountered in the fundamental resonant vibra- not for the low frequencies involved
tion, at least
tion of a ship hull in the vertical plane. The here. However, since there are no imaginary
processes in this development, which should be planes beyond the end segments to insure pure
understood clearly by the marine architect who 2-diml flow there, it is obviously not acceptable
undertakes to calculate and to use intelligently to multiply the added-liquid mass for each disc
the added-mass values for his ship design, are by the number of discs and to say that this is the
outlined here in a combination of diagrams and added-liquid mass for the whole flexing or bending
words. bar. One reason is that the bar in diagram 2 is
Diagram 1 in Fig. G2.E illustrates a circular- deformed in pure shear rather than in pure
section bar of radius a, with its axis horizontal. bending, or in a combination of the two. Another
The bar is oscillating vertically (actually in the reason is that the flow near the exposed ends is

plane of the page) in a pure translational mode, certainly 3-diml in character.

embodying rising and dropping for equal dis- F. M. Lewis, who developed this method in
tances above and below its normal position. It is 1929, utihzed as a solution for the second portion
assimied that the rod is buoyant, having the of this problem a longitudinal reduction factor.
same mass density as the surrounding liquid, This repi-esented the ratio between (1) the added-
and that at this stage it is deeply submerged in hquid mass around an ellipsoid of revolution in
an ideal, non-viscous liquid. For such a 2-diml vertical vibration and (2) the added-liquid mass
body, a section of which is pictured at the top of around a circular bar undergoing pure shear
Fig. 62.A and in diagram 1 of Fig. 62.E, the deflection, having the same length L as the bar
added-liquid mass -per unit length is irpa^, where in diagram 2 of the figure but in effect forming
p is the mass density of the buoyant rod and of part of an infinitely long circular rod. For his
the surroimding hquid. All the unsteady flow solution, embodied in SNAME, 1929, pages 6-11,
in this liquid takes place in vertical planes Lewis assumed that the 3-diml circular-section
bounding unit lengths, normal to the horizontal ellipsoid also deformed in pure shear. This meant
midposition axis of the rod. that the flow around any section took place
The rod is next cut off to a given length L, between vertical planes normal to the horizontal,
with free or exposed ends. It is then made to straight midposition of the ellipsoid, represented
vibrate in the vertical plane (that of the page) in diagram 3 of Fig. 62. E. He thus obtained a
with two nodes, at its fundamental frequency reduction factor J2-Nodc which he applied to the
in the surrounding hquid, taking both the rod added-hquid mass around each of the circular
mass and the added-hquid mass into account. segments, from one end of the bar to the other.
The problem of predicting the fundamental The reason for doing this, instead of applying
frequency in advance then resolves itself into one </2-Nod6 to the whole added Uquid mass, appears
of finding the numerical value of the added- presently. The reason for not summing up the
liquid mass for this mode of motion. This may be varied added-hquid masses for the segments of
tackled in two ways; they are described separately radius a, a, , Oa , fla • • • of the ellipsoid of diagram
in the paragraphs which follow. 3 is also explained presently.
For the first method it is assumed that the rod, To make this elongated and pointed ellipsoid
although a single solid entity so far as its elastic resemble the imderwater hull of a surface ship
Sec. 62.3 ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS 427

more closely, its numerous length segments, method, the representative body is composed of
separated by adjacent vertical planes, could each a series of constant-section, vertical segments,
be made semielliptic in transverse shape. They say about 20 in number, separated by vertical
could be given proportions corresponding to the planes representing the equally spaced stations
ratio [(beam)/(section draft)] of the several set up when making the lines drawing of the ship
sections along the length of the ship in question. for which the added-mass data are desired. Each
The sections forward, for example, could have constant-section segment has the correct designed-
their major axes vertical; those amidships could waterline beam B at its appropriate station, at
have them horizontal. This modification, how- midlength of the segment. However, instead of
ever, would not assist in the solution being sought using elliptic section shapes, Lewis found that by
since the added-liquid mass around any 2-diml employing conformal transformation, described
elliptic shape having a unit length and a major briefly in Sec. 41.11, he could obtain the added-
axis of length 2a, for unsteady motion normal to liquid-mass values for transverse section shapes
that axis, is irpa", the same as for a circle of which resembled closely those found on ships,
radius a or diameter 2a. This relationship is including rectangles with square corners and
indicated in the several elliptic sections of Fig. V-shapes with sharp keels. Diagrams showing
62.F. The added mass of the liquid surrounding these shapes were published by Lewis in Plates
2 and 3 of his SNAME, 1929 paper and were
KBeam B-2a-»1 reproduced by K. Wendel in Fig. 10 of his STG,
1950 paper; they also appear on pages 21 and 23
of TMB Translation 260, July 1956, and in
Figs. 186(a) through 186(g) and Fig. 187, on
Neqleclino Surface Effects,
the Added-Liquid Mass is, page 320 of the book "The Design of Merchant
in Each Case, m|_- (0.5)Trpa^
'
Ships," by J. C. A. Schokker, E. M. Neuerburg,
- (QI25)tt/3E
and E. J. Vossnack [H. Stam, Haarlem, 1953].
Fig. 62.F Series op Elliptic Body Sections, All To make these section shapes more adaptable
Having the Same Added Liquid Mass Per Unit Length on ships,
for comparison with transverse sections
Lewis employed eight separate proportions for
an elliptic section in an ideal fluid is a function the circumscribing rectangles bounding them.
of one variable only, namely the square of the These proportions, symboHzed by H in his paper
beam, reckoned at right angles to the direct- and represented actually by the ratio [(half-
tion of motion. For a section of unit length and beam) /(section draft)], for one side only of a
beam Bx , either semicircular or semielliptic in symmetrical ship, varied from 0.2 to 2.0. In the
shape, the added mass mi is (0.5)p(7r/4)B| or referenced paper by Wendel and in TMB Trans-
0.125p7rB| . lation 260 the eight circumscribing rectangles
would be an advantage, if it could be done,
It have a half-beam of a and a section draft of 6.
to modify the shape of the horizontal plane It is most important to remember, in this
through the major axis of the geometric body so connection, that the section draft corresponds to
that it would have the same beam, at given the ship draft (vertical distance between DWL
0-diml proportions of its length from the nose, and baseline) only if the section in question
as does the designed waterline of the ship. extends all the way to the baseplane; otherwise
However, this again is not a satisfactory procedure it is the vertical distance from the DWL to the
because to determine the longitudinal reduction bottom of the section in question. For a transom-
factor for such a body, non-ellipsoidal in shape, stern section, this section draft may be only 0.1
and usually with fore-and-aft asymmetry, would the ship draft. The referenced pubUcations are
require a determination of the added mass by a unfortunately not specific on this point but the
lengthy and laborious procedure corresponding principal features are shown in diagram 4 of
to that employed by L. Landweber and A. Winzer, Fig.'62.G.
and described in the latter part of Sec. 62.2. Instead of tabulating the added-liquid masses
F. M. Lewis worked out a clever alternative for these 2-diml sectionsegments of unit length,
scheme whereby the added mass of an underwater Lewis set up a relationship in which they were
ship hull can be approximated by a much simpler referred to halj of the added-liquid mass for a
and more straightforward procedure. For this segment having a circular section of radius a
428 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 62.3

WL ,
StQiO WL Sta 15 in Diaqram 6

Pure Bendinq Deformation, with All Transverse Sections Remommq Plane

and Normal to Neotrol Axis

Fig. 62.G Second Stage in Transformation of Oscillating Cylindrical Bar to Ship Structure in 2-Noded
Vertical Vibration

and unit length. He used this quantity as a ship-shaped section of Lewis is transformed from
reference because, in the process of setting up a circle.

the relationship, the deeply submerged 2-diml Because C. W. Prohaska also has a relationship
circular-section segment of Fig. 62. Abrought
is of this kind, supported by different analytical
to the surface so as to float with a waterHne cor- and experimental data, and also designated as C,
responding to its horizontal diameter. If the top it appears wise to substitute for the symbols

half of the circular-section segment is removed, CLewiB and Cprohaska & fc-symbol corresponding to
the lower half of semicircular section is still those listed in various places in Figs. 62. A and
buoyant, because its mass is 0.5irpa^ per unit 62. B. A suitable symbol appears to be fcgeot

length and the mass of the displaced water is which, for 2-diml flow in a translational mode, is

exactly the same. exactly the same as Cl^wis above. For a rectangu-
Lewis' relationship is in the form of a "co- lar ship section having a [(beam) /(section draft)]
efficient" C, defined as follows: ratio of 2.0, with square corners at the bilges,
/csect is 1.512 (given as 1.51 in the referenced
Added-liquid mass for a ship-shaped
figures). The value of fcgect for rectangles of other
segment of unit length, beam B, and
proportions are given in a graph by F. M. Lewis
section draft to bottom of section
and K. Wendel [SNAME, 1929, PI. 4 at top;
Cl„,u =
Half of the added-liquid mass for a
TMB Transl. 260, Jul 1956, Fig. 21 on p. 3-4].

For a ship section of semicircular shape having a

circular-section segment of unit
B/H ratio of 2.0, ksect is 1.00, since in this case
length, radius a or beam B = 2a
the added mass of the ship section corresponds
This, incidentally, although called "the inertia to the added mass of the semicircular section
coefficient for that (ship) section" by Lewis, is used as the reference.
not a true inertia coefficient in accordance with It is now possible to determine the added-
modern general usage. It might be distantly liquid mass per unit length of a ship section cor-
related to such a coefficient but only because the responding to one of the shapes depicted by
Sec. 62.3 ESTIMA IE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS 429

Lewis, and having approximately the correct

ratio [(beam) /(section draft)] of the ship section
under consideration. Lrtroducing the shape factor
KSoot I

Added mass of ship-shaped section of unit

length

and /

Added weight of added mass of liquid surround-

ing ship-shaped section of unit length

= h..m->^p{g)B' (62. iv)

where the beam B is that at midlength of the

constant-section segment in question; in other
words, the local beam.
F. H. Todd made it unnecessary to compare
the shape of the given ship sections with the
transformations of F. M. Lewis by publishing,
in reference (24) of Sec. 62.8, a graph which
gave the shape factor direct from known values
of the ratio and the
[(beam)/(section draft)]
section coefficient estimated from the body plan. i. 5
Beam- Draft Ratio B/H
C. W. Prohaska modified the diagram somewhat
so that the abscissas were values of the ratio Fig. 62. H C. W. Prohaska's Graphs for Deter-
[(beam) /(section draft)] for the section in question mining Section-Shape Factors by Inspection
and the ordinates were values of the section
coefficient [ATMA, 1947, Vol. 46, Fig. 24 on p. Prohaska has supplemented the fcsj„t-values for
196; TMB Rep. 739, Oct 1953, Fig. 1 on p. 14; the ship-shaped sections of F.M. Lewis by values
SNAME, 1955, Fig. 34 on p. 471]. In all three for other more intricate sections, resembling those
references cited the ordinates were labeled of ships bossings and other projecting
with
iS(beta), which is the alternative ITTC symbol for appendages [ATMA, 1947, Figs. 16, 17, 18, pp.
midship-section coefficient. This is misleading 191-192]. These section shapes and shape factors
because the section coefficient has a value of /3 are also derived by conformal transformation.
only at the midship or maximum section. The The added mass of the entrained liquid around
present author has further modified the Prohaska the transverse sections of a ship vibrating ver-
graphs by substituting the shape factor fcsect for tically, calculated by the methods just described,
the "coefficient" C. In their new form the graphs is still valid only for the flow around each 2-diml
are reproduced here as Fig. 62. H; the method of segment, where the segment motion and the sur-
defining the section coefficient is clearly illustrated rounding flow are confined between two vertical
in diagram 4 of Fig. 62. G. planes at the ends of the segment. This situation
It is to be noted that for a section coefficient is represented by diagrams 1 and 2 in Fig. 62. E,

of 0.7854, corresponding to that of a semicircle, drawn for a cylindrical bar and for an ellipsoid
the value of fcgect is constant for all values of the of revolution, respectively. It is now necessary to
ratio [(beam) /(section draft)]. When the latter apply to the added mass around this segment a
ratio is 1.0, the ship section is a semicircle and the longitudinal reduction factor to compensate for
shape factor fcseot is 1.00. When the [(beam)/ the 3-diml nature of the actual flow, equal or cor-
(section draft)] ratio has values other than 1.0, responding to Lewis' factor Ja-wode mentioned
the ship sections having shape factors fcgect of earher in this section. Because of the use of the
1.00 are all ellipses, because their added-liquid standard sysbol J for mass or polar moment of
masses are, from Fig. 62. F, the same as for a inertia, the 3-diml reduction factor is symbolized
semicircular segment of unit length having the by R. However, concerning a factor R derived
same beam. for an ellipsoid of revolution and applied to a
430 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 62.3

ship form, Wendel has this to say [TMB Transl. sumably about a transverse axis at midlength
260, pp. 13-14]: and middepth
R^ for 2-noded flexure, with deformation occurring
"It is true that this kind of approximation must be
considered as somewhat rough since it takes into account by shear deflection only; this latter feature is
body nor the
neither the specific shape of the displacement important to remember
width-depth ratio; nevertheless a better approximation 724 for 3-noded flexure, with deformation occurring
which, no doubt, would also be more complicated, seems
by shear deflection only; this again is important
to be unnecessary so long as we confine ourselves to
to remember.
slender bodies."

Fig. 62.1 is a graph giving numerical values of

Plate 4 of Lewis' 1929 SNAME paper gives
these four factors.
values of the following reduction factors for an
covering range
For the 2-noded flexure by pure shear, repre-
elUpsoid of revolution, a of
sented by diagrams 2 and 3 in Fig. 62.E and by
L/Bx or L/D ratio of from 3 to 18:
diagram 6 in Fig. 62. G, the added weight of
Ri for heaving motion or pure translation in a entrained liquid for each transverse segment is

vertical plane. This is the same set of values multipHed by the Lewis reduction factor R^ .

as given by C. W. Prohaska, in his graph The weights for all the segments are then super-
marked "Lamb" [ATMA, 1947, Fig. 25, p. posed upon the weights of the masses composing
197], where the small diagram indicates this the structure, machinery, cargo, and other parts
type of motion. of the ship, applying the weight ordinates at the
i?2 for rotational motion in a vertical plane, pre- proper points or stations along the diagram which

Fig. 62.1 Graphs of Reduction Factors R of F. M. Lewis and J. L. Taylor for Thkee-Dimensional Flow
Sec. 62.3 ESTIMATE OF ADDED LTOITID MASS
represents the length of the ship; see Fig. 37 on
page 472 of SNAME, 1955.
It now becomes necessary to return to a con-
sideration of the second method for determining
the added mass of the entrained liquid aroimd the
circular rod of diagram 2 in Fig. 62.E, when
flexing in 2-noded vertical vibration. F. M. Lewis
adopted the schematic method shown in that
diagram because he felt that the possible error
involved in assuming pure shear deflection, rather
than bending deflection, was less than the error
involved in shifting from the ellipsoid of revolution
(or its lower half) to the actual underwater hull
of a ship, at least for the proportions correspond-
ing to those of a ship. However, in 1930 J. Lock-
wood Taylor published the values of a reduction
factor for an elHpsoid of revolution, vibrating
vertically in an ideal liquid with 2 nodes and 3
loops, by considering pure bending deflection
rather than pure shear deflection. This means
that, as indicated in diagram 5 of Fig. 62. G, the
transverse planes separating the several segments
remain normal to the bent axis of the ellipsoid.
The segments are thus thin on the concave side
and thick on the convex side, as they are in a
simple bent beam. Taylor found reduction-factor
values as much as 8 per cent below those of Lewis.
A graph of J. L. Taylor's factor for 2-noded
pure bending is published by C. W. Prohaska
[ATMA, 1947, Fig. 25, p. 197]; also by R. T.
McGoldrick and V. L. Russo [SNAME, 1955,
Fig. 35, p. 471]; it appears in TMB
Report 739,
October 1953, Fig. 2 on page 14. It is presented
here, along with those of Lewis, in Fig. 62.1,
supplemented by Taylor's values for 3-noded
bending vibration of an ellipsoid, given on page
170 of his 1930 INA paper, reference (9) of Sec.
62.8. Prohaska's diagram indicates graphically
that the reduction factors are for an ellipsoid
flexing in 2-noded vibration; those of TMB
Report 739 and of the 1955 SNAME reference
do not.
Since the ship may be assumed to bend more
nearly hke a simple beam when vibrating ver-
tically, modes of vibration,
at least in the lower
with 2, 3,and possibly 4 nodes, and since the
data of J. L. Taylor for an ellipsoid vibrating in
this manner are available, it is present practice
(1956) to use Taylor's (smaller) reduction factor
for 2-noded vibration rather than that of Lewis.
Many years ago E. B. Moullin pointed out that
Lewis' added-mass values had to be reduced by
10 per cent [INA, 1930, p. 179]. It is not clear
431
whether he had in mind what has later come to be
the difference between Lewis' reduction factor
for pure shear and J. L. Taylor's reduction
factor for pure bending, or some other effect. In
any case, a recent re-analysis of model and ship
vibration data indicates that the method of
F. M. Lewis, combined with the reduction factor
of J. L. Taylor for 3-diml flow, give values of the
added weight of the entrained water around a
vibrating ship which are still too high, at least
for 2- and 3-noded vertical vibration [McGoldrick,
R. T., and Russo, V. L., SNAME, 1955, p. 490].
Further study and analysis are required before
additional refinements in these prediction methods
can be attempted.
A comparison of the procedures followed by
F. M. Lewis, C. W. Prohaska, K. Wendel, and
others in predicting the added mass of the
entrained liquid about the underwater hull of a
ship, vibrating vertically in its fundamental
2-noded or 3-noded frequency, indicates a number
of discrepancies with the assumptions of Sec.
62.1 which are not discussed there:
(1) Although the limiting conditions set up for
the conformal transformation appear to take
account of the free-surface effects, as do the
electric analogies set up by J. J. Koch, it is by no
means clear that these cover adequately the
situation for ship-shaped sections, even in an
ideal liquid having mass but no For
viscosity.
example, most of the ship sections developed by
Lewis and mentioned in the reference have
vertical sides at the waterline although most of
those developed by Prohaska do not. There is a
question whether full compensation has been
made in the analytic process for the flare or
tumble home to be found on actual ships in this
region. K. Wendel comments that in Koch's
experiment "••• it is possible to satisfy the
boundary condition only approximately; •••"
[TMB Transl. 260, p. 34].
(2) The analytic method described takes it for
granted that the ship, built to the shape shown
by the lines, has boundaries that remain rigid
locally, even though the ship flexes as a whole.
It is perfectly possible, and .indeed quite probable,
that some flat or nearly flat areas of hull plating,
lying generally normal to the direction of vibra-
tory motion, "give" or yield or deflect under the
external accelerative and forces by
pressures
amounts of the magnitude as the
same order of
hull deformations. Carried to the limit, one would
432 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 62.4

expect a ship with a soft-rubber hull boundary B)/(section draft)] and selecting by inspection a
to set up only amounts of kinetic flow in
trifling section shape approximating that for the ship.
the surrounding water. The added mass of en- The shape factor fcgect is then the "coefficient"
trained liquid would then be extremely small. C of Lewis. The half-body diagrams of C. W.
(3) It has been assumed by many analysts and Prohaska may also be used in the same way
experimenters that the added-liquid mass in [ATMA, 1947, Figs. 16, 17, 18 on pp. 191-193;
vertical vibration for typical ship sections was SBMEB, Nov 1947, Fig. 11, p. 593]. Prohaska's
independent of both frequency and amplitude "coefficient" C is also the same as kg^^t
for the lower modes of vibration, with two and V. Select the proper reduction factor R of J. L.
three nodes. Nevertheless, the model experiments Taylor from the indicated graph of Fig. 62.1, for
of H. Holstein, described in reference (25) of the L/Bx ratio of the ship.
Sec. 62.8, indicate a large variation in shape VI. Determine the added-liquid weight per unit
factor ^Tsect when the frequency and amplitude of ship length for each station by
are varied, even in a range of frequency encoun-
tered on ships. Graphs indicating these variations,
mM = (fcsect)(i2)(0.125)7rp(fir)B^ (62.v)

and the discrepancy with theory for a ship section The shape factor fcsect is usually different for each

approximately rectangular, are included in Fig.

station but the reduction factor R is the same for

32 of the Wendel reference [STG, 1950; TMB all stations.

VII. Multiply the added-liquid weight per unit

Transl. 260, p. 44].
length by the length of each of the 21 segments.
Rather than to work out the problem of pre- Apply the weights thus found to the weight
dicting the added mass of entrained water around curve for the ship, at the proper stations.
the hull of the ABC ship of Part 4 in 2-noded
J. C. A. Schokker, E. M. Neuerburg, and E. J.
vertical vibration as an example of the method
Vossnack give a somewhat-too-brief summary
described in this section, there is given hereunder
of the available methods for estimating or calcu-
a summary of the steps, with brief comments for
lating the added mass of the entrained water for
each step:
the vertical mode of ship vibration on pages
I. The ship is divided into 21 length segments, 319-321 of their book "The Design of Merchant
19 of them having a full station length of 510/20 = Ships" [H. Stam, Haarlem, 1953]. On page 340,
25.5 ft, and the two end segments having a half- in Fig. 222, they give a nomogram, apparently
length of 25.5/2 = 12.75 ft. The fore-and-aft first published by C. W. Prohaska [ATMA,
centers of but the two end segments fall on
all 1947, Fig. 29, p. 201], for approximating, in
the station locations, 1 through 19. For all the vertical vibration, the ratio of (1) the mass of the
21 sections, through 20, it is assumed that the entrained water to (2) the mass of the ship,
section shape on the body plan is representative taking account of the midship-section coefficient
of the entire segment length pertaining to that Cm , the beam-draft ratio B/H, the length-beam
station. ratio L/Bx , the ratio of the water depth to
II. List the whole waterline beams B and the draft h/H, and the block coefficient Cb This .

section drafts (not necessarily the ship draft) for ratio is also found by a rather complicated
the 21 stations. Compute the 21 ratios [(beam B)/ formula in Section 131 on page 326. Neither the
(section draft)]. nomogram nor the equation suffice, however, for
III. Estimate the value of the fullness or section determining the longitudinal distribution of the
each section, by inspection or by
coefficient for added mass of the entrained water. These authors
some simple method. If there are any concave fist 32 references on pages 341-342 of their book.

portions in the section outlines, fill them out 62.4 The Change of Added Mass Near a
by straight tangents before determining the Large Boundary. All the comments in the fore-
section coefficient. going are based upon the motion of a body or
IV. Using the graphs of Fig. 62. H, determine the ship at a great distance from any rigid or un-
shape factor fcseot for each section. These factors yielding boundary which would interfere with
may be checked by entering the half-body dia- the flow pattern of an ideal liquid. The air-liquid
grams of F. M. Lewis fSNAME, 1929, Pis. 2, 3; interface or free surface of a body of water
STG, 1950, Fig. 10; TMB Transl. 260, Jul 1956, represents a boundary which is, in a practical
Fig. 10 on p. 23] with the proper ratio of [(beam sense, both flexible and yielding.
Sec. 62.5 ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS 433

If a rigid boundary is introduced under a Despite verification of the foregoing by the ex-
decelerating ship, as when it runs suddenly into periments ofJ. J. Koch and C. W. Prohaska, to

shallow water, the kinetic energy in the unsteady be mentioned presently, and the full-scale tests
flow around the ship is increased, probably by R. T. McGoldrick on the Great Lakes ore
because the particles are no longer free to follow carrier E. J. Kulas [TMB Rep. 762, Jun 1951,
a minimum-energy pattern. Hence, the added esp. Table on p. 4 and p. 11], F. H. Todd and
1

mass of the entrained water begins to increase W. J. Marwood report that, for one ship case
appreciably by the time the bed clearance under at least, the opposite result was found [NECI,
the ship has diminished to less than its mean 1947-1948, Vol. 64, p. D127].
draft. This is in accordance with the results Assuming an increase in added-liquid mass in
derived analytically by H. Lamb, L. M. Milne- shallow water, the direct result of the increase in
Thomson, and others, which indicate that the total mass is to decrease the natural frequency
added mass of entrained liquid increases as a of the ship, so that resonant vibration in a
solid boundary of infinite extent is approached. frequency range below that of the exciting forces
If the decelerating body suddenly approaches at the operating speed in deep water might occur
a limiting vertical boundary of limited extent within that lowered range in shallow water. For
but of large proportions compared to itself, such example, the blade frequency for the single-screw
as a small tug which surges up to a large ship at drive of the ABC transom-stern ship of Part 4
too high a speed, or an exercise torpedo which at the designed speed in deep water, is, from
runs into the side of a hull, the analytic study Fig. 78.Nb, Z(rpm) = 4(109.7) = 438.8 cycles
indicates that the added mass of the water per min. The sixth-moded vertical vibration of
around the smaller decelerating body should also the hull, which for certain reasons might be
increase. However, it is reported that in one of objectionable, is assumed to occur at 380 cycles
the few known cases where this theorem has per min. At the sustained speed of 18.7 kt, this
been applied in practice, the observed data is still well below the blade frequency at that

indicated that the added mass of the smaller reduced speed, likewise in deep water. However,
body was reduced, so that it became easier to when running in the river below Port Correo the
stop within a given distance or time interval. propeller rpm might be reduced to say 81, and the
The smallerbody had the general form of an blade frequency to 324 cpm. The shallow-water
ellipsoid of revolution and it was approaching effect on the added-liquid mass might be great
the larger body by a sidling motion. It is entirely enough to lower the sixth-moded resonant fre-
possible that other factors were present in the quency from 380 to 324 cpm. Not only would
latter case and were not taken into account. this be exactly in the running range but there
62.5 Estimating the Added-Mass Coefficients would be an enormous magnification effect with
of Vibrating Ships in Confined Waters. The the nominal bed clearance of only 4 ft under the
effect of shallow water upon a vibrating ship is ship. K. Wendel mentions a case similar to this
discussed in Sec. 35.13 of Volume I; Fig. 35. on page 71 of TMB Translation 260, July 1956.
illustrates schematically the flow around the The problem of the naval architect is to deter-
sections of a ship form in vertical vibration. Sec. mine, and if possible to predict in advance, the
35.14 explains that ship vibration, particularly magnitude and effect of the changes such as
in the vertical direction, is greatly magnified in this in added mass, frequency, and ampUtude.
shallow water. This is also discussed by F. M. The specific information known to be available
Lewis in a paper "Ship Vibration" [Proc. World concerning the effect of shallow water on the
Eng'g. Cong., Tokyo, 1929, Vol. XXIX, Part 1, added mass of the water around a ship, when
publ. in 1931, pp. 203-204]. T. W. Bunyan states
vibrating vertically, is limited to the experi-
that the various critical vibration frequencies mental data of:
and amplitudes, in a transverse direction, are
also affected by restricted waters such as the (1) Koch, J. J., "Eine experimentelle Method
Suez Canal [IME, Apr 1955, Vol. LXVII, p. 100]. zur Bestimmung der reduzierten Masse des
F. M. Lewis, in the reference cited, states that mitschwingenden Wassers bei Schiffsschwing-
from physical reasoning and analytic study the ungen (Experimental Method for Determining
added mass of entrained water
inertial effect of the the Virtual Mass for Oscillations of Ships),"
is greater in shallow water than in deep water. Ing.-Arch., 1933, Vol. IV, Part 2, pp. 103-109;
434 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 62.5

English version in TMB Transl. 225, May 1949

(2) Prohaska, C. W., "Vibration Verticales du
Navire (Vertical Vibrations of the Ship),"
ATMA, 1947, Vol. 46, pp. 171-219; abstracted in
EngUsh in SBMEB, Oct 1947, pp. 542-546 and
Nov 1947, pp. 593-599; complete English trans-
lation (unpubUshed in 1956) available in TMB
library. A list of 21 references appears on pp.
214-215 of the original paper.
(3) Prohaska, C. W., discussion of paper entitled
"Ship Vibration," by F. H. Todd and W. J.
Marwood, NECI, 1947-1948, Vol. 64, pp.
D119-D123, plus authors' reply on p. D127
(4) Marwood, W. J., and Johnson, A. J., "Vibra-
tion Tests on an Up River Colher with Special
3
"
4 5
Reference to the Influence of Depth of Water," Beam B
NECI, 1953-1954, Vol. 70, pp. 193-216, D103- S(Bed Clearance)
DUO. Fig. 62.J Added-Liquid-Mass Data of Koch for a
Rectangular-Section Surface Ship, Vibrating
Koch's data in (1) were obtained by tests in Vertically in Shallow Water
a 2-diinl electrolytic tank, using the methods
described in Sec. 42.13. The tank represented a of the ship and the bed of the channel. Fig. 62.
horizontal half of a rectangular-section channel, gives these data for vertical vibration; Fig. 62.
with half of the underwater body of a rectangular- for horizontal vibration.
section ship in the center of the channel. The For one who studies the papers of either Koch
half-breadth of the channel was about 7 times or Prohaska, it is important to remember that

the half-beam of the ship. This was considered by the "added mass factor" (phi bar) of Koch's
Koch to be the equivalent of a channel of infinite paper (TMB Transl. 225) and the "coefficient"
width. C of Prohaska's paper, although non-dimensional
Figs. 62.J and 62.K, adapted from Figs. 8 and in both based upon the masses of two
cases, are
1 1 of the Koch reference, give data for determin- different transverse shapes of underwater body.
ing the added mass of the entrained liquid around This factor and this coefficient are therefore only
a floating 2-diml body of rectangular section, for shape factors for the bodies in question, to be
a combination of variables involving the beam defined presently. They are not true added-mass
B, the draft H, and the bed clearance h-H (in the or inertia coefficients.
notation of the present book) between the bottom The reference body of Koch is a buoyant one

Fig. 62.K Added-Liquid-Mass Data of Koch for a Rectangular-Section Surface Ship, Vibrating
Horizontally in Shallow Water
Sec. 62 ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS 435

of constant rectangular section having a beam B the added liquid mass m/, = C(0.125)7rpB" per
(26 in his paper) , a draft H of half the beam, and unit length.
a unit length. Its body mass ma is therefore The body of Prohaska has a semi-
reference
p(5)(B/2)(1.0) = pBV2 per unit length; in circular sectionwhich can be inscribed within the
Koch's notation it is 2pb^. Therefore, to obtain rectangular section of Koch. Therefore, it has a
the added mass mi, of entrained liquid for a mass vib which is x/4 times that of Koch, from
buoyant rectangular-section body of beam B, which it follows that Prohaska's C = 4<t>/Tr or
applying to any given combination of the variables Koch's ^ = xC/4.
listed in the second paragraph preceding, it is The data of C. W. Prohaska, set down in (2)
necessary to multiply Koch's "added mass factor" preceding, were obtained with 2-diml (constant-
by pB' 12. Then for the given rectangular- section) models of limited length and of varied
section body of beam B, the added-liquid mass section shape and fullness, moved bodily up and
JWi, = <^pB'/2 per unit length. down in a tank of water, with their longitudinal
The reference body of Prohaska is a buoyant axes parallel to the water surface. The water
one of semicircular section having a flat, hori- depth h was varied by altering the position of an
zontal top and a curved under side, with a adjustable bottom. It was found that V-type
beam B {2b in the paper), a draft H of half the transverse sections always gave greater added-
beam (6 in the paper), and a unit length. Its mass coefficients than U-type sections, and that
body mass m^ is therefore p(7r/8)-B^ per unit the wii-values for hollow sections were approxi-
length; in Prohaska's notation it is 0.5xpt>^. mately the same as for sections which had the
Hence, to obtain the added mass wii for a floating hollows filled out by drawing tangents between'
body having a beam B and any type of constant tlie projecting points.
section within the limits of Prohaska's tests, Fig. 62. L, adapted from one of the several
depicted in his Fig. 19, and for any combination shallow-water graphs given by Prohaska, namely
of the listed by Prohaska (section
variables Fig. 32 on page 204 of the 1947 ATMA paper,
coefficient and depth-draft ratio T/d), it is
/3 summarizes in diagram 1 the shape-factor or
necessary to multiply his "coefiBcient" C by Prohaska "coefficient" C data in terms of (1)
0.125xpB^. Thus for the given body of beam B, the section coefficient, based on the local beam

3 4 5
F?atio of Water Depth h to Draft H

Via. 62. L Added-Liquid-Mass Data op C. W. Prohaska for a Surface Ship With Normal Sections, Vibrating
Vertically in Shallow Water
436 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 62.6

B and the section draft, and (2) the ratio h/H, because, as indicated in Fig. 62.. I of the present
relating the depth of water to the ship draft. section, as well as in Fig. 31 on page 203 of
Koch's shallow-water shape factors <^ apply to Prohaska's ATMA, 1947 paper, Koch's experi-
rectangular sections only, so to use them for a ments do not cover such a small depth-of-water
ship one would have to assume a constant section to draft ratio.
for the entire length. Prohaska's shallow-water 62.6 Estimating the Added-Mass Coefficients
shape factors apply to sections of varying fullness, for Vibrating Propulsion Devices. Data on the
from 0.99 to 0.37, so that a calculation could be added mass of entrained water surrounding the
made for a ship with somewhat tapering ends by thrust-producing blades of any type of mechan-
using segments of diminishing section coefficient ically driven propulsion device are required for
toward the ends. predicting the vibration characteristics of the
Applying the data of Koch and Prohaska to the component parts or of the entire mechanical
vertical-vibration problem of the ABC ship of propelling system.
Part 4, transiting the 30-ft river between Port For a propulsion device like a paddlewheel,
Correo and the sea, the basic data are: with blades generally normal to their direction of
motion relative to the surrounding water, the
Draft, i? = 26 ft
added mass of entrained liquid may be approxi-
Depth of water, /i = 30 ft
mated by the known tkl for a submerged fiat
Bed clearance, h — H = A it
plate of rectangular outline, in unsteady motion
Ratio of draft to half-beam, 2HfBx = 52/73 =
in a direction normal to its surface. For this case,
0.71
the added mass is given in Fig. 62.A for the
Maximum-section coefficient, Cx = 0.956 rectangular flat plate having dimensions of 2a
Ratio of depth of water to draft, h/H = 30/26 and 2b. However, the paddlewheel case is by no
= 1.15 means simple because all the submerged blades
Ratio of half-beam to bed clearance, create surface waves, and one or two or more
Bx/[2{h - H)\ = 73/[2(4)] = 9.1 blades are always partly in and partly out of the
water. So far as known, no engineering rule has
Applying these data to Koch's graph with
been developed for estimating the added mass
ITTC notation. Fig. 62.J, they fall far beyond the
niL of paddlewheels or sternwheels.
limits of the graph. Applying the equivalent
The rotating-blade propeller presents a much
ratios to Koch's original graph. Fig. 8 of reference
different case because the several blades usually
(1) at the beginning of this section, and extra-
(except in maneuvering) lie at only a small angle
polating roughly, ^ appears to have a value of
(the attack angle) relative to their direction of
about 5.0 for a ship having a constant rectangular
motion through the surrounding water. However,
section throughout. Since Koch's^ = mi/(p5.Y/2),
what is wanted in this case is the added mass for
the added-liquid mass is of the order of
a mode of motion which is tangential to the
= = (0.5)(5.0)pBl- spindle circle at each spindle position. This
rriL (0.5)^p5x
quantity depends upon the pitch ratio and the
= 2.5pBx per tmit length. exact type of blade motion. Moreover, it changes
with the position of a blade on the blade orbit
From Prohaska's original data, reproduced in
or spindle circle. It can be assumed roughly as
diagram 1 of Fig. 62. L, his "coefficient" C is about
one-half the added liquid mass for the blade,
2.9 for a ship having a constant section coefficient
reckoned for a mode of motion normal to the
of 0.956. The added-liquid mass is therefore of
projected area of the blade [Mueller, H. F., un-
the order of
publ. Itr. to HES, 6 Jul 1956]. This Hquid mass,

= C Bl-
= added to the mass of the blade and summed up
(2.9)(0.125)7rpB^
for all the blades, plus the mass of the supporting

= and actuating machinery, gives the polar moment

1.14pB.v per unit length.
The weight of the added-liquid mass is g{mL) in
each case.
This is a rather large discrepancy but the
comparison is hardly fair to the data of Koch
of inertia of the whole assembly about the axis
of propeller (not blade) rotation.
For the screw propeller the marine architect
isinterested in the added-liquid masses and the
corresponding added mass moments of inertia
Sec. 62.6 ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS 437

sional-vibration experiments on a group of brass

model propellers, 16 inches in diameter, conducted
in both air and water at the U. S. Experimental
Model Basin. The P/D values ranged from 0.60
to 2.00. However, these tests produced only the
general conclusions that:

(a) For a fixed amplitude and frequency the

effect (on the polar moment of inertia ./) varies
directly with the blade-width ratio, and with the
pitch ratio. In other words, J increases as both
Cm/D and P/D increase.
(b) For a given propeller the effect (on the polar
moment of inertia J) increases with frequency
and amplitude
(c) In order to determine the per cent increase in
(polar) moment of inertia in any given case, the
Remainino
Essentially
amplitude and frequency of the propeller (vibra-
Parallel to tion) must be approximately known.
its Mid-
Position Some years later R. Brahmig made an analytic

Fig. 62.M Modes op Motion of a Vibrating Screw
Propeller on a Ship
for four modes of motion illustrated schematically
in Fig. 62.M:
(1) Torsional or rotational, about the propeller-
shaft axis, as in diagram 1, assuming that the
latter remains essentially straight
(2) Axial, parallel to or along that axis, indicated
in diagram 2
(3) Lateral, corresponding to the sidewise
of a propeller shaft in a loose bearing next to the
propeller, as in diagram 3. This also includes a
motion due to sidewise bending of the propeller
shaft at the propeller, in which the propeller
moves only in a direction parallel to the normal
disc plane, without diametral rotation.
(4) Diametral rotation, as in diagram 4, cor-
responding to angular motion of the propeller
out of the normal plane of its own disc, due to
bending or whirling of the propeller shaft about
some selected diametral axis in the propeller.
There are indications that the depth of
sion of a screw propeller is a factor in
modes, because of the "relieving" effect of
surface close to the vibrating blades.
To determine the value of the added mass
moment of inertia for the torsional mode of (1)
preceding, a number of tests have been made with
model propellers, among them those of R. T.
McGoldrick, described in TMB
Report 307 of
July 193L These tests comprised a set of tor-
study of the torsional-vibration problem of
screw propellers, listed as reference (29) of Sec.
62.8. He considered variations in frequency and
amplitude as affecting the added mass of the
entrained liquid, and gave a full statement of the
similitude conditions and scale effect involved
in the model experiment technique. Results are
quoted in his paper for torsional-vibration tests
on flat circular discs but none for model screw
propellers in the same mode. However, Table 2
of this reference lists rotational-amplitude and
motion
frequency data for the propellers of three ships.
As a rule, the amount of rotation amplitude
and the frequency in water are almost never
known with any reasonable certainty for a ship,
and the effect of the surrounding water oq the
polar moment of inertia varies widely as indicated
in TMB Report 307. It was therefore decided,
by those working in this field, that the only
practical interim answer was to accept a per-
centage increase in the polar moment of inertia
of the propeller mass in air, regardless of the
pitch ratio, the mean-width ratio, the ratio of
immer- hub diameter to overall diameter, and all other
all four factors. For this mode of vibration, the effect of
a free an abnormally large or small hub is possibly less
pronoimced because of the small radii involved.
However, the sine of the geometric blade angle
is large at the radii near the hub.
tests, an overall mean of 25 to
Based on these
30 per cent increase in J, due to the added mass
of the entrained water, was used for many years;
this is the value given by J. R. Kane and R. T.
438 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 62.7

McGoldrick on pages 199 and 200 of SNAME, 70.O, the P/D ratio at 0.67/2 m.x is 1.199, Z = 4,

1949. Subsequent experience has indicated a single D = 20 ft, and the mean-width ratio Cm/D =
average value of 25 per cent increase in / due to 0.229. Then for salt water having a weight density
added-liquid mass for the pure torsional mode of w of 64.0 lb per ft^, the added mass m^ for the

motion [Garibaldi, R. J., "Procedure for Torsional axial mode is, by substitution in Eq. (62.vii),
Vibration Analysis of Multimass Systems,"
1
BuShips, Navy Dept., Unclassified Res. and mr. = 0.245(64.0) '

Dev. Rep. 371-V-19, 15 Dec 1953, p. 6].

[0.23(1.199)' + 1]

For the axial mode of vibration the situation is •(4)(20.0)'(0.229)'

rather complicated, since the blade sections
= 19,790 lb.
usually lie at rather large angles to each direction
of motion, forward and aft, and the blade width The estimated weight of this propeller in man-
is a major factor. Kane and McGoldrick explain ganese bronze is 40,750 lb,an which gives
it most readable terms on pages 199 and 200
in mi/mprop ratio of only 48.6 per cent.
of their paper "Longitudinal Vibration of Marine For the lateral mode of vibration, depicted in
Propulsion Shafting Systems" [SNAME, 1949]. diagram 3 of Fig. 62.M, no analytic solution or
For axial vibration they recommend that, as an test data appear to be available in published form.
approximate estimate, the added Uquid mass m^ A percentage increase of 10 in the propeller mass
be taken as 40 to 60 per cent of the propeller is recommended by R. T. McGoldrick (Conf. of

mass mprop Further experience on their part

• 7 Jun 1956).
indicates a single value of 60 per cent. In other For the diametral mode of motion, diagrammed
quarters, a value of 50 per cent "is normally used" at 4 in Fig. 62. M, McGoldrick recommends a
[E. F. Noonan, BuShips, Navy Dept., unpubl. percentage increase of 50 in the mass moment
memo to HES of 15 Jun 1956]. of inertia, in air, of the propeller for the same
Kane and McGoldrick also give a dimensional mode of motion about the same axis, due to the
equation having a semianalytic basis, of the moment of the added mass of the entrained water.
following form: 62.7 Added-Mass Data for Water Surround-
ing Ship Skegs and Appendages. Fins, deep
wii for the axial mode of motion, in lb, keels, fixed stabilizers, and thin skegs of moderate

1
to large area are subject to lateral vibration when
= k excited by mechanical or hydrodynamic forces.
0.23(^ at 0.6772Ma«) + 1 J The frequency of resonant vibration must be
clear of any exciting-force frequency, especially
for a periodic force of large magnitude, if magnifi-
•(Z)(0.010D in inches)'! ^1 (62.vi)
cation of the resonant vibration is to be avoided.
The graphs in EMB Report R-22 of April 1940,
where k has an empirical value of about 9,100.
describing full-scale vibration tests of one of the
This formula is converted to 0-diml form by
twin skegs of the battleship Washington (BB55),
inserting the weight density w of the water in
illustrate the mode of vibration and the resonance
which the propeller is working. Incorporating the
variations with frequency for a ship structure of
constant k = 9,100, and eliminating the units of
this kind.
measurement for the diameter D, the 0-diml
When a large, thin, vibrating appendage with
equation then becomes
moderately sharp edges is surrounded by water,
rrij, for the axial mode of motion the kinetic energy in the velocity field is high.
This means a large added mass of entrained liquid.
= 0.245«; F^ Indeed, the added-mass coefficient Cam may easily
reach or 4. For a thin-plate structure like a
0.231^^ at + Ij (62.vii)
2, 3,
0.67/?^.,J sailing-yacht centerboard, it may exceed 6 or 8.

Not only must the magnitude of this mass be

iZ){D)f-^ known to predict the resonant frequency when
in water, but the frequency is often drastically
For the ABC transom-stern ship of Part 4, lowered, so thatit lies in an undesirable position,

having a final design of propdler shown in Fig, within the range of exciting-force frequencies.
Sec. 62.S ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS 43'J

hull, but it may be assumed from Fig. 66.Q to

hr
have an average depth, normal to the centerline
Schematic Flexure f^ttern of

in Vertical Vibration buttock in the vicinity, of about 16.5 ft. This is

/ the semimajor axis of an equivalent semielliptic
section. The semiminor axis is estimated from
Fig. 66. P as 2.5 ft. Then, for standard salt water
at 59 deg F, 15 deg C, and for half of the elliptic
section, the moment of inertia of the added-
liquid mass, about the point of attachment of
the skeg to the hull, is

Jl = (0.0625)7rp(a' - hy
= 0.0625(3. 1416)I.9905[(16.5)' - (2.5)']'

For Outer Portion = 27,654 slug-ft' per ft length,

JL,qu,d
= (°0625)TT^(a^-b^)^
per Unit Lenqth the latter reckoned generally parallel to" the
centerline buttock in the vicinity.
Fig. 62.N Method of Estimatino the Added
62.8 Partial Bibliography on Added-Mass and
Liquid Mass fob a Large, Thin, Cantilever
Structure in Lateral Vibration Damping Effects. There are hsted here a number
of references in the technical literature relating to
the added or entrained masses around bodies,
Cantilever structures, comprising a category
ships, and typical forms of interest to the marine
which embodies most of the appendages listed, architect. This list includes the references men-
sway with a motion somewhat resembling that of tioned throughout the present chapter.
a tree in a gusty wind, illustrated schematically
An excellent historical summary of the develop-
in Fig. 62.N. The root of the cantilever is rela-
ment means for evaluating and taking account
of
tively rigid, so thatmost of the motion occurs
of the added mass of entrained water around a
near the with the Washington skeg men-
tip, as
vibrating ship is given by R. T. McGoldrick in
tioned previously. In the absence of a specific
the introduction and text of TMB Report 395,
analytic solution covering this case, a reasonable
issued in February 1935. The bibliography on
approximation is achieved by assuming that the
page 30 lists most of the early papers of import-
cantilever has a semielliptic section and that it is
ance, beginning with that of Otto Schlick in
hinged to the hull at its midlength, at a point
INA, 1884.
corresponding to the root attachment of the
A bibhography on vibration, containing 73
cantilever. This produces a motion, approximately
references, was collected by the SNAME Hull
normal to the plane of the thin appendage, which
Structure Committee and pubhshed as part of the
greater than that of the cantilever structure
is
work on Project S-7 in SNAME Bulletin, Janu-
near the root but less at the tip. Experience
ary 1952, pages 14-15. A supplementary list of
indicates that the kinetic energies and added
30 references was published in SNAME Bulletin,
masses in the two cases are of the same order of
October 1952, page 27.
magnitude.
References pertaiiiing to added-hquid mass
From the second diagram at the top of Fig. effects, published subsequent to 1924, include:
62.A a 2-diml elUptic-section cylinder in unsteady
oscillatory motion about an axis at its center has (1) NichoUs, H. W., "Vibration of Ships," INA, 1924
pp. 141-163
an added mass moment of inertia J l of
(2) Taylor, J. L., "Ship Vibration Periods," NECI,
(0.125)7rp(a^ — h^Y per unit length, where a is 1927-1928, Vol. 44, pp. 143-176
half the semimajor axis and h is half the semiminor (3) Cole, A. P., "The Natural Periods of Vibration of
one. Ships," lESS, 1928-1929, Vol. LXXII, pp. 43-86

As an example of this method, take the case of (4) Kempf, G., and Helm, K., "Auslaufmeeaungen am
Sehiffund am Modell Dampfer Hamburg (Retarda-
the thin, vertical centerline skeg mider the transom
tion Measurements on the Ship and on the Model
stern of the ABC ship of Part 4, for which sections of the Steamer Hamburg)," WRH, 7 Sep 1928,
are indicated in Fig. 66.P and a profile in Fig. pp. 336-340. These authors found a virtual-mass
66.Q. This skeg is of variable depth, below the coefficientfor retardation and straight-ahead
440 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 62.S

motion of from 1.00 for small vessels to 1.04 for (19) Burrill, L. C, "Ship Vibration: Simple Methods of

large vessels. Estimating Critical Frequencies," NECI, 1934-

Lewis, F. M., "The Inertia of the Water Surrounding 1935, Vol. 51, pp. 259-276
(5)
a Vibrating Ship," SNAME, 1929, Vol. 37, pp. (20) Conn, J. F. of Propellers," lESS, 1934-
C, "Backing
1-20 and Pis. 1-5 1935, Vol. 78, pp. 27-83. The author states, on
Lewis, F. M., "Ship Vibration," Proc. World Eng'g. p. 57, that W. Froude found from the Greyhound
(6)
Cong., Tokyo, 1929, Vol. XXIX, Shipbldg. and experiments a virtual-mass coefficient, for straight-
Mar. Eng'g., Part 1 (published in 1931), pp. 193- ahead motion, of from 1.16 at the light displacement
212, esp. the discussion on Water Effects on pp. to 1.20 at the heavy displacement.
203-204. There are 42 references listed on pp. (21) McGoldrick, R. T., "A Study of Ship Hull Vibration,"
209-210. EMB Rep. 395, Feb 1935. Describes and analyzes
(7) Taylor, J. L., "Some Hydrodynamical Inertia Co- tests made by the EMB
staff on the U. S. destroyer

efficients," Mag., Jan-Jun 1930, Vol. IX,

Phil. Hamilton (DD141) and on two structural models.
Series 7, pp. 161-183 Pages 9-11 discuss the "Correction for Effect of
(8) Abell, T. B., "A Note on the Direct Measurement of the Surrounding Water." Pages 30-32 of this report
the Virtual Mass of Ship Models," INA, 1930, carry a list of 29 references.
LXXII, pp. 303-309 (22) Guntzberger, H., "Effet Amortisseur de l'H61ice sur
Taylor, J. L., "Vibration of Ships," INA, 1930, Vol. les Oscillations de Torsion des Lignes d'Arbres
(9)
LXXII, pp. 162-196, esp. pp. 163-164 and Appx. (Buffer Effect of the Propeller on the Torsional

A, pp. 169-170 Vibrations of Line Shafting)," ATMA, 1935, Vol.

(10) Browne, A. D., MouUin, E. B., and Perkins, A. J., 39, pp. 251-259. The author finds an augmentation
"The Added Mass of Prisms Floating in Water," of polar moment of inertia of 60 per cent of the

Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc, 1930, Vol. XXVI, pp. corresponding polar moment of mass of a steel
258-272. A brief quotation from p. 263 of this screw propeller. He mentions the fact that an
reference is given on p. 299, Sec. 20.11 of Volume I. augmentation percentage of 25 is generally used,
(11) MouUin, E. B., "Some Vibration Problems in Naval as listed in Sec. 62.6 of the present book.
Architecture," Proc. Third Int. Cong. Appl. Mech., (23) Lewis, F. M., "Propeller Vibration," SNAME, 1935,
Stockholm, 1930, Vol. Ill, pp. 28-30 Vol. 43, pp. 252-285
(12) "Effect of Entrained Water in the Mass Moment of (24) Todd, F. H., "Vibration in Ships," Tekniska Sam-
Inertia of Ship Propellers," EMB
Rep. 307, Jul fundets Handlinger, Goteborg, 1935, No. 5, pp.
1931 125-151 (in English)
(13) Todd, F. H., "Some Measurements of Ship Vibra-
(25) Holstein, H., "Untersuchungen an einem Tauch-
tion," NECI, 1931-1932, Vol. 48, p. 65ff schwingungen ausfiihrenden Quader (Investigation
(14) Schadlofsky, E., "Uber Rechnung und Messung der of the Heaving Oscillations of a Parallelepiped),"
Elastichen Eigenschwingungen von Schiffskorpern WRH, 1 Dec 1936, pp. 385-389
(The Calculation and Measurement of Elastic (26) Lewis, F. M., "Propeller Vibration," SNAME, 1936,
Natural Frequencies of Ship Hulls)," STG, 1932, Vol. 44, pp. 501-519
EMB
Vol. 33, pp. 280-325. English version in Rep.
(27) Sezawa, K., and Watanabe, W., "The Vibration
382 of Jun 1934, also bearing the number EMB Damping of a Ship in her Moving State," Zosen
Transl. 7. To this report belongs EMB Supplement
Kiokai (The Society of Naval Architects of Japan),
to Report 382, containing a translation of the
Dec 1938, Vol. LXIII. This reference describes
discussion on the Schadlofsky paper, pp. 326-335
experiments made to determine the added mass of
of the original reference.
liquid surrounding hinged plates.
(15) Koch, J. J., "Eine experimentelle Method zur
(28) Baumann, H., "Tragheitsmoment und Dampfung
Bestimmung der reduzierten Masse des mitschwin-
belasteter Schiffsschrauben (Damping and Moment
genden Wassers bei Schiffsschwingungen (Experi-
of Inertia of Loaded Ship Propellers)," WRH, 15
mental Method for Determining the Virtual Mass
Aug 1939, Vol. 20, pp. 260-261
for Oscillations of Ships)," Ing.-Arch., 1933, Vol.
(29) Briihmig, R., "Die Experimentelle Bestimmung des
IV, Part 2, pp. 103-109; English version in TMB
Hydrodynamischen Massenzuwachses bei Schwing-
Transl. 225,1949 May
(16) Todd, F. H., "Ship Vibration A Comparison of — korpern (Experimental Determination
Hydrodynamic Increase in Mass in Oscillating
of the

Measured with Calculated Frequencies," NECI,

Bodies)," Schiffbau, 1 Jun 1940 and 15 Jun 1940;
1932-1933, Vol. 49, p. 259£f
(17) Dimpker, A., "Uber Schwingende Korper an der
English version in TMB Transl. 118, Nov 1943.
This paper carries a list of 34 references.
Oberflache des Wassers (On Vibrating Bodies on
Prohaska, C. W., "Lodrette Skibssvingninger med
the Surface of the Water)," WRH, 15 Jan 1934, (30)
2 Knuder (Longitudinal Ship Vibration with 2
Vol. 15, pp. 15-19
Meas- Nodes)," Thesis, Kobenhavn, 1941
(18) Lundberg, S., "Vibrationsforeteelser (Vibration
urement)," Tekniska Samfundets Handlinger, (31) Havelock, T. H., "The Damping of the Heaving and
Goteborg, 1934, No. 4; also "Einige Untersuch- Pitching Motion of a Ship," London, Edinburgh,
ungen iiber schiffsschwingungen (Some Investiga- and Dublin Phil. Mag. and Jour. Sci., 1942, Vol. 33
tions of Ship Oscillations)," WRH, 1 Oct 1936, (32) Lewis, F. M., "Dynamic Effects," ME, 1944, Vol. II,

pp. 295-299 pp. 139-140. Contains a long list of references on

Sec. 62.S ESTIMATE OF ADDED LIQUID MASS 441

"Vibnition of Ships," some of which apply to the (43) Wendel, K., "Hydrodynamische Massen und Hydro-
present chapter. dynamische Massentraglieitsmomente (Hydrody-
(33) Home, L. R., "Stopping of Ships," NECI, 1944-1945, namic Masses and Hydrodynamic Mass Moments
Vol. 61, p. 3Uff of Inertia of Entrained Water)," STG, 1950, Vol.

(34) Havelock, T. H., "Notes on the Theory of Heaving 44, pp. 207-255. English version in TMB Transl.
and Pitching," INA, 1945, Vol. 87, pp. 109-122, 260, Jul 1956. A bibliography of 27 items appears
esp. pp. 109-110 discussing the added mass of on p. 252 of the original; pp. 73-74 of the transla-
entrained water for ship forms. For heaving, tion.

Havelock gives a Cam of 0.8 to 1.0; for pitching (44) Weinblum, G., and St. Denis, M., "On the Motions
he gives 0.4 to 0.5. of Ships at Sea," SNAME, 1950, pp. 184-248, esp.

(35) Lamb, Sir Horace, "Hydrodynamics," 1945, 6th ed. pp. 189-192 on Inertia Forces and Free-Surface
Effects
The table of contents and the index, between
them, list the following pages, among others, for (45) McGoldrick, R. T., "Determination of Hull Critical
data on added- and virtual-mass coefficients, as Frequencies on the Ore Carrier S. S. E. J. Kulas
well as for data on the body masses themselves: by Means of a Vibration Generator," Rep. TMB
762, Jun 1951. In an appendix to this report, pp.
Inertia coefficients, of a circular cylinder, 77 18-19, E. H. Kennard describes a method for
circular disc, 137 estimating the added mass of entrained water
of an elliptic cylinder, 85, 88 around a ship for any mode of vertical vibration.
of a sphere, 124
(46) Wendel, K., and Boie, C, "Experimentelle
of two spheres, 130 Bestimmung der Hydrodynamischen Masse an
of an ellipsoid, 153, 155 ganz und Teilweise getauchten Korpern (Experi-
general, 166
mental Determination of Hydrodynamic Masses
in cases of symmetry, 172. on Totally and Partly Immersed Bodies)," Hansa,
8 Dec 1951, Vol. 88, pp. 1788-1790
(36) Prohaska, C. W., "Vibrations Verticales du Navire
(47) Weinblum, G., "Uber Hydrodynamische Massen (On
(Vertical Vibrations of a Ship)," ATMA, 1947,
Hydrodynamic Masses)," Schiff und Hafen, Dec
Vol. 46, pp. 171-219. Discussion of the added mass
1951, pp. 422-427 (in German)
of the entrained water is found on pp. 189-205.
(48) Weinblum, G. P., "On Hydrodynamic Masses," TMB
On pages 214 and 215 there is a list of 21 references.
Rep. 809, Apr 1952
Abstracted in English in SBMEB, Oct 1947,
(49) Havelock, Sir Thomas H., "Ship Vibrations: The
pp. 542-546 and Nov 1947, pp. 593-599. Complete
Virtual Inertia of a Spheroid in Shallow Water,"
English translation, as yet unpublished (1956), at
INA, 1953, Vol. 95, pp. 1-9. On page 7 there is a
the David Taylor Model Basin.
list of 7 references.
(37) Todd, F. H., "The Fundamentals of Ship Vibration,"
(50) Marwood, W. J., and Johnson, A. J., "Vibration
SBMEB, May, Jun, Jul, 1947, Vol. 54, pp. 307-312,
Tests of an Up-River Collier with Special Reference
358-362, 400-403, respectively
to the Influence of Depth Water," NECI,
of
(38) Todd, F. H., and Marwood, W. J., "Ship Vibration,"
1953-1954, Vol. 70, pp. 193-216
NECI, 1947-1948, Vol. 64, pp. 193-210, D113-D128 McGoldrick, R. T., Gleyzal, A. N., Hess, R. L., and
(51)
(39) John, F., "On the Motion of Floating Bodies," Com- Hess, G. K., Jr., "Recent Developments in the
munications on Pure and Applied Mathematics, Theory of Ship Vibration," TMB
Rep. 739, Oct
Mar 1949, Vol. II, No. 1
1953, esp. pp. 13-15
(40) Ursell, F., "On the Heaving Motion of a Circular (52) Grim, O., "Calculation of Hydrodynamic Forces
Cylinder on the Surface of a Fluid;" Quart. Jour. Caused by Oscillation of Ship Hulls," STG, 1953,
Mech. and Appl. Math., Jun 1949, Vol. II, Part 2 Vol. 47, pp. 277-299 (in German)
(41) Kane, J. R., and McGoldrick, R. T., "Londitudinal (53) McGoldrick, R. T., "Comparison Between Theo-
Vibrations of Marine Propulsion-Shafting Sys- retically and Experimentally Determined Natural
tems," SNAME, 1949, pp. 193-252, esp. pp. Frequencies and Modes of Vibration of Ships,"
199-200 TMB Rep. 906, Aug 1954, esp. pp. 9, 14
(42) May, and Woodhull, J. C, "The Virtual Mass of a
A., (54) Havelock, Sir Thomas H., "Waves Due to a Floating
Sphere Entering Water Vertically," NOL memo Sphere Making Periodic Heaving Oscillations,"
10636, 3 Mar 1950; ONR project NR-062-024; Proc. Roy. Soc, Series A, Jul 1955, Vol. 231, pp.
copy in BuShips, Navy Dept., library. See also 1-7; see Appl. Mech. Rev., Feb 1956, No. 504,
Nat'l. Res. Council, U. S., Bull. 84, 1932, p. 97. pp. 74-75.
 PART 4

Hydrodynamics Applied to the Design of a Ship

CHAPTER 63

Basic Factors in Ship Design

63.1 Definition of Ship Design 442 Ship 443
63 2 . Application and Scope of Part 4 442 63 . Design as a Compromise 444
63 . General Assumptions as to Propelling Machin- 63 . The Essence of Design 444
ery 443 63.7 The Design Schedule for a Ship 444
63.4 The Fundamental Requirements for Every 63.8 The Field for Future Improvements in Design 444

63.1 Definition of Ship Design. One who tion. Intelligence may be brought out by a process
fashions a ship in this modern age of specialization of uncovering that which is innate in any architect
can not be satisfied simply that it floats, moves and engineer. Understanding must be learned,
through the water, and carries passengers
itself and often the hard way.
or cargo over the water from one place to another. Understanding, in general, means a compre-
It must
meet certain definite requirements; hension of all problems and relationships and
indeed, must almost certainly do some things
it phenomena. Specifically, to the one deahng with
better than any other ship which can be built to problems of hydrodynamics, it means compre-
meet those requirements. This superiority can be hension in its fullest sense of the elements and
developed in the evolution of the design, in the the intricacies of liquid flow, and of the means of
use of the most suitable materials, or in the dealing with and predicting the characteristics of
application of the best workmanship throughout. this flow.
It can be developed by a combination of all three, 63.2 Application and Scope of Part 4. It is
but it is in the evolution of the design in general, hoped that a study as well as a reading of the
and the hydrodynamic design in particular, that first three parts of the book has given the ship

we are concerned here. designer a generous share of the knowledge,

Design, for the naval architect and marine intelligence, and understanding needed to fashion
engineer, may be defined as the art of fashioning the form and features of a complicated modern
a ship by an intelligent and logical selection of ship. As knowledge increases, so will his
his
those features of form, size, proportions, and intelligence and his understanding. He will
arrangement which are open to his choice, in realize that he can grasp the meaning of those
combination with those features which are manifestations of nature that may long have
imposed upon him by circumstances beyond his remained a mystery to him, and that he can
control. comprehend the whys and wherefores of so many
Design is largely a matter of thinking and kinds of flow and action phenomena that were
planning. This requires, above all, knowledge, formerly bewildering and meaningless.
intelligence,and understanding. One can have This fourth part of the book therefore under-
any one or two of these quaUties, but without the takes to outhne the procedure whereby the in-
third his ship-designing ability lacks that some- formation set down in Parts 1, 2, and 3 may be
thing which will make his designs uniformly utihzed in the hydrodynamic aspects of ship
successful. Knowledge can be gained from books design. After taking up various phases of the
and many other sources of engineering informa- procedure, in a manner paralleling those followed

442
Sec. 63 A RASTC DESIGN FACTORS 443

in the preceding chapters, it gives a practical There arc cases also where the type or form
example of the design of a modern ship. It stresses of the propelling machinery affects the declivity
the specified Umitations and requirements, the and the parallelism or divergence of the screw-
free or open choices available to the designer, and propeller shafts, just as the position of the
the compromises that are unavoidable in anything machinery almost invariably determines the
put together by one man to satisfy the conflicting position of one end of the propeller shaft. On
wishes of other men. some high-powered vessels, the necessary clear-
No ship design can be carried very far without may prevent
ances for machinery inside the vessel
considering the primary features involving hydro- shaping or fining the hull where this procedure
statics. Among these are displacement and trim, would otherwise be desirable.
metacentric stability, floodability, subdivision, The matter of locating the propelHng machinery
and damage control. They are treated extensively in the stern or in other fore-and-aft positions is
in textbooks and other references [PNA, 1939, really not one for discussion in this book, except
Vol. I], and require no further elaboration here. that:
They are brought in as necessary, without detail
consideration, in the ship-design example which
(a) The location of the machinery aft may affect
the shape of the stern and the position of the shaft
follows.
carrying a screw propeller, because of the clear-
That phase of ship stability generally known as
dynamic stabihty but defined here as dynamic ances required inside the vessel

is, however, very definitely a

metacentric stability
(b) The machinery weight assists in trimming the

problem involving ship and liquid motion. It is vessel by the stern and pushing the screw pro-
accordingly included in Part 6 of Volume III,
peller down under water.

under the chapters relating to wavegoing charac- The matter of the absolute speed of the ship,
teristics.
and of its actual size, is usually determined by
63.3 General Assumptions as to Propelling economic, military, or other considerations beyond
Machinery. With a few exceptions which are the control of the designer. He must, however,
noted at the proper places, there is no need to
be prepared to predict the results of variations in
consider the type of propelling machinery in any
these factors, and of each upon the other, so that
phase of the hydrodynamic design. It is taken for when a final design decision must be reached, it
granted here that the machinery is adapted to can be based upon sound and accurate premises.
the most efficient rate of rotation for the selected
63.4 The Fundamental Requirements for
type of propulsion device, although too often the Every Ship. Every ship designer, no matter how
reverse is true. For propelling the ship, the pro-
logical and realistic he may be, needs to get back
pulsion device can be driven by a turbine, a
to first principles every so often in his search for
reciprocating engine, an electric or hydraulic
the best way to make nature serve him. He need
motor, or a hand crank, as long as the desired in the least beneath his dignity or
not think it
torque is apphed, the requisite rate of rotation is intelUgence to write down, in a few lines, as did
attained, or the necessary power is delivered. ,

the renowned Rankine many years ago [STP,

An exception to this rule is the case of the ship,
1866], the following simple requirements for every
mounting two or more propdevs on opposite ship:
which is called upon to
sides of the centerplane,
make frequent turns and maneuvers at relatively (a) To float on or in water
high speeds and powers. Here the port and star- (b) To move itself or to be moved with handiness,
board propdevs operate in liquid streams moving in any manner desired
at different velocities with respect to the ship.
(c) To transport passengers or cargo, or other
The type of propulsion machinery almost certainly useful load, from one place to another
affects the rates of rotation and the powers
(d) To steer and to turn, in all kinds of waters
delivered and absorbed on the two sides. Another
exception is the case of the ship which must
(e) To be safe, strong, and comfortable in waves
maneuver rapidly, and in which the maneuver- (f) To travel or to be towed swiftly and econom-
abihty is in direct proportion to the promptness ically, under control at all times
with which the propelling machinery responds to (g) To remain afloat and upright when not too
its own controls. severely damaged.
444 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 63.5

He needs, furthermore, courage and confidence sarily the largest, strongest, or fastest that can
to strike out boldly for the principal goal by the be fashioned, regardless of the other features, but
shortest and most direct route, using first prin- the one in which the best combination of elements
ciples he has learned and adhering almost re- produces the most useful, harmonious, and
ligiously to fundamentals. It was this procedure satisfying whole.
which produced the remarkably successful group 63.7 The Design Schedule for a Ship. This
of large landing craft in World War II, with book treats only of the hydrodynamic aspects of
httle or no experience to fall back upon and the ship design, and carries some of these aspects
fate of nations at stake. only through the preliminary-design stage. It is

63.5 Design as a Compromise. A designer difficult, therefore, to visualize the immense

must, at least in the early stages, forget about amount of thought and planning that has to be
compromises in a really new and pioneering put into the design of a ship to achieve the best
project. first place, he is by no means
In the possible results. According to Ambrose Hunter
certain compromises must be made. He
that ". . . it can be truthfully said that
it takes every

may be surprised to find that a certain stern bit as long to designa successful modern trawler
shape, odd but seemingly necessary, makes him as to build one ..." ["The Art of Trawler Plan-
a gift of improved maneuvering and increased ning," Ship and Boat Builder and Naval Architect,
deck space as well as more efficient propulsion. London, Feb 1953, p. 259]. What is true for a
If compromises must later be admitted, it is a trawler is true for any vessel, large or small.

comfort to remember that much of ship design 63.8 The Field for Future Improvements in
and construction is a compromise. This applies Design. natural for the naval architect and
It is

equally to roughing out a dugout canoe from the marine engineer who is blessed with enterprise
best available tree, or keeping the propeller tips and ingenuity to strive for improvements in his
of a twin-screw ship inside the projected deck work. It is human for him to wish to excel and
fine at the stern. However, if the effects of all to surpass the work of others. Remembering that
the possible variables are known, the designer nothing was ever done so well that it could not
can choose with wisdom the final size, shape, or be done better, he continually entertains the hope
form of each of his elements when he makes his that by his improved understanding of basic
compromise. In this way he attains the maximum phenomena he can look forward, as his creations
benefits from the selected combination of all of take form and life, to greater efficiency and higher
them. performance. As certain machines appear to be
Let the compromises be made \vith profes- reaching their peak efficiencies and certain
fessional honesty, sound logic, and good judgment. engineers or scientists are loudly proclaiming
Let them be known to all and admitted by that nothing in the way of radical advances can
all. Let them be based upon sturdy reasoning, be hoped for, other engineers and scientists are
and let them be tempered by a knowledge and opening up new Unes of attack which often extend
an experienced consideration of all the causes, the practicable limits by leaps and bounds.
effects, and consequences. This was the case with the piston-type engine and
63.6 The Essence of Design. British naval the screw propeller for airplanes when the jet-
architects have an old saying, with respect to the type engine appeared upon the scene. It is often
shape and form of a ship, that what looks right is said that the screw propeller for ship propulsion
right. This invariably brings an immediate is about to reach its limit of performance, where-

rejoinder about who is doing the looking; mani-
festly not just anybody, but one with an experi-
enced and practical eye. The eye that has de-
liberately been trained becomes accustomed to
look not only for efficiency and utility but for
upon propellers of increased capacity and im-
proved efficiency under certain working conditions
appear in successful service.
It is well in ship design as in any other work
not to be bound by preconceived ideas of what is

beauty, symmetry, and harmony as really possible or by the accomplishments of one's self
essential features of design. It looks, above all, for and others in the past. A designer who is prepared,
simphcity and for the feeling of effortless ease or in fact is eager to offer novel and improved
that nature puts into many of her most dynamic solutions to old or new design problems, based
moods and manifestations. upon comprehensive knowledge of fundamental
A good ship, like a good person, is not neces- physical laws and the confidence bred of successful
Sec. 63.8 BASIC DESIGN FACTORS 445

thinking and experience, usually succeeds in do something which you desire. It will do what
finding some ship owner or ship operator who is it wants to do, and that only, in accordance*with

willing to back his engineering judgment. the laws of its behavior.

In this quest for improvement the designer does Another excellent guiding rule for future
well to heed the caution expressed by G. Nowka hydrodynamic ship design, formulated by a ship
in his "New Knowledge on Ship Propulsion" of operator on a basis of economics and experience,
1944 [BuShips Transl. 411, Apr 1951] when he says that:
says "The principal guiding rule in shipbuilding
"^°°'' hydrodynamic features incorporated into the
must read: Do not interfere with the laws of hydro-
" design of a ship cost nothing originally but afford benefits
dimnmic^
^ to the owner and operator which last forever" [Lowery, R.,
m
.

Put another way this means: Do not try to SNAME Spring Meeting, 1956, in comments on Vincent
tell the water what it has got to do or to make it paper].
 CHAPTER 64

Formulation of the Design Specifications

Involving Hydrodynamics
64.1 General 44G 04.4 Absolute Size as a Factor in Maneuvering
04.2 The First Task of the Designer 446 Requirements 452
64.3 Statement of the Principal Design Require- 64.5 Tabulation of the Secondary Requirements . 452
ments 446

64.1 General. The hydrodynamic design pro- comments, and perhaps find out for himself by
ject carriedthrough this part of the book involves riding on and watching the operation of a similar
a combination passenger and cargo vessel, because vessel [Simpson, D. S., SNAME, 1951, p. 558].
the requirements for such a craft are relatively This is why the designer must in effect prepare
severe. This vessel is intended to travel between his own picture and plan to survey it from all
the hypothetical cities of Port Amalo, Port angles.
Bacine, and Port Correo, leading to the simple Setting down the ends to be achieved is often
project name ABC Design. not as simple and straightforward a task as
Any working example of this kind is but one of appears at first sight. Some designers are fortunate
a multitude which can be presented to a marine enough to come by it naturally but most have to
architect. Chap. 76 in this part therefore discusses learn it the hard way, and without any good text
variations from big-ship rules, applying to the or adequate reference works available for study.
design of special hull forms and special-purpose This chapter is by no means a course in writing
craft. It considers only the problems pecuhar to specifications but aU the simple rules involved in
the majority of special designs and not treated preparing the hydrodynamic and related features
adequately or at all in the ABC design. of a ship specification are set down here, supple-
In an effort to cover the hydrodynamic design mented by a few of the more complicated but
field for small craft as well as for large ships, equally necessary rules. It covers the development
Chap. 77 contains a working example of a design of fairly complete specifications for the general
for a motor tender for the ABC ship. and the hydrodynamic features of the ABC ship
64.2 The First Task of the Designer. Com- design which is to be prepared as the illustrative
plete success in a design project is only achieved example.
after careful formulation of the purposes and aims It is not possible to work up a set of coherent
of the project. Once formulated, these aims are design requirements by neglecting or omitting
kept continually in view and constantly in mind. any considerations whatever of hydrostatics, meta-
There is no better way of doing this than to write centric stabiUty, strength, engineering, cargo
them on paper, to look at them frequently, and handUng, and accommodations such as passenger
to think about them all the time. quarters and crew's berthing and messing. How-
It is considered in many quarters that a ship ever, only enough of the foregoing features are
owner or operator can be relied upon to formulate brought in to make the design specifications hold
his own requirements and that these will suffice together, with major accent on those features
for the design of the ship. He, however, is taking having to do with hydrodynamics and ship
only his view of the picture, whereas the designer motions.
must look at it from many angles. Furthermore, 64.3 Statement of the Principal Design Re-
the owner is often so famiUar with his own quirements. Even though they may already have
requirements that it does not occur to him to been partially or completely drafted by someone
pass them on to the designer as pecuUarities. else, it is ^vise for the designer to restate the
The designer must think of the right questions to design requirements in his own language. When
ask, then ask plenty of them, interpret offhand properly worded, these emphasize the limitations

446
Sec. 64.3 SHIP-DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 447

and conditions imposed by the owner or operator. the Port Amalo —Port Bacine—Port Correo route
The latter may have overlooked certain features, was selected as one hkely to present the most
seemingly unimportant in appearance but vitally varied and numerous ship-design problems for
essential in design, in his version of the specifica- The mission
consideration in this part of the book.
tions. The ship designer must, moreover, be ofa hypothetical vessel of this type, operating in
prepared to present to the ship owner-operator an imaginary part of the world, is rather easily
adequate engineering data upon which the latter roughed out. The result is given in Table 64.a.
can make certain design choices within his This mission, as with the requirements to follow,
province. The data and facts are to be collected, is intended to emphasize the size, form, power,

developed, and presented by the designer in the speed, and other design features having to do
form of clear, concise digests, setting forth the primarily with hydrodynamics. It would be
advantages and disadvantages, the premiums and amplified considerably when considering the ship
the penalties associated with each choice. The as a whole.
owner-operator can then feel that he is making
logical, intelligent selections from a reasonable TABLE 64.a Partial Design Specifications for a
number of design alternatives. Combination Passenger and Cargo Vessel
For instance, can the designer build up a case MISSION
for wide bilge or roll-resisting keels forward that The vessel described in these speciiications is intended
project beyond the side at the designed waterline, to be used for:

on the basis of augmented roll- and pitch-quench- (1) The transportation of passengers to and from Port
ing characteristics? Will the owner-operator Amalo, Port Bacine, and Port Correo, making the
accept a projection of the rudder beyond the outbound trip from Port Amalo in that order and
extreme stern overhang for the sake of improved the homeward trip in reverse order
(2) The transportation of liquid bulk cargo from Port
flow to the propeller and reduction of vibration?
Correo to Port Amalo, and of high-class package
One's views as to what features of the ship are cargo back and forth between Port Amalo, Port
important and controlling often depend upon his Bacine, and Port Correo.*
position in the overall setup. A limitation on
The service to be rendered requires:
length, for example, may be only an expression of
well-hardened opinion on the part of an operator (3) The safe and comfortable transportation of the
passengers on a rigid, year-round schedule, established
who thinks that it should be possible to get
well in advance, regardless of local and seasonal
everything he wants in a ship of a certain size. weather conditions
It may on the other hand, a vital restriction
be, (4) The storage and transportation of the high-class
to the designer if he is endeavoring to squeeze package cargo safe from damage by the elements or
from violent and jerky ship motion
out a small margin of speed or power.
(5) Performance of the required transportation as
The salient features of a muddled and verbose efficiently and economically as the present state of
specification may need to be brought out so as to the art permits
keep them alive and vivid before a designing staff. (6) Safe and rapid handling and berthing of the vessel
These and other reasons may well justify the under its own power at Ports Bacine and Correo.

extra time spent on highhghting essentials and *The "liquid bulk cargo" mentioned in (2) preceding is not
generally reworking the specifications furnished necessarilycomposed of heavy oil or its products. However,
by someone else. G. A. Veres has recently (1955) proposed the carrying of
passengers on high-speed tankers [SBSR, 23 Jun 1955,
The guiding principle in the preparation or
p. 797; 7 Jul 1955, p. 5].
revision of design requirements, first, last, and
always, is to keep the language direct, straight-
forward, and simple. Stress the specific but The next step is to write out the principal duties
informal treatment. Start off by setting down, in which the ship is to fulfill, and the principal
plain language and short words, just what the requirements which must be met. If there are
ship is required to do; just what mission it is to compulsory or mandatory limitations, include
fulfill. A ship which ultimately does not carry them by all means. Do not clutter up these major
out its is to be reckoned not a
appointed mission features of the specifications with details of lesser
no matter how efficiently it may meet one
success, importance, or with superlatives intended to
or more secondary requirements. emphasize them.
The combination passenger and cargo vessel for The first items to set down are those involving
448 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 64.3

size and displacement volume. The ship hull The outcome of this procedure,
for the ship
must have enough bulk volume to contain all selected as the example, contained in Table 64. b.
is

that is to be put inside it, both below and above A speed requirement is not yet in the picture.
water. It must have enough displacement volume Indeed, before beginning consideration of it
to float itself when carrying a high-weight- there prepared a summary of the meteorologic
is

density cargo which does not fill its holds. List and oceanographic conditions which the vessel is
these volumes and weights as a preliminary to to encounter. Table 64. c contains the summary
estimating and determining the total weight, bulk for this design problem. If these conditions vary
volume, and principal dimensions of the ship, during the operating season, as is usually the
but do not attempt to fix the latter features at case, they are carefully analyzed and evaluated.
this stage.
Whatever the custom and procedure may be TABLE 64. c Meteorologic and Oceanographic
elsewhere for determining the overall size of the Conditions

ship, it is assumed working

here, for the sake of (16) Full account shall be taken, as important factors in
the design, of the meteorologic and oceanographic
up a well-proportioned design, that there is no
conditions in the regions in which the ship is to
major limitation on size and dimensions except for:
operate. The average latitude over the whole voyage
(a) The general requirement (5) of Table 64.a for is 20 deg. Surface winds, along the fringes of the
the greatest performance from the least ship hurricane belt between Port Amalo and Port Bacine,
may be expected to blow from any direction at
(b) A specific draft limitation for passage of a
velocities up to 90 kt. These are accompanied by
canal and a river during the voyage. ocean waves corresponding to a fetch of at least 500 mi
(17) Tidal currents in the long ship canal leading to
TABLE 64.b Considerations of Size and Port Amalo may reach 0.5 kt. In the river between
Displacement Volume the sea and Port Correo the combined tidal and river

The ship shall be able to:

current may reach 2.75 kt, flowing downstream.
(18) Water temperatures in the fresh-water river at and
(7) Carry a liquid-bulk cargo of 4,000 t (of 2,240 lb) from below Port Correo range from 75 to 80 deg F; those
Port Correo to Port Amalo on each trip, for which in Ports Amalo and Bacine range from 60 to 75 deg F.
liquid the weight density will not exceed 42 ft^ per It shall be possible to deliver the maximum designed
ton of 2,240 lb [Wormald, J., "The Carriage of or rated power of the propelling machinery with a
Edible Oil and Similar Cargoes," IME, Apr 1956, sea-water temperature of 75 deg F. Water tempera-
Vol. LXVIII, pp. 65-91] tures in the open sea average about 68 deg F.
(8) Carry a total weight of package cargo not exceeding (19) Fouling is a factor to be reckoned with at all seasons
3,000 t back and forth between all ports, requiring of the year while the vessel is at sea. Fouling may
a net or usable storage space not less than 300,000 ft' stop temporarily while the vessel is in the ship canal
(9) Load and unload package cargo at Port Bacine, leading to Port Amalo and in the fresh-water river
both coming and going, without disturbing any leading to Port Correo but the roughnesses already
through package cargo accumulated will not disappear.
(10) Carry sufficient fuel to permit bunkering at Port
Correo and making the round trip to Port Amalo and
return, on the basis of the rigid all-year schedule Hurricanes of major proportions may be ex-
specified in the foregoing, plus a 15 per cent reserve- pected to occur along part of the route during
fuel capacity. The weight density of the fuel will not only some three months of the year. However,
exceed 42 ft' per ton.
unexpected and troublesome storms, with large
(11) Carry sufficient fresh water and consumable stores,
stocking up at Port Amalo and replenishing upon steep waves, often are encountered for a month
return, to permit making the round trip to and from and a half or two months before and after the
Port Correo hurricane season, overlapping the seasons of heavy
(12) Devote a volume of 400,000 ft' of enclosed space passenger travel. Full account of these adverse
exclusively to passenger service
conditions therefore is taken when laying out
(13) Make a safe and expeditious passage, under its own
power, of the 25-mi ship canal leading to Port Amalo, the design. With the rather careful modern
which has a minimum depth of 28 ft plotting and hour-by-hour reporting of storm
(14) Negotiate without assistance the 204-mi passage of centers to be expected in the worst areas, it may
the fresh-water river from Port Correo to the sea, on be possible for the ship, with an ample reserve
the basis of a minimum depth of 30 ft in the navigable
of speed, to save time by running around the
area
(15) The size and weight of the ship shall be a minimum storms rather than remaining on course and
consistent with these and subsequent performance slowingdown to go through them.
requirements. Although heavy marine fouling is the rule in
Sec. 64.3 SHIP-DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 449

certain warm, salt-water portions of the route, TABLE 64.d Speed and Wavegoing
the vessel is traversing the open sea and exposed (20) The average or sustained sea speed made good in

to fouling for only a fraction of the voyage time,
averaging probably not more than 0.6 of that time.
Furthermore, the relatively high speed at which
expected to travel prevents this menace from
it is
becoming more than a normal factor in powering.
each deep-water, open-sea portion of the voyage,
in any or all service displacements and under cor-
responding trim conditions, in any weather, and
with any reasonable amount of bottom roughening
and fouling, shall be at least 18.7 kt
(21) The augmented sea speed, to achieve the sustained

The dock-to-dock schedule which the owner- speed, is set tentatively at 20.5 kt. This is to be
made in smooth, deep water, with clean bottom, in
operator has laid out is divided into a canal-and-
zero natural wind, and at any and all service dis-
river schedule and an open-sea schedule by apply- placement and trim conditions.
ing the allowable navigational speed of 10 kt in (22) Whatever the augmented sea speed, it shall be
the ship canal in and out of Port Amalo and a attained by the use of not more than 95 per cent of
reasonably safe speed through the river in and the maximum designed power of the propelling
machinery
out of Port Correo. After docking and maneuver-
(23) In general, the ship and machinery shall operate at
ing time at all ports is taken into account, the
maximum efficiency under conditions (21) and (22)
buoy-to-buoy schedule comes out of the remaining (24) The ship may have to slow temporarily in heavy
time and distance by simple arithmetic. For this weather to 65 per cent of its average sea speed of
sea schedule the average speed made good in 18.7 kt; this is 12.16 kt. If so, the schedule must be
met by a corresponding increase in the speed in
open water, at either full load or any intermediate
good weather. The estimated reduction in speed for
displacement and corresponding trim, in fair constant thrust equivalent to a smooth-water speed
weather or foul, with smooth or rough bottom, of 20.5 kt shall not exceed 45 per cent when running
works out as a minimum of 18.7 kt. into a head sea, at an angle of encounter of 180 deg,

This is a week-in, week-out performance speed through regular waves having lengths Ljp of from
0,8 to 1.5 the ship length L, and heights h^ not
and not a design figure. The ship must be capable
exceeding 0.55^/ Lw- (The speed reduction from 20.5
of an augmented sea speed to guarantee making
kt to 12.16 kt is 40.7 per cent). Water ballast,
the average sustained speed of 18.7 kt under the preferably fresh water, may be admitted to groups of
handicaps of wind, weather, waves, currents, empty liquid cargo tanks as desired to establish
and fouling. The manner of accomplishing this satisfactory propeller submersion and to provide
added ship mass on the outward voyage from Port
is explained under and Performance
Design
Amalo, when the liquid bulk cargo is not on board.
Allowances in Sec. 65.3 and under Powering
(25) The ship shall be as free of resonant pitching in the
Allowances in Sec. 69.9. Suffice it to say here that waves to be encountered as may be compatible with
the analysis thus made indicates the necessity other requirements
for the ship to be capable, in smooth water, (26) A reasonable expenditure of weight or power, or
both, to secure effective roll-quenching is acceptable
with clean bottom, at full designed load and in
to the owner. Effective quenching is defined as
zero natural wind, of making at least 20.5 kt.
diminishing the roll angle to 0.25 (one-quarter) of its
Other considerations of easy steaming, freedom natural value.
from wear and tear, long intervals between
major machinery overhauls, and general depend- ments are considered because they may bear
ability of both materiel and personnel, discussed some relation to the number and position of
in Sec. 69.9, require that the 20.5-kt speed be propellers to be installed. An analysis of maneuver-
accomplished by the development of only 95 per statement of the restricted-
ing, in turn, calls for a
cent of the maximum designed power. water characteristics of various parts of the
Summarizing this analysis and working in a few vessel's route, somewhat similar to that of the
related supplementary features produces the meteorologic and oceanographic conditions affect-
speed and wavegoing requirements of Table 64. d. ing wavegoing. The principal features are set
Restrictions against pounding, slamming, and down in items (27) through (29) of Table 64.e.
pooped in a following sea,
lurching, against being The canal bend at Mile 20 is diagrammed in
and against carrying away gear on deck are not Fig. 64. A, which contains also the estimated
listed separately because they are implicit in tracks of large vessels proceeding in both direc-
items (3) and (4) of the mission, set forth in tions, with their limiting offset positions in the
Table 64.a. canal. The essentials of the maneuvering situation
Before going further into the speed and pro- at Port Bacine are copied from the chart in Fig.
pulsion specifications, the maneuvering require- 64.B, with the estimated ship tracks and positions
ir)0 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Src. 61.3

TABLE 64.e— Maneuvering area, measured from the extreme end of the wooden
pier and in line with it, is 1,500 ft.
The restricted waters forming part of the route and
the required ship operation in them are described as Specifically, when running at any practicable displace-
follows: ment and trim, the ship shall be capable of:

(27) Directly upon leaving its berth at Port Amalo the (32) Executing the transient portions of a turn, swinging
vesselmust make a 180-deg turn in close quarters first away from and then back into a straight course,

but tugs are available and will be used involving changes of heading of from 25 to 30 deg
(28) The ship canal leading from Port Amalo to the sea for each maneuver, and gaining or losing an offset
has a length of 25 mi and a minimum depth of 28 ft. of 400 ft, perpendicular to the approach path, in a
For 16 mi of its length the bottom prism width curved run of 2,100 ft. This shall be accomplished in
varies between 400 and 475 ft. Banks and bed of the a canal prism having a depth of 32 ft and a bottom
restricted channel are of hard sand and gravel. At width of 400 to 500 ft, at speeds of from 6 to 8 kt,
Mile 20 in this restricted portion there is a circular- and with not more than one-third the maximum
are bend, with short transition sections at the ends, rudder angle.
having a total change in direction of 50 deg and an (33) Swinging bow to port and stern to starboard, and
inside radius of 3,800 ft; see Fig. 64.A. The bottom vice versa, when operating the propulsion device (s)
width at midlength of this bend is 500 ft and the in an astern direction, with negligible wind and in
depth is 32 ft. water having a depth-draft ratio not exceeding 1.5,
(29) Port Correo is at the head of ocean navigation on a or a maximum depth of 40 ft. It shall be possible to
long, wide, fresh-water river, 204 mi from the sea, execute this maneuver from a standing start or
with a minimum and fairly constant depth of 30 ft from a straight approach path when moving astern
in the dry season and a soft mud bottom. Large trees at a speed not exceeding 13 kt.
and other flood debris are often encountered floating (34) Executing a 180-deg turn within a tactical diameter
in the river. of 3,000 ft in deep water, with full rudder angle and
(30) Adequate steering and maneuvering characteristics at an approach speed of 19 kt
shall be provided for traveling in the ship canal (35) When turning in accordance with (34), the angle of
leading from the sea to Port Amalo, on the basis of heel shall be limited to 10 deg. A maximum angle
meeting other large ships in this canal. It is not riot exceeding 8 deg is preferred.
necessary to meet these ships in the bend at Mile 20. (36) At an ahead speed of 20.5 kt, on a straight course, it
Similar requirements are established for the passage shall be possible to execute a crash-back maneuver
of the river leading from the sea to Port Correo. and to stop dead in the water with a head reach not
(31) It shall be possible to berth the vessel at Port Bacine, exceeding 6 ship lengths
under its own power, in a slip terminated by U-shaped (37) The machinery shall be capable of developing an
walls of sohd masonry, 100 ft apart in the clear at astern torque of 80 per cent of the rated ahead
the head of the slip and extending for a distance of torque, and an astern rate of rotation of 50 per cent
100 ft therefrom. An open-work wooden pier prolongs of the ahead rate, with the ship stationary in the
one of these walls for a distance of 450 ft, indicated water, as at the end of a crash-back maneuver
in Fig. 64.B. The vessel must, under its own power, (38) If left to itself when running ahead in smooth water,
make a 50- or 60-deg turn after backing out of the with no perceptible swinging motion and the rudder
sKp and prior to proceeding out of the channel to sea. stationary at zero angle, the ship shall not deviate
The clearance to the opposite side of the navigable progressively from its original course. In other

Fio. 64. A Scale Diagram of 50-Deo Bend in Canal Leading prom Port Amalo to the Sea
Sec. 64.3 SHIP-DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 451

Fig. 64. B Proposed Maneuvering Diageam for ABC Ship in Port Bacine

words, the ship shall possess dynamic stability of (40) A rudder angle not exceeding 7.5 deg shall suffice
route. for steady, straight-course running in straightaway
(39) A limiting small rudder angle not exceeding 3 deg reaches of the canal at Port Amalo and the river at
shall suffice for good manual steering In smooth, Port Correo, with from 3 to 4 ft channel-bed clearance
deep water and neghgible wind, at all speeds over under the ship
one-half of the sustained speed, with right or left (41) The ship shall be controllable when underway in
variations in yaw not to exceed 2.0 deg. This shall heavy weather at whatever speeds and courses can
include all displacement and trim conditions likely be maintained in that weather.
in open-sea running.
452 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 64.4

added. These are based upon entering the ship far cry from the same procedure for a self-propelled
head-on, directly from the sea entrance, and upon model in a miniature channel, with a time rate
swinging the ship by a considerable amount, possibly five or six times as fast.
when backing out of the slip, by working on a Consider a modern 25-ft pilot model of a large
spring line attached to the outer end of the pier. planing boat. The pilot model might well run at
Translating the ship maneuvers of Figs. 64.A 33 kt, with a T, of 6.6, while the 81-ft full-scale
and 64. B maneuvering requirements
into specific craft makes 60 kt at the same T^ . The former
gives the items hsted as (32) and (33) in Table covers its own length in 0.45 sec whereas the
64.e. Because of lack of authentic information on latter requires 0.80 sec. With a linear scale ratio
the astern maneuvering characteristics of ships, of 3.24, the time ratio is (3.24)°'' or 1.8 times as

the requirements in (33) are left rather general fast for the pilot model. Other things being equal,
in character. The requirements in (34) and (36) the 25-ft craft turns in a circle over 3 times as
are intended to insure that the vessel can be tight as the 81-ft one, and so on.
maneuvered handily in an emergency. As the absolute size increases, on the other
Rather exceptional controllability as regards hand, the proportion between (1) the time for a
steering is called for, because of the more than disturbance to manifest itself and (2) a human
450 miles of restricted-water traveling that is perception or an automatic-control time increases
required of the vessel on each voyage. rather rapidly.
Power not a factor in these restricted waters
is On small craft, often with large powers relative
because the speeds are limited by wave wash on to their size, too-rapid maneuvering can incon-
the banks, the presence of other vessels close by, venience or injure personnel and result in damage
and the excessive sinkage at the stern that would On large ships, demands for improved
to materiel.
be encountered at the higher speeds. maneuvering performance can run rapidly at
64.4 Absolute Size as a Factor in Maneuvering times into increased weight, complication, and
Requirements. Maneuvering requirements, in- cost.
volving steering, turning, stopping, backing, and 64.5 Tabulation of the Secondary Require-
the equivalent, form a sadly neglected part of the ments. When all the principal requirements have
and sizes of water craft.
specifications for all types been set down, and it is known what the ship
Increasing emphasis has been placed, and will
continue to be placed, upon the safety of life
TABLE 64.f—DESIRABLE FEATURES
INVOLVING HYDRODYNAMICS AND FORM
and of vessels at sea. It has been necessary in
Insofar as practicable, consistent with the principal
past emergencies, and it will be more necessary
requirements of the design, the ship shall:
in future ones, for all types of craft to undertake
turning and other maneuvers which will confuse (42) Possess a square moment of area coefficient of the
designed waterline, about the longitudinal axis, not
those who are dropping or firing missiles from the
less than 0.55
air. It may be expected, therefore, that maneuver- (43) Take in and discharge water for heat enchangers at
ing requirements will appear with increasing points not below the 1-ft waterline, reckoned from
frequency in ship specifications. The insertion of the baseplane
(44) Be prepared to anchor with two bower anchors in
specific numbers, making the requirements more
the river leading from Port Correo to the sea, in
definite, will certainly follow.
currents up to 2.3 kt
When selecting definite numbers for maneuver- (45) Discharge the products of combustion, from whatever
ing requirements it is to be remembered that source, at such a point such a manner that
and in

these can not be based, for small craft as well as they will not form a nuisance to either crew or
upon some linear dimension passengers
large ships, entirely
(46) Be free of spray and high-speed local air currents so
such as the length. Things happen much faster on
that in "outdoors" weather, passengers shall not be
a small vessel than on a large one. The rate of inconvenienced in their enjoyment of the sun, sky,
motion on a small craft, for geometrically similar and sea
maneuvers, increases directly as the square root (47) Provide internal heavj'-weather access to all spaces

As long in which personnel are required during cruising at sea

of its linear ratio to the large craft. as
(48) Have no vulnerable projections outside the main hull
human beings with more-or-less fixed reaction
within the first 150 ft of the length, from the keel up
times operate the craft, it is necessary to take to the 35-ft waterline, which might be damaged by the
account of these factors. Thinking and giving old stone pier at Port Bacine; also have no projections
piloting orders for a ship transiting a canal is a below the fair line of the bottom of the main hull.
Sec. 64.5 SHIP-DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 453

must do, the next step is to put down what the With the desirable features it is well to include
owner or operator would like to have the ship do. limitations, restrictions, and other specifications
This involves listing the secondary or desirable of a so-called negative nature. In other words,
features of the specifications. These afford the the specifications should describe clearly and
designer an idea of the preferences involved, and definitely any and all things that the ship should
the relative importance of each. As such, they not do or should not have. The features listed
furnish a valuable guide in working up many under (49) and (50) of Table 64. g belong in this
elements of the design. It is wise to list all features category.
of this kind, even though at first thought they The specifications in this stage are terminated
may seem only remotely related or distinctly by a group of items, not conveniently classified.
unrelated to the hydrodynamics of the problem. Three of them appear in Table 64. g.
A statement prepared along these lines may have The problem working over these require-
of
the form of that presented in Table 64. f. The ments mutually consistent and are
until they are
relationship of certain of these features to the in numerical, coefficient, or other form, ready to
hydrodynamic design becomes apparent as the apply to the detail design, is taken up in the
design proceeds. chapter following.
The liquid capacity called for in these specifi-
cations not only permits the ship to carry liquid
TABLE 64.g— FEATURES NOT OTHERWISE
cargo on the particular run or in the particular
CLASSIFIED
service for which it is designed but enables it to
(49) Freedom from vibration and noise, while not a
must, is a most desirable end to be achieved. In any
carry any other liquid cargo which may be in-
case, the estimated frequencies of periodic hydro- volved in some unexpected service of the future.
dynamic forces shall be reported to the buOder at In the existing state of world industrialization it
least two months before the vessel's first sea trials. appears that for the life of this vessel liquids
(50) It is expected that, by the time the vessel is put into
of some kind or other will always be useful and
service, the harbor regulations will prohibit the
profitable cargo. Furthermore, the provision of
discharge of sanitary drains into the water areas at
all three ports, the canal, and the fresh-water river this tankage in the after part of the hull makes it

(51) The maximum layover times at the three ports may possible to utilize water ballast to insure adequate
be assumed as follows: and freedom from slamming
propeller submersion

Port Amalo, 3 days; Port Bacine, 24 hours; Port and pounding when running in waves at relatively
Correo, 2.83 days (68 hr). light-load conditions.
 CHAPTER 65

General Problems of the Ship Designer

65 . Interpretation of Ready-Made Design Re- 65.6 Limits for Wavegoing Conditions to be En-
quirements 454 countered 458
65.2 Departures from the Letter of the Specifica- 65.7 The Bracketing Design Technique 458
tions 454 65.8 Adherence to Design Details in Construction . 459
65 3 . Design and Performance Allowances .... 464 65 9. Guaranteeing the Performance of a New Ship
65 4 . Basis for the Selection of Ship Dimensions . 457 Design 459
65 5 . Determination of the General Hull Features . 457

65.1 Interpretation of Ready-Made Design compromises rests with the owner or operator for
Requirements. It is possible for the hapless ship whom the ship is being designed. A decision
designer to be confronted with a set of pre- concerning a modification or relaxation of the
posterous requirements and specifications, not of specifications can only be made intelligentl}'' on
his own formulation. On first reading these may the basis of reasonably accurate and reliable
seem to call for achieving the impossible. After an information concerning the price which the owner
anxious time the designer may be relieved, but or operator must pay for this change, either in
nevertheless bewildered, to find that he is not money or in speed, power, endurance, and
expected to meet them, but only to be awed by performance.
He may, on the contrary, find that
their severity. It is a duty of the ship designer to offer con-
they have both claws and teeth, and that he is structive suggestions, propose compromises, or
expected to accomplish what no one before him put forth alternative solutions in all cases of
has done. It ismost important, therefore, that conflict between the original requirements and
when a set of requirements and
specifications is specifications. This procedure applies as well to
handed to him, the designer assess them carefully conflicts between these requirements and the
and that he determine in advance how they are capabilities of construction materials, machinery,
to be interpreted. and equipment in the present state of the art.
However, it is assumed here that the ship For example, vertical or wall sides are indicated
requirements are laid down in all sincerity and for the bow sections of a fast or liigh-speed ship
that they are expected to be observed in the same in way of the bow-wave crest. To accomplish this
fashion, both as to their spirit and their letter. If may require a rather sharp reentrant curve in the
there is in them any semblance of reaching for bow above the top of this wave
section lines
the moon, the reaching is clearly indicated and crest. This in a way, the gently flaring
spoils,
there good reason for it. A case in point is the
is V-sections which may have been drawn in forward
superlative deep-water and open-sea performance above the water fine for good wavegoing per-
required of the ABC design, which in many formance. The designer therefore prepares to
respects is a Umited-draft river vessel. If parts of estimate the increase in smooth-Avater resistance
the requirements are intended primarily for and power due to the use of fair V-sections and
information and
guidance rather than strict to predict the possible adverse effects of somewhat
compliance, they in turn are clearly so marked. hollow V-sections when pitching or plowing into
65.2 Departures from the Letter of the Specifi- head seas. Similarly, he is prepared to give figures
cations. Notwithstanding the most conscientious relating to the change in resistance and power,
effort, it is rarely possible to comply with every and the modification in roll-quenching charac-
letter of the complete design requirements and teristics, for proposed variations in the bilge-keel
performance specifications for a ship. Some com- length.
promises must always be made to produce the 65.3 Design and Performance Allowances.
design and some relaxation of the specifications Whether or not they are written specifically into
be accepted. The burden of accepting these the requirements, a ship designer must, by
454
Sec. r,'i3 GENERAL PROBLEMS OF DESTGNER 455

interpretation or direct discussion with the owner- It is well at this point to discuss briefly the
operator, arrive at a schedule of allowances or expression "sustained speed." This term often is

performance factors which is to be followed used but seldom defined, perhaps because to
throughout the course of the design. Granting sustain a speed in one area or on one run means
that the designer's estimates are invariably something quite different from sustaining it on
correct and he is truly a
his calculations precise, another run. For the ABC ship it means both
prophet if he can predict the combinations of parts of the one-way run, as well as the voyage
overload, overspeed, and other operating con- as a whole. For the general case, the ability of a
ditions to be encountered in the life of the ship. ship to make a given sustained speed means that
If the ship takes these in its stride, he is praised it has, in self-contained fashion, whatever it takes
for having designed a good one. If not, he is in the way of allowances and margins to average
liable to be blamed because the ship can not take this speed over any run, in spite of:

a little extra once in a while. Indeed, the mark of

(a) Wind, waves, and weather
a superlative designer may be as much in the
(b) Roughness drag due to deterioration of the
margins, allowances, and design factors which,
paint or other coating and that due to fouling of
in his knowledge, intelligence, and engineering
any and all kinds
intuition,he inserts here and there as in the
(c) Improper trim or attitude for the speed range,
balance which he achieves in the overall design.
due to causes beyond control of the ship personnel
It is difficult to give rules for these allowances.
(d) Temporary slowdowns or stoppages due to
The more performance that is being squeezed out
inadequacies of or casualties to personnel or
of a design, the smaller the allowances must
materiel
necessarily be and the greater the knowledge of
(e) Loss of capacity, power, or efficiency because
the forces and other factors involved. In a high-
of deterioration, delayed overhaul, and general
speed racing motorboat, for example, they
wear and tear
approach zero. In an icebreaker they can and
(f) Low quality of fuel
should be large.
(g) Any combination of the foregoing and any
Emphasis is laid on the primary function of the
other adverse influences.
vessel, and the allowances favor the continued
and reliable performance of that function. A To average a given sustained speed on a run,
ferryboat running on a published timetable, year come what may, means that a ship has to possess
in and year out, with many people relying on its a reserve capacity or ability of some kind. This
schedule, is given a generous power and speed not only is to make up for lost time but to keep
allowance, provided economy is not sacrificed. going regardless of the circumstances, short of
A tug can always use extra power, to meet the hurricanes, typhoons, and the like. No ship can
increasing demands of progress as the vessel be designed to cope with extreme emergencies.
puts in more and more years of service. The reserve is designed into and built into the
The less accurately some quantity can be ship, in the form of allowances. The design
determined the greater allowance a designer is allowance based upon 100 per cent functioning
is

generally forced to place upon it. The less real of all personnel and materiel. The performance
proof he has of the validity of some estimate or allowance takes care of incomplete, functioning,
prediction, or the less confidence he has in it, the (e), and (f) preceding.
as set forth in (d),
greater must be his allowance. There are several ways of making these allow-
The mission of the ABC ship requires, from ances. The most logical and undoubtedly the
Table adherence to a "rigid, year-round
64. a, preferred one is for the designer to modify the
schedule, estabhshed well in advance, regardless owner-operator requirements for his own use and
of local and seasonal weather conditions." The then to design as closely as practicable to those
owner-operator is emphatic in pointing out that modifications. Itis thus possible, when the vessel

this means what it says. The study forming the iscompleted, to check the actual design from the
basis of the speed requirements of Table 64.d observed performance, and to use the information
indicates a minimum average or sustained speed thus confirmed for future designs. For example,
of 18.7 kt to achieve the mission. How is this best instead of calling for 15 per cent extra shaft
attained when there are so many unknown power, or some other amount picked from
factors? operating data to insure that the sustained speed
456 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 653

is achieved, the designer adds a definite allowance the ABC ship, or for any other design in which a
to that speed. This may be, say, one-third of the speed rather than a power allowance is to be
power margin, on the basis that the shaft power incorporated, the selection or determination of
varies about as V^. The speed allowance is then that allowance requires careful study, combined
+5 per cent. He proceeds to design the ship with intelligence, judgment, and wisdom. There
closely to this augmented speed. are considerations of sea routes to be followed,
When the trials are run it is usually as easy, times of arrival and departure during the day,
or perhaps easier, to measure the 15 per cent reliability in maintaining the sailing schedule,
extra power as the 5 per cent extra speed. How- economics, and many others which need not be
ever, with a speed margin that can be reliably entered into or elaborated upon here.
predicted, and with a ship fashioned and built On the basis that heavy weather slows the ship
for the augmented speed, the designer is in a to say 0.7 times its sustained speed for a certain
better position to promise the given sustained portion of an open-sea run, simple arithmetic
speed than if he crowds extra power into a ship indicates what the augmented sea speed must be
built only for that speed. Other reasons for de- to bring the average up to the sustained speed.
signing-in a speed margin rather than a power A similar procedure can be applied to the speed
margin are set forth in Part 6 of Volume HI effects ofbottom roughening and fouling or to an
under wavegoing. assumed compulsory slowing of the propelling
E. V. Lewis points out that with the large plant for any given length of time. The contin-
powers and high smooth-water speeds of many gency in which the delays occur unexpectedly at
modern (1956) vessels it becomes increasingly the very end of a run is met by speeding up for
difficult to maintain high average speeds in good measure in the early part of the run. This
certain rough-water areas such as the North matter is discussed by R. K. Craig, when de-
Atlantic [SBSR, 30 Aug 1956, p. 277]. It may be scribing the service performance of a passenger
expected, however, that increased emphasis on liner with engines aft [SBMEB, Dec 1955, p. 693].
wavegoing characteristics and further progress in The speed allowance of 1.8 kt for the ABC
wavegoing design will increase the rough-water ship, from 18.7 to 20.5 kt, or roughly 10 per cent,
speeds so that, when it is sufficiently important, as specified tentatively in Table 64. d and as
a high sustained speed can be achieved in any incorporated in Table 65. a with other design and
service. performance allowances, is intended to serve
For the preliminary hydrodynamic design of only as an example of the procedure involved.

TABLE 65. a —ABC Ship: Design and Performance Allowances

Performance Item
Src. 65 J GENERAL PROBLEMS OF DESIGNER 457

However, design to the 20.5-kt requirement means surface. The volume of the pressure hull, plus the
that this can be made the trial speed, under ideal volume of all structure, fittings, and equipment
trial conditions. Both the design and the ship lying in the water when the submarine
is sub-

can be proved on trial, leaving the owner-operator merged, determines the displacement or total
with the assurance that the ship has an adequate weight of the vessel for water of the specified
margin of both power and speed. The general density. This volume displacement is substantially
method followed here for the ABC ship has been the same for the vessel under any running con-
used for the merchant-type naval
design of dition, in water of a given specific gravity, because
auxiliaries for the U.S. Navy
for twenty years the scale weight of the ship remains substantially
or more. It has been found eminently successful, the same. If fuel is consumed it is replaced by an
for services of varied nature, in most of the oceans equivalent weight of water, and so on. It is

of the world. possible, however, vary the amount and

to
65.4 Basis for the Selection of Ship Dimen- percentage of reserve buoyancy in a submarine
sions. At a very early stage in the design of a design by varying the shape and volume of the
ship, or perhaps before that design is really begun, outer hull, since the main-ballast tanks between
it is necessary to determine the basis for the the two are empty in surface condition and filled
selection of the principal ship dimensions. These with water when submerged. For submerged
include, not only the customary linear length, propulsion all this volume, plus all the water
beam, depth, and draft but the volume, dis- volume in the free-flooding spaces, has to be
placement, and weight; possibly even the general taken into account, just as if it were frozen
shape of the ship. Almost invariably it must be into ice and carried along with the ship. This is
decided whether: the bulk volume of the submarine.
Because of available space around and depth
(a) The ship is to be designed on a weight-carrying
under the ship when docking and maneuvering,
basis
of limited first cost, of adequate metacentric
(b) The design is to be on a volumetric basis, to
stability, or of some factor not remotely related to
provide space
hydrodynamic design it often becomes necessary
(c) Inflexible Umits are to be imposed on certain
to impose some definite or arbitrary limits upon
dimensions, such as for a ship which must fit
the principal hnear dimensions for a given weight
inside certain piers at a terminal or which must
or volumetric capacity. This is where the de-
pass through locks in a canal.
signer's troubles really begin.
The displacement of ships carrying cargoes of 65.5 Determination of the General Hull
high weight densities or specific gravities is as a Features. The general hull features of a new
rule fixed by the weight of the cargo or load to ship design can be determined in either of two
be carried plus the weight of hull and machinery, ways. One can start figuratively in the air or —
fuel, consumable stores, and margin. The under- better, in the water —
with only the operating
water hull must possess sufficient volume to requirements, and fashion the ship out of the blue.
support the total weight in water of the specified Alternatively, one can expand or contract the
density. When ships are to carry bulky but not hull "of a known vessel of good performance"
particularly heavy cargoes such as railway cars, [EUis, J. J., Froude, R. E., INA, 1892, p. 211] and
trucks, automobiles, and other vehicles it is thus obtain a first approximation to a new vessel
generally possible to carry much of this cargo which will fulfill those requirements.
volume above the designed waterUne. Due It is theoretically possible for an experienced
regard is of course given to metacentric stability ship designer, working to a given set of specifica-
and other requirements. In designs of this kind, tions, to select a type of hull, to determine its

a large not the greater part of the useful enclosed

if general shape, to define its and to
proportions,
volume of the ship is above water, leaving only make a tentative decision to embody in it some
enough volume in the underwater hull to carry special or unusual feature by working only from
the total weight. available reference libraries, including his own.
In the case of submarines it is necessary to It has often been done, and most successfully,
crowd within the pressure hull everything which despite the many indefinite and unpredictable
can not be entirely or partly surrounded by water elements which come into the picture. Indeed, it
when the vessel is submerged or running on the is often much better to start with a clean sheet,
458 HYDRODYNAMICS
as it were, because then the design problems are
visualized more clearly and they may be solved
in the most simple and direct manner.
Using an alternative procedure, it is often
possible to work up a new hull design as a variant
or as adevelopment of a previous design which
has proved itself in the same service and which
may be taken as a sort of parent form. This
procedure is facilitated by reference to the rather
comprehensive data now in existence on the
behavior of a multitude of ships and their models,
such as the SNAME Resistance Data sheets 1
through 160. The quantitative information re-
quired to set up a design and to carry it through
the successive steps must necessarily be derived
from model and ship performance data which are
known to be accurate and reliable. When in
doubt, the data are to be used with caution or, if
possible, only after a check and double check.
The parent-form-copying or development pro-
cedure manifestly forms an unsound or at least
an uncertain basis for the design of a ship to
meet totally new and unexpected requirements.
A certain amount of improvement results from
successive developments of a given parent design
but more real progress is often made by starting
out afresh. Remember that the ship being copied
or modified was designed not yesterday but
several years ago. Its designer would
first to admit that much has been learned since
then. If starting out today, even he
reproduce the design exactly.
65.6 Limits for Wavegoing Conditions to be
Encountered. To develop intelligently a good
ship design for wavegoing requires the establish-
ment, if practicable, of some sort of limits for the
wavegoing conditions to be encountered, more
precise than those of Table 64. d. Will most of
the waves be shorter or longer than the ship, or
about the same length? Will they be long and
regular, or short, steep, and confused? This can
be done on the basis of:
(a) Existing knowledge of weather and waves
along the specified route in the various seasons of
the year, based on some sort of statistical analysis
of extensive data
(b) Selection from the statistical data of the
characteristics and pattern of the predominant
wave, or the features of the one which is Ukely
to prove the most troublesome
(c) An arbitrary declaration that the ship shall
give its best performance in a specified type of
IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 65.6
sea, and a deliberate acceptance of whatever
performance is obtained in other types of seas.
Obviously, the design problem is materially
simplified if the ship is to operate on only one
run and to travel only in certain areas, especially
if the sea conditions in those areas are reasonably
consistent and predictable.
65.7 The Bracketing Design Technique. In
a pioneering design, for which the basic physical
phenomena are somewhat uncertain and the
results of past experience are Umited or non-
existent, it frequently becomes necessary for a
designer to reach far into an unknown and un-
trodden field. He must commit himself and others
to the acceptance of risks or the expenditure of
funds which under normal circumstances could
not be justified as good engineering. In this
predicament he desperately needs any kind of
assurance, no matter what its source or reliability.
Fortunately, there is one means by which a ship
designer can extricate himself from a situation
—
such as this a method which has been found
useful and successful in many other lines of
endeavor.
The essence of this method is to determine the
extreme hmits of position in the unknown field,
then to fix a position between these limits by any
simple convenient method which appears suitable.
be the
The region in which the unknown solution is to
be found lies somewhere between the two limits
would not
and is thus bracketed by them. The position of
the region with respect to the limits, in other
words the spotting of the region where the solu-
tion probably Ues, involves a process of arithmetic
averaging or of estimating by a sort of mean
proportional of the hmits.
A design problem of this kind developed with
the shaping of the alternative arch-type or tunnel
stern for the ABC ship, described in Sec. 67.16.
It was considered most important that the maxi-
mum fore-and-aft slope of the roof of the tunnel
be as large as possible, yet not so large as to
result in irregular flow or separation along the
tunnel roof. There was ample full-scale evidence
that on large ships with twin skegs, tunnel slopes
of 8 to 9 deg were satisfactory, with the roof
submerged a moderate amount below the at-rest
waterhne. There was evidence on some special
models that a centerplane slope of 30 deg, at the
same degree of submergence but on a convex
body surface and not in a concave tunnel roof,
was free from separation. It seemed reasonable to
Sec. 65.9 GENERAL PROBLEMS OF DESIGNER 459

halve the 30-deg slope of the special models, avail unless the form indicated on the plans is

giving 15 deg, but at the same time it appeared faithfully reproduced on the ship. Indeed, a
risky to double the ship slopes, involving values projecting welding bead, transverse to the flow
as high as 16 to 18 deg. Nevertheless, this pro- in a high-velocity region near the surface, can
cedure narrowed the choice from somewhere in and has produced cavitation, noise, and vibration
the wide range of 21 deg, between 30 and 9 deg, of plate panels. Not only that, it has produced
to the much smaller range of 3 deg, between 18 erosion, first of the paint coating and then of the
and 15 deg. On the basis that no ship would be plate metal itself.

built with an arch stern unless a model was first 65.9 Guaranteeing the Performance of a New
thoroughly tested, the maximum tunnel slope Ship Design. Finally, the ship designer must,
was set at 18 deg. Subsequent flow tests on the upon the completion of a design, execute what is
model showed no separation or harmful flow of in effect a guarantee of its performance. Where
any kind. the apphcation of hydrodynamics is concerned,
65.8 Adherence to Design Details in Construc- as in this book, the guarantee relates to propulsion,
tion. Although all features of ship construction maneuvering, wavegoing, and all other normal
are outside the scope of this book it is considered and special operations taken for granted or
rather important to point out that, no matter specifically mentioned in the original require-
how good the ship design, it requires a thorough ments.
and intensive follow-through, from beginning to A designer who has, to his own satisfaction,
end of the building period. Only in this way embodied sufficient allowances to meet the various
can a designer insure that the continual pressure specifications need have little fear that at the
to cut corners in production does not affect the conclusion of his work the ship will fail or be
service performance and reliability of the vessel. found lacking in any element of its behavior.
In the event of failure or casualty the blame is Only too often, unfortunately, the designer's
liable to fall as much on the designer as on the hand is forced in that he is required to make
builder. disturbing compromises or to embody features
Nowhere is this follow-through more necessary against which he warned by his better judgment
is

and important than in the shaping, assembly, or his engineering instinct. Under these circum-
and finishing of the underwater hull surface and stances he must go to some pains and often to
appendages. The most carefully calculated and great lengths to assure himself that his estimates
cavitation-free rudder or strut shape is of no and predictions are reliable.
 CHAPTER 66

Steps in the Preliminary Design

66.1 General Considerations 460 66.21 The Preliminary Section- Area Curve . . . 485
66.2 Hydrodynamic Requirements
Analj'sis of the 460 66 22. Longitudinal Position of the Center of
66.3 Probable Variable- Weight Conditions . . 463 Buoyancy 486
66.4 First Weight Estimate 463 66.23 Preparation of Small-Scale Profiles and
66.5 First Approximation to Principal Dimen- Sections 486
sions; The Waterline Length and Fatness 66.24 Molding a New Underwater Form 488
Ratio 464 66.25 Bow and Stern Profiles 491
66.6 The Longitudinal Prismatic Coefficient . . 467 66 26. Analysis of the Wetted Surface 493
66.7 The Maximum-Section Coefficient; The 66.27 Second Approximation to Shaft Power . . . 493
Draft and Beam 468 66.28 Sketching of Wave Profile and Probable
66.8 First Estimate of Hull Volume ...... 471 Flowlines 494
66.9 First Approximation to Shaft Power ... 471 66.29 Comparison with a Ship Form of Good Per-
66.10 Second Estimate of Principal Weights . . . 474 formance 496
66.11 Second Approximation to Principal Dimen- 66.30 Abovewater Hull Proportions for Strength
sions and Proportions 475 and Wavegoing 496
66^12 Selection of Hull Shape 476 66.31 First Longitudinal Weight and Buoyancy
66.13 Layout of Maximum-Section Contour . . . 476 Balance 497
66.14 First Estimate Relating to Metacentric 66.32 Propeller Submersion and Trim in Variable-
Stability 478 Load Conditions 498
66.15 First Sketch of Designed Waterline Shape . 479 66.33 Maneuver-
First Appro.ximation of Steering,
66.16 Estimated Draft Variations 481 and Shallow- Water Behavior ....
ing, 501
66.17 Sketching the Section- Area Curve; The 66.34 Preparation of Alternative Preliminary De-
Maximum-Area Position 482 signs 501
66.18 Parallel Middlebody 483 66.35 Laying Out Other Types of Hulls 602
66.19 Bulb-Bow Parameters . 485 66.36 Effect of Unrelated Factors Upon the Hydro-
66.20 Transom-Stern Parameters . 485 dynamic Design 502

66.1 General Considerations. There are as As a means of illustrating the procedures and
many ways hydrodynamic design
of executing the steps involved in the application of hydrodynamic
of a ship, at least in its prehminary stages, as principles and knowledge to ship design, the
there are ship designers. Each of them is partic- preliminary layout and a portion of the final
ularly suited to the knowledge, experience, design of the ABC vessel, whose requirements
background, and ability of the designer so that and specifications were formulated in Chap. 64,
each has its particular merits. An example of such is carried through in this and succeeding chapters.
an alternative method is given by E. E. Bustard This craft is of the merchant type and is largely
in his paper "Preliminary Calculations in Ship orthodox in character, with elements similar to
Design" [NECI, 1940-1941, Vol. LVII, pp. those found on many past and current designs
179-206 and D49-D62]. A presentation such as of ships. A number of unusual features are
that set down here is of necessity limited to a included, partly to give character to the design
single method, or at most, to two such methods. and partly to permit application of much of the
These are based logically upon a consideration of hydrodynamic knowledge and many of the pro-
flow phenomena, paralleling that followed in cedures previously set down.
Parts 1 and 2 of the book. Since knowledge of the 66.2 Analysis of the Hydrodynamic Require-
hydrodynamic phenomena pertaining to inter- ments. Before beguuiing the preliminary design
actions between all portions of the ship is not it is well to analyze some of the specifications
yet complete, part of the preliminary-design and requirements formulated in Sec. 64.3.
work must be accomplished by empirical methods Portions of them require conversion into terms
based upon ship-model tests, ship-trial data, and directly applicable to the hydrodynamic design,
past experience. resulting in quantities which can be used as
460
Sec. 66.2 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 461

TABLE 66.a Resteictbd-Channel and Open-Sea Data

Sector of Voyage
462 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.2

speed is specified in the river leading out from rate at the maximum designed power. Multiplying
Port Correo and no safe speed can be predicted these average fractionsby the hours during which
until the size and shape of the vessel is known. fuel isburned at the corresponding rate gives the
Past experience with smaller vessels, however, corresponding hours during which the consump-
indicates that this may be hmited to 13 or 14 kt, tion would be the same if the vessel were steaming
reckoned as speed through the water rather than at maximum designed power.
speed over the ground. The elapsed times for the underway sectors are
The layover, standby, and maneuvering times then calculated, as shown in the lower part of
are then set down, in hours, as in the upper part Table 66. c. In the open sea, it is assumed that
of Table 66. c, starting with the beginning of a the fuel consumption for each hour is that
voyage at Port Amalo. Opposite these are marked corresponding to the designed maximum power,
the estimated average fuel-consumption rates for despite the fact that the actual speed is generally
the periods given, intended to cover all auxiliary less, averaging 18.7 kt as compared to 20.5 kt or
as well as propelling-plant loads. These rates are slightly more, and that the elapsed time is longer.
expressed as fractions of the fuel-consumption This extra fuel, calculated as necessary but not

TABLE 66.0 Fuel Consumption Rates fob Voyage Components

The expression rated fuel signifies the rate of fuel consumption at maximum designed power, all services in operation.

Name of Operation
Sec. 66.4 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 463

intended to be burned except in an emergency,
constitutes the reserve fuel supply.
equals or exceeds the 15 per cent required
item (10) of Table 64. b remains to be seen as
the design progresses. If the ship is slowed by
be noted from Tables 64. b and 66.d
It is to
Whether it that since the bunkering for the whole voyage is
by done at Port Correo and the replenishment of all
consumable stores at the other end of the line,
the full load for which storage space must be

heavy weather it is nevertheless assumed that provided is never on board at any one time. It is
the fuel-consumption rate remains the same as estimated that of the 700 1 of fresh water, supplies,
for maximum designed power and for a speed stores, and other consumables which can be
slightly in excess of 20.5 kt in good weather. carried, only 400 t is left on board at Port Correo,
The fuel consumption when traveling in the when the full amounts of fuel, liquid cargo, and
shallow and restricted portions of the route is package cargo are assumed to be loaded. As
estimated only roughly for the present. indicated in the first line of Table 66.d, this
66.3 Probable Variable-Weight Conditions. represents the maximum service load.
Although the variable weights are not, strictly 66.4 First Weight Estimate. The first step
speaking, a part of the hydrodynamic-design in the preliminary design is to determine the
picture, they do affect it in that they govern approximate weight of the ship with its cargo,
the displacement and trim and hence the volume the displacement volume required to support this
and shape of the underwater hull in the several weight, and the approximate linear dimensions.
operating conditions. They also, with the respec- The following items of the weight estimate, all in
tive specific gravities of the water, vitally affect tons of 2,240 lb, are known from the requirements
the bed clearances that will obtain in the shallow of Table 64.b:
and restricted portions of the route. In Table 66.
(a) Liquid bulk cargo 4,000 t
there are set down seven conditions, out of
(b) Package cargo 3,000 t
perhaps a dozen or more to be expected in the
course of a routine voyage, as an indication of the Guesses of other major weight items are based
range of displacement that might be encountered. on the background experience of the ship designer
The amount of fuel to be carried is still a rough and such reference data as he may have. These
guess, but the variations in total displacement items are deliberately set down here without
are far greater than any possible variation in any handbook or other information, to
reference to
the fuel capacity. make the example as general as possible. They are:

TABLE 66.d First Statement of Variable- Weight Conditions, ABC Ship

All weights are in long tons of 2,240 lb or 2.24 kips of 1,000 lb.

Load Condition
464 HYDROnYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Src. ^^.'?

(c) Hull and fittings 6,400 t types of recent American ships, are given in
(d) Propelling machinery 800 t convenient form by Nevitt [ASNE, May 1950,
(e) Fuel, including reserve 2,200 t pp. 303-324]. However, in common with many
(f) Consumable supplies and stores in other graphic aids of this kind, there is nothing in
heaviest condition 400 t the reference to indicate the basis on which the
(g) Tentative margin, about 3 per cent original designer selected a certain ratio or param-
of the total 500 t eter for a ship represented by a given spot on a
diagram. Furthermore, one does not know
Estimated weight displacement, (a) whether the ship represented by that spot was
througii (g) 17,300 t easily driven or otherwise. This latter situation is
In kips of 1,000 lb, 38,752 remedied partly by taking data from the SNAME
Resistance Data sheets. These give in most cases
The corresponding displacement volume, at a the predicted effective power for a ship of standard
round figure of 35 ft' per ton of salt water, is length with respect to that for a Taylor Standard
605,500 ft .
Series ship of the same length.
Another way of arriving at the estimated 66.5 Dimen-
First Approximation to Principal
weight displacement is to base the hull, machinery, sions ; The Waterline Length and Fatness Ratio,
and other fixed weights on a percentage of the The next logical step is to estimate roughly the
total. The useful load is, including the fuel: length of the ship. As pointed out in Sec. 24.2,

(1) Liquid bulk cargo 4,000 t

this length for the ABC ship is on the waterline, at
^ ^"^^^^ correspondmg to the designed maximum
(9) Package cargo 3 000 t
'.'.'.'.'.'. s^^'^i'^'' ^""^^ ^t which a speed of 20.5 kt is to be
(3) Fuel, including reserve' 2^200 t
achieved in smooth water. A tentative length
(4) Total amount of fresh water, supplies,
which "^a^ be taken from plots of empirical data such
and consumable stores for
storage is to be provided on board . 700 t
^^ ^^^^^ "^ Levitt [ASNE, May 1950, Figs. 7, 8,
9, pp. 308-309], or it may be read by inspection
^^^^^ the analysis summaries of the SNAME RD
Total 9 900 t
sheets for combination passenger and cargo ships
A
combination passenger and cargo vessel of of about 17,500 tons displacement, and designed
this type should be able to carry 0.55 of its weight speeds of the order of 18.7 to 20.5 kt. The former
as useful load, leaving 0.45 of the displacement as plots give an Lpp of about 480 to 500 ft for normal
the ship weight. Using the first displacement ships and 500 to 520 ft for fine ships. This cor-
estimate of 17,300 t and this ratio of 0.55, the responds to an Ldwl range of about 500 to 535 ft.
useful load is 9,515 t, only slightly smaller than The latter gives a somewhat less
tabulation
the 9,900 t fisted in the paragraph preceding, definite value for L^wl of the order of 500 ft.
Actually, of the latter amount, only 9,600 t is on A first guess at the minimum length is 500 ft.
board in the designed maximum service-load For this length the Taylor quotient T, = V/ V L
condition, as when loaded at Port Correo. This is 20.5/ VSOO = 0.917. The Froude number F„

is because 300 t of item (4) preceding is consumed is T, (0.2978) = 0.273, and the displacement-
on the way from Port Amalo. length quotient A/(0.010L)' = 17,300/(5)' =
The ship- weight portion of the total, 45 per 138.4. The 0-diml fatness ratio V/(0.10L)^ is

cent, is 7,785 t, which is somewhat larger than 605,500/(50)' = 4.84.

the sum of 6,400 t for hull weight and 800 t for The question now arises, How do these param-
machinery, items (c) and (d) of the previous eters fit together to insure a ship easily driven?
tabulation. A small-scale graph of the ratio of Is the length too small for the displacement and
useful load (actually deadweight) to total design the required speed? Is the ship too fat for its

displacement, for large passenger vessels and speed? Considering hydrodynamics only, ship
Atlantic hners, is plotted by C. R. Nevitt on a length is a matter of providing the easy longi-
basis of speed-length quotient V/ a/L or Taylor tudinal curvature necessary to permit an under-
quotient T, , within the range of 0.70 to 1.05 water body of the requisite volume to be driven
[SNAME, 1945, Fig. 1, p. 316]. More recent easily and efficiently at the specified speed. In
plots for selecting this and many other ratios and selecting the length, however, several other
parameters, based upon data from certain general hydrodynamic factors enter:
Sec. 66.5 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 465

(a) The proper relationship of speed and length designers are about exceeding that
hesitant
so that a hump in the hull-resistance curve is length, even though they do not know what it is.
avoided However, the excellent performance of many
(b) A suitable balance between the added friction ships in the past, after a lengthening process
drag on a too-long with its extra wetted
hull, which involved an increase of from 11 or less to
area, and the added pressure drag on a too-short 30 or more per cent of their original waterline
one, with its sharper longitudinal curvature. length, is an indication that too long a hull is by
no means the handicap that has been anticipated
G. S. Baker gives a dimensional formula for
in the past [Mar. Eng., 7 Jul 1954, pp. 66-67, 81].
determining the length Lpp between perpen-
diculars, namely
A preliminary study of the wavegoing situation,
elaborated upon in Part 6 of Vol. Ill, indicates

— V that the greatest speed reduction is to be expected

Lipp A' (66.i)
2i'±
2+ V. when the ratio of wave length L^. to ship length
LnrL is from 0.8 to 1.0. Also, a study of available
where Lpp is in ft, V is "the speed (in kt) for
data such as those in H.O. 602, 1947, reveals that
average fine weather at sea," and is in long A the maximum wave lengths to be expected in
tons [NECI, 1942-1943, Vol. 59, p. 29]. Taking
the ocean areas traversed by the ABC ship are
first the sustained speed V of 18.7 kt for the ABC
of the order of For a ship length of 515 ft,
385 ft.
ship, and the estimated displacement A of
the ratio Lw/L^l is 385/515 or 0.747. This is
17,300 t, Eq. (66.i) gives
rather close for comfort to the low limit of 0.8,
18.7 but at least it does not he within the range 0.8
Lpp = 24' (17,300)"' = 506.5 ft.
20.7 to 1.0.

Using for V the trial speed of 20.5 kt,

A somewhat different line of attack on the
length problem, still empirical and admittedly
^20.5 taking account of quiet-water performance only,
Lpp = 24( ~| ) (17,300)''' = 515.3 ft.
isbased upon data collected from the following
sources, among others:
Baker's formula is put into nearly dimensionless
form by substituting V for A, and changing the (1) Bates, J. L., Shipbuilding Encyclopedia, 1920, p. 200
(2) Liddell, E., NECI, 19.34-1935, Vol. 51, pp. D45-D46
numerical coefficient accordingly. However,
(3) Nevitt, C. R., SNAME, 1945, Fig. 2, p. 316
Baker's definition for V remains somewhat
(4) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., RPSS, 1948, Fig. 39a, p. 89
indefinite, and the ratio of Lpp to L^wl depends (5) Thayer, E., SNAME, 1948, Fig. 29, p. 409
upon the type of stern. Using a specific volume of (6) Vincent, S. A., unpubl. Itrs. to HES, Sep 1947, Oct

34.977 ft' per long ton for salt water, (Eq. 66.i) 1952

becomes (7) SNAME Resistance Data sheets.

These data, for merchant and combatant vessels

^iYTvf (34.977)''' of orthodox form which have given good perform-
ance, cover a wide range of Taylor quotient,
fatness ratio or displacement-length quotient, and
= V ¥' longitudinal prismatic coeflicient Cp They have
Lpp 7.33881 (66. ii)
2+ VJ
been checked and supplemented by comparison
.

For the trial speed of 20.5 kt, Eq. (66. ii) gives with the proportions of models fisted on the

20.5^
SNAME RD sheets which have bettered Taylor
Lpp = 7.33881
p^ I (605,500)''' = 515.4 ft Standard Series performance at and near the
designed speeds. The result is two pairs of
A sUght discrepancy in length is expected here empirical curves on Fig. 66. A which bound two
because the volume of 605,500 ft' was calculated design lanes.
by assuming a specific volume of 35 ft' per ton The upper pair defines the limits of displace-
instead of the standard figure of 34.977 ft' per ton. ment-length quotient A/(0.010L)' and 0-diml
If all the governing factors could be known, fatness ratio F/(0.10L)' on a base of T, and F„
properly weighed, and taken into account there for good practice and normal designs. The
would undoubtedly be found a most efficient lower pair defines the limits of Cp in the same way.
length for each such set of conditions. Many However, the values for good designs may well
Sec. 66.5
Sec. 66.6 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 467

point plots almost in the middle of the upper "natural" values of Rr on V [Davidson, K. S. M.,
lane; the 515-ft length is apparently about right. PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 70]. This is explained in
At least it seems so at this stage. A ship longer Sec. 10.14.
than 525 ft on the designed waterline need not Fig. 66. B, adapted from Taylor's shaded
be considered until other features are investi- length-speed diagram [S and P, 1943, Fig. 55,
gated for these three lengths. Although a still p. 48], gives for ready reference a set of dimen-
greater length involves additional wetted surface sional English units by which the
values in
there may be other good reasons for using it. hollow-hump positions for any ship length and
The significance of the special spots found on any speed are found by inspection.
this and succeeding diagrams is explained sub- 66.6 The Longitudinal Prismatic Coefficient.
sequently in the chapter. The prismatic-coefficient design lane of Fig.
At the bottom of Fig.66.A there appears a 66. A, especially at the low-speed end, does not
subdivision worked out by D. W. Taylor [S and P, give the optimum Cp for a given T, or F^ such ,

1943, p. 48] which indicates the position of humps as maybe obtained from the Taylor Standard
and hollows in the curves of residuary resistance Series contours of Rr/^, because in that region
for a large range of T, values. Reference to this the friction resistance is generally the major
subdivision indicates that the three TJs for the part of the total resistance. For example, the
tentative lengths of 500, 515, and 525 ft all he original contours of Rr/A. for the Taylor Standard
in the middle of a hollow, slight but definite, for Series [S and P, 1943, pp. 201, 227] for a T,
vessels of normal form. Here Rr is slightly less value of 0.90 and a A/(0.010L)' range of 138.4
than it would be for a smooth curve of mean or for the 500-ft length to 119.6 for the 525-ft

Taylor Quotient Tq or Speed- Lenqth Quotient V/Vu

6.0 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3,0 2.5 Z.O

10 20 30 40 50 60 80 |60 150 ZOO 250 300

Ship Lenqth, ft

Fig. 66.B Diagram Illustrating Positions of Humps and Hollows in Residuabt-Resistance Curves, in
Terms of Ship Length and Speed
468 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DF.Sir.N Sec. 66.7

length, show that the minimum value of Rg/A

occurs at a Cp of about 0.52 for a B/H of 2.25,
and at a Cp of 0.54 for a B/H of 3.75. These
values are considerably less than the average Cp
value of 0.62 given by the lower design lane of
Fig. 66.A. This is because the longer and more
pointed forms, with the lower Cp values of 0.52
to 0.54, have too much wetted area and friction
resistance for the specified displacement volume.
Similarly, the design lane of Fig. 66. A, in the
higher ranges of 7", ,
gives values of Cp which are
lower than those indicated by the regions of lowest
residuary resistance per ton ratio, Rr/A, in the Fig. 66.C A Speed-Length Quotient of Nearly
TSS contours. This is because the lane is positioned Zero and a Prismatic Coefficient Approaching 1.00
to suit high-speed vessels like destroyers which A horse-propelled cargo carrier on the Erie Canal in
have to drive easily at cruising speeds that are 1916. Photograph by the author.

much lower than the designed speeds. For a vessel

designed to run always at high speeds, or for a and requirements call for special designs. The
vessel with sufficient nuclear fuel to elimhiate the
lanes are simply to give the designer an idea of

cruising-radius problem, at least so far as fuel

the range of values for a vessel of normal form

only is concerned, the optimum Cp for a T, of

that drives easily.

2.00 would be in the range of 0.65 to 0.70 or 66.7 The Maximum-Section Coefficient; The
more, depending upon fatness
Draft and Beam. There is little in the way of
the ratio, as
indicated by the TSS contours. reliable information, empirical or otherwise, from
Restrictions on length and other factors often which to select a tentative maximum-section
coefficient Cx for any point in the complete range
require a Cp somewhat higher than the best
figures.
to T^ or F„ . This is equally true, for that matter,

The middle of the lower lane gives values of

in a range of any other parameter [Taylor, D. W.,

Cp from about 0.614 for the short 500-ft ship to

S and P, 1943, Fig. 70, pp. 63-64]. This may be,
for the reason stated in Sec. 24.10, that variations
about 0.624 for the long 525-ft ship. A good value
of Cp at least at this stage, appears to be about of Cx have little effect upon hull
in themselves
,

0.62.
resistance.However, the branched design lane
of Fig. 66.D gives an indication of the general
A number of formulas, most of them for
straight lines, have been developed to approximate region in which a good Cx is to be found, for

the steep part of the "roller coaster" Cp lane of

approximately the same ranges of T, and F^
A as in Fig. 66. A.
Fig. 66. in the restricted region of T, between
0.50 and 0.90. These ignore the need for design The limiting optimum value of Cx is 1.00 at a

information appl3dng to vessels in other speed- T„ of 0.0, as for a square- or rectangular-section

length ranges. hull which rarely has to move. When it does
Beyond the left end of the lower lane, with T, move, hull drag is usually no problem. The
ratio Cx may well be made greater than I.O, in
and Fn approaching zero and with wavemaking
practically nonexistent, the Cp may approach a fact up to 1.1 or more, if there are practical

very high value as an asymptote, probably of reasons for doing so, such as adding blisters for

the order of 0.90 to 0.95 or more. This means underwater-explosion protection. As V/'vL in-

that craft which are not required to travel fast creases, the design lane widens until at a T, of
can approach a rectangular box shape, as illus- 1.05, F„ of about 0.31, the value of Cx for good

trated in Fig. 66. C and as explained under barge design lies between 1.00 and 0.90. At still higher

design in Part 5 of Volume III. T, and F„ values, two classes of vessels are
distinguished:
It is again emphasized that the fatness ratio
or prismatic coefficient for every ship need by (1) for high speeds, where beam
Those intended
no means within the lanes of Fig. 66. A, or
lie is keep down the longitudinal water-
sacrificed to
that other parameters need conform to correspond- line curvature and to reduce resistance due to
ing graphs to follow in tliis chapter. Special cases wavemaking but remains adequate for the service;
 Spc. 66.1 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN

"050 Q60 0.70 080 090 TOO TiO (lo 130 i40 [50 160 ITO 50 200 2 II

Taylor Quotient Tt{ or Speed-Length Quotient WC

Fig. 66.D Gkaph for Normal Values of Maximum-Section Coefficient Cv

they are indicated by the upper branch of the Cx However, these corners have been formed by
lane what may be termed large-scale chamfering,
(2) Those designed to travel fast for their length, using two chines with about 45-deg angles, as in
but for which a relatively large beam is a necessity, the straight-element section shape sketched at 1

to afford stability, internal volume, deck space, in Fig. 21. k. On vessels built for some European
and the like. They are indicated by the lower rivers,and on towed steel barges built a half-
branch of the lane. Examples are fishing vessels, century ago for service on the Erie Canal, the
ferryboats, tugs, minesweepers, yachts, and small lower hull corners are made by structural angles,
freight vessels. In fact, for these types the Cx applied outside the side and bottom plating, with
values maydrop well below the lower limits of a bilge radius of practically zero [Nixon, L.,
the plot of Fig. 66. D, approaching 0.50 or 0.40 SNAME, 1896, p. 20 and PI. 19].
[Simpson, D. S., SNAME, 1951, p. 569]. The Since the ABC ship is to give good performance
branch lane for these low values contains no in the shallow and restricted waters of the Port
optimum line, because there appears to be little Amalo canal and the river below Port Correo,
or nothing systematic about the Cx values in this there must be plenty of room for the water to
region. pass around the ship, especially under it. This

means that the maximum-section coefScient Cx ,

If the ship is required to have the largest or the midsection coefficient Cm , should not exceed
practicable volume for a given set of principal about 0.96, on the basis of a midsection of normal
dimensions, as for cargo vessels which must pass form. With a displacement volume of 605,500 ft^
through locks, the midsection is made as full as and a waterline length 515 ft, for the middle-
of
operating clearances permit. This may give a Cx length ship of the three mentioned in Sec. 66.5,
of 0.995 or more, used on Great Lakes freighters. the maximum-section area Ax for a prismatic
Since practically all vessels are drydocked or coefficient Cp of 0.62 is
hauled out periodically, certain clearances may
605,500
be required for these operations. Ax = 1,896 ft"
L(Cp) 515(0.62)
The best structural connection between the
bottom and the side along the middle portion of The minimum depth of channel out of Port
a ship huU calls for a curved plate at the corner. Amalo is 28 ft but between one-third and one-half
470 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.7

of the fuel will have been consumed by then, isnot too large but it increases as fuel is consumed
bringing the ship up in the water by the order of a during the voyage.
foot or so. The ship drops to a deeper draft in The large beam will undoubtedly give all the
the fresh water of the river at Port Correo, and square moment of area required in the designed
ample clearance must be left over the river bed, waterplane for transverse metacentric stability.
which has a minimum depth of 30 ft. It appears Indeed, it may give too much for easy rolling.
necessary, at least at this stage of the design, to Almost certainly it will involve additional pressure
limit the draft in salt water to a maximum of 26 ft. resistance from wavemaking, due to the cor-
This draft then corresponds to the maximum respondingly large waterline slopes and the pres-
designed service load being carried when leaving sure disturbances set up around the wide ship.
Port Correo. From Table 66.d, first hne, and from This matter is brought up again, a little later in
the first weight estimate, the consumable-store the design.
weight is only 400 t at this time, compared to the Working through the procedure described, for a
700 which the ship must carry when fully
t ship 525 ft long on the waterline, with a Cp of 0.62,
stocked at Port Amalo.
For the 515-ft ship the beam Bx at the maxi- ¥ _ 605,500
Ax = = 1,860 ft'
mum-area section is then L{Cp) 525(0.62)

Ax ^ 1,896
£x = " = 75.96 ft. Br =
1,860
= 74.52 ft
Cx{Hx) (0.96)26 CxiHx) (0.96)26

This is quite large for a seagoing ship only 515 ft

525 74.52
long. The length-beam ratio is small, namely L/Bx = = 7.05 Bx/Hx = = 2.866
74.52 26
515/75.96 = 6.78. The beam-draft ratio is rather
large, equal to 75.96/26 = 2.92. The latter ratio This 525-ft length gives considerably better pro-

400 500 600 700 800

Waterline Length, ft
100 125 150 175 200 225 275 300 325 350
Waterline Lenalh, meters

Fig. 66.E Plot of Length-Beam Ratio and Beam on Ship Length

Sec. 66.9 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 471

portions for a ship of the speed and service other items to be carried during any part of the
required, although the beam is still large. voyage. Using the data from Table 64. b and the
Supplementing the discussion in Sec. 24.11, same subdivision as in the first weight estimate
Fig. 66. E gives a range of absolute beams on a of Sec. 66,4:
basis of absolute lengths, based on data from
(a) Liquid bulk cargo, 4,000 t at
many successful ships, for which a great number
42 ft' per t 168,000 ft'
of the spots are shown. The meanline indicated is
rather an average location for most of the ship
(b) Package cargo, 3,000 t at 100
ft' per t 300,000 ft'
values than one drawn through the center of the
(c) Hull structure, on a basis of 4.5
lane marked by the upper and lower ranges of
ft' per t for 6,400 t of hull steel,
absolute beam on absolute length. Also indicated
is a curve of 0-diml L/B ratios corresponding to
fittings, and other construction
materials, -plus 4 times that vol-
the meanline.
Some modern craft built for speed with manual ume for the waste space around
propulsion only, among them canoes, sculls, and it 144,000 ft'

racing shells, retain the high L/B ratios charac-

(d) Estimate for propelling and
other machinery 300,000 ft'
teristic of dugout and American Indian canoes
(This is very large compared to
for many centuries past. However, there has been
the figures given by G. G. Sharp
an increasing demand through the years for
utility, for inherent stability not always possessed
[SNAME, 1947, p. 462] but in
by the canoe with a man (or men) standing up view of the unorthodox features
in it, for still more utility with top hamper, and
being considered for an alterna-
tive stern, with the propelling
finally for greater all-around safety. This has
broadened the beam of boats and small ships machinery aft, it is not reduced
gradually, without too much regard for the effect at this stage)
(e) Fuel, 2,200 t at 42 ft' per t 92,400 ft'
of the small L/B ratio on propulsion. If meta-
. .

centric stability, maneuvering, and other features

(f) Fresh water, lubricating oil, sup-
are more important than propulsion, the design plies, and other consumable
has to favor them. stores, 700 t at 100 ft' per t . 70,000 ft'

For the ABC design the beams given in the (g) Accommodations for officers and
crew, estimated 100,000 ft'
preceding paragraphs are slightly greater than
those shown by the meanline but they are well (h) Passenger quarters and service . 400,000 ft'

within the lane. (i) Non-usable space 100,000 ft'

The block coefficient for the 525-ft vessel works Total volume 1,674,400 ft'
out as
The foregoing does not include an allowance
605,500
Cs = = 0.595-1- for keeping hatchways clear, to facilitate access
L{Bx)Hx 525(74.52)26
to the cargo, nor for the volume of expansion
This checks, as it should, with trunks over the liquid-cargo tanks.
The volume listed is about 2.77 times the
Cb = Cp{Cx) = 0.62(0.96) = 0.595-F
tentative underwater displacement volume of
For the three waterline lengths of 500, 515, 605,500 ft' but it includes practically all deck
and 525 ft, and for a constant Cp of 0.62, the erections. For a combined passenger and freight
proportions and dimensions already worked out vessel, it appears somewhat large but perhaps
and some of those remaining to be derived are not too large at this stage of the design.
indicated for convenience in Table 66. e, in Sec. 66.Q First Approximation to Shaft Power.
66.11. Before making a second weight estimate it is
66.8 First Estimate of Hull Volume. It is necessary to approximate the propelling power,
advisable at this point to make a rough volu- so as to determine more accurately the machinery
metric check of the vessel to insure that everything weights and the fuel capacity.
can be accommodated within the hull, above as The first rough estimate of shaft power Ps
well as below water. It is now necessary to include is derived from the assembled data on merit
the full weight and volume of consumables and factors in Sees. 34.10 and 60.13. The first of these.
472 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.9

the Telfer merit factor M, is represented by all preliminary-design purposes. The latter ratio
values of WV^/igLPg) for a range of Froude issome II per cent less than 1.000, but its effect
numbers squared. Taking the 515-ft or middle on Cf at the large ship Reynolds numbers is
length of ABC ship as the example, for which small. Since the effect of the 68-deg kinematic
Fl is 0.0727, the broken meanUne of Fig. 34.1 viscosity is to diminish the calculated friction
gives a tentative merit factor M of about 9.5. resistance, its use is somewhat questionable in a
Using the dimensional Eq. (34.xxv) of Sec. 34.10, preliminary For these reasons, and
design.
because the "standard" values of p and v for 59
(17,300)(20.5)' deg F are easily remembered, the latter are
Ps = 0.61 = 0.61
L{M) (5 15) (9. 5) employed throughout Part 4 of the book.
18,582 horses. Entering the large-scale portion of Fig. 45.H
with a Cx of 0.96 and a B/H of 2.92 for the 515-ft
Since the 20.5-kt speed is to be made at 0.95 of ship, the wetted-surface coefficient Cs is found
maximum designed power, by item (22) of Table to be 2.618. The fi rst approximati on to the wetted
64.d, thispower is 18,582/0.95 = 19,560 horses. area is then CsV^ = 2.618 \/605,500(515) =
Using the alternative weight-speed-power factor 46,231 ftl From Table 45.b the Reynolds number
WV/Ps of Fig. 60.U, for an Fl of 0.0727, the R„ is about 1391 million for the 515-ft length, for
broken meanhne gives a value of about 125. the 20.5-kt speed of 34.62 ft per sec, and for a
Then, with the dimensional formula on Fig. 60.U, kinematic viscosity "standard" salt water of
v in
1.2817(10"') ft' per sec. From Table 45.d the
17,300(20.5)
Ps = 6. = 19,520 horses. value of Cf is 1.470(10"'). Adding a roughness
125
allowance ACp of 0.4(10"') for a clean, new ship
The designed maximum power estimate is then of as-yet-undetermined shape or surface condition,
19,520/0.95 = 20,550 horses. gives Cf + ACf. = 1.870(10"').
emphasized that, when making estimates
It is Entering the appropriate graph of the B/H =
from the meanlines, one assumes that a ship of 3.00 group of the reworked Taylor Standard
modern design is to perform no better than the Series contours, reproduced in Fig. 56. D of Sec.
average of a number of older ships. Further, since 56.5, for Cp = 0.62, T„ = 0.903, F„ = 0.268, and
the merit-factor ordinates of both Figs. 34.1 and F/(O.IOL)' = 4.433, the value of Cn isfound to
60. U are logarithmic, a value picked among the be 1.25(10"'). Entering the B/H = 2.25 group
spots for the better ships may easily be from 20 with the same values, Cr is 1.21(10"'). Since
to 40 per cent better than the average. This means B/H is actually 2.92, Cr is found by linear inter-
estimated powers of from 20 to 40 per cent below polation to be approximately 1.246(10"'). At the
those calculated in the preceding paragraphs. 20.5-kt speed, therefore, the specific friction
The third estimate is made by the use of the resistance considerably more than half of the
is

ATTC 1947 or Schoenherr friction line, the ATTC total resistance, namely 1.870(10"') as compared
1947 roughness allowance ACp of 0.4(10"^), to (1.870. -I- 1.246)10"' = 3.116(10"'). The
and the Taylor Standard Series data as reworked amount of wetted surface is therefore something
by M. Gertler [TMB Rep. 806, Govt. Print. Off., to be watched carefully in the design.
Wash., Mar 1954]. The total drag Rt oi the bare underwater hull
At account of
this point it is necessary to take is estimated from Eq. (45.ii) of Sec. 45.7, namely
the average temperature of the sea water in which Rt = (p/2)7'S(C« -I- Cf. + ACf) = 55(1.246 -f-

the ship is to run, specified in item (18) of Table 1.470 + 0.4)10"', where for the first approxima-
64. c. For this temperature, 68 deg F, the value of tion p is taken as 1.9905 slugs per ft' for salt
the mass density p(rho) of salt water, from Table water. Then Rt = 0.99525(34.62)^(46,231)3.116
X3.e, is 1.9882 slugs per ft'. The kinematic (10"') = 171,830 lb, whence
viscosity j'(nu), from Table X3.h, is 1.1372(10"')
RtV 171,830(34.62)
ft^ per sec. The former is 0.99884 times the value Pe = = 10,816 horses.
550 550
of p = 1.9905 slugs per ft' for the standard con-
dition of temperature 59 deg F, wliile the latter A round figure is 10,820 horses.
is 0.88726 times the value of j- = 1.2817(10"') As a check calculation by Taylor's original
ft" per sec for the same standard temperature. method [S and P, 1943, pp. 59-60], the friction
The former ratio is suflSciently close to 1.000 for resistance per ton of displacement is found by
Sec. 66.9 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 473

taking first the dimensional wetted-surface coeffi- keels 200 ft long and 3 ft wide would have a
cient Cws from 20 on page 22 of the reference.
Fig. total wetted area of about 2(200)3(2) = 2,400 ft'.
With B/Ii = 2.92 and Cx = 0.96, the value of The hull area covered up by the bases of roll-resist-
Cws is, as nearly as can be determined, 15.02. ing keels of triangular section would average about
For a 515-ft ship the length-correction factor 1 ftwide by 2(200) ft long, or say 400 ft'. The
Q:(alpha) is 0.997, taken from the diagram at the totaladded area for rudder and keels is then
right of Fig. 188 on page 188 of the reference. 536 2,400 - 400 = 2,536 ft', which is 2,536/
+
Then for a A/(0.010L)'' quotient of 126.7 and (46,231) = 0.055, or 5.5 per cent of the bare-hull
a T, of 0.903, the friction resistance per ton of area. On the basis of additional wetted area
displacement for a ship having a Cws of 15.4, alone, this not more than 6 per cent of the
is

from the plot of Fig. 188, is 6.1 lb. For the 515-ft which in turn is only about
friction resistance,
ship with a Cws of 15.02, and an a of 0.997, 62 per cent of the total. The increase in total
drag is therefore of the order of 4 per cent.
(15.02) it seems wise at this stage to double
R. = 6.1 (0.997) = 5.932 lb pert. However,
(15.4) this effectand allow about 8 per cent of the total
resistance for the final appendage drag. Since
For the Cp of 0.62, the displacement-length
the requirement of item (26) of Table 64. d states
quotient of 126.7, the B/H ratio of 2.25, and the
r„ of 0.90, the value of Rr/^. is, from page 201,
that "A reasonable expenditure of weight or
power, or both, to secure effective roll-quenching"
3.55 lb. For a B/H ratio of 2.92, it is, by hnear
interpolation between B/H = 2.25 and B/H = is acceptable to the owner, it may be considered

3.75, 3.75 lb. Similarly, for T^ = 0.95, Rr/L is

advisable, at a later stage of the design, to make
the roll-resisting keels even larger than indicated
5.779 Again interpolating linearly for T, =
lb.
here.
0.903, i2«/A is 3.872 lb for the parameters given.
The In the absence of any better information, an
bare-hull resistance Rt is then
additional 2 per cent is included to cover the drag

of the condenser scoop and the circulating-water

(1^ + ^)a = (5.932 + 3.872)17,300
discharge, making 10 per cent in all.
= So far as can be determined at tliis time there
169,610 lb.
is sufficient allowance for fouling in the 1.8-kt
The agreement with 171,830 lb as found by between the 18.7-kt scheduled speed for
difference
the third method is within 1.3 per cent and is the whole voyage and the 20.5-kt trial speed
good enough at this stage of the design. under clean-bottom smooth-water conditions.
Another quick method for approximating the The tabulated data at the end of Sec. 60.11
total bare-hull resistance /2j. of the ship is to use give a range of propulsive coefficient of 0.82 to
the graph of Fig. 56. M, comprising values of 0.72 for clean, new, single-screw ships of modern
iZr/A plotted on T^ over a wide range of relative hydrodynamic design. seems reasonable to
It
speeds. It applies to any type of vessel from a lake assume that a value of iji. as high as 0.74 can be

freighter up to a high-speed patrol craft. Entering
Fig. 56.M with a T^ of 0.903, corresponding to the
designed speed of 20.5 kt of the ABC ship, the
value of flr/A is 10.2 lb per long ton. With an
estimated displacement of 17,300 tons, this gives
achieved for a single-screw ABC ship, even
though the design is not yet worked out. Using
an appendage-and-scoop factor of 0.10 for added
resistance, and a propulsive coefficient of 0.74, a
first approximation to the shaft power is (10,820)

a bare-hull resistance 72?. of 176,400 lb. This is (1.10)/0.74 = 16,084 horses.

2.66 per cent higher than the resistance estimated Item (22) of Table 64. d states that the sustained
by the third method described, but is at least sea speed of 20.5 kt shall be attained by the use
on the high side for the present. of not more than 0.95 of the maximum designed
If the vessel is to be driven by a single screw, power. The latter is therefore 16,084/0.95 =
the ship requirements appear to call for no 16,930 horses. This is considerably less than the
appendages except a single rudder and a pair of firstand second estimates of 19,560 and 20,550
roll-resisting keels. A rudder having an area of horses, but aU are within the capabilities of a
0.02{LH) would have a projected blade area of modern single-shaft plant and a single propeller.
about 0.02(515)26 = 268 ft^, and a surface area Again it is emphasized that all these estimates
of something over 536 ft^. A pair of roll-resisting are for average performance, with generous
 474 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.10

allowances such as doubling the estimated this size, also at the time of writing, should be
appendage resistance. able to produce full power at a fuel rate of 0.58
Further, it is assumed in all the foregoing that lb per horse per hr; certainly on 0.6 lb [Barnaby,
the resistance of the final ABC hull will not K. C, INA, 1950, p. J8]. An estimated allowance
exceed that of the Taylor Standard Series hull for the hotel load, for full atmosphere control,
of the same proportions and weight displacement, including dehumidification, and for other items
This is certainly the end to be sought; in fact, not covered by the hydrodynamic specifications,
the designer should look forward to bettering the is0.1 lb per horse per hr, making a total of 0.70
TSS performance. In this connection the following lb for all purposes.
isquoted from a discussion by S. A. Vincent As a check on the first item, W. I. H. Budd and
[SNAME, 1948, p. 403], where the comments in 0. Praznik show a fuel rate of slightly under
parentheses are those of the present author: 0.575 lb of oil per horse per hour for all purposes

few ". having prismatic coefficients from about

. . vessels
tSNAME, 1948, Fig. 1, p. 472]. This apparently
9.72 to 0.75 are as good as the (Taylor) Standard Series does not mclude fuel for the hotel services,
models at designed speeds suitable for the prismatic Concerning the second item it is probably more
coefficient (see Fig. 66.A). At higher or lower speeds for logical to determine the fuel rate for services on
this particular range of vessels and also for vessels having
^ ^^^^^ ^f ^j^^ ^^^^^ personnel on board per day at
prismatic coefficients beyond this range, the resistance for tt . ,
, i ,

^ea or in port. However, as the rates in question

good forms below that of the Standard Series, often is

considerably below the designer would do well to . . .

are bemg used solely for a design example rather
have the Standard Series form in mind when drawing than for an actual ship they need not be more
the lines of vessels having prismatic coefficients between than roughly representative of good practice at
about 0.72 and 0.75." ^ ^^e time of writing.
- ,, i i. J. XI. i_ 11 1. J 1 J r The fuel consumption per voyage is then
In the event that the hull shape developed for ^. ^j
estimated as 290(16,930) (0.70) = 3,437 kips or
c^t^r^,^^c^n,^\,r^nn\ o To-, i
•

^, ,„^ ship should

ABC ,, ^ ^c
prove more resistful
^,
than
, . , . ,

the
„ . ro^ ^ j n rm ^ mi_- ^r/^ ^
1,534.4 t. A round figure is 1,550 t. This is 650 t
a j. -, •

^,
the
o/ J J
Taylor fetandard
,
Series, it is possible to apply
ci •
-i •
-ui J. 1
, ,, ^i „ ,, ,, ^^ , j.
'
r- , .

T i i. XI- . , 1 less than that allowed tor in the nrst weight

a contra-guide ending to the single centerline ^. ^ , __„ ^ ^, ^ ,

, ,° jj mu X ii. . estimate, and 200 t more than enough to com-

skeg, and to use a contra rudder. Ihese together '.
^, ..„ , . ,,.,. , „.
, , ,

should regain a certain amount of power lost in

. , .
^ e IX- pensate tor the 450 t of additional propellmg-
machinery weight m the second estimate,
, . -
i , -
,i i ,- ,

, ,1
. . „ .X li- Ax xi X -x 1
driving the hull itself. At this stage it appears „
,,,,,,,bow
that a bulb might be benehcial. It so, a
,. , , iz-irr „^^.
,,
A» further /. ,- ^
check on proportions of hull-and-
, , i i

,.,, ,,,
still greater amount of power could be regained.
, ^. ., nttings weights to total weight with
, ,
•
, x x x . T •
i . -,1
all
i,
useful
r i

, i ,
-
r , ^ , , i i

^^,« r. jT^x- X iiT^- i-tT7-t.x • load, on the basis of riveted seams and welded
66.10 Second Estimate of Principal Weights. ^/ n xu
-xLx^x
•
, xi. i. x- i x x
„, .,x-x , , . butts in the shell plating, a three-compartment
The most uncertain weight items in the farst ^ , , , „ i i -i-, xi -i i i-
standard tor floodability, the possible use
,, ,,.
,
. „ „„ ^,

xi
, XI- .

rough estimate of Sec. 66.4 were those of the hull,

11

T
,

, .
.

1
J-

i- 1
1-

special type
. . ^
of
...
smgle-screw
,

stern, and
,,,
the
oi a

the propelhng machinery, and the fuel. In . ,. .

„ ^ -i ^ ,- i , .
-
i ,

, -Ti xi 1 • r CI ^rv r, XL judicious use of hght alloys for topside weights,

accordance with the conclusions of Sec. 69.2 the ... ^ ,, x .i T n -,i ^,,- ii i
. _„ .
xt -
r indicates that the hull proper with nttings should
ABC ,
design is
,

to be
,
worked up on the 1 1 1
basis of a x or . x r xi i .
weigh about 35 per cent of the loaded ship. The
mi i i i
•

. 1 11

—,, , , •, 1 1 • /. X- X xi- X- r original hull weight of 6,400 t may be reduced at

The best available information, at the time of ,,
.° ,
, , - r,^V^ . mi • -
i
/,r.rr^ r I . • 1 i
this stage to about 5,960 t. Ihe original margin
writing (1955), for a complete single-screw steam . ._„ 7 x o •

ot 500 t, lust uudcr 3 per cent, may safely be

i . i /• i

^ .',, ,„„„rv X , -i-T r,r.r. J.

power plant in the range of 16,000 to 17,000 ^ ^ oor^ x x u x o x
; ..,„.,, , mi X X X- x 1 1
cut to 330 t, just about 2 per cent,
horses is 165 lb per horse, ihe total estimated „ ,•
„. 1 , .
1, , ji •
X • .1 A second weight estimate looks about as follows:
, i , , , , , , c

propelling-plant weight at this stage is then

16,930(165) = 2,793.5 kips or 1,247.1 t; say 1,250 (a) Liquid bulk cargo 4,000 t

t. This more than the

is 450 t, or 56.3 per cent (b) Package cargo 3,000 t

800 t of the original estimate, an indication of (c) Hull and fittings 5,960 t
the surprises that often turn up in operations of (d) Propelling machinery 1,250 t
this kind. (e) Fuel, including reserve 1,550 t

From Table 66. c in Sec. 66.2 the estimated (f) Fresh water, supphes, and the like . 400 t

fuel to beburned per voyage corresponds to that (g) Weight margin 330 t

for approximately 290 hours of steady steaming

at maximum designed power. A steam plant of Estimated total weight displacement 16,490 t
Sec. 66.11 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 475

The corresponding displacement volume at the 66.11 Second Approximation to Principal Di-
nominal figure of 35 ft^ per ton of salt water is mensions and Proportions. The second estimate
577,150 ft'. brings the weight displacement down by 810 t
It is again pointed out that the percentages, from the 17,300 t of the first estimate. On this
unit weights, fuel rates, and other values and basis alone the ship can bemade smaller; for one
relationships in these weight estimates may not thing, the beam can be reduced from the order
agree with those used by some reader-designers of 75 ft to a more reasonable figure. It is to be
nor may
they continue to be reasonable figures remembered, however, that the volumes to be
in the light of technical developments in the next accommodated within the hull and deck erections
few decades. They are intended only as numbers remain substantially the same, and that in the
in an example and they in no way affect the first estimate of volume the hull appeared to be

procedures in the hydrodynamic design of the none too large.

vessel carried through here. Further, since it is customary to reckon the

TABLE 66.e Tentative Hydbodynamic Features of Sbvebal Vessels op Different Lengths

For the fourth and fifth approximations, 90 t has been deducted from the hull weights for the shell plating, to give
the molded displacement.

Approximation
476 HYnROnVNAMICS IN SHIP DESTCN Ser. 66.12

principal dimensions and to calculate the form For convenient reference the data derived in
coefRcients to the molded form, as explained in the foregoing for the tentative lengths of 500,515,
Sec. 66.21, it is possible to consider about 90 t 525, and 510 ft, plus a few additional items to be
of the displacement as helping to support the derived, are Usted in Table 66. e.
weight of the shell plating and appendages. The 66.12 Selection of Hull Shape. Up to this
volume of the molded hull, to the outside of the point the preliminary design has involved only
frames, is therefore smaller by about 90(35) = principal dimensions and proportions. It is now
3,150 ft'. Specifically, it is 577,150 ft' less 3,150 ft', necessary to think of the shape which the vessel's
or 574,000 ft'. hull is to take. While it is admitted that the

Considering for the moment the middle tenta- Taylor Standard Series shape, derived from a
tive length of 515 ft, with its T„ of 0.903, the twin-screw cruiser of the early 1900's, is not
displacement-length quotient for a weight W of necessarily adaptable to any vessel designed in
16,490 - 90 = 16,400 t is 16,400/136.591 or subsequent years, especially one with a single
120.1. The 0-diml fatness ratio is 574,000/136,591 screw, it is without question a good shape from
or 4.202. This is just below the middle of the upper the standpoint of easy driving.
lane of Fig. 66. A, so the 515-ft length still appears Other good shapes, excellent ones, have been
appropriate. developed through the years, shapes which no
The maximum section area Ax for a Cp of 0.62 is designer need hesitate to copy
if they serve his

purpose.He is cautioned, however, not to attempt

A^ =
¥ 574,000
= "breeding" better ship fines by averaging good
1,798 ft'
L{Cp) 515(0.62)
existing lines; this has been tried and definitely
Reducing the beam to 74 ft gives found wanting.
It is extremely difficult in the present state of
= Ax 1,798
=
Cx 0.9345 the art, especially without benefit of model tests,
Bx{Hx) 74(26)
to predict the effect of shape changes in a parent
This maximum-section coefficient appears, from form. Nevertheless, it is considered far preferable
Fig. 66. D, to be somewhat on the low side. Using to modify a given good shape to meet the de-
a beam of 73 ft, ,
signer's needsthan to make up a new shape by
adding a good stern to a good but unrelated bow,
Ax 1,798
Cx = = 0.947 or by any process of averaging. These matters
BxiHx) 73(26)
are discussed in greater detail in Sec. 66.24.
This is still somewhat low. It is possible that, 66.13 Layout of Maximum-Section Contour.
with some 800 t off the original displacement, the The tentative value ofCx as selected from Fig.
length is a little longer than need be. Taking a 66. D determines whether the maximum-section
reduced length of 510 ft, and retaining Cp = 0.62, contour is to be rectangular, follomng closely the
lines for hmiting beam and draft, whether it is to
574,000
Ax = = 1,815 ft' be well cut away, as in a keel type of saifing yacht,
L{Cp) 510(0.62)
or whether it is to take some intermediate form.
whence If it is desired, in fashioning the form, to place
as much displacement as possible amidships, the
1,815
Cx = 0.9563, use of a hard bilge and a relatively "square"
73(26)
section need not interfere materially with the
which is satisfactory at tliis stage. flow except to increase the transverse velocity
These new dimensions give an L/B ratio of gradient and the local friction resistance around
510/73 or 6.986 and a B/H ratio of 73/26 or 2.808. the sharp bilge.
The block coefficient Cb is (0.62)0.956 or about In a vessel which is to run at not more than
0.593. The Taylor quotient T, is 20.5/22.583 = medium or fast speed in deep water, there is no
0.908, the displacement-length quotient is reason why the bottom can not be perfectly flat
16,400/132.651 = 123.63, and the 0-diml fatness over a considerable area. The floor fines at the
ratio is 574,000/132,651 = 4.327. As a convenient midsection need not be raised unless this is

check at this point the graphs of Fig. 66. required for drainage of the tanks and spaces
indicate a mean L/B ratio of about 7.4 for a lying just above this bottom, or for some other
vessel 510 ft long. practical purpose.
Sec. 66.1? STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 477

Excessive transverse metacentric stability de- Assuming for a starter that the floor line and
veloping ill the course of the design is reheved by the ship's side are both straight, and that the
narrowing the surface waterline and working bilge contour is a circular arc, the appropriate
tumble home into the midsection or into the formula of Fig. 66. F enables the bilge radius BR
section of maximum area for a considerable dis- to be readily calculated. For the ABC ship this
tance below the DWL, possibly half way down comes out as 10.76 equal to 0.14745^ for an
ft, ,

to the baseplane. Increased displacement volume Ax value of 1,815 and a Cx of 0.9563. Taking
ft'

and carrying capacity is achieved by working an a half-siding of 1.5 ft, a molded half-beam of
underwater bulge into this section below the 36.5 ft, and a molded draft of 26 ft, one-half of
designed waterplane. If the vessel already has the maximum section is laid out as in Fig. 66. G.
adecjuate metacentric stability, this bulge need
not increase the waterline beam.
As a check on the tentative value of Cx for the
ABC design at this stage a maximum-section
contour is drawn. This requires that the rise of
floor, if any, be established. It gives an idea of
the roll-resisting characteristics of the section,
leading in turn to an estimate of the bilge-keel
width which is required and that which can be
allowed.
To meet the requirements of the ABC design
it is decided tentatively that:

(a) There is to be some rise of floor, to provide

for internal tank drainage and to give more room
for water moving aft under the ship in the shallow
waters to be traversed
Fig. 66.G Half of Maximum-Section Contour
(b) The side of the ship in way of the designed FOB ABC Design
waterline is to be given a shght tumble home if

possible but in any case is not to have an out-

ward flare in that region
A heavy bed hue is drawn in at h = 29 ft. The
rise of floorand the slack bilge appear to provide
(c) There should be room to fit roll-resisting keels
ample room for backflow under and around the
which are at least 3 ft wide amidships, to help
ship in the shallow and restricted areas of the
counteract the effect of the shallow draft and
river and the canal but of course the large corner
the wide beam.
radius detracts from the inherent roll-resisting
A rise of floor of 1.0 ft is tentatively selected. characteristics of the hull. However, there is room
With a half-beam amidships and a
of 36.5 ft enough for roll-resisting keels at least 4 ft wide
half-siding of say 1.5 ft, a floor slope of
this gives amidships, if desired, without having them
1.0/35.0 = 0.0286, corresponding to slightly over project below the floor line extended or beyond
1.6 deg. The rise-of-floor to beam ratio isKF/fi^ = the extreme beam.
1.0/73 = 0.0137. The first conflict between requirements now
appears in grapliic form. With the fairly large

To calculate 6R with no Rise of Floor To colculoti

B/H ratio of 2.8, the large ratio of BR/Bx =
0.1474, and a value of BM that is certain to be
5R-V?.5299(I-C,)Bx-H R-l/(l-Cx)B«H-0.5Bx-RF large, there are indications of heavy rolhng ahead,
hence the need for deep roll-resisting keels. The
compromise thus indicated between restricted-
water and wavegoing needs may not be the best
I Half-Siding H5 neglected y^ ^^^ one but it will be allowed to stand for the time
being. At least the restricted waters must be
traversed twice every voyage while waves that
Fig. 66. P Formulas for Computing Bilge produce deep rolling may or may not be en-
Radius BR countered on every trip.
478 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.14

66.14 First Estimate Relating to Metacentric coefficient just described, and between (2) Cw and
Stability. Before the preliminary design proceeds the transverse inertia coefficient Cit
too far it is well to know the general situation To use the diagram, start with the value of Cp ,

relating to transverse metacentric stability. While say 0.62 for the ABC ship, then cross horizontally
this can not be determined accurately until the to the lower diagonal line. The abscissa of this
waterline shape is fixed, the waterplane coefficient first intersection gives a good average value of
Cw and other characteristics of the waterline Cw ,
in this case 0.713. Then go up this ordinate
generally are determined, in turn, by the meta- to the upper diagonal line, whereupon the ordinate
centric-stability requirements. of the second intersection gives the value of C, j-

In years gone by the value of Cw was approxi- approximately 0.561 for the ABC design. Because
mated by the use of a ratio between (1) the of certain differences innormal-form ships with
prismatic coefficient Cp and (2) the waterplane different numbers there is one
of propellers
coefHcient Cw , known as the relation coefficient, diagram for single-screw vessels and another for
symbolized by Cy This ratio was found to be twin- and multiple-screw vessels. Using the
more nearly constant than other ratios among values picked for the single-screw ABC design,
the various form coefficients and was used for the square moment of area of the waterplane
estimating Cw before the lines were drawn works out as/ = [BUL)C,t]/12 = [73' (510)0.561]
[Barnaby, K. C, BNA, 1948, p. 24]. /12 = 9,275,150 it\ The metacentric radius BM,
Based upon the satisfactory service performance equal to I/V, is 9,275,150/574,000 or 16.16 ft.
number of merchant vessels, from small
of a large Long experience demonstrates that a reasonable
cargo ships to large liners, with data kindly value of transverse metacentric height to satisfy
furnished by the U. S. Maritime Administration, both comfort and safety requirements is about
the diagrams of Fig. 66. H
have been prepared. O.OGBx [Niedermair, J. C, SNAME, 1936, pp.
They give acceptable relationships between (1) the 419-420; INA, 1951, p. 144]. For the 73-ft beam
prismatic coefficient Cp and the waterplane of the ABC ship this gives GM = (0.06)73 or
coefficient Cw , corresponding to the relation 4.38 ft.

0,60 0.65 0.70 0.75 080 085 0.90 060 065 070 0.75 080 005 0.90
Woterplone Coefficient Cw Woterplone Coefficient C-^v

Fig. 66.H Data for Selecting Waterplane Coefficient and Transverse Moment-of-Arba Coefficient
FOR Given Prismatic Coefficients
 Sec. 66.15 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 479

The height KB of the center of buoyancy CB directly a part of the hydrodynamic design they
above the basehne determined at this stage by
is are omitted here.
the Normand formula,often known as the Morrish The range of stability and the heeling or righting
formula [Normand, J. -A., "Formules Approxima- energy pertaining to dynamic metacentric sta-
tives de Construction Navale (Approximate bility are approximated, according to Sec. 68.6,
Formulas Naval Architecture)," Paris, Arthus
for when the abovewater hull has been roughed out.
Bertrand, 1870; Pollard, J., and Dudebout, A., 66.15 First Sketch of Designed Waterline
"Th^orie du Navire," 1890, Vol. I, p. 113; Shape. The next step in determining the shape
SNAME, 1893, p. 29] of the vessel is to lay out the designed waterline.
The diagrams of Fig. 24. G illustrate some historic
KB = H -(- + —) yet highly instructive waterhne shapes. Fig. 51.C
(66.iii) depicts the actual designed-waterline shapes for
six typical vessels in several speed-length groups.
The B/Bx values for many other waterline shapes

For the ABC design at this stage H is 26 ft, V is

are to be found on the SNAME Resistance Data
sheets.
574,000 andA^ = 510(73)0.713 = 26,545 ft',
ft',
Because of the effect of the waterline slopes
whence ¥/A^ = 574,000/26,545 = 21.62.
forward upon surface wavemaking and of the
Then KB = 26 - 1/3(13 + 21.62) = 14.46 ft,
waterline slopes aftupon separation, the shape
KM = KB + BM = 14.46 + 16.16 = 30.62 ft, of thewaterplane depends upon the speed-length
quotient T^ or F„ at which the vessel is to run.
KG = KM - GM = 30.62 - 4.38 = 26.24 ft.
Since the relative speed of the ABC ship is rather
This means that, with the assumptions made, high, with a T, of 0.908 and an F, of 0.270, a
the CG of the fully loaded vessel lies very nearly small waterline slope at the stem and an easy
in the designed waterline. It should
easily be waterline in the entrance are indicated, to keep
possible to keep the CG
below this limit, even down the pressure resistance Rp due to wave-
with a fairly large abovewater hull and with the making. With the small length-beam ratio of
sizable upper works required for passenger 6.986,and the Ukelihood of using a bulb bow, a
quarters. On the other hand, the CG is not so considerable degree of hoUowness in the entrance
high as to produce undesirable rolling features waterlines is a certainty. Taking into account
[Vedeler, G., INA, 1925, p. 166]. It is, in fact, the speed ratios listed and the Cp of 0.62, S. A.
somewhat lower in proportion than customary
is Vincent's data of 1930 [MESA, Mar 1930, Fig. 5,
for ocean hners [de Vito, E., INA, 1952, Table p. 139; revised unofficially to 1952] indicate
VIII; partial abstract in SBSR, 13 Nov 1952, pp. something between a very hollow and a moderately
642-643]. hollow entrance waterline.
The expression KB^ /H s available as a rough
i A study of nominal WL entrance slopes is for
check on the value of BM, where k varies from easily driven hulls, plus available reference data
0.08 to 0.10 [Attwood, E. L., and Pengelly, H. S., on the subject, produced the graphs of Fig. 66.1.
pp. Ill, 476]. For a rectangular box hull, BM =
0.08357^- For the ABC design, where B is at
present 73 and H is 26 ft, BM = (say)0.08(73)
ft

26 = 16.40 ft, compared to the value of 16.16 ft

determined previously.
A complete preUminary design requires, at this
or at a slightly later stage, an estimate of the
vertical and horizontal CG position as determined
by the weights [PNA, 1939, Vol. I, pp. 102-103],
including if possible a check from the known
values for a somewhat similar ship. It requires
also an estimate of the transverse metacentric
stability for the light as well as the loaded
condition; possibly also for one or more inter- Fig. 66.1 Graph op Design Values for Waterline
mediate loading conditions. As these are not Slope is at Entrance
480 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.15

These exclude the shapes of stems made blunt

for construction or functional purposes only.
Past practice, and good performance as well,
indicated by the spots in the region of T„ = 0.4
to 0.75, has embodied —
and justified, in a way
the use of large ie values in these low-speed
ranges. Further study of the large deflection
drag undoubtedly associated with these blunt
stems, plus consideration of the equally large
wavegoing drag in head seas, calls for a reduction
in these slopes, if practicable. The design lane
in Fig. 66.1 is therefore lower than one laid out
to fence in most of the spots.
Because of the lower L/B ratio of short vessels,
explained in Sec. 66.7 and indicated graphically
in Fig. 66. E, their is values are necessarily larger.
Fig. 66.1 contains therefore a branched design
lane for vessels of low L/B but high V/\/L
ratios. The lane for vessels of L/B = 6.0 to 10.0
rises sUghtly at high T,'s because of the straight
or slightly convex designed-waterline shapes used
in the forebodies of these craft. For the ABC
waterhne entrance an is value of 7 or 8 deg 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Lenqth of Parallel Designed Vi/oterline in Percentoqe-
appears suitable for the present, until the whole of Ship Lenqth
waterhne is laid out and its characteristics are
checked with various requirements. Fig. 66.J Design Lane for Percentage of
Parallel Waterune
Hydrodynamically, and for easy driving, any
parallel waterlines at and near the surface are
to be avoided, for the reasons given in Sees. 4.7 portion. On the ABC design the optimum position
and 24.13. middlebody is used, parallel
If parallel appears to be about 0.54L; the exact position is
waterlines of course come with them. When not too important. It will probably depend upon
vessels are built on slips or in docks of limited subsequent adjustment of the to achieveDWL
width, or when they have to pass through canal nearly constant curvature.
locks, some parallel waterhne is inevitable, Inspection of the many waterhne endings and
even without parallel middlebody. The lane on run slopes in on the available SNAME RD
Fig. 66.J is an indication of what has been found sheets, for ships of normal form and with canoe
acceptable in the past on vessels with varying or whaleboat sterns, together with those shown in
Cp Judging by this the ABC ship could have a
. Figs. 23. A, 24.G, and 51. C, indicates the extreme
parallel portion of the DWL
up to about 0.22L, shaping such a stern with a slope ig
difficulty of

but to keep the longitudinal waterhne curvature of 15deg or less. Even the TSS parent form,
more nearly constant a value of O.OL is selected. EMB model 632, with a Cw of only 0.66 and an
This is also within the lane. L/B ratio of 6.85, has a run slope at the stern
The fore-and-aft position of the maximum as high as 22 deg; see Fig. 24.G. One solution,

designed waterhne beam Bwx ,

which may or and the one adopted here for the ABC afterbody,
may not be opposite the maximum-area section, is to use an immersed-transom stern, along the

is determined by the position of the latter to hues described in Sec. 23.2 and illustrated in
some extent. Nevertheless, for easy-driving ships Fig. 23.A. A conservative preliminary figure for
these positions are well related to the Cp value, a not-too-wide transom beam B^ on the ABC
and hence are shown logically on different dia- ship is 0.3B;r This may have to be increased
•

grams. Fig. 66. K

gives a lane of good positions later to keep the run slopes down to the order of
for a large range of Cp values. When there is any 12 or 13 deg.
parallel waterhne, the indicated position along Despite difficulties encountered with the wave-
the ship length is for the midlength of that going performance of certain full-stern vessels
Srr. 66.1 r, STEPS IN PRFLTMTNARY nF.STCN 'IRl

of the past [Thompson, R. C, NECI, 1935-1936, (j) Transom width Bu = 0.3(Bx) = 21.9 ft

pp. 216-217], no such problems have presented (k) Transom radius in planform, tentative, O.IOL,
themselves with the multitude of full-stern and or say 50 ft.

transom-stern vessels of the U. S. Navy built

Several attempts produce a result that meets
from the middle 1930's to the present. Since the
the requirements fairly closely. The preUminary
transom stern proposed here is on the small
sketches are not illustrated here but the final
side as transom sterns go, it is considered accept-
designed waterline shape appears in Fig. 07. A.
able for this preliminary design.
It is now possible to sketch a tentative designed
A preliminary check of the curvature, by the
graphic method described in Chap. 49, indicates
waterline for the ABC ship on the basis of the
that the early contours could stand some smooth-
following:
ing. However, before making another try at the
(a) Length, 510 ft designed waterline it is well to see how other
(b) Slope at stem, 7 to 8 deg parts of the underwater form work out.
(c) Entrance offsets from S. A. Vincent [MESA, 66.16 Estimated Draft Variations. It is useful
Mar 1930, Fig. 5, p. 139], for T, = 0.8 to 0.85, at this stage, as an aid in developing other features
with hollow portion of the underwater body, to have some idea of the
(d) No parallel waterline variations in draft to be encountered in the several
(e) Slope at stern, 13 deg, maximum variable-weight conditions. first statement The
(f) Beam, maximum, 73 ft of these conditions, given in Table 66.d of Sec.
(g) Position of B^x , 0.54L, or 275.4 ft abaft FP 66.3, requires modification because of the changes
(h) Nearly constant curvature amidships in fuel weights. The second variable-weight
(i) Cr = 0.713; Aw = 510(73)0.713 = 26,545 ft'' statement appears in Table 66. f.
The tons per foot immersion for the designed-
0.90 waterline dimensions tentatively selected are
approximately 26,545/35 or 758.4 tons per ft,
equivalent to about 63.2 tons per in. This value
diminishes as the load decreases and the ship
comes up in the water. The change is allowed for
in a rough way by reducing the 758 tons per foot
progressively to a guessed value of 725 tons per
ft at the lighter drafts. On this basis the drafts
corresponding to the entries in Table 66. f are
about as set down in Table 66.g. These show that
when the vessel is returning to Port Amalo
through the canal it is some 975 t fighter than the
designed maximum service displacement. When
leaving Port Amalo it may be from 2,400 to 3,400
lighter or even more, depending upon the liquid
ballast carried. This decreases the mean draft
by from 3.26 to 4.63 ft. It may be expected to
reduce the maximum draft, with the stern down
to keep the propeller under water, by at least 1.0
ft. The minimum bed clearance under the middle
of the ship in the Port Amalo canal is then

28 - (26 - 3.26) = 5.26 ft, which is undoubtedly

more than enough for the limiting speeds of 8
OSOM M I I II I I I
and 10 kt. The designed draft of the vessel might
£5 60 55 50 -4S 40 possibly be increased from 26 to 27 ft, but then
Position of Maximum Designed Waterline Beam the bed clearance in the river when leaving Port
Byjx in Percentaqe of Ship Lenoth from FP
Correo would be 3 ft minus the fresh-water
Fig. 66.K Foee-and-Aft Position of Maximum sinkage correction, or about 2.35 ft. This is

Waterline Beam Bffx smaller than the 3 ft indicated in Fig. 66. G.

482 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.17

TABLE 66.f Second Statement of Variable- Weight Conditions

This table, at the present stage of the design, supersedes Table 66.d.

Load Condition
Sec. 66.18 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 483

TABLE 66.g First Statement op Variable Draft

The variations from the designed maximum service load are taken from the last column of Table 66. f. The sinkage
value for fresh water is reckoned constant, at its maximum value.

Load Condition
484 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66. IS

to be determined. Unfortunately, the results of the

parallel-middlebody series of models developed
by D. W. Taylor, reported in the 1943 edition of
his book "The Speed and Power of Ships,"
pages 70-72 and 257-271, have not been analyzed
and put in suitable design form. It is therefore
necessary to use an empirical design curve. Taking
as a basis Taylor's original 1910 diagram [the
same as S and P, 1943, Fig. 83, p. 71], his data
have been supplemented by parallel-middlebody
percentages (Lp/L) for ship models on the
SNAME RD sheets whose performance was
equal to or better than that of the TSS model of
the same proportions. When suitably extended to
cover higher and lower values of Cp the new
,

plot of Fig. 66.M reveals that these ship data he

in a rather narrow lane running diagonally across
the diagram. Since Cp and T„ (or F„) are, for
easily driven ships, related by the lower design
lane of Fig. 66. A, the data recently analyzed
are therefore plotted in Fig. 66.M on a basis of
Cp The new
only. design lane gives directly the
proper ratio of Lp to Lg^L-
D. AV. Taylor's original diagram[S and P, 1943,
Fig. 83, p. 71], as well as Fig. 66.M, reveal that:

(a) Inserting parallel middlebody of length Lp

is a definite advantage at low T, and F„ values.
For a given Cp it adds displacement amidships
and allows finer ends. It also gives rectangular
passenger and cargo spaces and may result in
reduced building costs.

-
Sec. 66.21 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 485

cated in a preceding paragraph, placed with its mediate value of f E — 0.06 lies within the opti-
midle ngth at the selected fore-and-aft position mum range, and it affords ample room for the
LMA of the section ofmaximum area. bottom anchor contemplated, although it is
66.19 Bulb-Bow Parameters. Considering somewhat lower than the optimum for the pro-
next the forward end of the ship, it is determined portions of this vessel.
first whether a bulb bow is advisable as a means From the upper diagram of Fig. 67. D a value
of saving pressure resistance. This is governed of is = 0.9 is tentatively selected for the designed
largely by the ratio of the speed to the length at range of T, of from 0.828 to 0.908.
the point where maximum performance is desired. The detail design of the bulb is worked out in
The greatest saving is in the region of a T^ of Sec. 67.6.
1.0; it tapers off down to a T„ of about 0.75 or 66.20 Transom-Stern Parameters. For an
less and it diminishes at 1\ values up to 1.5 or estimate of the immersed-transom area and the
more. Inspection of F. H. Todd's Table 5 [IME, value of fn it is assumed first that the transom
Feb 1945, p. 18], as well as of Fig. 67.D in Sec. is definitely to clear at the designed speed of
67.6, reveals that for the speed-length quotient 20.5 kt. In other words, at this speed the entire
of 0.908, corresponding to the trial speed of the transom area is to be exposed to the air. On the
ABC a bulb bow is indicated.
ship, assumption described in Sec. 67.20 that the
It is to be borne in mind that this ship, for corresponding Froude number, using the im-
probably the greater part of its time at sea, will mersed-transom depth Hu as the length dimension,
run at a speed closer to 18.7 kt than 20.5 kt. In is hmited to 5.0, this immersed depth works out

other words, the T, for the majori ty o f service as follows:

hours approximate only 18.7/ VolO = 0.828,
will
F, = 5.0 = V/VgHv,
F„ = 0.247. At this lower speed the bulb may
show up to less advantage. Furthermore, a whence
smaller /^ is called for than at the higher T, of
0.908, in the ratio of about 0.07 to 0.08 or more. _ 6889)1'
[ 20.5(1.6:
g{H^)
''^
,
=
~
The bulb parameters may be worked out by L 5.0
D. W. Taylor's method [S and P, 1943, pp. 65-70,
243-254]. However, it is pointed out in some detail ^t/ =
3^ (6.925)' = 1.49 ft.

in Sec. 67.6, where this procedure is illustrated,

that it is rarely possible to utilize all of the Taking the transom width previously agreed
optimum section area in a bulb, because of upon of (0.3)73 = 21.9 ft and a constant depth
interferences with bower anchors and possible of 1.5 ft, the immersed-transom area at rest
under-the-bulb slamnoing. would have a maximum value of about 33 ft'.
There is one other factor to be considered. In The terminal value Ju is about 33/1,815 = 0.018.
the lighter-load conditions on the ABC ship it is A tentative value of f r = 0.02 seems reasonable
comtemplated that liquid cargo or water ballast when first sketching the section-area or A-curve.
in the tanks aft will be used to bring the stern Certainly not be larger than this.
it will

down and to give the propeller adequate tip Further details of immersed-transom design
submergence. At these varied trims by the stern are given in Sec. 67.20.
the bulb at the bow will be nearer the surface and 66.21 The Preliminary Section-Area Curve.
will emerge at less angles of pitch than at full load. With the data thus assembled it is possible to
If the proposed under-the-bottom anchor lay down, in the standard 1:4 box described in
installation described in Sec. 68.11 does not work Sec. 24.12, a tentative section-area curve for the
out, it may
be necessary at a later design stage ABC design. The typical A-curve on S. A. Vin-
to fit bower anchors in the orthodox side locations. cent's 1930 data for a Cp of 0.60 [MESA, Mar
This consideration alone points to the wisdom 1930, Fig. 4, p. 138] is ticked in with dots on the
of using, for the ABC design, a considerably plot. is checked from the cross curves of
This
smaller bulb area Je than that indicated by the W. van Lammeren [RPSS, Fig. 42, p. 92],
P. A.
full-speed, full-load conditions. The value of from those of F. H. Todd for the TMB Series 60
Se = 0.02 from the broken hne of Fig. 67.D, [SNAME, 1953, pp. 516-589], or from similar
representing installations of the past, is hardly sources, provided the curves lend themselves to
enough to make a bulb worth while. An inter- vessels with bulb bows.
486 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.22

The position of the section of maximum area 3,157 ft'and the weight is 3,157/35 = 90.2 t;
is marked as 0.515L from the FP. The tentative say 90 t. This leaves a molded displacement of
value oi fs = 0.06 is laid off at the FP and a 16,400 t or 574,000 ft' as the end point in working
tangent to the section-area curve at the FP is up the final ^-curve and the underwater hull form.
drawn by working backward the formula in 66.22 Longitudinal Position of the Center of
Sec. 24.12. Since fs is 0.06, the intercept @ is Buoyancy. As an indication of the fore-and-aft
1.00 - 0.06 = 0.94. Multiplying 0.94 by 0.9, position where the CG must He, an integration
which is the tentative value of /^ ,
gives the of the preUmin ary s ection-area curve shows that
intercept © as 0.846. Adding 0.846 to 0.06 the value of LCB is about 0.506 or 0.507L,
indicates that the tangent at the FP intersects reckoned abaft the FP. This position is slightly
the midlength ordinate at a value of A/Ax of abaft the midwidth of the lane in Fig. 66. N.
0.906. Although the corresponding values are
shghtly different for the final section-area curve.
Fig.67.W illustrates the intercepts mentioned.
The value of /« is laid off as 0.02 but there are
insufficient data to indicate a good terminal
value of Ir . This preliminary yl-curve is omitted
for lack of space but the final curve is depicted
in Fig. 67.W.
Integrating the preliminary curve numerically
gives an underwater hull volume of 572,050 ft'
and a Cp of 0.618. Both values are a little small
when compared to the previous figures of 574,000
ft' and 0.62, but before modifying the curve it is

well to see what the underwater form looks like

when other requirements are applied. The first

y4-curve appears sufficiently fair to permit sweUing

or shrinking it here and there, but it must first

be found where these volume changes are of most

benefit to the ship. A discontinuity in the ^-curve
isto be expected at the stern, where the single-
skeg area drops rather suddenly to zero.
In this connection it is to be remembered that
ship sections, body plans, and waterUnes, are
customarily laid off to the molded dimensions
of a ship. For a metal vessel this is to the outside
of the framing and the inside of the plating.
Furthermore, the rudder, roll-resisting keels,
propeller, exposed shafting, and other appendages
displace considerable quantities of water and
thus help to support themselves. The volume
occupied by the plating of a steel vessel is assumed
equivalent to about 0.0075 times the molded
volume if in-and-out strakes are employed. It is
about 0.005 times that volume if the plating is
flush, as in a welded vessel [Robb, A. M., TNA,

1952, p. 77]. The volumes occupied by the append-

ages are readily computed when they are roughed
out.
For the ABC ship it may be assumed at this
stage that the shell is to be rather fully welded
and nearly all flush. Taking a value of 0.0055^,
the corresponding volume is (0.0055) (574,000) =
Sec. 66.23 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 487

do this by sketching freehand on paper with waterline to a rounded main-deck planform at

Hght-blue cross-section hnes, producing the result the stern.
depicted in Fig. 66.0. Small profiles, sections, and The wide, somewhat shallow underwater form
deck plans, plus a midship section, bow and calls for rather drastic narrowing aft if proper
stern profiles, and a stern elevation to larger flow to both top and bottom blades of a single
scale, suffice for this purpose. The first such propeller is A pronounced cutting
to be achieved.
sketches for the ABC design were drawn to a up might give a reasonably good
of the stern
scale of 80 f t = 1 in. For a complete preliminary performance with twin screws; a twin-skeg form
design these sketches would be supplemented by of stern almost certainly would. However, the
an inboard profile and several additional deck use of two separate propelling plants for an
plans, drawn to a considerably larger scale. output of the order of 16,000-20,000 horses
The maximum-section contour of Fig. 66. G involves increases in space, cost, weight, operating
and the preliminary designed waterline form the personnel, and so on. For the reasons elaborated
bases of these sketches. A tentative freeboard upon in Sec. 69.2, it appears not justifiable.

amidships of 23 and then checked as

ft is selected The efficient, economic transportation required
described in Sec. 66.30. A sheer line is drawn in, by item (5) of the mission, in Table 64. a, calls
more or less by eye, with the low point of the for high propeller and propulsive efficiency. One
deck well aft of amidships and with a sheer method of gaining the former is to use a screw
forward that looks right, to be checked later as propeller of the largest practicable disc area and
outlined in Sec. 68.4. diameter.
A curved raking stem and a bulb that projects For the current style (1955) in single-screw
slightly forward of the FP complete the small- merchant vessels having canoe or whaleboat
scale bow profile. At the stern the immersed- (cruiser) sterns, a good rule for the propeller
transom depth of 1.5 ft is laid off below the diameter D is to keep it less than O.IH at the
designed waterline and a stern profile raking designed-load condition. This insures reasonable
sUghtly forward is added above it. The square submergence at drafts not too much smaller than
transom is indicated as fading out above the the maximum, and as good submergence as can

25 5-ft Station Spacmq

Fig. 66.0 Sketches of Outboard Profile, Main Deck and Waterline, and Sections
'IfiS HYDRODYNAMICS IN SMTP DESIGN Sec. 66.21

be expected in wavegoiiig. With a draft of H Molding a

66.24 New Underwater Form.
26 ft, this gives a hmiting diameter of 18.2 ft. Within the framework of the selected ratios, pro-
For better-than-average efficiency the propeller portions, coefficients, and parameters, plus the
should be considerably larger, with a diameter of general shape tentatively selected in the preceding
the order of 20 ft. The latter size is selected for now required to fashion a good under-
sections, it is
the ABC ship, as the basis for further sketching. water form. So far as propulsion is concerned, it
It is soon found that, even by working reverse should have the smallest practicable shaft power
curvature into the buttocks ahead of the transom, which will drive it at the designed maximum
it is to make room for such a large
difficult speed and meet the remaining specification
propeller on the centerline. The situation is requirements. It may or may not have a low
eased somewhat by eliminating the rudder shoe, total hull resistance, but it must embody a
carrying a semi-balanced rudder on a fixed horn, machinery plant that represents the minimum in
and dropping the propeller disc almost down to first cost and in operating expenses consistent

the baseplane. However, when enough fore-and-
aft room is left for the rudder, the horn, and the
propeller aperture abaft the upper blades, the
propeller-disc position is rather
where the buttocks are definitely curving down-
ward. Flattening the under side of the main hull
to fair into the transom leaves a sort of shelf of
considerable extent just above the wheel. The
latter is thus shielded exceptionally well from air
leakage but it is difficult to provide a large tip
with durability and refiabihty.
The creation of such a shape, as the best final
solution of amost complex flow and resistance
far forward, problem in hydrodynamics, is probably as much
a matter of unconscious understanding and of
inspiration as of the straightforward use of all
availablehydrodynamic knowledge. The selection
good underwater form as a guide is contingent
of a
upon the availability of a store of information on
ship forms, contained in the designer's own files

clearance at the top center. or in those available to him, in the technical

An adaptation of the twin-skeg stern with a hterature, in the SNAME RD sheets, and in
single propeller mounted in the tunnel between similar sources. It is equally contingent upon the
the skegs offers advantages which appear to availability, among those data, of a form re-
warrant the development of a preliminary-design sembling the one wanted, and on a certain amount
variation along these fines. This arrangement of knowledge and good judgment, mixed with
eliminates man.y of the usual difficulties in single- experience, when working over that form.
screw sterns by: Many good shapes have been developed
through a long process of intelligent refinement,
(a) Removing from the vicinity of the centerline as witness the Taylor Standard Series. For the
the lower apex of the V-sections in the skeg ABC design being carried through here the
ending, the rudder shoe, and other obstructions Taylor Standard Series form has too low a
which normally have to be accommodated maximum-section coefficient, 0.923 as compared
abreast the propeller on the centerline to a range of 0.955 to 0.96, it has too low a water-
(b) Moving the propeller farther aft, where plane coefficient, 0.66 as compared to at least
there more vertical clearance between the
is 0.71, and it does not have a bulb bow. Further,
baseplane and the buttocks, by shortening the as the TSS parent is essentially a twin-screw
fore-and-aft length of the rudders. There would form, it appears not suitable for the single-screw
be twin rudders behind the two skegs instead of project in hand, even though the B/H ratio of
a single rudder. 2.92 is close to the ABC
beam-draft ratio of
(c) Providing room for a propeller of greatly in- 2.808. The TMB
Series 60, block 0.60 parent
creased diameter because of the much smaller tip form, having a Cp of 0.614, has too full a maximum
clearance needed inside the tunnel. section {Cx = 0.977) for the easy shallow-water
driving required of the ABC ship, too small a
Further developments of this alternative stern, B/H ratio (2.50), too much parallel waterUne
called an arch form, are described in Sec. 67.16. (15 per cent), and no bulb bow. Rather than to
It becomes apparent, as the small-scale afterbody follow some other well-developed form of good
sketches proceed, that it may require different performance, or to use it as a guide, a large-scale
widths and shapes of the designed waterline in body plan for the new ship is roughed out on a
the run than the transom stern. clean sheet, both literally and figuratively, on
Sec. 66.24 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 489

the basis of present hydrodynamic knowledge. but making up this set is a formidable task not
The guiding principles in this procedure are yet completed. The present additional rules are:
based upon an understanding of the water
(1) Along the region of the designed waterline,
flow around a ship-shaped form, and the effects
extending below that line for the order of 0.20
of this flow. One such principle is based upon the
to 0.25H at the bow, 0.9H amidships, and O.IOH
fact that, for the underwater hull of a surface
at the stern, the water flows primarily around the
vessel which varies not too widely from the normal,
sides. The position of the dividing line at the stem
the upper layers of water met by the ship pass
between the side and the bottom water depends
around the sides of the entrance while the lower
also upon the height of the wave crest at the bow
layers pass under the bottom. This feature is
and the change of level at the bow when underway.
illustrated by Figs. 4.0, 22.E, 24.L, 25.G, 66.R,
(2) To minimize surface wavemaking the changes
and a number of diagrams in Chap. 52. In the
in longitudinal curvature along the flowlines in
run, the water which has passed around the sides
this belt, as well as the curvature itself, should
rises rather rapidly toward the surface, so that
be a minimum. This embraces the number of
toward the stern the water flowing over the hull
curvature changes between bow and stern; the
is largely that which has come up from under
lowest possible number is two.
the bottom. The shortest paths from the bow to
(3) Changes in curvature in the side-water
the stern are, in general, those which cross the
region indicated in (1), at successively deeper
section lines at right angles, indicated by the
depths below the designed waterline, should if
position of flowlines when projected on the mid-
practicable be offset longitudinally, and should
section and shown in a body plan. However, it is
not occur at any one transverse station. The
not always possible for the water to flow in this
reason for this is explained in Sec. 4.8 and the
fashion under a more-or-less flat free surface and
accompanying Fig. 4.1
around a hull which must meet requirements
(4) In the region at the stem below about 0.20
other than those of minimum resistance.
to 0.25H, measured downward from the designed
Since neither the section shapes nor the flowline
waterline, the water flows outward but then
positions for an entirely new hull are known at
swings downward rather rapidly, to pass under
the outset, this means that both have to be
the bottom inside the turn of the bilge, below
worked in simultaneously, as for the flowlines
about 0.9 to l.OH
(streamlines) and the equipotential lines of a
(5) The twisting of the stream tubes accompany-
flow net, described in Sec. 2.20.
ing this turning of the flow, depicted in Fig. 4.P,
Compliance with this shortest-path rule, con-
should be accomphshed as easily and as gradually
formity to the general flow pattern described in
as practicable. Some remarks by D. W. Taylor,
the references listed, and consideration of curva-
made many years ago [SNAME, 1907, p. 11],
ture changes along the flowlines, calls for V-shaped
are still pertinent at this point; comments in
sections in both the entrance and the run. Con-
parentheses are those of the present author:
sideration of pressure resistance due to wave-
making, and of the height of the bow-wave crest "... this work shows the importance of an easy bilge,
in particular, calls for vertical-sided entrance tolerably well forward,that is to say, at about one-
quarter the length of the ship from the bow. The water
sections in way of the bow-wave crest. A bulb bow
is trying hard to get under the bottom, and if you have
does not work well into V-shaped bow sections, around the sections,
a shape such that it is difficult to get
nor is it easy to fashion a deep forefoot from them, you have a ship that is harder to drive. Some of our
where the bulb must be. These considerations, analyses of model trials appear to indicate that at about
coupled with the division of flow described in the point where the water wants to go under the ship,

(1) of the following paragraph, indicate that

—
you ought not to have (a) full section not over eighty-five
per cent coefficient of fullness (section coefficient) at the
U-shaped bow sections are to be preferred to
outside."
V-shaped sections, for this ship at least.
Specifically, a few more detailed rules may be (6) If the ship has a deep centerline skeg under
formulated for guidance in shaping the hull of the stern the stream tubes passing out from under
the ABC design, with its B/H ratio of about 2.8 the bottom must twist back again through
and its T„ of about 0.9. These should be part of a nearly 90 deg as they approach the skeg ending.
comprehensive set for a large range of B/H Assuming a single propeller carried by the
values, hull shapes, and speed-length quotients centerline skeg the flow should, somehow or
•-190 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.24

other, be brought nearly parallel to the shaft outline at the AP is next sketched, following the
axis as it passes into the propeller disc. rules of Sec. 67.20. Since the afterbody is to

(7) The same as for the side-water paths, the terminate in nearly horizontal shelf-like sections
changes in curvature along the bottom-water approximating the form of the immersed portion
paths should be a minimum, both in number of the transom it is evident that any centerhne

and magnitude. This means easy and gradual skeg must of necessity be relatively thin. This
longitudinal slopes in the actual flowplanes, skeg form a sort of major appendage
will, in fact,

with small magnitudes of curvature. to be added under the main hull. The next step
is therefore to sketch in, on a separate large-scale
So much for the general rules, to be kept in stern profile, the centerline or half-siding buttock,
mind as sketching of the sections progresses. the one meeting the bottom of the transom and
The la3'out of the maximum-area section, taken representing roughly the top of the skeg. There
from Fig. 66.G, forms the basis for the body plan. must be room at about the after quarterpoint,
The station offsets of the tentative designed or possibly at one-fifth of the length from the
waterUne are laid off along the 26-ft designed stern, for a large-diameter motor or gear on the
waterline trace on this plan and are numbered main shaft, low down in the vessel. The half-
accordingly. Short vertical hnes are sketched in siding buttock therefore must
no fartherstart
through these points in the entrance, to serve as aft than the after quarterpoint and must rise
zero-flare references for the section lines where rather rapidly to meet the bottom of the transom.
they cross the designed waterline. Indeed, if reverse curvature (concave downward)
The bulb-bow section at the FP is drawn first, is to be worked into the after end of this buttock,

following the rules of Sec. 67.6. A tentative as is desirable, the latter must rise at a rather
section at Sta. 5 then sketched in at the forward
is steep angle forward of the concave portion.
quarterpoint. Its section coefficient is taken from One must be prepared to bring it upward at a
a curve of section coefficient based on ship length, slope approaching closely the critical angle for
similar to Fig. 67.1 of Sec. 67.10. The section separation at a submergence of about Q.7H. It is

outhne tangent to the floor hne at the bottom

is known that the owners will require one or more
and to the vertical reference hne at the DWL; model tests as a check on the performance of the
a large radius or easy sweep is used below about underwater hull. It appears, therefore, that a
0.3H. This is the region where the bottom water centerline or half-siding buttock slope as steep
does its and where particular
greatest twisting as 17 or 18 deg may be risked at this stage of the
care is required to insure easy flowlines. Except design. Laying this buttock down to a large
for the designed-waterline region it is probably scale on what will eventually be the stern profile
the most important part of the hull, at least in gives a series of heights for the termination at
the entrance, and the part that has the greatest the centerhne of all main-hull sections in the run.
influence upon pressure resistance. Before easing Taking the after quarterpoint at Sta. 15 as a
the section at Sta. 5 too much, the area is meas- sort of midpoint in the run, an easy curve is
ured and checked with the forward-quarter swept in between the designed-waterline intercept
ordinate at Sta. 5 on the preliminary section-area and the half siding at the baseline. The lower or
curve. Section 5 is reshaped as necessary to give inboard portion of this section is made somewhat
the proper area and section coefficient; see Sec. flat and the upper portion is given a slight out-

67.10. This may involve a possible widening of ward flare at the DWL. The area at Sta. 15 is
the DWL. By the use of the bilge diagonal for then measured and checked with the A-curve,
fairing, or several waterlines, or both, it is fairly whereupon the section is readjusted as necessary.
simple to sketch in the remaining entrance Sections between Stas. 10 and 15 are rather
sections, meeting the designed waterline along easily drawn, following the general procedure for
the short vertical reference lines, including inside the sections between Stas. 5 and 10. A section
them the areas given by the preliminary section- line is drawn meet the centerhne buttock,
first to
area curve, and conforming to the section-coeffi- as if there were to be no skeg; see the broken
cient curve. The abovewater portions of the hnes at Stas. 16 through 18.5 in Fig. 66.P. The
section lines in the entrance are reserved for the skeg is then drawn in separately. However, the
time being. stations abaft 15 include the skeg as a part of
Turning to the afterbody a tentative transom the main hull, so some little sketching and re-
 Sec. 66.25 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 491

A 1^ lO-deg Flare

All Wolerhne Heights and BuUock Dislancts ore in feel

Parallel
Deck L

TT Line' of Floor 22
I
1.5 ft-^
36.70 ft to Maximum Wolerline Beom ot Sto.ll A rea Section at 5ta. 10.3 _

Fig. 66.P Body Plan of ABC Ship with Single-Skeg Transom Stern

adjustment is necessary to bring their areas into the centerline skeg is discussed in Sec. 67.23.
conformity with the tentative 4-curve. As the Since the aftfoot is to be cut away on the ABC
skeg area diminishes to zero at the forward end design, working a club into the remainder of the
of the propeller aperture, leaving only the main skeg, just above the keel, would leave it rather
hull abaft that point, a discontinuity in the far forward of the propeller to be effective.
^-curve appears there. 66.25 Bow and Stem Profiles. To finish
Holding the waterline (level-line) slopes in the roughing in the centerline skeg the position and
upper part of the skeg termination to a value not shape of its termination are added to a large-scale
exceeding 15 deg involves a considerable amount stern profile. This is done by starting at the
of drawing and erasing. It requires the use of —
transom termination the location of the AP —
transverse with rather small radii where the
fillets and working forward. With a single skeg and a
upper end of the skeg ending merges into the hull. single screw, a single rudder is indicated. It
However, these small fillets offer no particular should have some mechanical clearance ahead
disadvantage provided the resulting flow is of the transom; 2 ft appears adequate at this stage.
generally parallel to the fore-and-aft line of To meet the maneuvering conditions in Port
fillets and does not cross it. Bacine the rudder needs to have ample area. By
The body plan for the single-skeg transom the first approximation of Sec. 74.6 this area is
stern is reproduced in its final form in Fig. 66.P. say 0.02iL)H = 0.02(510)26 = 265.2 ft'. Assum-
The question of "clubbing" the lower part of ing for the moment that the rudder height is
492 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.25
Sec. 66.27 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 493

about 0.7//, or 18.2 ft, its fore-and-aft length is of the ABC design but they apply to any usual

roughly 14.5 or 15 ft. With a clearance of 2 ft type and form of ship:

between the leading edge of the rudder and the
(a) For a given volume or weight displacement
after edges of the propeller blades, the after end
the wetted surface varies mainly with length,
of the propellerhub is of the order of 19 ft forward
very nearly as L"'^. At this stage it appears that
of the AP. Estimating the propeller hub as about
the 510-ft length of the ABC ship is not too
4 ft long, the plane of the propeller disc is about
great in relation to other dimensions or with
21 ft forward of the AP.
respect to the ship's mission.
At this disc position the height of the tentative
(b) For a given displacement and length the
half-siding buttock, already laid down, is about
wetted surface varies little within the permissible
23 above the baseline. When the aftfoot is cut
ft
hmits of beam and draft in service. With a B/FI
away to save wetted surface and improve maneu-
ratio of 2.808 and a Cx value of 0.956 for the
vering, the propeller should have at least 0.5 ft
ABC hull, reference to Fig. 45. H indicates that
clearance above the baseplane. With a tip clear-
the wetted-surface coefficient Cs is in a region
ance at the hull of about 2.4 ft, a rather small
close to the minimum normal vessels.
for
figure for a large wheel with a shelf-type stern
(c) For a given displacement and dimensions, the
above it, the relative tip or hull clearance for a
wetted surface is affected very little by minor
20-ft propellerworks out as 0.12Z). It is doubtful
variations of hull shape. The ABC sections are
whether a larger screw could be accommodated
neither the extremely full ones which, according
under this type of stern, on a draft of 26 ft.
to Taylor, are somewhat prejudicial to low S,
The propeller tip circle is now drawn in on the
nor are they the extremely fine ones which are
body and a rough outline of the propeller
plan,
markedly prejudicial.
side projection added to the stern profile. Making
(d) After length, the most powerful controllable
the aperture clearance ahead of the upper blades
factors affecting wetted surface are the forefoot,
at least 0.2D or 4 ft, rather larger than customary
the aftfoot or deadwood, and the appendages.
[ME, 1942, Vol. I, p. 275], terminates the upper
aperture some 26.5 or 27 ft forward of the AP. The parts listed in have large surfaces
(d)

This is the position into which the upper part of
the skeg is to be faired. After the rudder
creased in area, and other small changes are made,
the resulting stern profile is
Fig. 66.Q. The worked-out example
combined with the design rules for propeller
apertures in Sec. 67.24, and with the charac-
teristics of the screw propellers found suitable for
this design, indicate that the aperture
compared to For the ABC design
their volumes.
is in- the presence of the bulb bow should more than
repay its extra wetted surface. It is proposed
as delineated in to cut the aftfoot away by an undetermined
in Sec. 59.11, amount. The rudder, with its large surface in
proportion to its volume, is necessary. The fixed
horn to support it, if given a twisted or contra-
form to recover energy in the propeller outflow
forward of jet, should likewise pay its way. The roll-resisting

the upper blades is still somewhat small. keels, not a part of the main hull, are considered
Details affecting the bow profile are covered in in Sec. 73.18.
Sees. 67.4 and 68.7. There is some added surface under the transom
Before proceeding any further with the lines stern of the ABC ship. It is hoped that the extra
it is well (1) to insure that the wetted surface is friction drag of this surface may be overcompen-
not becoming too large in proportion to the size sated by the energy recovered in straightening
of the ship, and (2) to make a second check of (leveling) the flowlines of the water leaving the
the probable shaft power for a propeller Dma^ stern.
of 20 ft. These are done in the sections follow- 66.27 Second Approximation to Shaft Power.
ing. Making use of the thrust-load factor method for

66.26 Analysis of the Wetted Surface. The powering described in Sec. 60.14, the results for
wetted surface, by the estimate of Sec. 66.9, is the ABC ship are as follows. From Sec. 66.9
to involve an expenditure of well over half the the resistance R for the bare hull is estimated, in
maximum designed power in overcoming friction. round figures, as 172,000 lb. An increase of 10
As a check it is useful to consider D. W. Taylor's per cent for appendages gives an estimated final
broad conclusions on this subject [S and P, 1943, hull drag of 189,200 lb. The corresponding pro-

pp. 22-23]. They are adapted here to an analysis peller thrust T for an estimated thrust-deduction
194 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.28

fraction / of 0.20 is 189,000/(1 - 0.20) = 236,500 the way to the bilge if the Velox system waves
lb. are relatively deep.

The
disc area A^ of the 20-ft propeller is 314.16 It is observed from Figs. 52.1 and 52..J that
ft'. For an estimated wake fraction w of 0.30, the height of thebow-wave crest is a function of
the speed of advance V a is 20.5(1 — 0.3) = 14.35 the Froude number F„ or the speed-length quotient
kt or 24.24 ft per sec. The ram-pressure load over T^ and of the waterline slope z'e in the entrance.
the disc area is then (0.5)pAoFi = qAo = 0.9953 The bow-wave crest height (not necessarily the
(314. 16) (24.24)' = 183,725 lb. The thrust-load spray of the boAV roll) becomes noticeable at a
coefficient Ctl is T/qA„ = 236,500/183,725 = To of 0.5, F„ of about 0.15; at this low limit a
1.287. The corresponding real efficiency, taken as small or a large waterline slope in the entrance
from Fig. 34.B, is 0.636. This
0.877, is 770 for the appears not to have too great an effect, one way
working condition of the propeller. or the other.

— — = Using the procedure described in Sec. 52.5, the

The hull efficiency r;„ is (1 t)/{l w)
(1 - 0.2)/(l - 0.3) = 0.8/0.7 = 1.143. Assuming bow-wave crest height for the ABC ship is

calculated as 7.17 measured from the

ft. This is
a relative rotative efficiency ??« of 1.02, the derived
= = = plane of the undisturbed water level at a great
value of vp Voivif)vR 0.636(1.143)1.02
distance from the ship. To find how far this crest
0.7415. This remarkably close to the value of
is

r]p = 0.74 assumed in Sec. 66.9.

may climb up the side of the ship there must be
added the predicted sinkage or change of level
Until something furtheris known about the
of the bow. The graphs of Fig. 58.A give this
new and its probable performance, the
hull shape
change of level as -0.0046L or -0.0046(510) =
latest derived power and machinery-weight figures
— 2.35 ft. At the stern the change is about
from Sees. 66.9 and 66.10 are allowed to stand,
-0.00145L, corresponding to -0.00145(510) or
namely 16,930 horses and 1,250 tons.
about -0.74 ft.
66.28 Sketching of Wave Profile and Prob- The predicted lag of the bow-wave crest,
able Flowlines. The Standard-Series procedure
worked out in Sec. 52.5, is 13.86 ft. This is at
developed by Taylor was an effort to predict, in about 0.027L abaft the FP, where the sinkage of
advance of or without a model test, the probable the bow, by linear interpolation between —2.35 ft
effective power required to drive the bare hull
and —0.74 ft, is about 0.05 ft less than at the
of a ship of given proportions. This procedure
bow. The bow-wave crest may then be expected
omitted any means of judging the effects of to rise up the side by (7.17 -|- 2.35 - 0.05) ft or
changes in shape for fixed proportions. One 9.47 ft, indicated in Fig. 66.R.
method of accomplishing this is an analysis of It is almost certain that the effect of the bulb
the flow diagrams around a model of the selected ABC
bow on the ship is to lower the crest height
shape. However, to employ this method for predicted by the referenced formulas. However,
predictions, in advance of model tests, it must be
no quantitative data are available, so this
possible to draw a lines-of-flow diagram from a
lowering is not taken into account. Since a small
rough set of lines, such as those of the ABC waterline-entrance slope and a bulb bow generally
design at this stage.
go hand in hand, it is probable that a substantial
Unfortunately, neither the method of analysis reduction in height occurs on vessels having these
or the techniques of drawing the lines of flow in features.
advance have been worked out. Nevertheless, When there is any flare whatever in the section
the latter is attempted here, on the basis of the lines lying inside a bow-wave crest, the wave
principles set forth in the sections preceding, and profile rises higher on the ship's side than it
with the background of the diagrams in Chap. 52. would have if the section lines had been vertical.
If it is possible only to tell whether or not a form The bow-wave crest heights as predicted for
has objectionable features the prediction pro- the ship and as observed on the model are intended
cedure is well worth while. In any case the to be independent of any thin spray roots extend-
experience gained will go far toward working out ing above the crest line.
the unknown methods and techniques. The graphs 52. H
and the procedure
of Fig.
The first step is to start with the wave profile produce a predicted stern-
illustrated in Sec. 52.5
because the surface contour along the side affects wave height for the ABC design of 5.32 ft. This is
the flow pattern below it. This effect extends all for a normal form of stern, probably of the canoe
Sec. r,6.2S STEPS TN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 4%
14 6 4 i£ 4 8 \h \h

G 1

Fig. 66. R Predicted and Observed Wave Profiles and Flowlines for Bow and Single-Skeg Transom Stern

or whaleboat type; there are no known data to coincides with a hump, there may be a wave
indicate what the stern-wave height would be hollow at the stern, or a crest of greatly diminished
for a transom-stern hull. Since the water closes height.
in at a much slower rate along the small waterline The exact shape of the accompanying wave
slopes ahead of the transom, one might estimate profile is manifestly a function of the shape of the
a wave height above the surface of the undis- hull and of certain distinctive features, some
turbed water at a distance of something less than known and some unknown. If a ship waterline
2/3 the predicted amount for a normal stern, has pronounced shoulders, not necessarily as
say 3.55 ft. sharp as those of the parallel-sided, wedge-ended
The stern-wave crest may be expected to form of Fig. 10. F, secondary wave systems are
climb up the side of the ship at the outboard generated. Their transverse Velox waves combine
corner of the transom by this amount plus the with those of other systems to form a rather
stern sinkage of 0.74 ft, or about 4.29 ft. complex pattern. A predicted wave profile for the
The data listed in Sec. 52.6 indicate that a ship ABC hull with a single-skeg transom stern is

corresponding to the ABC design, running in a sketched in light lines in Fig. 66. R, before any
range of T, values from 0.828 to 0.908 (from 18.7 test runs are made on a model.
to 20.5 kt), F„ of 0.247 to 0.270, is accompanied To predict the flowline positions it is estimated
by transverse waves of the Velox system about that the dividing point on the stem, between
half as long as the ship. At 20.5 kt there is a first the water passing around the side and that under
crest about 0.027L abaft the FP, a second crest the bottom, is relatively high, because of the
at about amidships, and a third crest at or near large B/H and the expected drop of the
ratio
the stern. As a matter of interest, the length of a bow of about 2.4 ft. A figure of O.SH or 7.8 ft
trochoidal wave at the 20.5-kt speed of the ABC below the DWL appears about right; this is at
ship is, from Table 48. d and the accompanying the 18.2-ft WL. The flowlines sketched in the
formulas, 234.3 ft; This is roughly 0.46L. The forebody resemble those of diagram 3 in Fig.
general pattern for these and other speed ranges, 4.0, and of the many illustrated in Chap. 52.
on cargo-ship models, is shown in Figs. 52.1 It is to be expected that the wave profile,
and 52. J. representing a constant-pressure upper boundary,
Furthermore, it is known that when the T, will influence the shape of the flowlines passing
value coincides with the position of one of the around the side, perhaps down to the 10-ft

hollows along the lower edges of Fig. 66. A there waterline or below.
is a prominent wave crest at the stern. When it The flowlines under the nearly flat bottom, not
496 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 6629

shown in Fig. 66. R, maj^ be expected to diverge volumes for accommodating the passengers and
slightly with distance as they move aft. Under crew and for carrying the machinery and cargo.
a run that is roughly flat, or of a shallow V-shape, The ratio of total hull and superstructure volume
the flowlines lie generally along the buttocks, to underwater hull volume of 2.77, derived
parallel to the centerplane of the vessel. When previously in Sec. 66.8, is therefore somewhat
the buttocks terminate at a knuckle under water, large. It appears that the abovewater hull will
as at Stas. 18 to 20 in Fig. 66. R, the flowlines stand rather high out of the water. A flush-deck
lying somewhat parallel to the buttocks may be type of ship is indicated, as in Fig. 66.0, possibly
expected to leave the ship surface at the knuckle. with a short forecastle to give added freeboard
The predicted flowlines are indicated in light and hull depth at the stem, and with so-called
broken Hues on the body plan of Fig. 66.R. The tonnage openings below the main deck near the
actual flowlines, determined from a test of a stern.
20-ft model, using chemicals on the model surface, Taking for a starter a minimum freeboard of
are shown in heavy full lines in the figure. The 23 ft at the lowest point of the deck at the side,
wave profile marked along the side of the model the hull depth Z) is 26 -f 23 = 49 ft. By the
is indicated also by a heavy full line. criteria of C. R. Nevitt [ASNE, May 1950, pp.
66.29 Comparison with a Ship Form of Good 318-319] and others, it appears that the 49-ft

Performance. It is still possible, with a given set depth and the L/D ratio of 10.4 he within a good
of principal proportions and form coefficients, to design range for a length L of 510 ft and a draft
vary the underwater shape within rather wide R of 26 ft. The ratio of draft to depth D is R
limits, and to obtain perhaps wider variations in 26/49 = 0.531. The depth from the keel to the
the resistance for a given F„ Existing forms, . top of the highest superstructure, when related
often several of them, are therefore wisely used to the beam, is approximately
as guidance or as a means of keeping one from
[26 -1-23-1- 3(9)]/73 = 76/73 = 1.041.
getting too far afield. Certainly a well-tried
parent form or a ship form which has a high Based upon Atlantic-liner practice [de Vito, E.,
merit coefficient and which has proved itself in INA, 1952; partial abstract in SBSR, 13 Nov
service can be employed as: 1952, pp. 642-643] this ratio could be as high as
1.16 or 1.20. In any case, it is assumed that the
(1) A starter for laying down a set of lines
necessary preliminary strength calculations, not
(2) A sort of running comparison as the hull
gone into here, show the assumed hull depth of
shaping proceeds
49 ft to be adequate for a static wave whose
(3) A reference, after model tests have been made,
for judging the performance of the new form.
height is 1.1 VL, or 1.1 V510 = 24.84 ft [Nieder-
mair, J. C, "Ship Motions," ASNE, Feb 1952,
If future progress made, however, past
is to be p. 14]. Fig. 48. E in Sec. 48.7 embodies a graph
or existing forms should not be too slavishly of these heights for various wave lengths.
copied unless one knows rather accurately just The ship appears to have adequate freeboard
what features are responsible for their good throughout, of the order of 0.045L or more, when
(or bad) performance. The designers of these the abovewater hull is made large enough for the
forms would be the first to admit that they could volumetric capacity and for the required depth
unquestionably be improved with further thought of ship girder. A detailed study of the abovewater
and effort. hull, taking all necessary factors into considera-
Following a series of model comparisons tests, tion, is given in Chap. 68. A further study of its
may be made powers of a new
of the effective ability to meet wavegoing service requirements
all

design with the effective powers of the TSS ship is deferred to Part 6 in Volume III.

of the same proportions. This comparison for However, it is possible at this stage to make the
the ABC hull, comprising the transom stern first estimate of its natural rolling period. For

designed in this chapter and an alternative arch this estimate the added mass of the surrounding
stern described in Sec. 67.16, is to be found in water is not taken into account, partly because
Sec. 78.16 and Figs. 78. J and 78.K. it is not known, and partly because the actual

66.30 Abovewater Hull Proportions for period is then longer than the estimated one. As
Strength and Wavegoing. The ABC ship re- a result, the ship should be somewhat more
quires, as do many others, rather large internal comfortable than predicted.
Sec. 66.31 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 497

Using the standard formula [PNA, 1939, Vol. (b) The volumes of the various parts of the ship,
II, p. 11, Eq. (22)] and assuming different values as well as of the passenger quarters and cargo
for the gyr adius k and the transverse metacentric spaces, can be contained within the total volume
height GM. of the hull and superstructure. This requires a
2irk re-check of the hull volume estimate of Sec. 66.8.
T = (c) There is sufficient room within the hull
v:gGM
structure for certain large items such as reduction
(1) For a GM of O.OQBj, or 4.38 ft, gears or motors on the propeller shaft

= (d) The hull volume is so large as to be objection-

(a) When k0.25Bx or 18.25 ft, T = 9.65
able from the standpoint of ship handling in a
sec, for a complete roll. This is somewhat too
strong wind.
small for the comfort of passengers and the safety
of package cargo. A body plan on a much larger scale than the
(b) When k = O.SOBx or 21.9 ft, T = 11.58 sec. now
small sketches of Fig. 66.0 is available in
This is still rather short for comfort, on a rolling Fig. 66. P foran adequate estimate of the areas,
ship, but not too short as to be disturbing at this
volumes, and moments to be used in this opera-
tion. Further, it is assumed that the abovewater

(2) For a GM of 0.045x or 2.92 ft, hull has already been roughed out, as in the upper
part of Fig. 66. P, and that a rough outline has
(a) When k = 0.25Bx or 18.25 ft, T = 11.82 sec
When k = been made of the upper works (superstructure).
(b) O.SOBx or 21.9 ft, T = 14.19 sec.
It is now possible to sketch in the principal
It apparent that, with the large beam, the
is
subdivisions between passenger and crew accom-
lowest permissible GM
will produce the most
modations, package-cargo space, liquid-cargo
comfortable ship. machinery spaces.
tanks, and
tanks, fuel-oil
66.31 First Longitudinal Weight and Buoyancy These are indicated by the hatched areas on the
Balance. Before completing this first stage of the
profile of Fig. 66.S.
preliminary design it is necessary to determine
A rough integration of these volumes, allowing
approximately whether, for the designed maxi-
5 per cent for ship structure in the dry spaces,
mum service-load condition:
gives the tentative volumes of Table 66. h. For
(a) The ship has reasonable longitudinal balance, comparison there are listed also the required
with the CG in nearly the same transverse plane volumes of Sec. 66.8.
as the CB It is next necessary to determine whether the

TABLE 66.h Second Estimate op Volumes for ABC Design

Item
498 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.32

13 12 "9 S 7 6 5
Cofferdom Spaces not shown Inner Bottom Spaces not complete

Fig. 66. S Tentative Distribution op Principal Volu.mes in the ABC Design

ship trims properly with the principal weights in after developing what is considered to be an
the locations indicated. Selecting approximate CG is found to be
easily driven hull shape, the
centers of gravity for each of the items the offsetfrom the CB of that shape, do not change
longitudinal weight balance comes out as indi- the shape to bring the CB to the CG position.
cated at the bottom of Table 66.i. Rather, rearrange the internal spaces, volumes,
This tentative balance for the designed-load and weights to bring the CG to the CB position
condition is necessarily crude. The volume and of the low-resistance hull.

location of the package-cargo spaces, the tankage, 66.32 Propeller Submersion and Trim in
the machinery spaces, and other items on Fig. Variable-Load Conditions. Havi ng fou nd reason-
66.S are still only approximate. Since these able agreement in the LCG and LCB values for
matters involve static problems only, not directly the weight balance in the designed-load condition,
related to the hydrodynamic design, they are at the 26-ft draft in salt water, there remains to
followed only to the point of checking the trim consider the situation when:
in two of the variable-weight conditions, de-
scribed in Sec. 66.32. (1) The vessel is only partly loaded, as when
However, an important hydrodynamic-design leaving Port Amalo in the hurricane season,
rule, for these as well as for the later stages condition Hi of Table 66.f of Sec. 66.16

described in Chap. 67, is well kept in mind: If, (2) When arriving at the river mouth below Port

TABLE 66.1 First Longitudinal Weight Balance

Moment arms are in terms of station spacing, 25.5 ft. Moments are taken about the midlength at the DWL, Sta. 10.

Item
Sec. 66.32 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 499

Fig. 66.T Selected Inclined Waterlines for the Two Principal Variable- Weight Conditions

Correo. Table 66.g indicates that the estimated the centers of gravity in the two loading conditions
mean drafts under these two conditions are coincide with the CB's for the displacements and
22.74 and 20.01 ft, respectively. For round stern drafts selected. A check is then made to
numbers assume that these are 22.75 ft and 20.00 insure that, if a bulb bow is used, as in the present
ft, involving reductions in the 26.0-ft mean draft case, it will not be too close to the water surface
of 3.25 ft and 6.00 ft. for open-sea running. The stern draft for the
heavier condition, 16,400 t - 2,425 t = 13,975 t,

have an idea of the changes in

It is useful to is made 24.25 ft, to place the bottom of the
trim for a given internal arrangement of the transom at the AP a few inches under water in
principal weights. It is necessary at some stage the at-rest condition. The stern draft for the
of the preliminary design to check on the trans- lighter condition, 16,400 t - 4,400 t = 12,000 t,

verse metacentric stability for these two loading is selected as 23.0 which gives a tip submergence
ft,

conditions. However, the most important hydro- at the propeller disc of just under 2.5 ft. Fig. 66.T
dynamic feature is to keep the propellers well illustrates these features. While this submergence
under water, with a reasonable tip submergence is admittedly small, both absolutely and relatively,
and as good shielding from air leakage as can be the propeller is running at a considerably smaller
obtained. thrust-load factor at this light displacement.
The procedure followed in the ABC design is Furthermore, the stern- wave crest at 20.5 kt
first to establish two drafts aft, corresponding to should be sufficient to fill all the volume between
the two variable-weight conditions, which will the at-rest waterplane and the under side of the
insure air-free flow to the propeller. Following hull just forward of the transom.
this, the internal weights are so arranged that Projecting the traces of the two waterlines

TABLE 66.J Weight, Buoyancy, and Stability Data for Two Variable- Weight Conditions of the ABC Ship

The apply to the molded shape and dimensions of the transom-stern underwater
figures given hull, for which the
weight displacement, molded, in standard salt water is 16,400 tons.

Mean draft, ft 22.75

Tons less than designed weight, from Table 66.
Weight displacement, nominal, t
Trim by the stern, selected, ft
Volume displacement, from molded lines, ft'
Corresponding weight, at 35.977 ft' per ton, t
Tons less than designed weight, actual

LCB, in fraction of L from FP

Coefficient of square moment of area C, ^ of WL about i-axis
Calculated BM, ft
Inclined waterplane area, ft^
KB, estimated, from Normand formula, Sec. 66.14, ft

KM, derived, ft
KG, estimated, ft
GM, probable, ft
500 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.32

TABLE 66.k Longitudinal Weight Balance for 20-ft Mean Draft, 6-ft Trim by the Stern
From Table 66.]', LCB is 0.513 L from the FP. This corresponds to a CG location at Sta. 10.26, or 0.26 station-length
abaft Sta. 10.With a weight displacement of 12,090 tons, from Table 66.], the corresponding after moment, in terms of
tons times station lengths, is -0.26 (12,090) = -3,143.4.

Item
 Sec. 6634 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 501

propeller. In the design stage, consideration at least in the river below Port Correo, as many
siiould be given to increasing the capacity of the cargo vessels make in the open sea. Furthermore,
after ballast tanks of cargo vessels to permit fully traveling at these higher speeds means more
submerged propeller operation." rapid response of the ship for an equal degree of
safety.
66.33 First Approximation of Steering, Maneu-
Considering the single-screw, centerline-skeg
vering, and
Shallow-Water Behavior. It is
design of stern depicted in Figs. 66.P, 66. Q, and
difficult to obtain an idea of the steering, maneu-
67. R, the single rudder is directly behind the
vering, and shallow-water characteristics of the
propeller, where it works in the outflow jet. It is
hull as roughed out at this early stage of the
far enough abaft the propeller to take advantage
design. Nevertheless, something should be known
of some augmented outflow-jet velocity abaft
of them before the preliminary design proceeds
the disc. It is as close as possible to the stern so
much further.
that the arm of its swinging moment is large.
Good steerability, as pointed out in Part 5 of There is good opportunity to tailor the movable
Volume III, is matter of avoiding
largely a and the fixed areas to suit all the steering require-
excessive dynamic and provid-
instability of route
ments. Adequate and possibly superior steering
ing sufficient swinging moment through the use may therefore be predicted at this stage, leaving
of the rudder. The former is largely a function
the detailed design until later.
of the amount and position of the fixed and Considering next the maneuvering require-
movable fin area at the stern, comprising the ments. Fig. 64.B indicates that when backing out
rudder, horn, skeg, and the like. It may depend of the slip at Port Bacine the ship must turn with
somewhat on the shape and proportions of the a minimum radius of about 1,090 ft. When going
hull. In the ABC design there is considerable ahead, out of the harbor, the minimum radius is
latitude in the rudder and skeg areas, especially
about 1,490 ft. The latter represents a steady-
because the aftfoot away by a "suit-
is to be cut turning diameter of 2 (1, 490) /5 10, or a
little over
able" amount. The swinging moment is a function
5.8 This must be accomplished at a
lengths.
first, of the shape and area of the rudder, and relatively slow speed since the ship is at a stand-
second, the magnitude of the lateral forces which still at the inner end of the "Y" in the harbor.
may be expected on a rudder horn, if fitted, and When backing, the steady-turning radius is
on the adjacent portions of the main hull. The equivalent to about 2(1,090)/510, or some 4.27
amount of the swinging moment, depends
in turn, lengths, likewise at a relatively slow speed.
on the ease —or difficulty —with which the ship It is manifest without making any calculations
is swung to a drift angle that generates sufficient that the ship's propeller will have to supplement
inward lift to balance the centrifugal force. the normal rudder forces to create the necessary
The ABC ship must traverse rather consider- swinging moments for making these turns.
able distances with relatively small clearances Indeed, it is possible that both the
ahead and
under the bottom. Time lost in these inland the astern turns must be effected more by swinging
waters means just as many hours to make up as the ship on its vertical axis than by changing its
the same time lost in the open sea. Furthermore, heading through fore-and-aft motion. Normally,
the maximum speed in the long, fresh-water this situation would point up the need of twin
river, especially on the downstream trip with the screws. However, as the turns are to be made in
ship heavily loaded, may be limited as much by a counter-clockwise direction, bow to port and
the ability to steer the ship and to turn it around stern to starboard, in which a vessel with a
bends in the river as by the action of the shallow single right-handed propeller normally swings, it
and restricted waters in augmenting the resistance is possible that the necessary augmentation can
or causing unfavorable changes in its running be obtained with a single propeller.
attitude. 66.34 Preparation of Alternative Preliminary
The
turns in the river leading from Port Correo Designs. Often the ship for which the design is
and in the canal leading to Port Amalo are known being prepared is a large or important one.
to be of sufficiently large radius to enable the Possibly a number of vessels are to be built to
average cargo vessel to negotiate them without the same design, or major decisions may depend
difficulty. However, the ABC design is expected upon the performance of one ship. Wisdom then
to average nearly as high a speed in these waters, dictates that several studies be made in the pre-
502 HYDRODYNAMICS
liminary-design stage or that alternative designs
be carried along far enough to indicate their
relative merit in meeting the established require-
ments and specifications. In a sense, this is only
a part of good planning, which pays handsome
dividends in any kind of endeavor. The phenom-
enal success of the transatlantic Cunarders
Lusitania and Mauretania (old), designed in the
early 1900's, was due directly to the extraordinary
amount of study and preparation carried out
along many different lines before their
were completed.
The preparation of multiple design studies
permits an excellent degree of bracketing for the
final design by extending these studies deliberately
into regions beyond those contemplated for the
actual ship. Rather surprising results, exceeding
those possible by following conventional
are often unearthed or revealed in this manner.
There are facilities available in practically all
maritime countries for exhaustive testing of ship
models under a wide range of conditions, at a
cost that is small in proportion to the ship cost.
There is little excuse for embarking on a major
shipbuilding project without comparative tests,
on model scale, of several different hull forms.
For the proposed 4-day American superliner of
the early 1930's, T. E. Ferris built 22 models and
tested no less than 14 of them [SNAME, 1931, pp.
314-315]. For the transatlantic liner America of
the late 1930's, the Newport News shipyard alone
tested approximately 50 models, although these
were small ones and some of them involved
changes in the principal dimensions [SNAME,
1940, p. 10].
66.35 Laying Out Other Types of Hulls.
is intended that the discussion and the design dia-
grams in the preceding sections of this chapter
cover the preliminary hydrodynamic design of
ships within a rather wide range of proportions.
This range extends as far as the limits of the co-
efficients and parameters of the various graphs.
Since most of the plots are based upon 0-diml
variables, the range of size extends all the
from boats to liners. The design of the round-
bottom motor tender for the ABC ship, carried
through in Chap. 77, reveals much the same
procedure as for the larger vessel.
For special-service vessels, certain proportions
and functions are exaggerated at the expense of
resistance, propulsion, and other characteristics
normally considered important. Chap. 76 dis-
IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 66.35
cusses these variations for a rather wide variety
of hull forms.
66.36 Effect of Unrelated Factors Upon the
Hydrodynamic Design. The requirements for
the ABC design in Chap. 64 were deliberately
set up, as should be the case for every boat or
ship, to give the designer as much freedom as
possible to shape and proportion the hull. This
applies to the parts both above and below water,
in an effort to produce the maximum of perform-
plans ance so far as all phases of water flow and ship
motion are concerned. At the least, he should
have latitude in establishing the one feature
which may be found most critical when developing
the design. If, for example, rather severe limits
are imposed on the layout of a high-speed ship
in everything except the length, the designer still
lines, can do a great deal by adjusting the length and
by fixing the shape and proportions of his vessel
to meet the exacting requirements imposed upon
him.
More often than not, however, the designer is
forced to employ his strongest arguments to
obtain the latitude he needs in such a principal
feature. All too frequently he is stymied and must
make the best of a situation which he realizes
from the beginning is crowding him against the
wall. Faced with a reluctance on the part of the
ship owner or operator to make the ship longer
than a set figure, confronted with the forces of
nature in shortening the roll of a ship which is
too wide, or recognizing the limitations of channels
which the ship must traverse, he is driven to
fuller forms than he would otherwise select or
to the incorporation of features which his better
It judgment tells him to avoid.
Often, too, through no fault of anyone in
particular, factors not even distantly related to
hydrodynamic features are given priority over
them. Whether the water flow is of paramount
importance or not it is still governed by certain
physical laws. The designer must get this knowl-
edge, then use it to minimize the harmful effects
way of unrelated factors, and to assess these effects
when they can be minimized no further.
It goes without saying that many considerations
other than the ones discussed in this chapter
enter into a determination of the weight and
volume displacements, the principal dimensions,
the proportions, the shape, and the general
arrangement which mark the end of a preliminary
ship design. One of these, and a most important
Sec. 66.36 STEPS IN PRELIMINARY DESIGN 503

one for merchant vessels, is cargo handling, vessels with box-shaped holds, discussed in Sec.
especially of the package rather than the bulk 76.5.
type. It is most ably and interestingly discussed In practice, a dozen or perhaps two dozen
by F. G. Ebel in "Notes on Cargo Handling" combinations may be worked up as indicated in
[SNAME Member's Bull, Feb 1954, pp. 19-27]. this chapter before the most promising of them
Another one is cargo stowage, particularly for are carried along further in greater detail.
 CHAPTER 67

Detail Design of the Underwater Hull

67.1 General 504 Single-Screw Stern 528
67.2 Shape of Vessel Near Designed Waterplane. 504 67.20 Proportions and Characteristics of an Im-
67.3 Waterline Curvature Plots 506 mersed-Transom Stern 529
67.4 Underwater Hull Profile 506 67.21 The Design of a Multiple-Skeg Stern .... 531
67.5 Stem Shape at Various Waterlines .... 508 67.22 Design Notes for the Contra-Guide Skeg
67.6 Design of a Bulb Bow 508 Ending 532
67.7 Laying Out the Bulb for the ABC Ship ... 510 67.23 Shaping the Hull Adjacent to Propulsion-
67.8 Check on Bulb Cavitation 514 Device Positions; Hull, Skeg, and Bossing
67.9 Selection of Section Shapes in Entrance and Endings 536
Run 515 67.24 Aperture and Tip Clearances for Propulsion
67.10 Variation of Section Coefficient Along the Devices 537
Length 517 67.25 Baseplane and Propeller-Disc Clearances . . 540
67.11 Hull Shape Along the Bilge Diagonal ... 517 67.26 Adequate Propeller-Tip Submergence . . . 541
67.12 Side Blisters or Bulges 517 67.27 Design for Minimum Thrust Deduction . . 541
67.13 General Arrangement of Single-Screw Stern . 518 67.28 The Final Section-Area Curve 542
67. 14 Stern Forms for Twin- and Quadruple-Screw 67.29 Modification of Normal Design Procedure for
Vessels 520 a Hull with Keel Drag 543
67.15 Notes on Three- and Five-Screw Installations 521 67.30 Underwater Exhaust for Propelling Machin-
67.16 The Arch Type of Single-Screw Stern ... 521 ery 545
67.17 Flow Analysis for the Arch Type of Stern . . 525 67.31 General Notes on Water Flow as Applied to
67 18
. Design of Hull and Appendage Combinations 526 Hull Design 545
67.19 Comments on Design of an Unsymmetrioal

67.1 General. Based upon the preliminary of the interactions which may be expected, em-
ship layout described in Chap. 66, the hydro- ploying the best available thought and knowledge
dynamic design proceeds with the fashioning of on the subject.
the individual parts, making decisions as to 67.2 Shape of Vessel Near Designed Water-
certain secondary form characteristics, such as plane. The principal features governing the
the more definite determination of the waterlines, shape of the designed waterline for a given
section lines, and diagonals, and the shaping of speed-length quotient T, or F„ are discussed in
the hull ahead of and adjacent to the positions Sec. 66.15, together with a presentation of
of the propulsion devices. empirical methods for making a selection of good
The factors considered here are those which DWL parameters.
govern smooth-water performance. Whether they Some consideration is required of possible
may be expected also to result in good behavior modifications to the nominal at-rest designed-
during maneuvering and wavegoing, and possibly waterplane shape due to the ship's own waves.
also during operations in shallow and restricted If the changes in surface level due to wavemaking
waters, is considered in Parts 5 and 6 of Volume at the selected T, are appreciable, and if the
III and in Chap. 72, respectively, together with sections near the waterplane have sloping sides,
particular features which have to do primarily the shape of the waterplane ai the actual wave
with those special operations. profile may
change enough to alter the expected
The matter of smoothness of the hull and performance. For example, a rather full canoe

minor fairings is covered in Chap. 75; only the
major features are discussed here.
In this attack on the design problem the size
and shape of each part is selected on the basis of
its anticipated action in one or more of the
fundamental types of flow around it. The whole
design is then modified or adjusted on the basis
or whaleboat stern, well tapered in way of the
at-rest waterplane but flaring to a wide deck
above, may possess a considerably greater slope
than the designer intended along the raised
surface of the stern-wave crest, with consequent
undesirable separation. A heavy flare above the
entrance waterline, by humping up the bow-wave

504
Sec. 67.2 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 505

crest, may neutralize much of the benefit gained

in careful shaping of the at-rest waterline at the •

designed draft.
It is mentioned previously, but the caution is
worth repeating, that too much hoUowness abaft
the bow, resulting from an effort to fine the bow
waterlines to an extreme, may involve an exces-
sive and undesirable slope in front of the forward
shoulder.
For the transom-stern ABC ship laid out in
Chap. 66 the first sketches of the designed water-
line are modified to suit the development of the
underwater hull described in detail in this chapter.
The final waterline shape, with its parameters and
0-diml offsets, is drawn in the lower diagram of
Fig. 67.A. That of the arch-stern alternative
design, described in Sec. 67.16, is drawn in the
upper diagram of the figure.
For a stern shape which is wide and essentially
flat on its under side, like that of a scow, the
horizontal waterUnes at the stern close in toward
the centerplane at steep slopes with that plane.
For a truly flat stern with no rise of floor in the
sections this waterline slope Ir reaches 90 deg.
However, in cases of this kind, the flow upward
and aft under the stern is primarily along the
buttocks, or at least more upward than inward.
If so, the waterline slopes lose their significance.
Fig. 67. B reveals very steep slopes for the near-
surface waterlines at the stern of the ABC ship,
faired rather abruptly into the centerline-skeg
waterlines. However, inspection of Fig. 66. Q shows
easy buttock slopes in this region; Fig. 66.R
indicates that the actual flow under the stern is
more or less along these buttocks.
The surface waterplane has a definite function,
not only in minimizing a surface-wave disturbance,
but in providing sufficient square moment of
area to insure the necessary transverse meta-
centric stability. As a rule, the best way to
change the metacentric height is to change the
maximum beam, assuming that this can be done.
Certainly, it is to be preferred to pulling the
designed waterline in and out, here and there.
This nibbling and padding usually changes the
moment of area only shghtly but it may have
major adverse effects upon the propulsion charac-
teristics of the underwater form. On the other
hand, so much attention can be devoted to the
hydrodynamic features of the designed waterHne
that its stabihty features are overlooked.
^-
Exactly this happened in the course of the
preUminary design of the ABC ship. It was
506 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.3

Fig. 67.B After Portions of Afterbody Waterlines for the Transom-Stern ABC Ship

considered that, by reason of the wide waterplane how suddenly this 0-diml curvature can change,
aft, in way shown in the lower
of the transom, a straight line tangent to a circle of diameter
diagram of Fig. 67.A, enough square moment of Bwx involves a sudden change of 0-diml curvature
area would be gained there to more than compen- of from to 114.6.
sate for the rather narrowing of the
drastic (b) No great extremes of concave or convex
whole hull in the entrance. A check of the designed- curvature at any point along the length
waterline It value, which shoidd have been made (c) A curvature plot with the minimum of longi-
before, actuallywas made after the lines had been tudinal waviness. Generally such waviness indi-
sent to the model basin. It revealed a. C,t oi only cates poor fairing or inaccurate dra\ving of the
sUghtly over 0.52 whereas the preferred value waterline.
was 0.561 and the required value, from item (42) (d) A curvature plot with rather long portions
of Table 64.f, was 0.55. A proposal to remedy of constant or nearly constant curvature, as for
this situation is discussed in Sec. 78.18. the TSS waterline, provided there are no abrupt
67.3 Waterline Curvature Plots. A designed changes at the ends of these portions.
watei'line is to be checked for uniformity of cur-
67.4 Underwater Hull Profile. The bow pro-
vatiu'e before it is considered acceptable and
file under water is determined from the desired
before it is used as a basis for shaping the re-
section and waterline shapes at the bow, extending
mainder through 49.14
of the hull. Sees. 49.10
from the baseline up to the designed waterline,
describe approximate and precise methods, both
rather than from an effort to achieve a particular
graphical and mathematical, of accomplishing this
profile that supposedly has merit. In other words,
operation.
the bow profile is determined in a sort of auto-
The 0-diml curvature plots for the designed
matic fashion, just as if one whittled a wooden
waterlines of the ABC transom-stern, single-skeg
model to the desired section shapes forward and
ship, as well as for the alternative arch-type stern
then cut away the model on each side until the
described in Sec. 67.16, are given in the lower
waterlines met the centerplane. Developed in
diagram of Fig. 67. C. The upper diagram gives
this way a ship bow with wall-sided sections all
corresponding plots for the Taylor Standard
the way to the stem terminates in a plumb stem.
Series parent form, EMB model 632 (modified),
One with pure triangular V-sections terminates
and for a merchant ship of good performance. All
in a straight raked profile passing through the
three indicate certain correct features, so far
lower vertexes of these sections.
as they are known, for a good designed-waterline
For many ships which operate in shallow
waters, temporary grounding forward is a not
(a) Not-too-violent changes in curvature with unusual occurrence. It may be advisable on these
^---distance along the length. As an indication of craft to cut up the forefoot and thus remove
Sec. 67.1 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 507

Fig. 67.C Non-Dimensional Curvature Plots op Designed Waterlines for Three Ships

that part of the ship which is most vulnerable to illustrated in Fig. 67.E. The latter is described in
damage when taking the ground. Also, as described Sec. 73.3 and illustrated in Fig. 73.B.
in Sec. 25.5, a small amount of friction and The stern profile below water is influenced
pressure resistance often may be saved by trim- largely by the number and type of stern propul-
ming up the forefoot slightly, in addition to sion devices selected and their tentative positions,
saving some wetted surface. especially if there is a single propdev on or near
There may be merit in shifting progressively the centerplane. For a screw propeller, the com-
aft the forward waterline beginnings with depth bination of proper hydrodynamic position with
below the surface, as explained in Sec. 4.8 and the type, shape, and position of the steering
illustrated in Fig. 4.1. This is especially true if the rudder(s) leaves little of the stern profile to be
waterline entrances are blunt. This bow shape, delineated to suit the engineering sense of the
embodying a heavily raked underwater profile individual designer. Furthermore, that portion of
resembling the Maier bow, saves some wetted the stern profile just below the DWL must be
surface and may result in a slight reduction of considered in conjunction with a larger portion
pressure drag. There is reason to believe, however, lying above the DWL. In fact, the stern profile is

that better performance is achieved, at least at usually so dependent upon other considerations
some T, values, by fining all the waterlines and having to do with skeg endings, propeller clear-
carrying them nearly to the FP. ances and apertures, transom forms, and similar
The bow profile of the ABC design is the result features that it seems wise to discuss these
of combining a bulb bow of slightly ram form, features in detail in those parts of the book
extending forward of the FP, with a sharp cut- devoted particularly to them. The ABC design
water. The former is described in Sec. 67.6 and is no exception in this respect.
508 HVDRODYNy\MIC.S IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.5

67.5 Stem Shape at Various Waterlines. For the shell plating. It is certain to tear or pound off
minimum pressure resistance and reduction in the paint coating. Harmful cavitation, setting up
bow-wave crest, and for the elimination
size of the erosion, causing noise, and inducing vibration
of spray and feather, the horizontal sections at and panting of the plating has in fact occurred
the stem of a vessel, just above and just below abaft projecting welding beads on high-speed
the surface waterline, are made as sharp as vessels where flush shell plates were attached to
possible. Theoretically, they are formed by con- a rabbeted stem casting. Any measurable stem
tinuations of the entrance and bow waterlines, radius, fair or not, is liable to cause separation at
with whatever hoUowness the latter may have, the surface and farther down, if
cavitation
when carried forward to their normal intersections pushed to speeds of the order of 40 or 50 kt.
in the plane of symmetry of the vessel. 67.6 Design of a Bulb Bow. The purpose of
The hull structure of a wooden or metal vessel the bulb bow, explained in Sec. 25.3, is to reduce
inside the extremely thin, taperingstem dictated the height of the bow-wave crest and the magni-
by these hydrodynamic considerations is difficult tude of the pressure resistance caused by it.

and expensive to fabricate. A simple solution is This does not mean that the blunt surface water-
to cut the structure back and terminate the stem lines producing the high crest are to be retained
in a blunt or large-radius section, sometimes with a just because there is to be a bulb to cut down the
radius of 1 ft or more, producing the circular-arc high waves caused by them. By moving some
beginnings depicted in Fig. 25. A. The resulting of the displacement volume from the region of
bow feather is then accepted. the surface to well below it, into the bulb, it is

A circular-arc because of the

leading edge, possible to fine the surface waterlines. Both the
sharp change in curvature at the point where it finer lines and the presence of the bulb act to
joins the nearly straight side of the entrance, is improve the hydrodynamic performance of the
susceptible to both separation and cavitation. ship. It may be said, therefore, that in general
On a high-speed vessel, therefore, the planforms the design of a proper bulb bow involves also a
at various levels of the stem, especially near the definite fining of the surface and near-surface
surface waterline, are made elliptical, with a regions in the entrance.
gradual change in curvature and an easy tran- When a normal form of bow is converted to a
sition into the side. bulb form, good design procedure based on hydro-
Blunt stems build up relatively high dynamic dynamics requires that the displacement volume
resistance below the waterline, which adds in the bulb be removed from a surface-waterline
directly to the pressure resistance of the ship. region immediately abaft the stem, say from the
The blunt nose of a submerged bow bulb, and the FP back to about 0.15 or 0.20 of the waterline
bluntness in the horizontal sections of the stem length. This reduces the angle of entrance and
for some distance above it, are accepted for the the amount that the surface water is pushed
sake of the benefit they afford in other respects. sideward in the vicinity of the first bow-wave
They also enable the ship length to be kept to a crest. Normally it need not and should not be
minimum. removed from the surface and near-surface
Both the hydrodynamic and the structural waterlines in the vicinity of the forward shoulder.
problems described in the foregoing, at least on a When a relatively large bulb is fitted, displace-
metal vessel, are solved by adding an appendage ment volume is also removed from the lower
in the form of a sharp, narrow cutwater. That outer corners of the sections at and ahead of the
designed for the ABC ship is described in Sec. forward quarter point, for a region extending
73.3 and illustrated in Fig. 73.B. from about 0.15L to 0.40 or 0.45L, depending
With modern fabrication and erection methods upon the shape of the original hull and the
there is no excuse for lapping the shell plating amount of volume to be shifted.
on the outside of the stem to form a discontinuity, The manner in which both these changes are
diagrammed at D in Fig. 7.J. Indeed, there is a made is well described and illustrated by E. S.
definite disadvantage to this construction on a Dillon and E. V. Lewis in Figs. 7 through 11 of
high-speed vessel because of the cavitation that their paper "Ships with Bulbous Bows in Smooth
takes place abaft the discontinuity in the regions Water and in Waves" [SNAME, 1955, pp.
of low hydrostatic pressure, near the surface. 726-766].
This may be accompanied by possible erosion of The following is quoted from page 731 of the
Sec. 67.6 UNDERWATER HULL DESIGN 509

referenced paper, with additions in pai'entheses An attempt to reconcile the model-te.st data
by the present author: of E. F. Eggert, E. M. Bragg, and A. F. Lind-
blad, and to evolve systematic values of the design
". displacement gained in the larger bulbs was removed
. .

parameters f e and Ie from them, has so far proved

from the parent form in the region of the design(ed)
waterline so as to progressively fine the angle of entrance unsuccessful. The design values actually used on
Some displacement also was trans-
as bulb size increased. a considerable number of vessels whose perform-
ferred from the shoulder near the turn of the bilge into ance bettered or equaled that of the Taylor
the larger bulbs while at the same time the design(ed)
Standard Series have been plotted therefore on a
waterline was filled out almost imperceptibly at the
(forward) shoulder to recover transverse waterplane
basis of speed-length quotient. From these plots
inertia which had been lost b5f fining the angle of entrance. the tentative design lanes of Fig. 67. D were
This latter step, while perhaps not best from pure resist- derived. They indicate, for T, , a low limit of
ance point of view, was nevertheless essential in main- 0.70, F, = 0.208, and a high limit of L50, F„ =
taining stability characteristics constant for the design
0.447.
throughout the range of bulb sizes."
Those who use them as interim guides until
better rules are developed should recognize the
When considering a bulb bow for a new design
following shortcomings:
it is first necessary to determine whether the
speed range is appropriate to its use. D. W. Tay- (a) The fs values do not increase indefinitely
lor's analysis [S and P, 1943, p. 69] indicates a with T„ beyond the range of T, = 1.5 shown in
low Umit of the order of T, = 0.7, F„ = 0.208, the diagram. They almost certainly diminish to
but at this low speed the optimum terminal zero at some upper limit of T, around 1.9 or 2.0.
value Ie is close to zero, which is almost out of (b) The proper value of /g appears to depend
the question for a ship section-area curve. E. M. upon Cp and the displacement-length quotient
Bragg's tests and analysis, in the same reference, A/(0.010L)' or the fatness ratio ^/(O.IOL)', but
indicate a low limit of the order of T, = 0.80, the various model-test data show conflicting
F„ = 0.238. The bulb appears to be most useful trends. It is probable that the best value of /^
in the vicinity of T, = LO. increases with both Cp and the fatness ratio.

To>^lor Quotient Tq
0.I6E- 0.15
o.y '
die '1 0.^0 r oM '

(Jk 'lab I' o.^^

'

i.ko '

I o.iz I' o.^^ '

ci.^,

Froude Number f„- V/VqL

0.14 E- -iO.I4

Optimum and Minimurn fg Values for o Ronqe of Speed-Length Quotient_^

1-
S 0.12
To Give Minimum Pressure Resistance
;J0I2
< i-
g oioi- •^ of f£ Volues.
"1 0.10

^ 0.081- -|0.08

.g I"
S 0.06^ -=0.06

0.04

Lower f?Qnqe of f^ for Existing

Vessels (1955) with Orthodox Bower-Anchor Instoliatio

' I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

TQ\jlor Quotient To

Fig. 67. D Design Data for Bulb Bows

510 HYDROnVNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.7

(c) The upper and lower limits of Cp and fatness battleships of the U.S. Navy, from the Delaware
ratio for which bulb bows give beneficial results class of1910 to the Arizona class of about 1915.
are not yet determined An even greater forward projection is embodied
(d) It is possible that the best value qUe depends in the recent French liners Flandre and Antilles
upon factors other than T, but if so no definite [SBSR, 24 Jul 1952, pp. 115-117].
trends are yet apparent. Selecting the proper A bulb of extremely large f e ratio, very low,
value oi If. appears, however, to be less important very wide, and very flat on the bottom, was the
than using the proper value of /e . "platypus" forefoot of EMB
model 3383, devel-
oped and tested by E. F. Eggert in the late 1930's
A rather surprising feature of the lower or [SNAME, 1939, pp. 303-330].
f E diagram of Fig. 67. D is that, for a large number 67.7 Laying Out the Bulb for the ABC Ship.
of existing vessels of good propulsion performance, For the ABC design, projecting the bulb forward
the bow bulb-area ratio f b is rarely more than of the construction FP by the length of a cutwater
half the optimum value, although in one case it
such as mentioned in Sec. 67.5 makes it possible
approaches and in another case it exceeds the to provide a nearly plumb external profile below
optimum. These low values are traceable partly water, as drawn in Fig. 67. E. There is no particular
to conservatism, partly to lack of precise knowl- virtue in this plumb profile as such, except
edge of the behavior of bow bulbs at sea, but possibly as a matter of appearance. Likewise
mostly to possible damage from bower anchors, there is none in the ram-bow profile that would
dropped from the orthodox stowage positions accompany a bulb bow forward of the FP,
high in the vessel and close to the stem. except to get the bulb into that forward position,
The design rules laid down by W. C. S. Wigley relative to the waterline.
in the summary of his classic paper "The Theory Extending the bulb below the baseplane is
Bulbous Bow and Its Practical Application"
of the
generally out of the question in practice, although
[NECI, 1935-1936, Vol. LII, p. 65], can hardly it might be done on vessels designed to meet
be improved upon today, twenty years later. particular requirements, or it might be extended
They are set down here, with the present author's below the baseplane as a special appendage.
comments in parentheses, and with only minor Taking the ABC ship as an example of the
changes to comply ^ath the nomenclature in this design procedure, the fitting of a bulb bow on this
book: vessel was settled, at least tentatively, in Sec.
66.19. It was decided to use, pending a further
(1) The useful speed range of a (ship with a)
check, a section-area intercept f e of 0.06 and a
bulb is generally from T, = V/VL of 0.8 to 1.9
terminal value of Ie = 0.9 at the FP. These
(somewhat different from that of Fig. 67. D)
values are indicated by special spots on Fig.
(2) The worse the wavemaking of the hull
67. D. It remains to be seen whether a value of t
itself is, the more gain is to be expected with the
as small as 0.9 will fit the final section-area curve.
bulb, and vice versa
extremely
Assuming for the moment that the bulb can be
(3) Unless the lines (forward) are
worked physically into the ship, a brief calculation
hollow the best position of the bulb is with its

(longitudinal) center at the bow, that is, with its

is made to determine how much pressure resist-
ance is be saved by it. Taking values of
likely to
nose projecting forward of the hull
iJ/j/A in lb per ton from Figs. 241 through 244 of
(4) The bulb should extend as low as possible
D. W. Taylor's S and P, 1943, a curve of residuary
consistent with fairness in the lines of the hull
resistance in pounds per ton of displacement is
(5) The bulb should be as short longitudinally
plotted in Fig. 67. F for the fine ship of series A.
and as wide laterally as possible, again having
This has a Cp of 0.60, a displacement-length
regard to the fairness of the lines
quotient A/(0.010L)' of 60, and a B/H of 3.35.
(6) The top approach too
of the bulb should not
near to the water surface. As a working rule it is
Four Ru/L values, for T^'s of 0.559, 0.783,
1.006, and 1.118, enable this curve to be located
suggested that the submergence of the highest
reasonably well, especially for the region of
part of the bulb should be not less than its own
total thickness (measured transversely).
T„ = 0.8 to 0.9. Reference to Figs. 248 through
252 of S and P, 1943 edition, enables a second
Moving the bulb well forward of the FP pro- curve of residuary resistance in pounds per ton
duced excellent results on pre-World War I displacement to be plotted for the fat ship of
 Sec. 67.7 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 511

).5 Stations .qj

Fig. 67.E Bow Peofilb, Bulb Bow, and Cutwater for ABC Ship

series B, for which Cp is 0.65, the displacement- enough to justify fitting a bulb bow to the ABC
length quotient is 150, and the B/H ratio is 3.20. design, even for the sustained speed of 18.7 kt,
The next step is to determine the residuary where T, = 0.828.
resistances of two vessels without bulbs, having J. M. Ferguson has very recently (August 1955)
parent forms identical with those of the Taylor prepared an analysis of D. W. Taylor's test data
Standard Series, and proportions as given in by which it is possible to determine by inspection
the preceding paragraph. In Table 67.a this the saving in total (not residuary) resistance by
derivation is set down in tabular form. The four using the best values of the terminal value t
points corresponding to the Rr/A. values calcu- and the FP area ratio /, or other combinations
lated for the series A and series B ships without of t and /, without making the special calculations
bulbs, at T, values of 0.8 and 0.9, are indicated just described. Ferguson's data are unpublished
as such on the plot of Fig. 67. F. The Rg/A values but they are on file in the TMB Ubrary.
to be saved by fitting bulb bows to the two ships The ABC bulb bow is to extend forward of the
are indicated by the vertical intercepts between FP, hence the area corresponding to /e is meas-
the four points just mentioned and the curves ured at that station. If the bulb were rounded into
for the corresponding ships with bulbs. the FP, the area would be that at the plane of
Reducing these intercepts to percentages of the forward perpendicular lying within the bulb
Rr/A. of the parent-form ships without bulbs, surfaces when extended to that station, disregard-
as in Table 67. b, the savings to be expected are ing the rounding.
of the order of 11 to 18 per cent at a T, of 0.8 Since the bulb volume should be as far below
and 14 to 18 per cent at a T, of 0.9. This is certainly the designed waterline as possible the bottoms of
)12 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.7

angle. Thismay, for a ship to run in the open sea,

range from 20 to 45 deg, depending upon the
contemplated width of the bulb proper. The aim
is to prevent objectionable pounding and slam-
ming under the bulb.
If the bulb section were made triangular, with
its apex at the DWL
and with a zero rise of floor,
its width at the bottom would be that of the
section area at Sta. divided by half the draft.
Two diagonal lines are drawn, one of which is

marked DC in Fig. 67. G, diagram 1, representing

the two sides of this triangle. With a diameter
which is of the order of one-eighth greater than
the total bottom width of the triangle, draw a
construction circle tangent to the baseline. Using

Fig. 67.F Comparison of Residuabt-Resistance-

the half-beam at the DWL, the keel half-siding,

Per-Ton Values for Normal and Bulb Bows the floor lines, the straight-sided triangle, and the
construction circle as guide lines, sketch in a
allthe bulb sections intersect the baseline. A decanter shape, as is done in diagram 1 of Fig.
good shape for the bulb section, extending all 67.G for the ABC ship. The fs value here is 0.06.
the way up to the DWL,
and lying in or projected It found that, in general, the bulb section
is

upon the transverse plane of the FP, is that of a passes close to the upper intersection of the
decanter. As a starter in laying out this section, triangleand the construction circle, and that its
firstdraw two short vertical lines at the DWL, maximum beam is about that of the circle.

at the half-beams selected for the stem, and then Adhering strictly to Wigley's criterion (6),
lay off the keel half-siding on each side of the quoted earlier in this section, that the submergence
baseline. From the outer edges of the keel draw of the top of the bulb be not less than its maximum
two short floor hues at a suitable rise-of-floor breadth, the construction circle for any bulb

TABLE 67.a Derivation of Rr/A Values fob Two TSS Ships Without Bulb Bows
The data presented here are taken from the TSS contours of 7?k/A given by D. W. Taylor in S and P, 1943. The
derived values of Rr/A are plotted on Fig. 67.F.

FINE SHIP, Series A

Cp = 0.60
Sec. r,7.7 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 513

should have a diameter not much greater than

half the draft. If this design rule is followed,
the area ratio /e of a bulb laid out in accordance
with these rules is limited to a maximum of
about 0.10, indicated in diagram 2 of Fig. 67. G.
If larger ratios are desired the upper part of the
bulb must approach the surface closer or the
lower part must assume more of a triangular or
platypus form, with a diminished rise of floor.
A bulb with an area ratio /b =
0.135, on a
vessel of relatively shallow draft, where B/H =
3.07, is shown by E. S. Dillon and E. V. Lewis
[SNAME, 1955, Fig. 9, p. 735]. The construction
circle for this bulb has a diameter of from 0.7 to
Q.SH, depending upon how it is used.
To simplify construction, with the rather heavy
plating called for in this region, the sides of the
made developable surfaces, Sections
bulb are if possible
u If c J- .' Shown
described in Sec. 27.1. The lower part of the HQlf-S,d,ng|
^^^^pp
bulb may
be the surface of a cone, not necessarily 6.96 ftl-

a circular one, whose vertex lies well ahead of the

Fig. 67. G Layout Diagram for a Bulb-Bow Section
FP. The following is copied from D. W. Taylor
[S and P, 1943, p. 69]: Sketching in a section similar to that of the FP,
at about Sta. 1 or 2, corresponding in area to
"The ingenious naval architect will have no difficulty
in devising bulbous forms where little or no furnacing of either or both of those intercepts on the section-
the structural plating is necessary." area curve and fairing generally with the bulb

TABLE 67.b Predicted Improvement in Residuary Resistance Due to Bulb Bow

The value of T, for the ABC ship at 18.7 kt is 18.7/ VSIO = 0.828.

flij/A Saving in Residuary

Resistance with Bulb

At r„ = 0.

Fine ship, without bulb

514 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. r,7.fi

^Axis of Ovoid
EquoM\j 5poced Ordinotes or Radii

Fig. 67.H Construction of a 3-Diml, Single-Ended Rankinb Ovoid foe a Bulb Bow

sections at the FP, gives an approximation of the centroid of the bulb area even farther below the
slenderness of the bulb cone and the position of DWL, with itsaccompanying advantages. It is
its apex forward FP. of the still possible to work developable surfaces into the
If some variation from a developable conical bottom and the sides of this triangular bulb.
shape is acceptable, the waterlines through the 67.8 Check on Bulb Cavitation. In the past
maximum transverse thickness of the bulb may there has been no definite low limit of draft, in
approximate the shape of a single-ended Rankine smooth water at least, at which it is not advisable
ovoid generated by a single 3-diml source placed to fit a bulb at the bow. Even for high-speed
in a uniform stream. Fig. 67. H illustrates the light-draft vessels intended to run in large waves,
method of graphic construction, described in bulb bows have been used to advantage. An
Chap. 43, and shows the shape of an axial section example is the pre-World War II Itahan cruiser
through one-half of such a form. The proportions Pola, having a standard displacement of 10,000 t,
are varied by changing the source strength a length of approximately 600 ft, a beam of
relative to that of the uniform stream. 67.7 ft, a draft of 19.5 ft, and a B/H ratio of 3.47.
The lower profile of an ovoid bulb could be At a speed of 33.9 kt, T<, for this vessel is 1.38;
delineated in the same way except for the practical F„ is about 0.41. A close-up bow view of the Pola
requirement of a flat keel extending well forward is published in Schiffbau [1 Mar 1933, p. 89].
for docking support. Having this in mind it is Other examples are the heavy cruisers U.S.S.
convenient to terminate the lower profile in a Pensacola and U.S.S. Salt Lake City, described
radius tangent to the base plane, say of the order on SNAME RD sheet 121, with /b values of
of O.lOff [SNAME, 1930, PI. 41], or it may be 0.083; see also Fig. 52.Kc.
about equal to the mean radius of the extreme For the first time, so far as known, cavitation
nose of the Rankine form. For the ABC design was recently (1954) observed on each side of the
the dimension adopted is 3. .5 ft; this means that the bulb of another light-draft high-speed vessel
straight keel for docking extends forward to the somewhat resembling the Pola. In smooth water
FP. the two cavities were plainly visible from the
The matter of shaping the bottom of the bulb forecastle head.
to avoid pounding and slamming during wave- This new development definitely calls for
going is discussed further in Part 6 of Volume III. elliptic or pointed rather than circular beginnings
If the bulb remains normally well submerged of the waterlines well below the DWL. The shape
in service, as it might in inland waters, where of the waterline at each draft,and possibly also
pounding or slamming is rarely if ever encount- the shape of some other characteristic line, must
ered, the bulb sections may be made rather therefore be one for wliich cavitation will not
definitely triangular, with a fairly flat bottom occur at the cavitation number o-(sigma) actually
[Eggert, E. F., SNAME, 1939, pp. 303-330; encountered on the ship at designed draft in
Lindblad, A. F., "Experiments with Bulbous smooth water. This check was not made for the
Bows," SSPA Rep. 3, 1944, p. 7]. This puts the bulb design of the ABC ship since the observations
Sec. 67.9 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 515

described in the paragraph were

preceding ance under conditions which make a bulb bow
reported long after the completion of the under- of advantage, the entrance sections in the forward
water hull design and the construction and tests fifth- or quarter-length are necessarily of U-form.
of the ABC model. They begin with an hour-glass shape at the bulb,
When calculating the cavitation number for considering the abovewater sections as well, and
the ship it is well to be conservative and to omit work aft into a more or less straight side, which
the allowances for increased head above the may be vertical or flared outward.
various parts of the bulb due to the bow-wave Following this rule, the sections in the forebody
crest or to sinkage at the bow. The transient of the ABC ship are of predominantly U-form.
cavitation which occurs along the sides of the That portion of the entrance lying inside the
bulb during wavegoing, when the bulb rises estimated position of the bow-wave crest is made
toward the surface, may be accepted. sensibly vertical so as not to accentuate the
Incidentally, it is not possible to observe either crest with outward-sloping section lines above the
the separation or the cavitation on a routine DWL, with a consequent increase in pressure
model test because the Reynolds number R^ or drag due to wavemaking.
jSj at the stem is too low to produce a flow dy- An easy path for the curved and twisting flow-
namically similar to that on the ship, and because, lines around the lower portion of the entrance
with full atmospheric pressure above the basin is achieved by working as large radii as possible
water, the model cavitation number is much into the lower "corners" of the U-sections in
higher than in the full scale. way of the forward quarter. This is illustrated
Assuming for the ABC ship that at some light- for the ABC design in Figs. 66.P and 66.R. It is

load displacement and trim the depth of water h shown more prominently in the TSS body plan
to the axis or Avidest part of the bulb, reckoned in Fig. 51. A. It has been possible to reduce bare-
from the at-rest WL, is only 13.5 ft, that the by the order of 8 per cent in a
hull resistance
head hJ^ corresponding to the atmospheric pressure bulb-bow model solely by cutting away the
is 33 ft, and that the head due to the vapor pres- lower outer corners of the sections abaft the bulb
sure of water, hv ,is 0.5 ft, the total static head and relocating the displacement volume upward
at the axis of the bulb is represented by {h -\- Ha — by filling out the waterlines of the same sections.
hy) = (13.5 -h 33 - 0.5) = 46.0 ft. Assuming At the suggestion of S. A. Vincent, this was
also that the speed is 20.5 kt, or 34.62 ft per sec, done with the first set of forebody fines of the
the velocity head hu = Vy2g = (34.62)7 ABC ship. Following the model tests of the hull
(64.348) = 18.63 ft. Then o- = 46.0/18.63 = 2.47. shown in Fig. 66. P it is believed that the form
This value is far in excess, numerically, of the would benefit by a further change of the same
cavitation number o- = 0.50 at which cavitation kind.
occurs on the hemispherical head of a body of If deep or shallow V-sections are to be used in
revolution, from diagram 1 of Fig. 47. E. Indeed, the entrance, the section shapes follow a fairly
it isin excess of that at which cavitation occurs regular pattern from the stem to the main body
on a blunt head [Rouse, H., and McNown, J. S., of the hull forward of amidships, with their lower
"Cavitation and Pressure Distribution: Head outer corners well rounded. The relatively small
Forms at Zero Angle of Yaw," State Univ. Iowa, differences between V-shaped and U-shaped
Studies in Eng'g., Bull. 32, 1948, pp. 54, 65]. sections are well illustrated by G. Vedeler, in a
No cavitation in smooth-water running need be diagram embodying alternative hull designs for a
expected around the bulb bow of the ABC ship. given set of specifications [6th ICSTS, 1951, pp.
The cavitation number corresponding to
cr, 169-170].
conditions on this or any other ship, is found The design of cutaway dory-type bows with
quickly by the use of the monogram of Fig. 47.B, pronounced V-sections, as in the Maierform, in
by entering it with the total head in ft and the icebreakers, and in vessels like the old pilot boat
ship speed in kt. New York, is discussed under these special forms
67.9 Selection of Section Shapes in Entrance in Chap. 76.
and Run. The first decision with respect to The shape of sections in the run is determined
section shapes in the entrance and the run is largely by the tentative shape selected for the
whether they shall be of predominantly U- or designed waterline and by the positions selected
V-shape. If the vessel is to give its best perform- for the propulsion devices. The latter is a major
516 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.9

factor, because the section shapes largely govern struction," submitted in partial fulfillment of a
the nature of the flow to these devices. Near the B.Sc. degree at the Stevens Institute of Tech-
stern a secondary factor may
be the tentative nology, Hoboken, N. J., in 1884:
rudder position (s). For normal-form sterns the
"This eddy resistance, produced by an 'unfairness' in
twin or multiple screws calls for sections
fitting of
the run, is a fault common to many boats otherwise well
of predominantly V-shape. For single screws a designed. The run is the most important part of the
V-shape merging into a U-shape helps to provide sJiip, as well as the most difficult to design, and should,
a greater degree of equality in the vertical therefore, receive very attentive study. If it is not given
distribution ofwake velocity, and possibly also a shape, capable of letting the water close in naturally
and smoothly under the stern, the negative pressure of
a higher average wake fraction than a V-shape.
the water against that part of the ship, will be lessened, or,
With the latter it is almost impossible to obtain what amounts to the same thing, the direct head resistance
anything but blunt endings in the upper part of will be increased, thus producing a decided loss in
a centerline skeg. efficiency."

It is to be recalled, when sketching in the run

sections, that most of the water passing the run With the relatively large B/H ratio of 2.80 in
comes up from under the bottom. Put in another the ABC ship, and a transom at the stern, the
way, the water coming up from underneath the section lines in the run fall into a pattern which
ship covers a greater surface area of the run, as resembles more nearly the orthodox twin-screw
projected on the body plan, than the water rather than the single-screw hull. This shape of
coming around the sides. The importance of good run does not lend itself to deep U-sections in the
shaping in the run was appreciated many decades portion leading to the propeller. For this reason,
ago and its need could well be brought to the and to hold the thrust-deduction forces to a
attention of naval architects every few years. minimum, the centerline skeg was made as thin
The following extract is taken from pages 16 and as practicable, having due regard to accessibility
17 of a thesis by Mr. H. de B. Parsons entitled and lateral stiffness. It was then added to the
"Ship Design and a Systematic Method of Con- main hull as a sort of appendage, indicated by

TABLE 67.C Data on Section Coefficients in the Entrance for Typical Merchant Ships

Name or Number of Ship

Sec. 67.12 UNDERWA lER HULL DESIGN 517

the broken section lines and the skeg tangent -

line in the afterbody of Fig. 6G.P.

To preserve a nearly constant waterline slope
at the stern, in the actual wave profile at trial
speed, the waterlines just above the 26-ft DWL
terminate in a vertical knuckle at the outer lower
corner of the transom. With a sharp horizontal
knuckle at Sta. 20 it seems preferable to carry
the latter knuckle forward until it fades out
between Stas. 16 and 17.

67.10 Variation of Section Coefficient Along

the Length. One means of knowing whether the
lower corners of the sections ahead of and at the
forward quarterpoint are cut away sufficiently is
to plot the section coefficients on a base of ship
length. It is indicated in Fig. 24.1 that a normal
form of this curve passes through the given value
of Cx at the maximum-area section, diminishes
slowly toward the FP, and rapidly toward the AP.
Because of the parallel middlebody worked into
some ships it is also necessary to consider the
shape of the forward portion of the section-
coefficient curve with respect to the entrance
length Le rather than the ship length L.
Many years ago D. W. Taylor emphasized the
importance of easy curvature in the section lines
at about the forward quarterpoint. He stated
—
then and it appears to be true by present
—
knowledge that "at about the point where the
water wants to go under the ship, you ought
—
not to have a full section not over 85 per cent
coefficient of fullness at the outside" [SNAME,
1907, p. 11]. While a section coefficient of 0.85
at the forward quarterpoint (0.25L abaft the FP),
represents a good design for easily driven vessels,
it can and does rise and fall with the value of Cx
It is perhaps better to say that the lowest value
of the section coefficient in the entrance should
fall within the range of 0.25 to 0.45Lb from the
FP. Within this interval of length it should have
a value of the order of 0.80 to 0.90 of the Cx value.
These ranges are taken from the data of Table
67. c, for the position and value of the minimum
section coefficient in the entrance of a number of
merchant ships and designs, and from unpublished
data on a rather wide variety of combatant
vessels.
Fig. 67.1 is a plot of the section coefficient for
the ABC ship with both the single-skeg transom
stern and the twin-skeg arch stern. The shape of
the curve is typical for a vessel of this type. For
this ship, with a Cx of 0.956, the minimum value
of the section coefficient is 0.873. It occurs at
0.165L, or 0.320Lj; , abaft the FP. The ratio of
518 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.13

on a ship. Sec. 76.9 discusses the

blisters or bulges however, are these small enough to avoid separa-
design of ship hulls with discontinuous sections tion at the DWL.
and includes a number of design rules. Certain of What is really important is the underwater

these are applicable also to ships with blisters and hull shape forward of the propeller, as it effects
bulges. flow to the wheel, and the augment of resistance
Manifestly, the addition of a blister to the due to the reduced-pressure field in the inflow jet.
main hull or the swelling of a bulge on the bound- What is equally important,not only for propulsion
ary of it comprises an integral part of the volume but for propeller maintenance, is that the single
which must be pushed through the water. The wheel be kept well submerged in all operating
form coefficients and parameters of the ship conditions. With the large powers now being
carrying them apply therefore to its outside put into single screws, of the order of 20,000
dimensions, shape, and surface. A ship already horses or more, and the likelihood of still greater
built, to which a bulge or blister of large size is single-shaft powers in the future, as ship speeds
appUed, becomes in fact a new ship, with new increase, it is imperative that the waterUne slopes
proportions, new parameters, new hull coefficients, ahead of the propeller aperture be such as posi-
and a different shape. tively to avoid any liability of separation.
Assuming that the transverse section contours At the level of the 0.7 to 0.9 radius on a propeller
of a bulged form are fair, the discussions of Sees. blade in the 12 o'clock position, the skeg waterline
24.10 and 25.8 show that neither the maximum- slopes just ahead of the aperture should not
section shape nor its fullness coefficient Cx have exceed 15 deg for near-surface 20
levels, or 18 to

an appreciable effect on the ship resistance. This deg for below the sur-
levels that are always well
means that the bulge can be shaped and positioned face in smooth-water running. This slope is to
to suit other requirements. If it comes at the be carried aft, as close as practicable to the aper-
designed waterUne, of course, it almost certainly ture, eliminating blunt endings on sternposts or
changes the Bx/H ratio, the angles of waterline stern weldments, forgings, or castings. The
slope in the entrance and run, the waterplane terminal radii should be no greater than necessary
coefficient Cw , the transverse moment of area to prevent corrosion on thin sections, say 0.1 ft
coefficientC,t and other parameters. If it
, or less on large vessels.
comes below the DWL
it changes only the fatness The aftfoot may be cut up in profile to meet
ratios A/(0.010L)' and ¥/(0.10L)\ There is maneuvering requirements, to form what is
considerable latitude in these values for a good sometimes called a clear-water stern, provided
design. dynamic stability of route is assured, and the
67.13 General Arrangement of Single-Screw necessary docking support remains along the
Stem. The counter
or fantail type of stern, with centerline keel. If it is known that the flow is aft
its relatively thin and deep centerhne skeg, its and upward cutaway region the level lines
in the
rather long fore-and-aft abovewater overhang, in the skeg termination may be rather blunt. It
and its wide upper decks, came down through the is the hull slope along the actual flowline that
sailing ships of the Middle and Modern Ages. counts, below as well as above the shaft axis.
It persisted as the normal form of stern for In some tugs the aftfoot is cut away, as in a
mechanically driven vessels until the 1930's and clear-water stern, to afford greater maneuver-
beyond. In the two decades preceding the time of ability but the keel bar and the sternpost are
writing (1955) it has, for reasons still rather extended aft and downward, respectively, to
obscure, been replaced as the normal
largely carry a rudder shoe and to act as a guard for
single-screw stern by the whaleboat or canoe both propeller and rudder ["Kort Nozzle Tug
(cruiser) type. The latter has the practical advan- Maamal," SBSR, 20 Nov 1952, p. 676].
tage that it is probably less costly and less Freedom from objectionable stern vibration in
difficult to build, that it affords better protection service is often a requirement that ranks in
to the rudder and propeller, and that, lacking importance \vith efficient propulsion. Meeting this
projections and not likely to
discontinuities, it is demand means, in addition to a fine skeg ending
give trouble in a following sea. Hydrodynamically, ahead of the propeller, an adequate aperture
it usually offers better shielding of the propeller clearance ahead of the sweep lines of the propeller
against air leakage and, because of the greater blades. This must be enough to keep down to
waterline length, it should result in smaller acceptable limits the periodic lateral forces on
surface waterliue slopes at the stern. Rarely, the skeg as each blade, with its circulation pattern
Sec. 67.13 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 519

and pressure field, passes through the aperture. hull. The arrangement then resembles that of
An adequate and proper aperture clearance, each side skeg in a twin-skeg design, discussed
although undoubtedly a function of the pressure in Sec. 67.21 and in the technical literature
distribution around the adjacent blade elements, [SNAME, 1947, pp. 97-169]. However, it is not
can not be defined within close limits on the basis as easy as might be expected, with this arrange-
of present knowledge. This matter is discussed ment, to obtain the requisite fining of the upper
further in Sees. 67.23 and 67.24. levels of the skeg ending while giving the skeg
A modern form of whaleboat or canoe stern an ample degree of lateral stiffness.
for single-screw merchant vessels of normal The profile drawing of Fig. 66. Q is an elevation
design is represented by the sterns of the five of the aftermost quarter-length, drawn in orthodox
TMB Series GO parent forms for block coefficients fashion. The centerline buttock is included as a
from 0.60 through 0.80. The typical stern profile sort of construction line, indicating the profile
is illustrated in a diagram published by F. H. shape of the after main-hull sections on the basis
Todd [SNAME, 1953, Fig. 28, p. 562]. The that the thin centerline skeg is treated as an
adaptation to a particular propeller is dehneated appendage. The transom-stern body plan. Fig.
by J. B. Hadler, G. R. Stuntz, Jr., and P. C. Pien 66. P, indicates this feature in the form of broken-
[SNAME, 1954, Fig. 2, p. 123]. hne continuations of the sections at Stas. 16
In a modification of the normal single-screw through through to the centerline
18.5, carried
stern, such as that laid out for the ABC design in without taking account of the skeg.
Figs. 66. P and 66. Q, the transom leads forward The aperture clearance forward of the upper
to a sort of shelf, worked at about the level of blades is made exceptionally large and the aftfoot
the top of the propeller aperture and the top of of the skeg is cut away to save wetted surface
the rudder. One purpose of this shelf is to protect and to improve maneuvering. It is to be noted
the propeller from air leakage as long as the that whereas the centerline buttock is horizontal
shelf is submerged. Another is to permit fining of for about 11 ft forward of the AP, it was found
the upper portion of the skeg ending ahead of not possible to level out the lateral buttocks in
the upper propeller blades by making the skeg the same way without decreasing the slopes of
more of an appendage than a part of the main the lower transom edges or losing displacement

Fig. 67.J Port Quarter View op Transom-Stern Model for ABC Ship
520 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.14

Fig. 67. K Profile View of Transom-Stern Model for ABC Ship

volume by hollowing the main portion of the screws, could be designed for the ABC ship, as
hull at and forward of the propeller position. an additional example of hydrodynamic design
The upper after corner of the rudder is rounded procedure. However, a twin-screw stern (excluding
off to provide a moderate gap below the free-water bossings) usually poses fewer shaping problems
surface and to avoid breakdown of the rudder at and interferences, and it may be expected to
large angles. have less bare-hull resistance than an equally
These features are pictured in photographs good single-screw stern.
of TMB model 4505, representing the transom- Save for the cases where quadruple screws are
stern ABC ship, reproduced here as Figs. 67. carried underneath a flat-bottomed or transom-
and 67.K. stern hull, with the shafts supported by struts, or
A further modification of this shelf or transom for the cases where two of the four quadruple
design, particularly for a high-speed craft, limits screws are carried by deep skegs, the design of
the single centerline skeg to a sort of vertical a normal form of quadruple-screw stern follows
bossing which terminates just below the shaft. that of the normal twin-screw stern rather closely.
Carrying this design one step further cuts the The inboard propellers are placed in about the
bossing back to a short length of fairing where same positions as for twin screws. The outboard
the shaft emerges from the hull and supports the propellers are mounted farther forward and
propeller bearing by a single-arm or double-arm farther from the centerline, usually far enough so
strut, with intermediate struts as may be neces- that their discs are clear of the inboard propeller
sary. discs when both sets are projected on the plane
67.14 Stern Forms for Twin- and Quadruple- of the maximum section. Whether the four
Screw Vessels. The Taylor Standard Series propellers project far beyond the above water
stern, delineated in Fig. 51.A [S and P, 1943, sides of the hull, as on the light cruisers of the
Figs. 185 and 186, pp. 182-183], was adapted (U.S.) Omaha whether they
class of the 1920's, or
from the British twin-screw armored cruisers of lie below the hull as on a wide transom-
entirely
the 1895-1905 era but it still represents an excel- stern design, is more a matter of the general hull
lent basic form for twin-screw hulls of today. It shape than of the underwater hull design. Rarely,
is adaptable to several types and shapes of single if ever, is the hull shape modified for the out-

centerline rudder, including the spade or under- board propellers, except as may be necessary to
hung rudder, as well as to rather wide variations accommodate machinery parts inside. The four
in profile. It may be used with open struts to shafts are carried in bossings, in open struts, or in
support the twin shafts or twin bossings may be any desired combination of the two.
superposed on it. The positioning of screw propellers relative to
Lack of space precludes the insertion of sections the hull, especially the matter of tip clearances,
in which a second alternative stern, with twin is discussed further in Sees. 67.24 and 69.3.
Sec. 67.16 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 521

67.15 Notes on Three- and Five-Screw Instal-
lations. Although triple screws are, at the time
of writing (1955), not favored for modern ship
designs, there have been many successful installa-
tions in the past. Notable among these were the
U. S. cruisers Columbia and Minneapolis of the
1890's, many early turbine-driven vessels of the
1900's, the passenger vessels Great Northern
Northern Pacific of 1914, and the many
and large German capital ships of the World
economically and efficiently at both cruising
speed and at full speed.
While attractive from the point of reducing
the number of propelling plants and propulsion
devices on a high-power ship, triple screws may
have to be associated with something rather
and new and different in the way of ship sterns to
realize their full possibilities.
cruisers
It is not beyond the bounds of probability that

War I and World War II periods. An excellent with further increases in ship power it may be
photograph of the Cunard liner Carmania, found advisable to fit five screw propellers on a
fitted with triple 3-bladed propellers, is shown on ship. A stern design for such a vessel appears to

Plate 161, SNAME, 1905. A photograph of the involve many problems of both the triple-screw
Columbia in dock, showing the three 3-bladed and the quadruple-screw stern. Because of this
built-up propellers, is published in Cassier's and other reasons it has not, so far as known,
Magazine [Feb 1896, p. 325]. The triple-screw been attempted on more than model scale.
arrangements on the Argentine battleships Moreno 67.16 The Arch Type of Single-Screw Stern.
and Rivadavia are illustrated in Schiffbau [11 With the increased reUabiUty, decreased weight
Oct 1911, p. 19]. There was a proposed triple- and space, and reduced fuel consumption of the
screw World War II German destroyer of the larger sizes of modern ship propeUing plants it
Z-51 class, with internal-combustion engine drive becomes increasingly desirable to take advantage
[ASNE, Feb 1948, pi. opp. p. 30]. There were four of the inherent simpUcity and lower first cost of
engines of 10,000 horses each coupled to the single-screw propelling machinery, to say nothing
center shaft and one each of 10,000 horses to the of its higher propulsive coefficient. Propeller
two wing shafts. The center propeller was of design has progressed to the point where powers
course much larger than the two others. The much higher than those dehvered to single wheels
vessel was to carry a large centerline spade rudder in the past can be absorbed at reasonably low
and smaller offset twin rudders. rotational speeds. If the rate of rotation is

The triple-screw stern, despite its use on many
medium and large vessels in the past, presents
difficulties with propelling machinery and pro-
peller design. The hull shape in way of the center
skeg or center portion ahead of a middle screw
is vastly different from the shape ahead of the
wing screws, even when the latter are carried
bossings. The friction wakes, the angularity of
the flows, and the uniformity of water speeds
over the discs will not be the same for the center
and the wing propellers. Although not strictly
sufficiently increased, if the propeller is made
large enough, and if it is kept adequately sub-
merged, the shaft power of 50,000 horses men-
tioned elsewhere may be achieved in the not
distant future.
Much higher propulsive coefficients can be and
by have been obtained with single-screw than with
twin- or multiple-screw propulsion but these are
predicated upon advantageous flow conditions at
the propeller disc. Good flow is obtained with
relatively long and thin vertical skegs ahead of

necessary, almost never possible to make the

it is the propeller, giving reasonably high hull effi-

center propeller absorb the same power at the ciencies [riH = (1 — 0/(1 — "')] at the propeUer
same rate of rotation as the wing propellers. position without excessive circumferential varia-
Many designers have been disillusioned by tion and without objectionable separation or
attractive proposals to use the center propeller eddying.
solely for intermediate-speed and cruising pur- As the size of vessels in this category increases,

poses, only to find in service that:
(1) There were practical difficulties in uncoupling
the wing shafts and permitting their propellers to
free-wheel while cruising
(2) There were many problems in designing a
center propelling plant which would operate
so does the beam-draft ratio, because the draft
ismore severely Hmited by depths in the water-
ways of the world than the beam is limited by
berthing and docking facihties. The progressive
increase in beam, over the years, due largely to
damage-control requirements, has meant in-
creased difficulty in fining the waterUnes forward
522 HYDRODYNy\MICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.16

to keep down pressure resistance due to wave- planes where each has all the space it needs,
making. It is perhaps even harder to draw in the dividing the one large rudder into two smaller
lines aft so they merge into a long and relatively ones, and hanging each of them behind an offset
narrow skeg ahead of the single propeller. Unless skeg, much more room is left for a single propeller
the stern is deliberately made wide and flat, on the centerline. Furthermore, in a wide ship
incorporating a feature not well adapted to it is far easier to work gentle slopes into the sides
vessels which must operate with a great variation of twin skegs, especially in their upper portions
in draft aft, the demand for fine lines at both where they join the hull, than into a single
ends of a medium-speed or fast vessel cuts centerline skeg. If a single propeller is mounted
severely into the waterplane area necessary for in a sort of tunnel between the offset skegs with
transverse metacentric stability. All things con- an arch-shaped roof overhead it can have a
sidered, it is difficult to fine the designed waterline diameter 20 to 25 per cent larger than would
ending in a single-screw ship of normal form otherwise be possible. The fact that the tip
without encountering separation and accepting clearance in this tunnel can be made sensibly
the drag which comes with it. To avoid surface constant for more than half-way around the
separation completely means limiting the water- propeller disc means that this clearance can be
line slopes to a value not exceeding about 12 or very small. It can indeed be vastly smaller than
13 deg. With beams continuing to increase, this is thought necessary on an orthodox single-screw

situation is slowly becoming worse. Something installation to keep vibration down within
needs to be done about it. reasonable limits. This leaves still more room to
The termination and the slopes of waterlines swing a larger wheel.
forward of a single-screw propeller aperture have For the ABC design, a propeller-disc diameter
on many occasions in the past been relatively of 24 ft was selected as one which would always
blunt and heavy, with no consistently objec- remain submerged; that is, as one for which the
tionable effects. This was principally because the wheel could be kept submerged during the several
powers absorbed by individual propeller blades variable-load conditions by the use of liquid cargo
were small and the transient forces and moments or salt-water ballast in the after peak tanks,
produced when these blades swung through coupled with the filling of the tunnel by a solid
regions of highly variable wake were also small. inflow jet. The tip clearance of 1 ft was estimated
With higher and higher blade loadings the to be a reasonable value, considering that it

periodic forces and moments likewise increase, would be constant over at least half the circum-
so that turning out a design with greater power ference. It was not too small to bring the blade-tip
than a previous design, or re-engining a ship to fields too close to the hull and not too large to

accomplish the same purpose, is by no means as lose the benefit of whatever boundary layer
simple as making the propeller shaft a little larger existed on the inside of the arch.
and mounting a new propeller to absorb the This reasoning was based upon satisfactory
increased power. clearances of the order of 0.25 ft for propellers
In the orthodox single-screw stern the propeller of one-third the diameter on tunnel-stern push-
is in the same vertical plane as the: boats. In fact, since only mechanical clearance is
required, the tip clearance on a 24-ft wheel might
(a) Arch structure over the aperture
be reduced to less than 0.5 ft, assuming flush
(b) Rudder
hull plating abreast the propeller, truly concentric
(c) Rudder horn, if fitted
with its axis.
(d) Sternpost
For a 20 per cent increase in propeller diameter
(e) Rudder post
over that for the transom-stern design, from 20
(f) Shoe projecting from the heel of the ship to
to 24 ft, the disc area is increased 44 per cent.
carry the lower rudder pintle.
The thrust-load coefficient is reduced 30.5 per
Any attempt to increase the propeller diameter, cent (1.00/1.44 = 69.5) by this change alone. A
to provide more tip clearance, or to leave more comparison of the propulsive efficiencies of the
vertical clearance in the aperture, runs head on 20-ft propeller with the single centerline skeg
into the situation that many other parts must and of the 24-ft propeller with the arch stern is
also be accommodated in the centerplane. given in Sec. 78.15.
By shifting the fixed parts into different vertical The afterbody plan of Fig. 67. L shows how the
Sec. 67.16 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 52S

tunnel between the side skegs is widened slightly p. 116] indicated a definite thinning of the bound-
with distance forward of the propeller in an ary layer in way of the longitudinal bottom con-
endeavor to allow for the increased area of the vexity at the forward end of the tunnel, with
inflow jet with that distance. The tunnel is neces- fairly high transverse velocity gradients at the
sarilydeep in that portion of the length normally hull surface. This is an additional guard against
occupied by a single centerline skeg because of separation farther aft along the sloping roof of
the need for providing docking support in that the tunnel. Incorporating these features into an
region. alternative arch-type stern for the ABC ship
At the time the first modern twin-skeg sterns produced the body plan of Fig. 67.L and the stern
were developed, an easy slope of the tunnel roof profile of Fig. 67.M.
was considered an important feature, so much so The resulting stern arrangement is not unlike
that the maximum value was limited to 8 or one proposed in 1874 by Robert Griffiths [INA,
9 deg. It now known that separation
is does not 1874, pp. 165-178 and PI. XXIV, Fig. Sa). He,
occur at these small slopes, even at the free- too, was concerned about adequate flow of water
water surface. Well below the surface, where to the screw propeller.
much more hydrostatic pressure and pressure The profile drawing in Fig. 67. M shows the
gradient is available to change the water direction, starboard skeg, looking from outboard, with the
the slopes can be considerably greater than the starboard rudder. The centerline buttock re-
12- or 13-deg surface hmit. For the ABC design, sembles in shape that of the transom stern,
it was believed safe to increase the maximum depicted in Fig. 66. Q, except that in this case the
slope to about 18 deg, provided the tunnel areas transom immersion at this buttock is only 0.5 ft,

ahead of the propeller were kept large enough. it extends horizontally up to the propeller position,
In fact, unpublished model test data on the and it does not fair into the keel until Sta. 14.5.
twin-skeg Manhattan hull form [SNAME, 1947, The maximum buttock slope, at about Sta. 17.35,

Fig. 67.L Afterbody Plan of Arch-Type Stern for ABC Ship

524 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.16
Sec. 67.17 UNDERWATER HULL DESIGN 525

is 18 deg. This is about twice the maximum slope the same as that of the transom-stern design
previously recommended between
for tunnels back to Sta. 11, corresponding to 0.55L.
skegs [SNAME, 1947, Rule
but it is
9, p. 130] 67.17 Flow Analysis for the Arch Type of
made deliberately steeper in an attempt to slow Stem. Although it may involve some duplication
up the water passing through the tunnel and of material in the preceding section, there is given
increase the positive wake velocity at the pro- here a brief analysis of flow conditions under the
peller position. arch type of stern. This analysis serves also as an
The aftfoot on each skeg is cut away, not so indication of the study that should be given to a
deeply as in the transom-stern design but extend- novel design of this kind in the preliminary-
ing farther forward. To eliminate unnecessary design stage.
wetted surface, to improve maneuvering charac- What is termed here the arch stern for deep-
teristics, and to insure a better flow of water into water vessels is distinguished from the tunnel
the forward end of the tunnel between the skegs, stern found on craft intended to operate in
the lower edge of each is cut up for a considerable shallow water, described in Sec. 25.19, by the
distance to a height of 2.33 ft (28 in), above the fact that, in the former, the tunnel roof never
baseplane, equal to the depth of two docking extends above the designed waterline. Design
blocks. This horizontal skeg foot is 2 ft wide and rules for tunnel sterns with roofs elevated above
extends from about Sta. 16.25 to Sta. 18.3. the water surface are contained in Sec. 72.13.
Between Stas. 15 and 16 there is another flat There has been no difficulty in keeping the
horizontal region at the bottom of each skeg, centerline tunnel full of water on ships with twin
lying at a distance above the baseplane cor- skegs when proportioned as outlined previously
responding to the rise of floor at about the 16-ft [SNAME, 1947, pp. 130-131]. Perhaps this is
buttock. The fish-eye view in the lower part of because in a twin-skeg design, with propellers
Fig. 67. M indicates the manner in which the carried by each skeg, only a part of the tunnel
skegs converge slightly with distance, from their area is occupied by propeller discs. In the present
forward to their after ends. Transverse sections case the propeller disc occupies nearly all of the
at the stations in the vicinity of the propeller tunnel area at the propeller position. In a single-
position are shown to large scale in the right-hand tunnel or arch type of single-screw stern, the
diagram of Fig. 67. L. selectionand proportioning of the tunnel area,
The twin rudders, lying close to the projected starting from its forward end, therefore needs
tip circle on either side, resemble somewhat the great care. The propeller inflow jet, contracting
curved-blade, tilted-stock twin rudders of the in area as it moves toward the propeller, prac-

Thornycroft destroyers of a half-century ago tically fills the tunnel. Too small a tunnel could
[INA, 1908, PI. IV, Fig. 6]. The tops of the rudders be highly detrimental to propulsion. In fact,
are depressed 4 ft below the DWL to guard there were indications when an alternative arch
against air leakage and possible rudder breakdown stern for the ABC ship was being planned, that
on turns, with the ship heeling and diminishing tunnel-stern towboats and pushboats suffered
the submergence of the top of the rudder on the from excessive thrust-deduction forces, apparently
high side. as a result of constrictions in the tunnels ahead
To
avoid awkward fairing in the vicinity of the of the propellers. It was felt that this could
rudder head the transom contour is dropped at possibly be avoided in the ABC ship by keeping
the sides to 3.5 ft below the DWL, on the basis the tunnel roof well up in the region just ahead
that some separation drag due to non-clearing of of the wheel.
this deep portion is preferable to irregular eddying To diminish the tunnel-roof slopes on the ABC
above the top of the rudder. Outboard of the skegs design to values smaller than those indicated in
the section lines
fall naturally into a V-pattern Fig. 67. Mwould involve loss of valuable dis-
corresponding to that of a narrow ship with placement volume, shifting part of the pro-
centerline skegs such as would be obtained by pelling machinery farther ahead, a longer exposed
removing the center portion between the 14-ft propeller shaft, and a further widening of the
buttocks and bringing the two outboard sides forward or entrance portion of the tunnel. Any
together. net increase in resistance, such as that caused by
The forebody of the arch-stern design is exactly thrust deduction, is of course only justified if the
526 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.1S

gain in power from the expected high average forward wake velocities in all the water passing
wake drops the propeller or shaft power below through However, as the tunnel does not cover
it.

the value to be expected with an orthodox type all the propeller disc in theABC design, it was
of stern. It is recalled in this connection that, expected that below the shaft axis the wake
practically without exception, the model tests of velocities would be appreciably lower than those
normal-form sterns and twin-skeg sterns, on a above the axis.
comparative basis, showed higher effective powers In relatively slow-speed tunnel-stern pushboats
but lower propeller or shaft powers for the twin- and towboats built to operate in shallow waters
skeg form. there appears to be no great difficulty in getting
By retaining the high tunnel slopes, at values water through a narrow bed clearance under the
which would just avoid separation or — Ap's vessel, into the tunnel (s), and thence aft to the
along the roof of the arch, it was hoped to create propeller(s). However, this does not necessarily
artificially a forward wake current over most of assure the designer that this flow is adequate in a
the tunnel area. This is exactly what is accom- deep-water vessel with the same type of stern,
plished by a bulb at the bottom of a skeg ending, which has to traverse shallow waters occasionally,
sketched in Fig. 25. L. It appeared, furthermore, like the ABC ship. What saves the situation here
that the wake velocities within the arch should is the necessity for the deep-water vessel to
be higher than they were in the original twin-skeg slow down if the bed clearance is small, else it

tunnels of the late 1930's and the early 1940's squats and its stern drags on the channel bed.
[SNAME, 1947, pp. 97-169]. These velocities Finally, it is realized that the increased disc
should also be considerably more uniform across area and improved flow pattern expected with
the tunnel area because of its circular section, this arch type of single-screw stern, pictured in
without the inside corners of the earlier tunnels on Fig. 67. N, are offset to some extent by the adverse
twin-skeg ships. Furthermore, by having the effect of the items listed hereunder, based on a
propeller disc fill nearly all of the tunnel area it comparison with a single-screw stern of normal
should be possible to take advantage of the form:

(a) Increased wetted surface of the side skegs.

This has been reduced somewhat by cutting up
the skegs 2.33 ft, the height of two docking blocks.
(b) Necessity for a shaft strut within the arch
to support the propeller bearing
(c) Drag of the exposed propeller shaft and of a
short fairing or bossing at its forward end
(d) Necessity for two rudders, neither of which
lies in the propeller outflow jet
(e) Probable necessity for placing, farther for-
ward than in a normal single-skeg stern, that
part of the propelling machinery directly attached
to the shaft, because of the reduced rate of
rotation associated with the larger propeller and
the larger main gear.

Despite these initial disadvantages, the ABC

Fig. 67.N View from Aft of Arch-Stern
Assembly on ABC Ship Model
type of arch stern was considered by several
experienced naval architects who examined it to
have sufficient promise to justify the building and
testing of a model. In the present state of the art,
this is the best that can be done with any new
design.
Design of Hull and Appendage Com-
67.18
binations. Very frequentlj' the final design of
that portion of a ship hull adjacent to a fixed or
movable appendage is only possible after the
Sec. 67.18 UNDERWATER HULL DESIGN 527

detail design of the appendage itself is completed. take advantage of the augmented outflow velocity,
This is particularly true at the stern of a vessel, described in Sec. 33.21. However, there is no
in the vicinity of a screw propeller and a rudder. obvious reason, except perhaps an instinctive
A suitable procedure to be followed here is well one, for maintaining this fore-and-aft distance,
illustrated by the first design of the arch-type expecially as the rudders do not lie within the
stern for the ABC ship. It involved a closely spaced outflow jet.

pair of skegs and rudders, a large screw propeller Moving the propeller bearing with its sup-
with exceptionally small tip clearance, an exposed porting struts abaft the propeller clears the tunnel
propeller shaft, a propeller-bearing housing abaft of this obstruction and makes it possible to use
the propeller, supported by multiple strut arms, the strut arms as vanes for taking out the rotation
and a contra-propeller effect in the strut arms. in the outflow jet and developing an additional
After this arch-type stern was completely designed thrust, in the manner of a contra-rudder. Further-
it was found that an installation very similar to more, by using three and possibly four arms,
it had been embodied in the Dravo pushboat curved to straighten the flow in the outflow jet,
Pioneer nearly two decades before, even including these arms can have long, thin sections while
the twist in the strut arms [SBSR, 14 Mar 1935, at the same time they provide adequate support
pp. 291-293]. The general arrangement of these for the bearing housing. One or two arms, gen-
appendages, as built into and tested on the self- erally vertical, take the weight of the propeller
propelled model of the ABC vessel, is illustrated and the after half of the exposed shaft while the
in Figs. 73.F, 73.H, and 74.L in Chaps. 73 and two side arms steady the bearing laterally. The
74 on fixed and movable appendages, respectively. arms are so spaced as to encounter the blade-
Supporting a propeller bearing within the pressure fields at random or in succession rather
centerline tunnel requires either a V-strut of the than simultaneously, indicated in Fig. 67. P.
usual type ahead of the propeller or a strut of The arms and of relatively large chord,
are thin
special type abaft it. Since the tunnel is partly to give good hydrodynamic performance. The
obstructed by a short bossing where the shaft multiple-strut and bearing-housing combination
comes out of the hull and a length of exposed can possibly be assembled in place and welded
rotating shafting, sketched in Fig. 67.0, a V-strut into the ship, if considered advisable, as an
ahead of the propeller would only add to the integral part of the structure.
obstructing effect. Standard strut arms, because To remove the propeller in such a setup it is

of their isolated positions and short fore-and-aft necessary either to split the propeller-bearing
lengths, are not suitable as deflectors to impart housing and drop the lower half or to provide a
reversed rotation to the flow in the inflow jet; separate section of exposed shafting. Removal of
see the discussion of the contra-propeller in such a section enables the propeller to be pulled
Sec. 36.9. The arch-stern arrangement permits forward a short distance, far enough to get the
moving the propeller well aft, into a nearly shaft extension out of the after bearing. Normally
horizontal portion of the tunnel, but at the expense the first scheme is objectionable because with
of getting the rudders too near the propeller to the standard method of propeller attachment of

Transom Immersion at t ELEVATION, LOOKING TO, PORT,

Transom Immersion O'^^r Ruddei WITH NEAR SKEG REMOVED

'

~f i9 Stations
'

18 TT
Fig. 67.0 Arch Stern Underwater Profile of ABC Ship, with Near-Side Skeg Removed
528 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SIITP DESIGN
DWU Corner of Transom ^-*— 5htp Centerlinb

Rudders Toe Out

Bottom of Skeq to Suit Conver-
Cut Up b\j Heiqht of of Tunnel
Two DocNina Blocks! ond Flow
Outside of SUeos

STERN ELEVATION, LOOKING FORWARD

Fig. 67.P ABC Abch-Ttpe Stern Arrangement, Elevation from Aft

taper, keys, and nut, the shaft extension must about the propeller-shaft axis. The purpose of
have a diameter smaller than the root of the this heavy plating is to:
threads for the nut. To obtain sufficient area in
(a) Provide a permanently fair surface outboard
the propeller bearing the journal becomes so
of the propeller tips, so as to hold the small tip
long that it is no longer stiff enough to remain
clearance constant throughout the life of the
straight. This is aggravated by the additional
vessel
length required for the propeller nut. The load is
(b) Maintain a fair surface under the action of
then far from uniform on the propeller-bearing
the rotating pressure fields at the blade tips. With
material, with unequal and excessive wear.
correspondingly heavy transverse framing inside,
The obvious solution is to:
local forces are distributed over the whole stern
(1) Attach the after end of the exposed propeller structure, instead of being permitted to deform
shaft directly to the forward end of the propeller the structure in their immediate vicinity. The
with a pair of bolted flanges sufficiently substantial thickness of this belt, at least double that of the
to take the bending and torsion loads and to adjacent shell plating, combined with its trans-
withstand the torsional vibrations in the rotating verse curvature, renders it free from panting
system. These flanges are indicated in broken without excessive local stiffening.
lines in Fig. 67.0 and in full lines in Fig. 74.L. (c) Serve as a strong connection for the hull

(2) Fashion the propeller journal integral with
the propeller hub ahead of it. The journal can
then be made any size and shape desired.
Structural plans for this type of stern should
call for a wide transverse belt of double-extra-
heavy plating abreast the 24-ft propeller and the
4-armed strut, extending approximately from
the bottom of the port skeg to the bottom of the
starboard skeg. Except for the forward end near
the top, this belt is cylindrical in shape, concentric
ends of the four strut arms. These ends, approxi-
mately straight fore and aft, are intended to be
passed through slots in the heavy belt plate
and welded to the internal framing as well as to
the belt plate. Fig. 73.F of Sec. 73.8 gives typical
longitudinal and transverse sections through the
belt plate, showing its attachment to the two
upper strut arms.
67.19 Comments on Design of an Unsym-
metrical Single-Screw Stern. The function of a
 Sec. 67.20 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 529

contra-guide stern or skeg ending, described in cases the downward deflection occurred on both
Sec. 25.16 and discussed in greater detail in Sec. sides of the skeg so the propeller did not benefit
67.22, is to change the direction of the water from it any more than it benefits from the normal
flowing past the skeg ending so as to meet the upward flow on both sides.
rotating propeller blades in the vicinity of the It should not be necessary deliberately to create
12 o'clock and the 6 o'clock positions. The skeg a separation zone on the port side of the .ship to
is deliberately twisted away from the centerplane deflect the flow downward on that side. Bulging
of the ship, for a half-propeller diameter or more the stern out to fill the space which would be
ahead of its termination, to cause the water to occupied by such a zone means that, on a ship
flow to the propeller in the desired contrary of limited length, there would be another separa-
direction. This unsymmetrical construction more tion zone abaft the bulge, with its added drag.
than pays for its added resistance by the resulting It is not yet known how to accomplish this
increase of incident velocity on the blade ele- downward deflection of water
on the port side
ments, the increased effective angle of attack, without using up all or more of the energy to be
and the higher efficiency of propulsion. gained by the change but there is undoubtedly
The flow of water on a ship with a more-or-less some way of doing it.
normal stern, carrying a right-handed propeller, Any asymmetry in the stern in a scheme of
is generally upward and aft under the stern. It this kind has no appreciable effect upon main-
meets the downward-swinging blades in the 2, 3 taining the upright position of the ship. Likewise
and 4 o'clock positions. However, the water it should have no effect in steering or turning;
flowing aft and upward on the port side of the indeed, such a change might improve the steering
single skeg follows rather than meets the blades characteristics because of the present need for
in the 8, 9, and 10 o'clock positions. The problem carrying 2 or 3 deg of right rudder on a single-
now confronting the marine architect is to screw ship with a right-handed propeller.
increase the propulsive efficiency of a single-screw 67.20 Proportions and Characteristics of an
vessel still further, possibly as much as 3 or 4 Immersed-Transom Stern. There is little reason,
per cent, by changing the direction of the water at least as far as resistance, speed,
and power are
on the port side so that it flows downward and concerned, for the use of an immersed-transom
meets the upward-swinging blades. If this full stern unless, at some speed below the designed
change can not be made, because of prohibitive value, the water clears the transom and leaves its
drag and other reasons, it may at least be possible entire after exposed to atmospheric
surface
to diminish the upward angle of flow on the port pressure. Present knowledge indicates that this
side. speed depends mostly on the immersed depth of
There is no structural, machinery, or hydro- the transom at its lowest point, and partly upon
dynamic reason why the stern of a single-screw the buttock slopes just ahead of the lower edge
vessel with a single centerline skeg need be of the transom. As described in Sec. 25.14, a
symmetrical if there is a distinct advantage to be so-called "transom"
submergence Froude
or
gained by making it decidedly unsymmetrical, number F,, may be set up, having as its length
much more so than the present contra-guide dimension the greatest immersed draft Hu of
stern. Indeed, there is no reason why, if the ship the transom below the at-rest waterline. For
is to benefit by the change, the axis of the single reasonably flat buttock slopes at the stern, indi-
propeller need be in the centerplane or even cated as Ib in Fig. 25.1, F,, may be as small as 5,
exactly parallel to it. possibly as small as 4. Table 67.d gives a set of
There are cases on record of tanker models in immersed-transom drafts and corresponding
which the flow near the end of a centerline skeg speeds, for a g value of 32.174 ft per sec^, at which
carrying a single propeller is directed downward the Froude number F„ equals 5.0.
as meets the propeller. This may be due to
it In general, the immersed-transom draft H[/ is
deflection from the under side of a separation selected upon the basis of the lowest speed at
zone below the water surface and above the which economical operation is desired, partic-
propeller, or to downward flow on the insides of ularly when this speed lies below that at which the
two large longitudinal-axis vortexes coming off underwater portion of the transom is completely
the bilges, somewhat larger than the one dia- exposed to the air. The lower this speed, the
grammed in Fig. 25. F. Unfortunately in these shallower should be the immersed portion of the
530 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.20

TABLE 67.d Immersed-Transom Drafts Hu and Corresponding Speeds for a Transom-Submergence

Froude NUi\rBBR Fh of 5.0
Here V/\/gHu = 5.0. The draft Hy is measured in the at-rest condition. The value of g is taken as 32.174 ft per sec^

Speed V,
Sec. 6121 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 531

corners is probably less objectionable than the matter of throwing spray or meeting waves is
I'oiinding the lower edges. one to be given consideration. A square, vertical
The transom bottom slope is , measured in a transom should apparently be avoided for this
transverse plane, is related to slamming and as reason, yet large vessels with a stern termination
such is discussed in Part 6 of Volume III. of this type have reported no difficulties in service.
Before the shaping of the transom stern of the Taken by and large, the transom stern of the
single-skeg ABC was completed, in the
ship German World War II destroyers of the Narvik
course of preparing the body plan of Fig. 66. P, class, portrayed in Fig. 67. R, is commended as
the transom depth was increased from the original
1.5 ft to 2.0 ft. This gave more slope to the lower
transom section lines and decreased the prob-
ability of pounding or slamming under the stern.
The planform of the ABC transom stern at
the DWL is made slightly convex, with a radius
of O.IOL, partly to facilitate angling the vessel
into a short berth, not much greater than its
length, and partly for the sake of appearance. The
transom width at the DWL, projected to the
plane of the AP, is 0.33Ba- •

The transom of the ABC arch-type stern,

sections of which appear in Figs. 67. L and 67. P,
Fig. 67.R Transon Stern on Model of German
isdeliberately made deeper at the outer corners
Destroyers of Narvik Class
than the depth which will clear at 20.5 kt in
order to avoid the most troublesome problem of
embodying all desirable hydrodynamic features
fairing the upper parts of the two skeg endings,
and offering a pleasing and ship-shape appearance
under the hull. Some separation is certain to
without expensive or complicated construction.
exist in either case. It is considered far preferable
67.21 The Design of a Multiple-Skeg Stem.
to fair the hull directly into the upper portions
Design rules for multiple-skeg sterns are available
of the two rudders, and to accept eddying abaft
in rather complete form in the technical literature
the deep sides of the transom, than to permit
[SNAME, 1947, pp. 130-132]. The historical
separation farther forward, nearer the propeller
examples in that reference are supplemented by a
and possibly interfering with rudder action.
quadruple-screw design for English channel
The transom planform of this vessel is made service by John Dudgeon [INA, 1873, pp. 88-95
shghtly convex, with a radius of 0.15L. The
and PL VIII]. The hull form illustrated in the
transom width at the DWL, projected to the
latter reference comprisestwo skegs, with two
plane of the AP, is 0.4455^ .
screws inboard and two screws outboard of them.
In profile, the shape of the transom is generally
The tunnel between the skegs extends all the way
determined as a matter of appearance and con-
to the bow. So far as known, no craft of this type
struction. In all vessels which may upon occasion
was ever built.
be required to run astern at considerable speeds,
For the design of multiple skegs on a modern
craft the rules in the SNAME 1947 reference are
considered adequate, when supplemented by the
following:

(1) Consider the use of twin skegs or multiple

skegs only on afterbody forms which lend them-
selves to this arrangement, or on which beneficial
Probable Direction
results may be expected. This includes wide
of Flow Leaving a ships, or ones with large B/H ratios, where it is
Sharp- Edc^ed Transom ^ difficult to close the waterlines in to the center-
Terminotina ot the Knuckle plane without large slopes. In general, the after-
Fig. 67.Q Diagram of Probable Flow Under body should have a prismatic coefficient Cp of
Rounded Transom Edge 0.60 or larger.
532 HYDROnVNAMTCS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.22

(2) Incorporate a forebody which would be ahead of a screw propeller. The unsymmetrical
employed Math a normal form of stern termination usually extends both above and
(3) Do not hesitate to use twin or multiple below the propeller axis, but this is not necessary.
skegs under a transom or shelf-type stern The plane of the termination passes through, or

(4) Do not be concerned about asymmetry lies close to the shaft axis. The purpose of the
between the inboard and outboard sides of skegs contra-guide feature is, as explained in Sec. 25.16,
carrying screw propellers if the water flow or to leave as little as possible of the rotational or
propeller performance is improved thereby tangential component of velocity in the outflow

(5) Give serious consideration to the use of jet of the propeller. Before proceeding with the
twin or multiple rudders. If maneuvering qualities design of a contra-guide skeg ending, it should be
are important, twin rudders are placed abaft known whether a contra-rudder is to be fitted
twin propellers. abaft the propeller to accomplish part of this
Work arrangement whereby the
out an purpose.
(6)
rudders, and shafting can be dis-
propellers, The design problem consists of:

assembled or removed with the least interference (a) Determination of the true deflection angle 9s
between themselves or from other parts abaft any unsymmetrical skeg ending. This is a

(7) For rudders mounted in propeller races, keep general problem involving the flow about the
them far enough from the propellers to permit trailing edge of any body when circulation is not
removing the propellers without disturbing the present, discussed in Sec. 36.3.
rudders other than turning them to a convenient (b) Subdivision into a series of subproblems, one
angle each for a series of horizontal planes passing
(8) If the afterbody of the ship is especially wide through the termination of selected radii on the
and full, and the ship is to have three or four propeller. It is customary to subdivide the
propellers, consider spreading the skegs far apart, propeller radius R into tenths or twentieths,
and carrying the outboard or wing propellers in indicated on the propeller drawing of Fig. 70.O.
the skegs. The inner propeller(s) may be placed If the exact or final propeller diameter D is not
in the tunnelbetween the skegs, with the shaft (s) known at the time, the skeg ending may be
for the inner propeller(s) carried by double-arm intersected by horizontal planes passing through
struts of the erect V-type. the waterlines used for delineating the remainder
of the hull.
Study of flow phenomena since the publication
(c) Selection of the actual angle ds to which the
of the 1947 reference indicates that the former
flow into various radii of the propeller shall be
limiting slopes for the tunnel roof may be approxi-
deflected. This flow is directed always to 7neet
mately doubled, making them 16 to 18 deg, but
the propeller blades when rotating in the ahead
probably with an accompanying increase in
direction.
thrust-deduction fraction. The flow pattern
(d) Selection of the offsets of the deflector
should be checked, however, by taking the usual
terminations from the ship centerplane or from
flowlines around the skegs and inside the tunnel
the construction plane of the skeg, to give the
in a model basin, and by observation of tufts in
angles selected in (c)
a circulating-water channel. The thrust-deduction
(e) Avoidance of separation on those sides of the
values require checking by a self-propelled model
deflectors having the steeper waterhne slopes.
test.
If tests on a model with chemical indicators or Reference books on the design of hydraulic
tufts show irregular flow within the tunnel or machinery, including propeller-type pumps,
water crossing underneath the skeg in the design appear to give little or no specific information on
as completed, the skegs may be shifted sideways the actual design of guide vanes ahead of impellers.
until a satisfactory flow pattern is obtained. If One of the early patents on this device [U. S.
twin skegs of full depth interfere with maneuvering 1,500,073, by Hans Haas, 1 July 1924], states
they may be cut away in profile in the manner of that the deflector shape "has proved to be
a clear-water single-skeg stern. specially suitable" when the product of (1) the
67.22 Design Notes for the Contra-Guide rotational velocity component imparted to the
Skeg Ending. These design notes apply to water opposite any propeller radius and (2) that
coutra-guide features in a vertical skeg termination propeller radius formed (3) a constant quantity
Snc. 67.22 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 533

for the entire radial extent of the deflectors. propeller inflow jet would be rather moderate.
This means roughly that the natural sine of the If,on the other hand, what is desired is to lessen
deflection angle ds imparted to the water abaft the angle of flow by which water in the inflow
the skeg termination at any selected point, times jet follows the blades, described in Sec. 33.12,
the propeller radius R at that point, is constant, then even small slopes on the concave or pressure
or that the natural sine of the deflection angle side of a skeg ending or bossing termination can
varies inversely as the radius. be most effective.
A. Betz of Gottingen in his paper "Zur Theorie For design purposes it is sufficiently precise to

der Leitapparate fiir Propeller" ["The Theory of assume that, as indicated in Fig. 67.S, the direc-
Guide Vanes Apphed to the Propeller," NACA tion of flow at a small distance abaft the traihng
Tech. Memo 909, Sep 1939], makes the basic edge of a skeg corresponds to the direction of a
assumption that the tangential velocity com- tangent to or extension of the median line of the
ponent in the outflow jet, due to induced velocity, skeg ending at that edge. A "small" distance is

varies inversely as the radius from the propeller assumed to be from 0.5 to 0.9 times the width
axis. This corresponds to the variation mentioned of a blade on the propeller. If the aperture
in the Haas patent. Unfortunately, the Betz clearance is greater than 0.9 times a blade width,
paper does not tell how to design the vanes. The the direction of flow expressed by the speed-of-
outline of a proposed method follows. advance vector Ua is assumed to be more nearly
Consider first the determination of the correct a prolongation of the +Ap or concave side of the
or effective deflection angle for any given un- unsymmetrical skeg ending.
symmetrical skeg ending. Obviously, from refer- Actually, the amount of prerotation to be
ence to Fig. 67.S, there is no single flow in the imparted ahead of the disc by the design being
worked out depends upon:
Direction of Motu
Streomlines (1) The tangential component of induced velocity
which is to be imparted by the blade element at
any radius. This in turn is a function of the
effective or hydrodynamic angle of attack aj of
that element, the strength of the circulation there,
and the magnitude of the induced velocity Ur
Maximum Waterline 5lope^^ far astern.
(2) Whether enough rotation is to be put in
ahead of the disc to give zero resultant rotation
Fig. 67. S Method of Laying Out Skeg Waterline abaft the disc, or whether some contra-guide
FROM Median Line feature, such as a contra-rudder, is to be fitted
abaft the propeller, to take out the remainder of
region abaft the ending where the propeller
the rotation in that region.
works but a confluence of two flows. There is

httle reason to believe that the flow over the It is often necessary to design the appendages,
convex side,having the greatest slope to the at least for a model test, before the propeller
longitudinal axis, is the predominant one. There design is worked out, so that the values in item
is ample evidence that the effective flow abaft (1) may have to be estimated or taken from data
the traihng edge of a hydrofoil surrounded by on some other design. It is a difficult design
circulation moves more nearly in the direction problem to achieve the first step listed in item (2).
of the concave or straight side. However, the It may be said, therefore, that in the present
circulation around the whole ship hull in a hori- state of the art a skeg ending should not be
zontal plane, due to the sUght asymmetry in called upon to compensate for lack of a contra-
question, is surely very small. Whereas the flow guide device abaft the propeller.
abaft a thick airfoil or hydrofoil producing hft is It is not possible without more extended
predominantly in the direction of that passing knowledge of the intricate flow which takes place
along the face or +Ap side of the foil, as is between a skeg ending and a screw propeher to
indicated by many published flow photographs, state definitely the parameters and the relation-
this is unhkely to be the case here. If it were, ships which should govern the variation of median-
the prerotation which could be given to a screw- line slope ds with radial distance from the pro-
534 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.22

peller axis. Were these relationships available it ciable value at the tip of any propeller; it is about
would be necessary to substitute in them
still 10.8 deg for a P/D ratio of 0.6. Similarly, the
some data assumed for the propeller proposed induced velocit}^ kiUr generated at the tip has a
but not finally selected. It appears sufficient, small but appreciable axial component. Even
therefore, to state that the skeg ending slope ds when the sin^ relationship is used, the skeg-
</>

should vary with propeller I'adius at some rate ending slope ds is a little more than zero opposite
less than the geometric blade angle of the <j) the blade tips. The reason for using the sin^ <^
proposed propeller. Table 59. b lists these angles function is to avoid offsets which are too large
for tenths of blade radii and a rather wide range opposite the tips; this is brought out more clearly
of P/D ratios. A good working rule, admittedly in Sec. 74.16, in connection with the design of a
an engineering compromise without theoretical contra-rudder. Further, if the propeller blades
foundation until the analytic and experimental are already heavily loaded at the tips, it is not
development is carried further, is to vary the wise to load them further. On the other hand,
offset termination with propeller radius as A. makes the point ["Zur Theorie der
Betz
sin" The 6s is then left to adjust itself by
(t>.
Leitapparate fiir Propeller (The Theory of
proper fairing of the skeg ending into the offset Contra-Vanes Applied to the Propeller)," Ing.
termination. A table listing the variation of </> Archiv, 1938, Vol. 9, pp. 435-452; English
and sin" with R, for a P/D ratio of 0.98, is transl. in NACA Tech. Memo 909, Sep 1939,
given in Fig. 67. T, described later in this section. p. 13] that efficiency is gained by carrying the

Practical considerations, both structural and twist to distances far beyond the propeller radius.
hydrodynamic, usually limit the maximum offset This means that a skeg ending need not terminate
of the trailing edge to somewhat less than the top and bottom with symmetrical waterlines.
half-diameter of the propeller-bearing boss. It It is found, in most cases, that when a fair
isnot wise to work too large a hunk of metal into median line is laid out, as in Fig. 67. T, and skeg
a cast stern frame where the deflected portion section lines are drawn on either side by the
joins the boss. Too small a reentrant angle on the equal-radii construction shown, there is a shght
inside of the deflected portion of the skeg or hollow on the side of the skeg having the smaller
stern frame encircling the propeller shaft bearing curvature. This is arbitrarily filled in to produce
is not conducive to good flow. a fair surface.
The geometric blade angle still has an appre- By the requirements of Table 64. a, item (5),

Stations 19 ia.75 18.5

Fio. 67.T Design of Contra-Guide Skeg Ending for ABC Transom-Stern Ship
Sec. 67.22 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 535

the propulsion of the ABC vessel is to be effected bearing boss to a much smaller value at 1.0 or
as economically as the present state of the art 1.1 times the propeller radius.
permits. A twisting of the skeg ending to give Since no separation, or semblance thereof, must
a contra effect is therefore indicated for the single- occur in way of the inside of the skeg deflector,
skeg transom stern. The skeg waterlines above the especially in front of the upper propeller blades,
shaft are fined to reduce the thrust deduction and there is another practical limit to which the
it would be easy to work a considerable degree trailing portion may be bent. The slope of any
of deflection into that structure. However, above waterline through the offset portion of the skeg
the shaft axis the aperture clearance is deliberately ending, assuming this waterline to be genei'ally
made large, so that the benefit to be derived from in the plane of flow, should under normal circum-
prerotation is doubtful. Further, the lower part stances not exceed 18 deg or, at the most, 20 deg,
of the skeg, below the shaft axis, is cut away so especially at the shallow drafts. This is admittedly
far that any would be lost on the
deflection effect a rather indefinite rule which requires amplifying
propeller. A contra-shape is to be worked into the and checking from actual ship designs known to
fixed rudder horn, above the shaft axis, and there be successful. Values which are definitely out of
appears to be room for enough shaping of the bounds can be determined from vessels where
horn to remove much of the jet rotation. Taking separation, vibi'ation, and air leakage are known
all factors into consideration, therefore, it is to exist. For the ABC ship, Fig. 67. T, it is possible
decided not to provide a contra-guide skeg to hold the maximum median-line slope at the
ending for the transom-stern afterbody. 12-ft WL, at about x' = 0.16, to some 8.8 deg,
Nevertheless, as an example of the rules given with a maximum slope on the convex side of 18
herein, a contra-guide ending is laid out for the deg at the same level.

upper half only of the single skeg of the ABC The use contra-guide skeg ending is
of a
ship, producing the form shown in Fig. 67. T. approached with caution when the waterlines
This embodies a more nearly vertical profile (or flowlines) leading up to the forward edge of
above the shaft, with less aperture clearance the propeller aperture in a skeg have a slope
than for the symmetrical skeg ending. already approaching the limit beyond which
The radius of the propeller bearing boss shown separation may be expected at that level, indi-
in Fig. 66. P, the body plan of the transom-stern cated in Sec. 46.2. Superposing the deflector shape
design, is L75 ft. The maximum offset value, at a upon a symmetrical skeg ending diminishes the
starting level of x' — 0.1 or R = O.l^Max above waterline slope on one side but greatly increases
the propeller-shaft axis, is taken as 0.85 times the it on the opposite side.

boss radius, or 0.85(L75 ft) = 1.4875 ft. Assuming The augmented slope on the outer or convex
a constant P/D ratio of 0.98 for the propeller, side, away from the deflection, may easily become
the blade angle 4> at O.IK is 72.225 deg and sin^ </> greater than the critical slope for separation.
is 0.90682. This is a sort of reference value cor- Since the blunter waterlines are generally to be
responding to the x' = 0.1 offset of 1.4875 ft. found above the shaft axis, it is wise, under these
For example, at x' = 0.7, <^ is 24.019 deg and circumstances, to limit the deflecting portion of
sin^ (^ is 0.16569. Then the offset at x' = 0.7 is the skeg to the region below the shaft boss,
(0.16569/0.90682)1.4875 ft = 0.2718 ft, as Hsted leaving the upper portion symmetrical, with
in the table on Fig. 67. T. At x' = 1.0, where </> equal waterline slopes on each side.
is 17.325 deg, sin' <f> is 0.08868 and the offset is In view of the limited pressure, and the low
(0.08868/0.90682)1.4875 ft = 0.1455 ft. pressure gradient available on the convex side
The slope of the median line bisecting the angle of a twisted skeg or stern, the water on that side
between the terminal portions of the level water- is not easily changed in direction. This means
lines on each side of the skeg ending is limited to that a relatively long time, coupled with a
the order of 0.175. This corresponds to just under relatively long distance, of the order of 0.5 to 1.0
10 deg, as reckoned from the ship centerplane or times the propeller diameter, may be required to
the construction plane of the skeg. These limits impart to it any appreciable transverse component

are admittedly rather arbitrary, to comply with of velocity without risking separation. To take
the requirements of the paragraph following. care of this situation, the asymmetrical slopes of
The median-line slope varies from this maximum the contra-ending are to merge gradually into
value just beyond the radius of the propeller- the symmetrical waterline slopes ahead of them.
536 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.23

Generally no part of the median line is straight selected propulsion device is that the inflow jet
until it merges into the centerplane or the skeg contracts in lateral dimensions and area as it

construction plane. It may have a parabolic or approaches the device, normal to the flow direc-
other suitable shape. If it is expected that the tion. Further, this contraction continues in the
ship will, in some service conditions, run with a outflow jet for an appreciable distance down-
portion of the contra-guide skeg ending exposed stream from the device. These axial distances
to the air, the terminal median-line slope at the are of the order of at least one diameter in the
free surface should not exceed about 3 deg. In case of a screw propeUer; of the blade length,
any case, it is wise to work gentle slopes into any measured transversely, in the case of a paddle-
twisted skeg ending, consistent with achieving wheel; and of the "basket" diameter in the case
the desired prerotation of the inflow jet. If the of a rotating-blade propeller. The contraction
owner and builder are to go to the trouble and ratio, as pointed out in Sec. 16.3, is a function of
expense of twisting such a skeg ending, the the thrust-load factor Ctl . Since the thrust, the
twisting can at least be done properly. propeUer-disc area, and the speed of advance are
For twin-skeg endings, assuming outward- known reasonably well at this stage of the design
turning propellers, the twisting involves deflection the outhnes of the inflow and outflow jets for
of the lower portions of the skegs in an outward open-water operation can be visualized by
direction. This is inadvisable if it produces reference to Fig. 59. G.
markedly expanding tunnel sides, specifically A second guiding principle is that the hull
cautioned against in Sec. 67.21. On the other should produce, in the region selected for the
hand, one way to increase the efficiency of twin- propulsion device, a flow of water which results
skeg propulsion is to slow down the water the m in the most efficient and most uniform loading of
lower after portion of the tunnel. Good design the blades. For example, the swept volume of a
therefore indicates as much
expansion in tunnel rotating-blade propeller and a paddlewheel in-
area in this region as thought to be consistent
is cludes the whole thickness of the boundary layer
with regular flow, to be confirmed by thorough next to the hull, as portrayed in diagrams 1 and 2
tests in a circulating-water channel with the of Fig. 11. C, plus a region of potential flow outside
propellers driving. Any adverse or detrimental the blades. This is not particularly objectionable,
flow conditions pertaining to the twisted skeg however, where the mechanism is able to take it.
endings will certainly show up when the flow Furthermore, the sum of the overloading forces
pattern in this region is This is
determined. for all the immersed blades, as created within the
specially recommended if the skeg endings have boundary layer, remains nearly constant through-
full lines, with large waterUne slopes, and if out each revolution of the device.
contra-guide features are incorporated in them. A third principle, really a corollary of the
Indeed, a necessary step in the design of any second, is that unavoidable local loading of the
contra-guide skeg ending, as it is for a deflection- blades, one at a time, with the resulting unequal
type bossing and a contra-rudder, is a flow test loading of the whole device, is to be reduced to a
in a circulating-water channel, using tufts, dye, minimum. This occurs particularly when the tip
or the equivalent, to check freedom from separa- or the outer portion of a single screw-propeller
tion, irregular or cross flow, and any other blade passes through the region of high wake
questionable features. velocity in a shipboundary layer or behind a
Design rules for deflection- type bossings, usually zone of separation.
more nearly horizontal than vertical, are given The commendable progress of the last two
in Sec. 73.10. decades, in which screw-propeller blade shapes
Some notes applying to the incorporation of have been brought into close conformity with the
contra-guide and contra-rudders in
features drawings, is at the time of writing (1955) be-
auxiliary saiUng yachts and propeller-driven small ginning to be matched by general refinements in
boats are presented by F. A. Fenger [Rudder, sternpost, skeg, and bossing terminations at the
Jan 1954, pp. 76-79]. forward edges of propeller apertures. The fact
67.23 Shaping the Hull Adjacent to Propul- that individual propeller shaft struts had to be
sion-Device Positions; Hull, Skeg, and Bossing as thin as possible made it relatively easy to
Endings. One guiding principle in shaping a specify and to obtain sharp terminations at their
hull form to produce efficient operation of a traihng edges. Since the advent of cast-steel
Sec. 67.24 UNDERWATER HULL DESIGN 537

sternposts and bossing or spectacle frames the shafts of the German "schncUboote" or high-
square and blunt endings of forged-steel stern speed S-boats of World Waruse un-
II. Its
frames have largely disappeared. However, the doubtedly diminishes the wake fraction at the
slopes are too steep and the trailing edges of propeller but it may diminish the thrust-deduction
sternpost castings are in general still much too fraction by a greater amount, and it may reduce
blunt to eliminate objectionable separation and the periodic vibratory forces from the propeller.
eddying behind them. Also there is no more As a rule, the profiles of major hull and skeg
excuse to lap shell plating on the outside of a endings are not too important except as they
sternpost than to lap it on the outside of a stem. affect aperture clearances, discussed at length
The effect is different but it is an objectionable in the section following.
discontinuity just the same. 67.24 Aperture and Tip Clearances for Pro-
The projecting portions of Thermit welds used pulsion Devices. The lift load per unit area on
to join several cast or forged sections of a stern- the blades of any moderately loaded screw
—
post— or a stem need not be left for reinforce- propeller, corresponding to the weight loading per
ment. They can and should be trimmed off to unit of wing area on an airplane, lies within
conform to the shape of the adjacent parts. Like- rather narrow limits, say 8 to 13 lb per in".

wise, butt welds can and should have the external Furthermore, the section shapes within the region
reinforcements removed. of heaviest loading, say from 0.5 to 0.95i2, are
The slope angles on the trailing edges of skegs quite similar for both narrow and wide blades of
and other major parts should be 15 deg or less, a modern screw propeller. On this basis the circu-
reckoned from the known or the predicted direc- lation patterns and the pressure fields around all

tion of water flow. Drawings of these trailing
edges should call for smoothnesses and tolerances
of the same order as those required on shaft struts.
Despite all that is said here and elsewhere
about the fining of skeg endings ahead of a screw
propeller, experience indicates that some delib-
erate thickening of the skeg ending ahead of its
termination increases the wake fraction at the
disc position. It is particularly beneficial below
the shaft axis in a ijormal form of single-screw
stern, where the average wake fraction is usually
much smaller than above the axis. The greatest
thickening can be applied at the bottom, just
above the keel, where the upward and aft flow
of the water eliminates most of the boundary-
layer wake. For this reason the thickening of
such a skeg ending is called clubbing. However,
the design of a club ending or bulbous skeg,
illustrated in Fig. 25.L, is a ticklish procedure.
If the thickening is carried too far, it may do
more harm in producing vibration than help in
improving propulsion [Williams, E. B., Thornton,
K. C, Douglas, W. R., and MiedUch, P., SNAME,
1950, p. 78]. No design rules have as yet been
formulated for this feature.
As a means of reducing the interference from
a skeg ahead of a screw propeller the designer
may shorten the skeg drastically, expose the
propeller shaft, and support the propeller bearing
by a V-strut just ahead of the wheel. This arrange-
ment has been in use for many years on motor-
boats and larger vessels, such as on the center
screw-propeller blade elements in the given radius
range may be taken as roughly similar, using the
expanded-chord length as a reference dimension.
Based on these assumptions, the pattern of cor-
responding streamlines and isobars is roughly
proportional in size to the chord length or blade
width. Very approximately, therefore, at least
for a not-too-wide range of thrust loading, a
point in space one blade width from a blade
element on one propeller is same
subject to the
pressure as a point in the same corresponding
position, one blade width distant from a blade
element on another propeller. This is an absolute
rather than a relative value because, ahead of the
propeller at least, the reduced pressure can not
drop below the vapor pressure of water.
The foregoing argument may be a reason for
specifying propeller-aperture clearances, defined
in Sec. 33.3and indicated in Fig. 33. D as "upper
aft," "upper forward," and so on, in the form of
absolute dimensions for a certain range of pro-
peller diameters or ship sizes [ME, 1942, Vol. I,
Table 1, p. 275; van Lammeren, W. P. A., RPSS,
1948, Fig. 73, pp. 127, 278]. It may be a reason
even for specifying these edge clearances as
functions of the propeller diameter [Ayre, Sir
Amos L., INA, 1951, pp. 145-148]. It appears,
however, that the propeller-aperture clearances
are logically a function of the maximum blade
width of the propeller.
In general, the aperture clearance ahead of
the propeller, at the Q.IR, should be equal to, qv
538 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.24

greater than the e.rpanded chord length of the widest Taking the 4-bladed Wageningen B.4.40 series,

element or section. It pointed out in Sec. 33.3,

is for example, the note in small print at the right
and diagrammed in Fig. 33. E, that the clearance ofTable 8 on page 204 of the Dutch book "Re-
abaft the wheel, at the 0.772, may be less than sistance, Propulsion, and Steering of Ships"
that ahead. However, it should not be small [RPSS, 1948] states that the (expanded maximum)
enough to interfere with the circulation flow blade-element length at 0.6/2m«. is 0.2187Z). For
around the blade elements, or to bring the trailing the after aperture clearance, specified as not less
edge of the blade through a region of large +Ap than the thickness of the fixed or movable append-
ahead of a blunt rudder post or equivalent. A age lying abaft it, the designer is required to
good rule is to make the after edge clearances, rough out these parts; this is, in fact, part of the

both upper and lower, as marked on Fig. 33. D, preliminary stern design.
not less than the maximimi thickness of whatever A general guide at this point as to the loading
hull element or fixed or movable appendage may on the individual blades and the aperture clear-

lie abaft the propeller. ances necessary is the value of the thrust-load
It is well to note that the application of the factor Ctl on the propeller. If of the order of 1,

rules given here require prior knowledge of the the clearances may
be somewhat on the low side.
maximum blade width of the propeller which it If 2 or greater, the clearances must be larger to

to run in the aperture being designed. Also that avoid vibration.

most of the propeller charts employed to work Fig. 67. U is a diagram which indicates, by the
out the preliminary design of a wheel, following small circles and the rules set down, aperture
Sec. 70.6, do not give the ship designer the clearances which are in general acceptable, for a
blade-width data for the optimum propeller. screw propeller not too heavily loaded. The
He is then required to use the maximum expanded- contours give the actual clearances worked into
chord width for that series propeller which best the preliminary transom-stern design for the
meets the needs for the preliminary design. ABC ship.
Rules similar to those for single-screw propeller-
Designed WQterline~-|^
aperture clearances govern for the edge clearances
Arch Clearance to |T,p
Submerqence at the termination of bossings, multiple skegs,
Nearest Point 'of Hull
and the like, indicated in Fig. 33.B of Sec. 33.3,
with the proviso that this clearance, at any
propeller radius, should be not less than the
O.ZT) or C0.7R, of the blade at that radius.
expanded chord length
chord length at
0.7 radius, which- It is with present knowledge, to
difficult,
ever is qreater formulate a rule for determining the hull tip
clearance of a screw propeller, illustrated in
Figs. 33. B and 33. C. In fact, probably no one rule
or group of rules could cover all cases to be en-
countered in ship design. Two features, not
entirely independent, are involved here. First,
weep Line s,
the propeller blade tip should not be subjected to
Aft and Ford.
brief passage through a region of high wake
0.05 to 0.10 ft for\ velocity where the lift and drag forces on its
Boseline^ Small Croft
elements are suddenly increased. Second, assuming
0.E5 to 0.5 ft for
Small Circles Indicate
Lorqe Vessels uniform, non-axial flow, a blade tip should not
Minimum Normol Clearances
swing close enough to the hull to cause a sudden
NOTE a - Not LessThan Rudder Post or Rudder
large force on the shell plating or an adjacent
Thickness Aboft Propeller
appendage due to the pressure field around the
NOTE 2- If Leodinq Edge of Rudder Post or
blade or beyond the tip.
Rudder is Fine and Well-Shaped
Keeping the blade tips clear of high-wake
NOTE 3- Profile Shown is That of Transom-
regions is a matter of:
Stern ABC Hull

Fig. 67.U Elevation of Rudder Horn, Propeller (a) Boundary-layer thickness, a function prin-
Aperture, and Skeg Ending for ABC Transom Stern cipally of absolute ship speed, of fore-and-aft
Sec. 67.24 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 539

or .T-distance from the stem, of transverse hull is the V-shaped portion of the hull, sometimes
curvature, and of hull roughness rather narrow, lying above the arch of the propeller

(b) Boundary-layer velocity profile, which is a aperture in a single-screw stern of the canoe or
function of hull roughness, transverse curvature, whaleboat (cruiser) type. The volume is small

and other factors. For example, a tip clearance and the obstruction occupies only a small part
which may be greater than the boundary-layer of the circumference around the tip circle.

thickness 5 (delta) when the ship has a clean An adjacent structure of considerable area,
bottom, freshly painted, may be much less than lying generally in a longitudinal plane passing

5 when the bottom has been severely roughened through or close to the propeller axis, calls for
by barnacles and other marine growth. greater tip clearance even though it is thin.

(c) The shape of hull endings, of skeg and bossing A larger area is exposed to the pressure fields
terminations, and of objects ahead of the propeller
beyond the tips as the blades pass by. The tip
clearance for such a structure could possibly be
which may produce near-separation.
as small as O.IZ) or less for a lightly loaded pro-
Keeping the most intense part
hull clear of the peller, Ctl of the order of 1.0, yet as large as
of the blade-pressure field beyond the tip involves 0.2Z) or more for a heavily loaded one, with a
much more knowledge of this field than exists at Ctl of the order of 3.0.
present. For a given thrust loading it appears, An adjacent expanse of hull plating, generally
however, to be a direct function of the circulation flat in shape and more or less normal to the plane
distribution at the tip. The assumption that this of the propeller disc, calls for an ample tip clear-
distribution is roughly similar for all screw ance, following the reasoning of Sec. .33.3 and

propellers leads to one of the rules in present use, of the preceding paragraphs. A logical and com-
which gives the hull tip clearance as a function prehensive rule has not yet been developed for
of the propeller diameter. Since the thrust loading calculating a minimum or a desirable tip clearance
among different types of ships varies rather under these conditions. Incidentally, this clear-
widely, however, this latter factor can no longer ance is measured transversely, in the early stages
be neglected. Furthermore, the circulation is of a design, between the propeller disc or tip
increased and the pressure field is greatly inten- circle and the hull section directly abreast it.

sified when the tip swings through a high-wake When known whether or not the propeller is
it is

portion of the boundary layer. Both the factors
mentioned therefore require careful thought and
study when establishing hull tip clearances.
The shape of the ship sections opposite a
screw-propeller position, whether concave and
to be raked, and when the slope of the adjacent
hull surface can be determined, the minimum
clearance is measured from the tip circle of the
swept volume normal to the hull, as in diagrams
1 and 3 of Fig. 33.B.

generally concentric with the propeller axis or The recommended method for selecting screw-
convex to that axis, is an important feature, propeller tip clearance abreast a generally flat
although it is not yet known how this effect is fore-and-aft structure is to determine first,from
related to or combined with that of tip clearance. Fig. 45.C or from Eq. (5.viii), the nominal
The volume of the adjacent hull or appendage thickness of the turbulent boundary layer at the
is at times a controlling factor. a;-distance from the bow selected for the propeller
Blade tips often pass an appendage or a part position. The sustained speed is the one used for
of the hull which occupies only a small area and this estimate because it gives the greatest value
a small radial distance in the plane of the disc. of 5. The boundary-layer thickness thus derived

Examples are the shoe at the bottom of a stern- is only a rough approximation for large values
post to carry a lower rudder bearing or a rope and of X, but it is at least an approximation.
cable guard on a submarine. Only mechanical It is also estimated, from the turbulent-flow
clearance is then necessary, say 0.10 to 0.50 ft, velocity profiles of Fig. 5.K, that the friction-wake
depending upon the size of the vessel. If the velocities in the outer half-thickness of the bound-
appendage is liable to be bent toward the propeller ary layer are than about 0.1 the ship velocity
less

axis in service, as for the cable guard of the sub- V. At the same time it is known that the boundary-
marine, this clearance may be increased by say layer thickness is increased by fouhng of the hull
twice the dimension of the appendage, measured surface, as in Fig. 22.H. It seems wise, therefore,
radially from the propeller axis. Another example to fix the hull tip clearance at a value at least as
540 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.25

great as 0.7 times the noininal boundary-layer For certain vessels whose maximum or extreme
thickness 5 (delta). draft is appreciably less than the channel or
For the ABC transom-stern design, at an river depths where they are to operate, the base-
estimated x-distance of 489 ft, 5 is 2.8 ft from plane clearance may be negative. The propeller
Fig. 45.1, and 0.75 is 1.96 ft. From Fig. 66.Q the disc then extends below the baseplane for a
tip clearance at the top of the wheel, arrived distance limited only by the height of the blocks
at indirectly, is 2.62 ft. This should take care of when the vessel is drydocked or hauled out.
a certain amount of thickening of the boundary Only rarely should this exceed 4 ft; probably 5 ft

layer under the stern due to fouling, for which is a maximum.

there are no rules at present (1955). When propellers are mounted abreast each
Since so little is known concerning the effect of other or nearly so their disc clearances may, if

hull shape and curvature on this nominal thick- necessary, be reduced to mechanical values only,
ness 5, wake measurements are made on a model say O.OoD, regardless of the direction of their
at the proposed propeller position (s), extending relative rotation. Indeed, the large 19.5-ft twin
from a point inboard as close to the hull as may screws of the old Atlantic liners Teutonic and
be experimentally practicable, to a region out- Majestic, built in 1889, had a negative disc clear-

board, at least O.IR beyond the far side of the ance of 5.5 ft [Maginnis, A. J., "The Atlantic
propeller disc(s). Ferry," London, 1892, pp. 186-187; Cassier's
The nominal boundary-layer thickness S on Mag., Jan 1897, p. 231; Barnaby, S. W., "Marine
the short model is greater in proportion to the propellers," 1900, pp. 64-65]. The port propeller

scale ratio than the nominal thickness on the disc was placed 6.25 ft ahead of the starboard
ship, described in Sec. 6.8 and illustrated in disc and the tips of each wheel swung beyond the
Fig. 6.E. This compensated for by the inevi-
is centerplane, to the opposite side of the vessel,
table thickening of the ship boundary layer when through a large aperture in the centerHne skeg.
the hull surface is roughened by fouhng. The Contemporaneous accounts of the behavior of
propeller tip circle should, if practicable, be kept these passenger liners, at that time the largest
outside the boundary-layer region on the model on the Atlantic, make no mention of vibration or
where the wake fraction is 0.25 or more, reckoned other disturbances caused by these overlapping
preferably by the pitot-tube survey method propellers, possibly because of their large diameter

illustrated in Sec. 60.6. and relatively light thrust loading.

Where and edge clearances are both in-
tip When adjacent propellers are offset by appre-
volved, as for the wing propeller of a twin-screw ciable fore-and-aft distances, as on quadruple-

vessel with long bossings, and where vibration is to screw vessels of normal form, great care is required
be minimized, the combination of theory, model in establisliing the disc clearance between the
tests, and experience all indicate that fore-and-aft outboard and inboard wheels, reckoned by the
edge clearance is more important than transverse projection of their discs on a transverse plane.
tip clearance. In other words, it is better to move The general direction of flow in way of these

the propeller aft and to cut away the bossing approximated by analytic
offset propellers is first

termination as far as possible, than to move the methods or determined by flow tests on a model,
propeller outward, away from the hull [Tomalin, preferably in a circulating-water channel. Follow-
P. G., SNAME, 1953, p. 592]. ing this, it is necessary to sketch in the probable

67.25 Baseplane and Propeller-Disc Clear- boundaries of the inflow and outflow jets of each
ances. The baseplaneclearance for a screw propeller, doing this on a plane passing approxi-

propeller determined by the service operating

is mately through the propeller shaft axes and
conditions, by considerations of drydocking, and normal to the hull plating in the vicinity. On
possibly by the fact that the ship may rest on the principle that, at designed speed, the general
the bottom at certain wharves when the tide is direction of flow through the outflow and inflow
out, as in the Thames at London. For a propeller jets is not modified by angular
appreciably
unprotected by a shoe, say on a twin-screw craft, differences between the flow direction and the
the baseplane clearance may vary from a mini- shaft axes, the propeller jets should be resketched
mum of 0.2 ft on small vessels to 0.5 or 0.7 ft on to follow the general ship flow. They do not, in
large ones [van Lammeren, W. P. A., RPSS, 1948, general, follow the shaft axes. AVhen so modified
p. 279]. the outflow jet of the forward propeUer theoret-
Sec. 67.27 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 541

ically should be clear of the disc of the after Numerical values or ratios are not available
propeller. This means that if the general ship for estimating the proper or minimum tip sub-
flow runs parallel to the ship centerline there can mergence as functions of (a) and (b). It is known
be nominal overlap of the propeller discs, with a only that the greater the thrust loading, the
small negative disc clearance, because of the greater the advance ratio, and the greater the
contraction in the outflow jet of the forward circulation near the blade tips, the greater is the
propeller. In the Omaha cla,ss of quadruple-screw — Ap on the back of the blade tips and the thicker
light cruisers of the U. S. Navy, designed in must be the superposed water layer to prevent
about 1919, there was negative disc clearance of air leakage. Regions of high wake velocity
this kind but the vessels ran successfully for close to the water surface augment (a), (b), and
many years without vibration troubles. Similar (c) locally and call for good shielding.

difficulties reported on other quadruple-screw If the hull shape is such as effectively to shield
vessels with offset wing propellers having positive the propeller from air leakage, say in the form of
disc clearances are beUeved due to excessive a wide transom stern over a single wheel, the
elasticity of the thrust-bearing foundations within nominal tip submergence can be small, approach-
the ship. ing zero. In fact, under the tunnel stern on a
When a vessel with offset propellers turns with shallow-draft vessel the tip submergence is

a drift angle, the propeller outflow jets change definitely negative.

shape, rather drastically if the turn is a tight one. For the thrust loadings and advance ratios on
Undoubtedly in these cases the outflow jet of the low- and medium-powered ships having propellers
forward or wing propeller on the outside of the of adequate diameter, the increase in water
turn passes through the disc of the inboard depth due to the wave crest which forms at the
propeller. Two propellers on the same side of the stern when running at designed speed is usually
ship can almost never be given sufficient disc sufficient to shield the wheel. Under these con-
clearances to avoid this interference. ditions, the nominal tip submergence may also
Adequate Propeller-Tip Submergence.
67.26 be small.
As a general rule the greater the tip submergence When maneuvering rapidly, such as during
the better, until it reaches a value equal approxi- crash-backs, the pressure differentials around the
mately to the propeller radius R. This is the upper blade tips become extremely large. Shield-
standard or minimum tip submergence used for ing by the hull, as in tugs, is the only effective
open-water propeller tests in model basins. There preventive against air leakage.
is no need of increasing it further unless to The degree of submergence —or emergence
eliminate or reduce cavitation, or to insure expected during wavegoing is considered sub-
adequate submergence when the ship is pitching sequently in Part 6 of Volume III, together with
heavily during wavegoing. its effecton propeller performance.
The tip submergence required for any load or 67.27 Design for Minimum Thrust Deduction.
operating condition, indicated in Figs. 33. B, The manner in which a thrust-deduction force
33. C, and 33.D, is a function of the: is exerted on a hull, either inside the limits of the

inflow jet ahead of the propeller or inside those

(a) Thrust-load factor at which the propeller is
of the outflow jet astern of it, leads to the con-
intended to work. The greater the value of Ctl ,
clusion that the transverse projected areas within
the greater the submergence needs to be. minimum. This
these jet limits should be a is
(b) Advance ratio or slip ratio, related to (a) accomplished for a skeg carrying a screw propeller
(c) Radial distribution of circulation along the by keeping the skeg as thin as possible for at
propeller blade, particularly near the tip. Large least 2 diameters ahead of the wheel, within the
— Ap values near the tip call for a water layer of limits of an imaginary cyUndrical surface pro-
appreciable thickness over the propeller. jected from the screw disc along the propeller
(d) Amount of shielding from air leakage which axis, described previously in Sec. 33.2 and
can be expected from the hull at the running illustrated in Fig. 33.A. A large bossing carrying
attitude of the ship a wing propeller is likewise as thin as possible
(e) Increased (or decreased) nominal tip sub- consistent with stiffness as a shaft support. For
mergence due to a wave crest (or trough) over a tunnel within which a screw propeller is mounted
the propeller position. the roof of the tunnel is not to drop too sharply
542 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 67.28

in the 2-diameter regions just ahead of and just deduction fraction is negative. It is unwise,
abaft the disc. Fig. GT.RI indicates that this con- however, to rely upon this unless it is confirmed
dition is not met in the ABC arch-stern design. by a model test.

A single-screw stern having an exceptionally The reduced-pressure

field ahead of a stern-

thin skeg, with the after part cut entirely away,
leaving the propeller supported by a projecting
stern tube,is illustrated and described by H. Waas
[STG, 1952, Fig. 9, p. 209, and Fig. 18, p. 214].
If found practicable in any particular case this
is one way to reduce thrust-deduction and lateral
vibratory forces at the same time. If the after
end of the stern tube needs support, it can be
provided by a V-shaped strut assembly.
Paddlewheels mounted abreast parallel water-
lines or in way of the maximum waterline beam
are admirably placed for eliminating practically
all resistance-augment forces. In fact, it is quite
wheel extends forward of the point of immersion
of the foremost blade for a distance estimated as
twice the maximum depth of blade immersion,
or dip, as it is called. For this and other reasons,
set forth in Sec. 72.11, the buttock endings of a
sternwheel vessel are given an easy slope, and
possibly reverse curvature, below the level of the
wave profile at designed speed.
The first approximation of the resistance
augment to be expected at the designed speed is
found by the transverse-area method, described
in Sec. 60.9. The method of performing this
operation for the transom-stern ABC design is

with a pair of paddlewheels amidships,

possible, illustrated in Fig. G7.V.
for the —Ap field to extend forward into the 67.28 The Final Section-Area Curve. When
entrance and the +Ap field back into the run. all principal parts of the underwater hull, ex-
The differential pressures then generate thrust cluding the appendages, are worked out suffi-

forces in the ahead direction and the thrust- ciently to indicate the distribution of volume

Station
Sec. 67.29 UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 543

throughout the ship length, a revised section-area

o
curve is drawn. The areas are determined for at
least 20 sections, the A /Ax values calculated,
and a fair curve passed through the 21 ordinates.
A bulb bow calls for fairing to a designated /c
value at the FP; a transom stern to an /« value
at the AP. A discontinuity of sorts is to be expected
opposite a skeg ending, especially at the forward
end of a propeller aperture. The final ^-curves
for the ABC ship, covering both types of stern,
are drawn in Fig. 67. W.
Except for the regions known to be discontin-
uous the eye should detect no unevenness in the
curve, nor should it appear when using a batten.
However, the eye is often deceived by the pre-
sence of other lines in the vicinity, even those in
the coordinate network.Hence the 0-diml
curvature for at least 20 and preferably 40
stations along its length is determined by one or
more of the methods described in Chap. 49 and
is plotted to the same base as the section-area

curve. Fig. 67.X shows a 0-diml curvature plot

of theA-curve of Fig. 67.W for the ABC design
with the transom type of stern, as well as similar
plots for the Taylor Standard Series model,
EMB 632 (modified), and for a merchant ship
of good performance.
Integrating the section-area curve, by whatever
procedure may be appropriate [PNA, 1939, Vol. I,
pp. 13-27], gives:

(a) By its fullness coefficient, the corresponding

prismatic coefficient Cp . For the ABC ship this
should be within 0.01 or less of the selected value
of 0.62.
(b) The molded underwater volume, without
appendages, up to the designed waterfine. This
should correspond to the ABC ship displacement
weight of 16,400 t for standard salt water .

(c) An accurate determination of LCB, with

respect to the FP, for reference and comparison

purposes.

This revised A-curve may be considered as

final if the analysis brings out no objectionable
features or irregularities in it, if the values of Cp
and V are reasonably close to those selected,
and if final fairing of the lines to a large scale
indicates no appreciable changes in the amount
or distribution of volume.
67.29 Modification of Normal Design Pro-
cedure for a Hull with Keel Drag. It often
becomes necessary, for reasons of propulsive
coefficient, rotative speed of the propelling plant,
5444
Sec. 61.3] UNDERWATER-HULL DESIGN 545

propeller, or other causes. On the other hand it estimated to extend from the AP to points at
may be worse because of increased drag due to least 20 ft Assuming a
forward on either side.
separation behind fuller waterlines at the stern. depth of 2 each outlet screen, one-third of
ft for
If the keel drag is limited to small amounts it the length of the separation zone on the two
may easily become more of a nuisance in laying sides is ample to provide the necessary outlet area.
out or building the ship than a help in its service The estimated back pressure is of the order of
performance. zero, or it may be slightly negative, due to the
67.30Underwater Exhaust for Propelling — Ap in the separation zone. Further model and
Machinery. A passenger-carrying vessel having full-scale experiments are necessary to verify
propelling machinery that produces gaseous this point.
products of combustion and that is intended to When underway in smooth water the stern-wave
run at all times with the propeller(s) fully sub- crest may rise above the at-rest designed water-
merged offers a favorable opportunity for installa- Une by an amount estimated as from 2.5 ft to
tion of underwater gas exhaust. This is especially 4.0 ft, depending upon the stern shape and other
true if the gas-producing portion of the propelling circumstances. It may be necessary to provide
machinery can be placed close to the stern, and several levels in the outlet boxes so that one may
if the draft aft is reasonably constant. be selected which best suits any given operating
On the basis that an alternative vertical gas condition.
outlet is provided in the form of a tall post or
When the ship is pitching in waves so that the
slender stack, to care for lighting off, port opera-
selected underwater gas outlet for the mean draft
tion, low-speed running, maneuvering, and emer-
is alternately submerged and exposed, it may be
gencies, it may
be assumed that the duct area
necessary to lock the flap valves closed in the
required for underwater exhaust need be no
outlet boxes and to resort to vertical stack-gas
greater than that for vertical exhaust at full
discharge.
power. This takes no account of the possible
67.31 General Notes on Water Flow as
condensation of steam in the exhaust gases or the
Applied to Hull Design. At the risk of boring
use of stack-gas coohng as a margin against too
the reader with duplication it can not be too
high velocity of the combustion gases in the
strongly recommended that the flow pattern and
ducts leading to the underwater stern outlet.
the wake diagram at the positions proposed for
To insure that the gases are discharged into
any type of propulsion device be adequately
the separation zone deliberately formed abaft
investigated and recorded on a model by chemical
the stern, within the variations in draft which
or physical means, by strings or tufts, and by
will occur there, a high-level as well as a low-level
spherical-ended pitot tube. These data should be
gas outlet is required. Both may be connected
given great weight when
finally fixing the form
to the gas discharge lines which should enter the
of the ship and
appendages adjacent to the
its
high-level outlet box from the top, to prevent
propeller positions and when establishing the
entry of sea water back into the gas line. Escape
propeller clearances.
of gas from the high-level outlet when running at
the shallower draft at the stern is prevented by a It may be taken as an axiom, in the detail
combined gravity- and buoyancy-operated flap design of the underwater hulls of ships and their
valve which closes when it is above the waterline appendages, that separation and cavitation and
but opens when it is submerged. all other forms of discontinuity in a liquid,
On the basis of limiting slopes of 15 deg for whenever and wherever occurring, are detri-
separation at the light- and deep-draft waterlines mental to good performance. As such they are
of a vessel of about the size of the ABC ship but to be carefully and systematically minimized or
having a canoe stern, the separation zone is avoided altogether.
 CHAPTER 68

Layout of the Abovewater Form

68 . 1 General Design Features, Exclusive of Wave- stallation for Ships with Bulb Bows . . . 558
going 546 68.12 Knuckles and Other Longitudinal Discon-
68.2 Reserve-Buoyancy Requirements 546 tinuities 560
68 3 . Freeboard and Sheer for Protected Waters . 547 68 13. Transverse Discontinuities 561
68 4 . Freeboard and Sheer for General Service . 547 68 14. Shaping and Positioning of Superstructure
68.5 Design of Abovewater Section Shapes; and Upper Works 561
Tumble Home; Compound Flare .... 551 68.15 Design of Facilities for Abovewater Smoke
68.6 Check of Range of StabiUty and Dynamic and Gas Discharge 563
Metacentric Stability 553 68 16. Reducing the Wind Drag of the Masts, Spars,
68.7 Abovewater Profile and Deck Details . . . 553 and Rigging 566
68 8 . Selection of Deck Camber 553 68.17 Consideration of Increased Draft Through
68.9 Bulwarks and Breakwaters 554 the Years 566
68.10 Design of Anchor Recesses 556 68.18 Preparation of Hull Lines for Model Tests . 566
68.11 Proposed Under-the-Bottom Anchor In-

68.1 General Design Features, Exclusive of freeboard, just mentioned, plus a rise of the
Wavegoing. Were it not for wavegoing require- weather-deck line forward and aft in the form of
ments the abovewater portions of a ship down to sheer.
the ship-wave profile at designed speed could be For the heeling and change-of-trim conditions
given a strictly utilitarian shape. This shape to be expected in service, assuming that the
might even be found adequate to meet damage- situations represented by them are essentially
control and floodability requirements. Actually it static, a certain margin of buoyancy or freeboard
is done with many ferryboats, day-service pas- is necessary, particularly in the form of a limiting
senger vessels for inland waters, river and harbor distance above the heeled waterplane. This takes
craft, and canal boats. Since the abovewater care, among other things, of the overshoot action
shape of the average seagoing vessel is so inti- accompanying a relatively sudden list, or of
mately related to wavegoing, a considerable part incidental waves. The margin may take the form
of the discussion pertaining to it is found in of a corresponding distance above the waterplane
Part 6 of Volume III. The design rules in this when trimmed, to give protection against the
chapter therefore apply principally to ships of water in the crests of waves made by the ship's
aU types operating in protected waters, as well own motion or by passing vessels. Certain types
as to those features covered by the general service of craft acquire temporary and unexpected lists,
of every vessel. Kke the heel of a tug when a heavy towline tension
Reserve-Buoyancy Requirements. Re-
68.2 is exerted transversely or the heel of a small
serve buoyancy in the form of intact or waterti^it day-service passenger vessel when a great many
volume of the main hull above the designed passengers crowd suddenly to one rail or the other.
waterplane, a rather important feature of sub- All craft may at times be subject to unsymmetrical
mersible and submarine vessels, is rarely set loading and may have to run at the corresponding
down as a design item for a surface ship. It is lists or trims for uncomfortably long periods.
not to be found in the requirements of Chap. 64 The reserve-buoyancy volume could well be
for the ABC appears partly as the cus-
ship. It reckoned, not from the designed waterplane with
tomary specification for minimum freeboard to the vessel at rest, but from the actual wave
some specified deck, when the
designed to
ship is profile when the ship is running at its designed
remain afloat with one, two, or three compart- speed. For example, both the buoyant volume
ments flooded. It also appears as a requirement and the reserve-buoyancy volume of a small,
for an adequate range of transverse metacentric fast tug have an appreciably different shape in
stabiUty, although rarely stated in so many way of the surface when the tug is running free
words. Wavegoing requirements are not forgotten than when it is pulling and standing almost still.
but they generally take the form of a minimum It can be argued that a vessel will never be

546
Sec. 68.4 ABOVEWATER-FORM LAYOUT 547

running at its designed speed when it needs all running tug, needs a certain amount of freeboard
its reserve buoyancy. The answer to this is that regardless of that embodied in the reserve-buoy-
one never knows what a ship may have to do ancy requirements. If it may be called upon during
during its lifetime, nor what kind of rough its lifetime to operate when trimmed heavily by
handling and severe treatment it may receive the bow or the stern it needs still more. The
when trying to do its best. position and shape of the sheer line with reference
A logical and practical specification, supple- to the designed waterline is then controlled largely
mentng that of floodability and range of trans- by the wave-profile, trim, and reserve-buoyancy
verse metacentric stability, calls for a minimum requirements.
reserve-buoyancy volume, expressed as a percent- The craft may have a curved sheer line, as
age of the displacement volume below the designed for a seagoing vessel, or it may have a straight
waterplane. A minimum of 25 per cent for a weather-deck line if the freeboard everywhere
new vessela reasonable and not particularly
is exceeds the minimum. However, there is an
exacting requirement. Reserve-buoyancy ratios optical illusion involved in looking at any vessel
for a number of submarines, of the vintage of with a straight deck line throughout its length
1901 through by E. Dodero
1918, are given which makes it appear that the hull is hogged
[Ann. Rep., Rome Model Basin, 1941, Vol. X, slightly. When appearance is a consideration, it
pp. 95-107]. These vary from 0.112 through is desirable to incorporate some curvature in the
0.467, averaging 0.252. The watertight closures deck or hull line at the side, with the bow normally
of a surface ship are by no means as secure as higher than the stern and the stern higher than
are those of a submarine, so these values represent some position near or slightly abaft amidships.
some sort of minimum for the average surface
If there are practical reasons for straight deck
vessel. For the latter, a maximum of 0.35 or
lines throughout a considerable part of the length,
more is not too much. This, with freeboard and
it is possible to retain the sheered appearance by
other requirements, should insure that hatches
adding sheer only at the bow, or in the forebody.
and other vulnerable hull openings are reasonably
By the clever and artistic use of curved bulwark
out of reach of the destructive action of solid,
lines,combined with the slight depression in the
green water [Goodall, F. C, "Whaleback Stea-
deck edge at the side due to camber, or even of
mers," INA, 1892, pp. 192-193].
curved painted lines on the hull, it is possible to
Even though the hull may be extended farther
avoid entirely the appearance of hogging while
upward than reserve-buoyancy requirements de-
holding a perfectly straight deck line at the
mand, such as the deck of a ferryboat which
centerplane.
must match the top of a landing platform at
various stages of the tide, it may not be necessary was generally found best for appearance' sake to
"It
to build an intact or watertight hull all the way up. fLxthe lowest point of the freeboard about one-fifth to

One item taken care of in floodability calcula- one-seventh of the ship's length abaft amidships; and to
give rather quicker curvature aft so as to prevent the
tions but often overlooked on small vessels for
tangent to the sheer line falling below the horizontal when
which these calculations are not made is the matter the ship had the maximum trim by the stern" [Narbeth,
of the fore-and-aft position of the reserve buoyancy. J. H., INA, 1942, pp. 144-145].
If a craft is bilged and flooded aft it does little
good to have a great volume of reserve buoyancy 68.4 Freeboard and Sheer for General Service.
forward. On many fishing vessels, especially tuna Concerning freeboard requirements for general
clippers, the freeboard aft is deliberately low to service, it may be well at this point to review
facilitate getting fish in over the side. It has to the object of freeboard, and its functions. These
be recognized that the safety of these craft is were well expressed some seventy years ago in
equally jeopardized by the absence of adequate the following terms:
reserve buoyancy there [Hanson, H. C, "The
Tuna Clipper of the Pacific," SNAME, Spring "Perhaps the most important of these are: to limit
the ship's load; to provide a reserve of buoyancy, both
Meet'g., 1954, p. 6].
as a margin against leakage and as lifting power in a
68.3 Freeboard and Sheer for Protected sea way; to assist in securing a sufficient range of stabiUty;
Waters. Any craft which produces bow and to provide a suitable height of working platform, and to
sternwave crests of appreciable height when protect the vessel from deck damage" [West, H. H.,
underway in protected waters, such as a free- INA, 1883, Vol. 24, p. 205].
548 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 6S.4

It is mentioned, in the discussion of reserve design for wavegoing in Part 6 of Volume III, is
buoyancy in Sec. 68.2, that a certain minimum therefore usually measured at the bow rather
freeboard of the intact hull amidships, or at than amidships, although the freeboard for good
the lowest point of the sheer line, is more often wavegoing is sometimes reckoned at 0.3 the length
than not regulated by law. This takes into account from the FP, or at 0.1 that length. The latter
considerations of the range of transverse meta- procedure is based upon the reasoning that the
and damage control,
centric stability, floodability most objectionable water comes over the side at
rolling and righting energy, classification and those positions.
insurance rules, and the like, which need not be Fig. 68.A is a diagram for selecting a value of
gone into here. All these and other features are the freeboard at the forward perpendicular in the
discussed by H. F. Norton in Chapter II and by preliminary-design stage. Its scale of abscissas is

J. F. Macmillan and J. P. Comstock in Chapter dimensional, for the reason that the average
V of PNA, 1939, Vol. I. Normally the minimum steepness ratio of natural waves increases as the
freeboard based upon the considerations set forth wave length decreases. In other words, short
therein is sufficient to meet the wavegoing re- waves are steeper than long waves. For a short
quirements for the service of any particular ship. craft like a fishing boat the ratio of freeboard
However, the freeboard may be and often is forward to length must be large while for a large
determined by the difference between the hull- liner this ratio can be diminished considerably.
girder depth D necessary for strength and rigidity, The heavy curved line of the figure is intended to
and the draft H. This is the basis for selection of indicate this relationship. It is broken because its
the freeboard of the ABC ship amidships, ex- position is still tentative. In general, the ships
plained in Sec. 66.30. with ratios above the line have proved to be
To this freeboard there must be added sheer good-to-excellent sea boats in service. Many of
at the bow, and generally also at the stern, if the those below the line are definitely lacking in
vessel not to be inundated when pitching at sea.
is freeboard forward.
As a rule, the lower the minimum freeboard The minimum freeboard forward (and aft) is

the higher must be the sheer forward. The free- also determined by a combination of minimum
board for wavegoing, discussed more fully under freeboard amidships and a sheer height forward

l"iT'1\ n^rr T1 I I
II
I
I

I
III I l|
I
I III I

II
I

50 150 200 I
250 I
300
Waterlme Leriolh, meters
0.09-

Spot for
ABC Ship
0.08-
\
o
\\
0.07-
-^.

0.06- '0.06

T'
0.05- -0.05

004-^ 004

llllllll
100 2^00 300 400 500 600 700 600 SCO 1000 1100 1200
Woterline Length in feet

Fig. CS.A Tentative Freeboard Ratio j'or Ships Traversing the Open Sea
Sec. 6S.4 ABOVEWATER-FORM LAYOUT 549

TABLE 68.a Sheer Heights in Fractions op Wateblinb Length

Source and Reference

550 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 68.4

Fig. 68. C, apply to types of vessels in the following ships, parallel to the baseline. Most of the tankers
services: are in the same category as the intermediate-
speed merchant cargo types, running for a large
(1) Low- and intermediate-speed merchant types,
percentage of the time in overtaking seas. How-
low point of sheer at or close to amidships, 0.50L
ever, at these speeds they require more sheer aft
from FP, sheer at stern about 0.5 of sheer at bow.
than the cargo vessels because their average
In average heavy- weather areas the wave speeds
freeboard is less. The trawlers and fishing vessels
are greater than the speeds of these slow vessels.
heave to or creep along at slow speeds on all
For a considerable part of their running time
courses and in all weathers so that they are over-
they are being overtaken by seas, hence the need
taken by waves to about the same degree as
for rather large sheer at the stern.
other ships encounter them.
(2) Medium-speed passenger and cargo ships and
(5) Tug and similar types, lowest point of deck
intermediate liners, low point of sheer at about
profile at about 0.65 to 0.8L, sheer at stern about
0.575 to 0.625L, sheer at stern about 0.33 of
0.4 of sheer at bow. Ocean-going tugs may require
sheer at bow. These vessels, running at speeds
from 1.5 to 2.0 times as much sheer forward as
higher than those in (1) preceding, spend less of
harbor tugs. To prevent the excessive heels
their time being overtaken by following seas.
mentioned in Sec. 68.2 it is necessary that the
Furthermore, they often have more than the
towing bitts of tugs be kept close to the water.
minimum freeboard in order to have internal
This means that the low point of the profile is
space for accommodations. However, at the higher
well aft, in the vicinity of the bitts, and that the
speeds, they pitch more than the slower vessels.
sheer aft is the minimum permissible by standards
With their finer entrances the pitching axis is
of safety which have been proved in everyday
farther aft.
service.
(3) Large medium- and high-speed liners, low
point of sheer at about 0.65 to 0.75Z/, sheer at For sailing yachts the low point of the sheer
stern about 0.2 of sheer at bow. To obtain internal line is usually much farther aft than for any other
volume and superior wavegoing performance the type. It can be as far aft as 0.75 times the overall
freeboard is usually exceptionally high. This length from the bow.
means that the pitching depth at the stem and at All the sheer curves in Fig. 68. C are arcs of
the stern are adequate without using great sheer. second-order parabolas, x^ = —az, where z is

The latter may, in fact, be governed more by
appearance than by wavegoing, or by the necessity
for rapid shedding of the water that may come
aboard.
(4) Tankers, trawlers, fishing vessels, and other
low-freeboard craft, low point of sheer at from
0.5 to 0.65L, sheer at stern about 0.7 of sheer at
bow. An alternative straight-element profile for
tankers is indicated in broken lines. There are
incUned straight lines at the bow and stern and
directed keelward for -|- values. Their axes are
vertical and their vertexes are at the low points
indicated by circles. The forward and after arcs
belong to different parabolas but they can belong
to the same one if the low-point position and the
forward and after sheers correspond. New sheer
lines are easily drawn by taking constant per-
centages of the ordinates shown in the figure, as
illustrated for the sheer fine of the ABC design.
If construction costs are a factor, any part or all

about half a ship length of straight sheer amid- of the sheer line may be straight, as shown in

Fig. 68. B Typical O-Duil Freeboard Ratios for a Whale Catcher

Sec. 68.5
 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 6S.5

liner Oranje of 1939 [Prius, H. N., and Ijssel- other requirements and is faired in the usual
muiden, A. H., De Ingenieur, The Hague, Holland, way, in all three planes. The section lines forward
23 Jun 1939, p. 50; 30 Jun 1939, p. 74; WRH, 15 are faired into this deck edge and completed as
Oct 1939, pp. 316-323; TMB
Transl. 128, Nov though there were to be no compound flare.
1939]. The tumble home amidships is 8.75 ft in (b) A fair knuckle Une is then drawn on the out-
a height of about four decks above the DWL, for a board profile (sheer drawing) in the position
waterline beam of 83.5 ft. This is so extreme that desired for the lower edge of the diminished-flare
the lifeboats can not be launched clear of the region. Its vertical position, shape, and curvature
ship's side. depend upon the position of the internal decks
Tumble home is not called for by the particular below the weather deck, the anchor-stowage
requirements of the ABC ship. It is incorporated, positions selected, and other factors. The line of
however, in the body plans of Figs. 66. P and 67. L, the knuckle runs more-or-less parallel to the
in an effort to provide parallel sides and constant weather deck, or at a slope to it, either up aft
beam in that portion of the ship set aside for or down aft, depending partly on appearance and
passenger accommodations. Laying out, building, the aesthetic sense of the designer.
and equipping staterooms and similar rooms is (c) At two selected stations, about 1/3 and 2/3
greatly simpUfied if the region has parallel straight the length of the knuckle from the bow, two
and no deck camber,
sides, practically zero sheer, level lines are drawn on the body plan, represent-
corresponding to a building on shore [Watsuji, ing the height of the knuckle line at those stations,
H., SBSR, 2 Aug 1934, p. 118]. as taken from the outboard profile
Tumble home is usually, but not necessarily (d) Two partial-section lines are projected down
confined to the abovewater hull. It may be on the body plan from the weather deck edge, at
extended below the DWL in order to achieve a the stations in question, to the knuckle level
reduction in C/r , to modify the rolUng charac- lines at those stations, giving the knuckle half-
teristics in some respect, or to take care of a breadths. A suitable flare slope above the knuckle
sHght list when the vessel is in light condition is about 80 deg (with reference to the horizontal).
[SNAME, 1905, PI. 119]. It is not necessary that the flare slope be constant
It is often desired, for wavegoing, to incor- for all stations; appearance and room inside the
porate flare in the abovewater sections forward ship may determine this.
for a considerable distance above the DWL. To (e) Laying out the knuckle half-breadths at the
avoid the excessive top weights and volumes two selected stations, and the fore-and-aft position
involved by carrying that flare all the way to of the knuckle line at the stem, a fair line is
the weather deck, a compound-flare section of the drawn on the half-breadth plan, giving the half-
type sketched at E in Fig. 26. B is useful. breadths of the knuckle at all stations along its
Compound flare built into the bows of British length
cruisers for the past forty years has proved its
(f) Level lines for the remaining stations are
worth in service. More recently it has been then added to the body plan, whereupon the
worked into the cargo vessels of the British knuckle half-breadths for these stations are laid
Windsor class, both forward and aft [MESR, off on them
Jul 1952, pp. 89-90]. It is often of advantage,
(g) With the points thus determined the knuckle
with no appreciable impairment of wavegoing
line projection is completed on the body plan,
behavior, to widen the deck below the weather
and the straight section-line segments above the
deck so as to get more useful room there. This is
knuckle are drawn in between the weather deck
because internal space lying above a ship's side
and the knuckle
with excessive flare is difficult to utihze.
(h) The original section lines below the knuckle
The following method of working a compound
are now flared out in easy curves to meet the
flare into the abovewater entrance is adapted
knuckle intersections at the respective stations,
from that employed by the Naval Construction
afterwhich the section-line segments above and
Department of the British Admiralty and is
below the knuckle, and the knuckle itself, are
pubhshed with the kind permission of the Director
check-faired
of Naval Construction, Sir Victor G. Shepheard:
(i) Adjustments may be necessary if the resulting
(a) The shape and position of the weather deck flare below the knuckle is too great to avoid
at the side is determined from operational and objectionable pounding or slamming
Sec. ^.?.,'? ABOVEWATER-FORM LAYOUT 653

(j) For structural reasons the knuckle should be the flaring, slightly concave abovewater entrance
well clear of all deck edges along the shell. sections of the fast sailing ships of the 1840's were
carried forward to produce what is now known
The knuckle and the compound flare in the
1 and 2 in Fig. 26. D.
as the clipper bow, pictured at
forebody sections of the ABC ship, delineated in
It is regular shipyard practice to camber a
Fig. 66. P, are laid out by the procedure described.
straight stem to compensate for the optical illusion
The knuckle at Sta. —0.5 lies shghtly above the
of concavity inherent in a perfectly straight stem
knuckle line because of discontinuities in way of
bar [Baier, L. A., unpubl. Itr. to HES, 4 Aug 1950].
the single centerline bower-anchor position.
Profiles and planforms for transom sterns are
For vessels carrying wing screw propellers it
discussed and illustrated in Sec. 67.20.
may upon occasion seem wise to afford lateral
protection to the propellersby widening the For the ABC ship the planform of the main deck
abovewater hull above them, rather than by is made elliptical at the stern, solely as a matter

fitting abovewater propeller guards.

of appearance. Some
additional abovewater

68.6 Check of Range of Stability and Dynamic

volume and deck space are achieved by carrying
the transom all the way up to the main deck, as
Metacentric Stability. At this stage in the
has been done on many U. S. warships, but at the
preliminary design, if not before, a check is made
expense of some additional weight and an un-
to insure that:
questionably heavy, clumsy appearance at the
(1) The range of positive metacentric stability, stern.
in a transverse plane and for the static case only, The forebody portions of the ABC transom
isadequate for the service expected of the vessel. and arch sterns, above the DWL, are exactly
This operation is particularly important for a alike back to Sta. 11. However, the afterbody
vessel of special shape, such as sketched subse- portion of the ABC arch-type stern above the
quently in diagram 1 of Fig. 68. K in Sec. 68.12. DWL is slightly different from that of the tran-
The method of accomplishing this is set forth in som-stern ship because of the greater waterline
many and reference books on naval archi-
text beam at the AP. The main deck planform and
tecture [PNA, 1939, Vol. I, p. 135]. the uppermost level lines are rounded in the
(b) The vessel possesses adequate dynamic meta- same way, except to a larger radius.
centric stability in a transverse plane; in other
68.8 Selection of Deck Camber. A normal
words, it has sufficient stored-up righting energy
degree of circular-arc or parabolic camber in a
to more than absorb the dynamic rolling energy
weather deck, with a rise at the centerline amount-
[Vincent, S. A., PNA, 1939, Vol. I, pp. 135-136].
ing to say 0.020 or 0.025Bx for the widest part
This matter is discussed further under wavegoing
of the ship (0.25 inch per foot of beam corresponds
in Part 6 of Volume III.
to 0.02085x), is some help in shedding water
Abovewater Profile and Deck Details.
68.7 during wavegoing but it is hardly to be classed
The abovewater profiles of a ship, like the section as a quick-unloading device for a boarding sea
shapes, are governed partly by the necessity of in an emergency. Constructions for circular and
meeting certain wavegoing requirements and parabolic arcs are illustrated at 1 and 2 in Fig.
partly by utilitarian needs. They may result from 68. D; also by G. de Rooij in "Practical Ship-
fairing the sections into the ends, or from a building" [1953, Figs. 329a and 329b, p. 133].
desire to achieve a certain appearance. Centerline No one camber shape among a number that
anchor stowages at the bow and stern, propeller- are available has any particular hydrodynamic
aperture clearances for single-screw vessels, and superiority or significance. The camber may be
other features usually play a part more important appropriate, therefore, to the drafting as well as
than hydrodynamics [Coqueret, F., and Romano, to the shipfitting and fabricating procedures. For
P., SNAME, 1936, pp. 131-132]. this reason a fixed camber curve may be used for
In the main, however, the abovewater profile all widths of deck along the length. The curvature
should, like the underwater profile described in or slope need be sufficient only to insure that,
Sec. 67.4, be a sort of automatic result of first within the life of the ship, there will be no de-
determining the ship form desired, in transverse -pressions in the deck at any small heel angle
planes, and then carrying the hull surfaces because of ill-formed or buckled plates or minor
forward and aft, in fair shapes, until they meet service damage.
at the centerplane. This is what happened when Flat, straight decks are admittedly economical
554 riYDRODYNy\MICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 6S.9

All Comber Heiqhts ore Exocjtjerated

two straight elements, lying at a constant angle
(About 10 times in Dioqroms I, 2, and 3)
to each other. The ridge surfaces are then develop-
able cyhnders of very large radius.
In fact, if a circular or parabolic arc of constant
shape employed for the deck-beam lines on a
is

cambered deck, and if the intersections of the

deck-beam Unes with the centerplane lie on a
straight line fore and aft, as at 4 in Fig. 68.D, the
whole deck is a developable cylindrical surface.
Ifthe deck line at the center or at the side follows
a curved sheer, corresponding to 5 in the figure,
the departure from true cylindrical form, for
any one plate, is usually insignificant.
A ridge-type deck, having the same rise at the
centerline, possesses considerably more slope
amidships and less slope at the sides of the vessel
than a camber with a circular arc or even with
a paraboUc arc. Whether this represents an
advantage for the straight-element deck in
shedding water is debatable, especially as at one
Ridqe Line Mq\j Be Held Fixed in Position ond Shape
angle of list the high side has no slope at all.
(straight in this Cose) ond Sheer Line at Side Allowed
to Take Its Shape "Automaticallu"
68.9 Bulwarks and Breakwaters. Bulwarks,
b\j the Geometric
~
Construction either partial or full, are appropriate for both
large and small vessels when it is desired to:

(a) Afford some protection along a deck edge

Sheer Line at Side Held Fixed in Position and Shope against wind and spray blowing across the deck
and Ridcje Line at Centerplanc Allowed to TaUe Its (b) Prevent marginal waves and crests from
Shape Automoticalli^, slopping over onto the deck
(c) Retain on board loose gear, small items of

Constant Ridqe Slope Assumed in Dioorams 4,5

deck cargo, fish dumped from nets, and the like.
"^

FiQ. 68.D Straight and Curved Deck Camber Lines If the owner desires or permits, bulwarks may
be added solely for the sake of appearance, as
in the drafting, shipfitting, and fabricating stages when carrying a graceful sheer line along a straight
but no ship deck, certainly not one of metal, ever deck edge.
finishes fiat nor does it remain flat. It always While bulwarks can hold back some marginal
bends downward under its own weight, if not water from coming over a deck edge they can
under compression loads due to riveting and and do keep on deck large menacing weights of
welding. Generally there are more plating buckles water which need to be unloaded quickly, before
downward than there are upward. Here is a case the next sea comes aboard. Freeing slots along
where the greater stifi'ness of an aluminum deck the lower edge of the bulwarks, or hinged-cover
plate of equal or slightly less weight might be a freeing ports in the bulwarks, are provided for
di,stinct advantage. this purpose but the average head to make water
Ridge-type decks, hke the low ridge roof of a run through them rapidly is rather low. Further-
house, illustrated at 3 in Fig. 68. D, are composed more, the port edges are usually sharp and the
of two flat surfaces each lying at a small angle to orifice coefficient is also low.
the horizontal, only enough to insure
large customary to provide a port opening of
It is
drainage in service, and joined in a low knuckle 0.1 the bulwark area and to hmit the bulwark
at the centerUne. This knuckle is a straight line height to 5 ft [Lovett, W. J., "Applied Naval
if the ridge surfaces are flat [Dawson, A. J., Architecture," 1920, p. 174]. This rule takes no
SNAME, 1950, Fig, 10, p. 13]. However, the account of the width of the vessel and the volume
knuckle can be curved, with a sheer incorporated of water trapped between bulwarks of a given
in it, leaving the deck-beam lines composed of height, apparently on the theory that for a given
 Sec. 6S.9 ABOVEWATER FORM LAYOUT 555

angle of heel, the greater part of the water on a two breakwaters in tandem, separated by an
wide ship spills over the top of the bulwarks. appreciable fore-and-aft distance, so that the
To require that a deckload of water, up to the water one is trapped by the second.
spilling over
top of the bulwarks, should run off completely A set of tandem breakwaters of concave section
within the interval of one pitching cycle would is fitted on the French battleship Jean Bart

practically require taking away the bulwarks
altogether. It is therefore necessary to assume
that some roll angle or pitch angle, or both, will
unload most of the water over the bulwark rail.
To get rid of the rest of the water in one pitching
or rolling period it appears that the freeing-port
area should be more nearly 0.2 the bulwark area.
Furthermore, this freeing-port area should be
provided abreast the volume which needs to be
emptied if the vessel ships a deckload of solid
water.
Bulwarks at the extreme bow can serve as an
effective increase in freeboard in that region,
over and above that provided by the intact hull.
If not extended too far aft, say to not farther
than the point where the local beam exceeds
0.55x it should be possible to leave them solid,
, sliding aft on the forecastle will strike the break-
without freeing ports or slots.
Breakwaters require positioning and shaping so
that the maximum water is deflected for the
minimum of splash or spray over the top. This
[The 111. London News, 9 Apr 1955, p. 661].
A breakwater of any type requires adequate
bracing against the hydrodynamic forces. These
are not accurately or even roughly known but
their order of magnitude may be estimated by
assuming a dynamic load imposed by solid water
striking the breakwater at a certain velocity. For
a head sea, or an angle of encounter Q:(alpha) of
180 deg, this is compounded of (1) the speed V
which it is estimated the ship can make in heavy
weather and (2) the orbital velocity Uorb of the
crest of a wave which breaks over the forecastle
and strikes the breakwater. While, strictly speak-
ing, the dynamic pressure is that due to the com-
ponent of (7 + (7 Orb) normal to the breakwater,
there is little assurance that the deck load of water
water from ahead. The blow may just as well
come from the side, striking against one face for
Not Less Than 1.25 3l"ont *1

calls for a deflecting surface which is never J-enqth of Breakwoter |

—
or rarely ever normal to the onrushing water and
on One Side i

which does not form an objectionable spray-

thrower for water in quantities greater than the
breakwater is designed to handle. The water
deflected from the forward side should have no
upward component, and as great an outward
component as possible, to throw it toward the
gunwale and get it off the deck. Fig. 68.E illus-
trates, at 3 and 4, two alternative methods of
accomphshing this. The function of the horizontal
lip along the top of the barrier is to throw moderate
quantities of water back forward but to permit
large quantities to pass over the breakwater
without too violent obstruction.
The breakwater on a forecastle is usually of
V-shape in plan, with its vertex forward and with
diagonal sides extending practically to the deck
edges. The planform angles may vary from 45
to 60 deg with the centerline, indicated at 1 and 2
on Fig. 68.E. The height at the center, where
the water can not run off the deck freely, should
be higher than at the sides. A breakwater having
an elliptic or parabolic planform, with the sharp
curvature forward, is shown for an early German
"schnellboote" (high-speed boat) in Schiffbau [26 Fig. 68.E Design Sketches fob Forecastle
Oct-2 Nov 1921, Fig. 4, p. 114]. There may be Brbakwateks
556 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 6S.10

itswhole length. Only one such impact is necessary 68.10 Design of Anchor Recesses. Protrud-
to tear loose a breakwater that is not sufficiently ing stockless anchors are unsightly and they are
strong or sturdy. It appears unwise, therefore, abominable spray-throwers. They represent defi-
to use for the design any striking velocity less than nite collision hazards in that such an anchor can
the sustained speed V plus the orbital velocity tear open the whole side of another ship, when
f/o.b. the bumping or sliding damage might otherwise
The force on the breakwater, exerted parallel be slight.

to the deck, may be taken as that developed by It is reported on the German World
that
a uniformly distributed ram pressure q = 0.5p War II Bismarck and Tirpitz the
battleships
(F + Uorh)' acting over the whole area of the anchors were hauled, not into orthodox external
face. When an obstruction of this kind deflects hawsepipes or anchor recesses but up onto the
onrushing water back upon itself there is usually main deck. There they lay flat, suitably secured.
a doubling of the impact load. This is compensated When it was desired to anchor, they were appar-
for in the present instance by the fact that a ently pushed over the side by mechanical gear.
stream of water only half as high as the break- This left the sides of the bow entirely clear of
water can be reversed in direction by the action any major projections or recesses, and eliminated
of the deflectors shown in Fig. 68. E. A deeper the throwing of spray from that cause.
layer of water is only deflected upward, with a On the German World War II cruiser Prinz
ram pressure corresponding to (F f/orb) and a +
force on the breakwater that is not doubled.
Fitting the breakwater at an angle of from 45
to 60 deg to the ship centerline, indicated in the
figure, deflects water outward and helps to
reduce the impact load on the structure for seas
coming from directly ahead.
For the ABC design, it may be assumed that
the ship can maintain 18.7 kt in a sea made up
of regular waves 800 ft long with an angle of
encounter a of 180 deg. If these waves have a
steepness ratio as great as 1/20 the orbital velocity
in the crests is, from Table 48. e, approximately
10 ft per sec. The nominal striking velocity is

then 31.6 ft per sec (equivalent to 18.7 kt) plus

10 ft per sec or say 42 ft per sec. Taking a round
value of 1.00 for 0.5p in salt water, the ram pres-
sure approximately 1.00(42)" or 1,764 lb perft^.
is

This is just over 12 lb per in'. The ultimate-load

factor for an installation of this kind, where it is
particularly important that it not be torn loose or
that leaks should not be started in the forecastle
deck, should be at least 5 times the calculated load.
If it is desired to expend only a moderate
amount of weight on a breakwater, the generation
of excessive ram and dynamic pressures on it is

prevented by cutting holes in it. These are of

moderate size, at about midheight. The holes
permit the breakwater to catch and shed small
amounts of water but relieve the load on it when
large quantities of solid water come rushing
against the breakwater structure [SBMEB, Jan
1954, p. 43], In this respect it resembles the dive
brakes of certain airplanes, in the form of flaps Fig. 68.F Anchor Recess as Used on Great
rather well perforated with holes. Lakes Freighters
Sec. 68.10 ABOVEWATER FORM LAYOUT 557

Eugen the spare anchor was stowed in a centerhne

hawsepipe well up in the clipper bow but there
were no hawsepipes as such for the port and
starboard bower anchors. They were drawn up,
practically on top of the weather deck, onto
shelves built into the side and the deck at the
gunwale, where the anchors lay nearly horizontal.
An arch piece over the stock held the anchor in
position and kept the chain from jumping out of

the shelf. However, because of the acute angle

between the stock and the deck line a projecting
bolster was necessary. These bolsters and the
anchors could still throw some spray. Similar

stowages have been provided on certain classes

of small combatant vessels of the U. S. Navy
Fig 68.G Anchor Housed in Recess, Great
Lakes Freighter
during the 1940's and 1950's.
Photograph by courtesy of the Great Lakes Engineering
Recesses of varied types have been worked
Works
into ships in the past to house stockless anchors,
many of which are still unsightly and are objec- respective side of the centerplane. Crossed
tionable spray-throwers. A proper anchor recess recessed anchors were used successfully on the
should really house the anchor, not only within 3,000-ton U. S. Navy submarines Argonaut,
the fair line of the side but, so far as practicable, Nautilus, and Narwhal and may
in the 1920's,
within the hull plating itself, leaving only enough have been used elsewhere.
opening to pass the anchor when the flukes are Wherever an anchor chain under load changes
in line with the stock. Recesses for stockless direction on a ship, at least three consecutive
anchors may properly be fitted on vessels as links should bear on some fixed bolster or struc-
small as 100-ft harbor tugs [AM, Apr 1953, p. 21]. ture. Since the chain can lead in a great range
Anchor recessing is accomplished on the Great or directions in service this poses a problem,
Lakes by the general arrangement shown in whether the chain comes out of a hawsepipe
Figs. 68.F and 68. G, in successful use there for recessed in a pocket or whether it runs over an
the past four or five decades. The "backroom" external bolster. The designer must also remember
required for this scheme is made available in lake that there is little to be gained by pulling the
freighters by the extremely blunt waterlines in anchor up into a recess and then adding, outside
the vicinity of the recess and the hawsepipe, with the fair plating surface, a tripping plate or bolster
horizontal slopes of the order of 40 or 45 deg. that will throw nearly as much spray as the anchor
On the British battleship Vanguard, completed itself.

in the late 1940's, the external surfaces of the It is also a problem to provide an external
anchors form a remarkably fair continuation of bolster large enough, let alone the lower corner
the adjacent ship's side [111. London News, 18 a bower
of a recess within the hull plating, for
Sep 1954, p. 473]. On some British passenger liners anchor which must drop clear of a sizable bulb
of the same era, among them the Himalaya, the at the forefoot.
anchor recess opening is not much larger than Considering specifically the ABC design, with
the crown and tripping lugs of the anchor, cor- an abovewater bow shape shown on Fig. 67. E,

responding to the small openings on the Great there is sufficient beam at the level of either the
Lakes freighters. main or the forecastle deck to permit full recessing
On bows of relatively fine form, completely of stockless anchors in the usual way. This would
recessed stockless anchors can be fitted by off- involve crossed chains, however, leading the
setting the port and starboard anchors in some starboard anchor chain to the port wildcat and
convenient fashion, and by bringing the chain vice versa. As the vessel is not to be required to
for each bower anchor up on the opposite side of moor with two anchors and a single chain in
the vessel. This arrangement gives space for each normal appears to be no objection
service, there
anchor recess about equivalent to the full width to protecting the anchor windlass from the weather
of the bow instead of limiting it to a space on its by mounting it on the main deck under cover.
558 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 6S.ll

However, the abovewater body at

widlli of the to clear turns of chain which arewrapped around
the hawsepipes is so narrow, as compared to the it accidentally. Under-the-bottom anchors were

width of the bulb bow under them, that a dropping installed on the famous ironclad Monitor and on
anchor is sure to strike the shell plating at the several British-built vessels of the 1860's. They
bulb. have frequently been proposed through the years
It is therefore proposed that the ABC ground for ships that could not house them conveniently
tackle consist of: above the water; one such was the "great mush-
(a) One heavy under-the-bottom anchor, housed room anchor" to be hung under the semi-globular
and handled as outlined in Sec. 68.11 naval battery Cerberus [SNAME, 1904, Pis. 7,
(b) One abovewater bower anchor housed in a I85]. A
combination of underwater mushroom
centerline hawsepipe in the stem, with its flukes anchor and abovewater stockless anchor was in
drawn up tightly against the projecting bow, use for many years on U. S. submarines in the
above the crown and forward of the hawsepipe. early part of this century [Nimitz, C. W., USNI,
68.11 Proposed Under-the-Bottom Anchor In- Dec 1912, pi. facing p. 1200]. G. de Rooij shows
stallation for Ships with Bulb Bows. Since an an under-the-bottom anchor for modern sub-
anchor is always used under water it seems absurd marines ["Practical Shipbuilding," 1953, Fig. 611,
to hoist and carry it above water, unless possibly p. 264].

Fig. 68.H Proposed Housing for Mushroom Anchor in a Bow Bulb

Sec. 6S.11 ABOVE WATER-FORM LAYOIH^ ,559

Anchorinq Dioqrom Showinq Both

Choins Tonqent to Bed Surface at pp
Respective Anchor Positions

Hull Openinq

Fig. 68.1 Proposed Under-the-Bottom Mushroom Anchor for ABC Ship

The ABC proposal involves: prevent the chain from rattling and banging in
the chainpipe with the ship underway. Indi-
(a) One 13,000-lb centeiiine bower anchor above
dentally, this arrangement provides a full half-
water, of the U. S. Navy lightweight type, known
turn of chain around a horizontal wildcat,
as an LWT anchor, housed in the manner shown
possibly 1 or 2 hnks more than is customary on
by 67.E
Fig.
bow-anchor windlasses of the orthodox type.
(b) One extra-heavy centerline mushroom anchor,
One great advantage of anchoring through a
below water, housed within and dropping out of
keel-line hawsepipe is that a much flatter "lie"
the bulb at the keel, indicated in Fig. 68. H.
of the anchor and chain is obtained, with a much
The mushroom anchor is proposed because it is shorter scope of chain, illustrated by the box
more by the chain than any other
free of fouling diagram of Fig. 68.1, than if the chain is led from
type, and because it houses reliably and firmly, a hawsepipe many feet above the surface. This is
out of sight, in a hawsepipe of simple shape and especially true in the shallow water of rivers,
sturdy construction. Above the mushroom anchor estuaries, and harbors, where the ship occupies a
and to a point just under the wildcat, at the main much smaller mooring circle. On the ABC ship
deck level. Fig. 68. H shows a length of chain the difference in level of the hawsepipe openings
several sizes heavier than the regular anchor is some 50 ft, or well over 8 fathoms, indicated in
chain. This is to insure that no breakage occurs the small-scale diagram of Fig. 68.1. The heavy
in a section which isnot easily accessible when chain pendant next to the mushroom anchor,
the ship is afloat. The heavier chain next to the some 46 ft or over 6.5 fathoms long, is of great
anchor also increases its holding power. Both assistance here. These factors combined might
chains going over the wildcats are of the standard permit reducing the weight of the mushroom
size for this vessel. anchor, which must be normally at least 2.5 times
An alternative arrangement for housing the asheavy as a stockless anchor for the same holding
bottom anchor farther aft is shown in Fig. 68.1. power in firm ground. It is, furthermore, far
If the anchor windlass is to be kept well forward, easier to obtain a three- link bearing for the chain
it is necessary to move the hawsepipe as far aft leading out of the morning-glory-shaped bottom
as the vicinity of Station 1, at about 0.05L, in anchor recess than out of any known shape of
order to house the anchor completely above the abovewater hawsepipe and bolster. Lastly, the
baseplane and to provide a slope of 15 deg in the anchor and hawsepipe are mounted much lower
hawsepipe leading from the anchor recess to the in the vessel than is customary, helping to lower
wildcat. A slope of this order is necessary to the CG.
560 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. riR.12

It is recognized that the under-the-bottom Bulqed Fender Stroke

of Constant Rodius
anchor scheme for the ABC ship has several Forms Port of the Shelf
disadvantages of major proportions: Plotinq

(1) Greater weight of mushroom anchor, con-

servatively estimated as 64,000 lb, compared to
22,500 lb for a stockless anchor, or 13,000 lb
for an LWT anchor. Slightly greater weight of
chain, due to the extra-heavy 6.5-fathom shot
just above the anchor.

(2) Greater power required in the anchor windlass

to hoist the heavier anchor and adjacent shot of
heavy chain. Inasmuch as the holding power
calculated for the ABC ship is 160,000 lb, a
standard windlass might be adequate for the
purpose if not required to hoist both anchors Fig. 68.J Bulged Fender Strake for a Small Vessel
simultaneously.
Greater hawsepipe and chainpipe weights external knuckle of the compound-flare tj'pe of
(3)
section proves quite acceptable.
(4) Lost buoyancy due to water around anchor
The projecting edges of thick fenders or fender
and chain in hawsepipe and lower part of chain-
strakes rec[uire chamfering in a transverse plane
pipe, amounting to about 5 tons in the ABC
to prevent their hanging up on similar projections
design. Sufficient volume is left above the cup of
along docks, especially when the tide level rises
the anchor to clear stones, clay, and mud caught
and This chamfering should also be sufficient
falls.
in the cup, as well as to permit the anchor to
to prevent the fender from throwing objectionable
drop clear in the river below Port Correo, where
spray, although the offending surfaces need to be
there may be less than 4 ft bed clearance above
nearly vertical to eliminate all spray.
the mud.
A
neat solution to the problem of the above-
(5) Difficulty of buoying the bottom anchor when water fender is offered by the heavy, bulged
dropped
fender strake of Fig. 68. J, forming a part of the
(6) Impossibihty, except in clear tropical waters main hull. In addition to satisfying all the hydro-
in dayfight, of noting the direction in which the dynamic requirements this construction has
anchor chain leads from the hawsepipe. However, great inherent stiffness as a fender because of its
with a bottom anchor and a short scope, this shape and it requires no care and preservation in
information is not really necessary. service, other than that afforded to the hull
proper. The ship designer is cautioned, however,
Although the proposed under-the-bottom anchor
not to place a bulge of this kind where the water
installation has by no means proved itself suffi-
can climb up around its convex surfaces in normal
ciently to warrant working it into the design of a
running.
ship to be built, is carried through here as
it
Reentrant discontinuities or coves, near the
part of the ABC
preliminary design because it
designed waterline, are to be avoided where
permits the use of a moderate bulb and a fore-
castle that is not too wide and blunt.
68.12 Knuckles and Other Longitudinal Dis-
continuities. Flaring sides, projections, recesses,
and other discontinuities of considerable fore-and-
aft extent often have to be worked into the above-
water form to meet service or utilitarian needs.
For smooth-water conditions, with relatively small Internal Coves

waves, these discontinuities have little or no ad- and External

Chines Need Not
verse effect provided they are kept clear of the ie Filleted or Rounded
ship-wave profile along the free surface under any if The-y Lie Generollij

conditions of load, trim, heel, and speed fikely Porallel to The Lines of Flow

to be encountered. Even for wavegoing, the Fig. 68.K Projecting Blisters and Sponsons
Sec. 68.14 ABOVEWATER-FORM LAYOUT 561

practicable but not necessarily shunned. Reen- purpose. Even wind screens and shelters have to
trant angles in these coves, typified by the long be provided for passengers, especially on high-
cove at the bottom of the set-back trunk of speed ships [Currie, Sir William, SBMEB, Jul
diagram 1 in Fig. 68. K, and by the long junctions 1955, p. 435]. Some of these purposes are served
of hull and sponsons in the ferryboat section at only in port, some only at sea, and some are used
2 in Fig. 68.K, and in SNAME RD sheet 84, can almost all the time. Aside from the effect of
approach 90 deg provided this small angle is these upper works on weight, cost, and transverse
necessary for other reasons. Little extra drag is metacentric stability, practically all of them
encountered if these coves are under water in involve some air drag and produce some wind
some load condition provided the corners follow resistance. To overcome this, extra power must
the temporary flowlines reasonably well. be provided or exerted, or speed must be sacrificed.
Keeping abovewater discontinuities out of the
reach of waves at sea is Avell-nigh impossible. The "The model Mauretania required an in-
of the (old)
crease of 20 per cent in power
to drive the structure added
smaller the change in direction as the water
to represent deck houses" [Barry, R. E., Mar. Eng'g.,
strikes the discontinuities the less spray they Sep 1921, p. 690].
throw and the smaller are the hydrodynamic
forces exerted on them. Regardless of the type of vessel or the service
68.13 Transverse Discontinuities. Any lon- expected ofit, any owner and operator may be

gitudinal discontinuity which runs for a consider- expected to affirm that convenience of access,
able distance along the ship is also a transverse availability of outside light and air, comfort of
discontinuity. The latter is distinguished here the passengers, and the needs of the crew are
as one which involves a projection or a recess — to take precedence over the reduction of wind
from the fair section lines in the vicinity which is resistance of the upper works. Put in another
large compared with its fore-and-aft length. A way, he will unquestionably be found reluctant
good example is an old-fashioned gun sponson to sacrifice utility, passenger comfort, and other
on a combatant vessel, protruding from the ship's factors having to do with the handling and
side like a bay window to obtain a line of fire operation of the vessel for the sake solely of
along the side. Projections or recesses of this reducing its wind resistance. Nor will he generally
type, if kept clear of the ship-wave
profile, need find it a paying proposition to spend a great deal
no from a hydrodynamic
special consideration of money and effort to diminish the wind resist-
standpoint for ships which travel in relatively ance, at no sacrifice in other features, unless some
smooth water, surrounded only by their own outstanding improvement is to be gained.
waves. Tests at the Case School of Applied Science,
The use of isolated transverse braces or sup- on 33-in wind-tunnel models of the Atlantic liner
ports for overhanging portions of the abovewater Manhattan, showed that by completely stream-
hull or upper works, even when nominally clear lining the whole ship —
in other words, by treating
of the wave profile, is not encouraged. Under both hull and upper works as a unit the wind —
some unusual and unlooked-for circumstances resistance with the relative wind ahead was
these transverse members are liable to become reduced approximately 84 per cent, compared to
fouled by floating debris, ice, or breasting floats the Manhattan as built. This was for a ship speed
(camels). of 20 kt, a true wind speed of 23.2 kt, and a
Abovewater projections may be fitted, as on relative wind speed of 43.2 kt. The modification
whaling factory ships [SBSR, 5 Dec 1946, pp. involved an entirely different concept of a pas-
625-635], to increase the deck space locally, to senger ship, with everyone completely housed at
serve as large-area fenders for protection of the all times, but it indicates what can be done if all

underwater hull when other vessels lie alongside other considerations are disregarded.
in the open sea, and for other purposes. This effort shows how easy it is to lose sight of
68.14 Shaping and Positioning of Super- the fact that so-called streamlining of individual
structure and Upper Works. Several major deckhouses and other erections above the hull
considerations enter into the design of that portion by no means insures that it will be easier for the
of any ship lying above the main hull. Every crew to make their way about the upper works
deck erection, every spar or post, every pro- under storm conditions. Structures of fair form,
tuberance of whatever kind has a utilitarian when blown upon in a direction approximating
562 HYDRODYNAMICS
that for which they were shaped, rarely have
sizable regions of reduced velocity or separation
around them. They create few eddies in which a
person can stand, as is possible in the lee of a
square corner on a deckhouse, and fewer calm
areas in which a passenger can sit in comfort.
"The wind velocity over the open decks (with an
excessively streamlined superstructure), even in
mild conditions, can be such as to render intolerable
any attempts to walk or sit out!" [Hind, J. A., SBSR
14 Jul 1955, p. 37].
To pass around a streamlined structure in a
gale requires bucking a wind of ferocious velocity;
this becomes a struggle if one is heavily clothed.
Nevertheless, certain things can be done to reduce
the air drag without sacrificing any functional
features of the upper works.
First, it is possible, even in rather small vessels,
to provide complete internal access from hving
quarters to operating stations for all officers and
crew. Indeed, this is now general practice on
large vessels and may be taken for granted in
any modern new design. If the same provision is
made for unusual operating conditions and for
manning emergency stations it is possible to
eliminate the necessity for crew members to move
around outside the upper works in bad weather.
The diagram for composition of air velocities
around a ship, indicated at C in Fig. 26.H, shows
that the ratio between the true-wind velocity
Wt and the ship velocity V has an appreciable
effect upon the bearing angle of the relative-wind
velocity W r at the ship. For winds normally en-
countered in good weather at sea, with velocities
not exceeding 20 kt, this relative-wind angle
increases, for a wind nominally on the beam,
from 45 deg abaft the bow at 20 kt to about 59
deg abaft the bow for 12 kt. For winds of strong-
gale force, say 60 kt, the difference between the
relative-wind angles for a nominal beam wind is
still appreciable, of the order of 71.5 to 80.5 deg
abaft the bow for 20 and 12 kt, respectively.
Streamlining a deckhouse which can not swivel
into the wind like a weathervane but which is
shaped to give minimum air drag with the true
and relative winds both dead ahead appears
somewhat absurd.
A deckhouse not extending all the way
sides or to the ends of a surface ship hull and not
having any overhanging deck at its top level,
may be considered as relatively sheltered from
the wind if it has a height not exceeding 0.12 or
0.15 times the beam of the ship and if it hes an
IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 68.14
equal distance back of the side of the ship. This
is because of the separation zones behind the
sharp corners at the deck edges and the reduced
velocities in way of the miscellaneous small
obstructions on the deck. Unit air pressures on
the exposed sides of deck erections increase with
their height above the main hull and Ukewise
quite with the absolute size of the areas subjected to
ram pressure from the wind. For a wind velocity
of 60 kt, or 101.33 ft per sec, with an air tempera-
ture of 59 deg F, the ram pressure q due to wind
in a stagnation area is (0.5) (0.00238) (101.33)' or
12.22 lb per ft'. For a 30-kt ship steaming into
a 60-kt wind, developing a relative velocity of
90 kt, or 152.00 ft per sec, the corresponding ram
pressure is 27.49 lb per ft'.
Shaping the deck erections for least wind drag
is based upon a relative-wind direction of about
30 deg on either bow, because it is at about this
angle that the wind blows separately on the
several structures spread along the length of the
vessel. This is also the angle, indicated by the
diagrams of Sec. 54.9, at which the fore-and-aft
wind resistance i2wind becomes a maximum. The
beneficial effects of housing uptakes, ventilators,
mast and instrument foundations, and the hke,
within deck erections necessary for some other
purpose, are not to be overlooked. Objects which
can not be so enclosed often lie in the lee of larger
objects (inside the separation and eddying
region behind them), at the 30-deg relative-wind
angle, and so do not require any streamlining for
themselves. It is not to be forgotten, however,
that swirling backflows into these regions, where
— Ap's exist, may take with them smoke, soot,
and foul gases discharged from poorly placed
openings.
As an indication ofwhat may be expected in
theway about a great variety of deck
of air flow
erections and upward projections from the hull
and superstructure, for a relative wind from ahead,
Fig. 68. L shows the velocity vectors in both
elevation and plan view around the hull and upper
works of a large ship. Diagrams 1 and 2 of this
drawing were adapted from a series of five
detailed diagrams pubUshed by H. N. Prins, in
an article describing the hull features of the Dutch
to the passenger liner Oranje [De Ingenieur, The Hague,
Holland, 23 Jun 1939, PI. II and p.W. 56]. The
comprehensive data were taken from wind-
tunnel tests, made on a specially constructed
model of the vessel, complete to the last detail.
Unfortunately, they cover only the wind-ahead
Sec. 6S.15 ABOVEWATER-FORM LAYOUT 563

Troce of Surface Above Which the Flow More or Less Undi sturbed
.
Uniform Air I" low
From Ahead

Edd\(inq and Reversed Flow Occurs Aboft Almost All Projections and Exposed Objects ond Aboft tht Abrupt Endincjs of Deckhouses

Fig. 68.L Air-Flow Pattern Over a Passenger Ship, from a Model Test

condition but they illustrate vividly the back blowing. A long fish pole, carrying the roving
flow, the eddies, and the extreme irregularity thread or tuft, enables the experimenter to stand
of the air flow in general. far enough from the model so that his body does
For the many smaller ships, and some large not interfere with the uniform air flow near the
ones [Swedish tanker Oceanus, SBSR, 2 Dec 1954, model.
p. 736; The Motor Ship, London, Dec 1954, pp. Sir Victor G. Shepheard describes the results
374-375], on which the deckhouses and other deck of wind-tunnel tests made at the NPL, Tedding-
erections (except possibly for a raised forecastle) ton, upon such a model of the British Royal
are all the way aft, there is a possible major shift Yacht Britannia [INA, 7 Apr 1954, pp. 11-13].
of the center of pressure of the hull and upper In this case white smoke filaments were used,
works which may affect maneuverabiUty in a high which were found to photograph satisfactorily.
wind. Apparently this offers no real problem in It is possible to make exactly the same type of
operation, aside from learning initially how the flow test on an upside-down model of the upper
ship behaves and controlling it accordingly. works attached to a large horizontal surface board
It is customary, for many ship designs, to and suspended in the water of a circulating-
build a simple, inexpensive model, usually called water channel. Jets of water from a suitable
a drafting-room model, embodying the hull pump are caused to issue from the stacks at a
above the DWL
and all the principal deck erec- velocity having the proper ratio to that of the
tions and exposed parts in their proper shapes, overall stream, corresponding to the relative- wind
sizes, and locations. Fig. 54. B shows such a model. velocity. Colored dye injected into the water
It is an easy task, for which techniques are well streams from the stacks gives a true and vivid
developed [Nolan, R. W., SNAME, 1946, pp. indication of the paths of the exhaust gases on
46-60], to mount this model in a large wind the full-scale ship, complete with swirls, eddies,
tunnel at various angles to the relative wind and the like.
and to determine the nature of the flow over and Methods for calculating the air drag and wind
around it. A hght thread or tuft, carried by a resistance of ship hulls, upper works, and deck
thin wand which is manipulated by hand and erections are given in Chap. 54.
placed at selected points, indicates instantly the 68.15 Design of Abovewater
Facilities for
type of flow to be expected there. Multiple tufts Smoke and Gas Discharge. World War II,
Since
of contrasting color, attached to the model at a considerable amount of research and develop-
many photographed for record,
points, are readily ment on methods of keeping combustion and
at any such a model may
test condition. Indeed, objectionable exhaust gases and soot clear of
be tested in the open provided a platform or passenger and operating spaces on ships has
deck is available, over which a uniform wind is revealed that:
564 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 68.15

(a) These gases must be discharged into regions structure that may be larger than the opening,
of smooth and regular flow, rather
relatively (g) If, chimney-
for reasons of appearance, tall
than into flow containing large-scale eddies. The shaped stacks are not acceptable, combustion
discharge must be above and outside of separation and exhaust gases may be discharged from the
zones, else the gases are scattered widely in after upper corner of a stack casing, as on the
regions of low velocity or aredrawn back and liners Constitution and Independence (1950-1951).
downward by the reversed flow and the eddies. Supplementing (a) preceding, wind-tunnel tests
(b) Stacks of large diameter, width, and hori- on ship models reveal that set-backs or steps in
zontal area create their own separation zones, the forward surface of a multi-deck superstructure
into which the escaping gases are drawn, thence give the equivalent of a streamlined forward face
to find their way to the decks below if the set-back slope through the upper edges of

(c) Raising the stack top to a great height, the various vertical surfaces is not more than 30
projecting far above the top of the turbulent deg with the horizontal. If the slope is as great
region, will not of itself prove satisfactory because as 60 deg, the turbulent separation region above
of the soot and dirt that falls upon the ship at the uppermost deck is about as high and as large
relative wind velocities approaching zero [Smith, as if the superstructure face were a solid vertical
W. W., SNAME, 1946, pp. 76-77] wall, with a 90-deg slope. Furthermore, perform-
(d) To insure that gases issuing froma stack top ance on the ship is found to be somewhat better
in the open are projected far enough into the than the model tests predict [Acker, H. G.,
regular flow to prevent their mixing with the SNAME, New Engl. Sect., Oct 1951, p. 5].
turbulent flow behind the stack or over the ship For the reader who wishes to pursue the subject
it is necessary that the stack-gas velocity S, further the following references are quoted:
approximately vertical, be at least as great as
Dui-and, W. F., AT, Julius Springer, 1936, Vol. Ill,
the relative-wind velocity Wr in the open. The
(1)
p. 165
velocity S may have to be 1.5 or 2.QiW r if the (2) Valensi, J., "Methode des fillets de fumee (maquettes
volume of stack gas is not large. For the worst d'avions, ailes d'avions) (Method of Smoke Fila-
general service conditions the maximum relative- ments using Models of Airplanes and Airplane

wind velocity W
r may be taken as 40 kt, so that
Wings)," Publ. Sci. et
I'Air, 1938, No. 128, pp. 11-16
Tech. du Ministere de

for no contamination the stack-gas velocity Sherlock, R. H., and Stalker, E. A., "A Study of Flow
(3)
should exceed 65 ft per sec if there are adjacent Phenomena in the Wake of Smokestacks," Univ.
turbulent areas. For fine, fast, high-powered Mich. Res. Bull. 29, Mar 1941

ships the actual relative wind velocity may reach (4) Ijsselmuiden, A. H., "Machine- en electrische
installatievan het m.s. 'Oranje' (Machinery and
60 or 65 kt, corresponding to 100 or 110 ft per
Electrical Installation of the Motorship Oranje),"
sec,under conditions when the decks and upper De Ingenieur, 7 Jul 1939, p. 79. In Figs. 27, 28,
works should still be smoke- and gas-free. and 29 on this page, there are given three diagrams

(e) It may under some circumstances be possible of stackarrangements tested, apparently in a

to project the objectionable gases into the tip wind tunnel. For each of the diagrams there is
sketched the type of flow found to issue from and
vortex of a long, thin stack shaped like a symmet-
toabove and abaft the stack.
lie
caught in such a vortex the gases
rical airfoil. If
(5) Squire, H. B., and Troucer, J., "Round Jets in a
remain there reasonably well, at least until they General Stream," ARC, R and 1974, 1944 M
are downwind far enough to be clear of the ship. (6) Nolan, R. W., "Design of Stacks to Minimize Smoke
(f) For fast ships in which the relative wind is Nuisance," SNAME, 1946, pp. 42-82

generally in the forward quadrant a shield around (7) Sharp, G. G., "Design of Modern Ships," SNAME,
1947, pp. 462-466
the forward side of the stack opening or a partial
(8) Valensi, J., and Guillonde, L., "Sur les Formes de
elbow directing the combustion gases aft as well
Carenage de Chemin^es de Navires Propres k
as upward, long used on French men-of-war and Eviter le Rabattement des Fumfees (On the
built into the German cruiser Prim Eugen and Shaping of Stacks of Ships Intended to Prevent the
other naval vessels, is a simple means of retaining Settling of Smoke over the Decks)," ATMA, 1948,

some of the upward component of stack-gas Vol. 47, p. 173

(9) Eustaze, S., "Le Rabattement des Fum6es sur les

velocity in an effort to keep the gases clear of the
Fonts d'un Navire; Essais sur Modeles et Dis-
turbulent region. This shield or elbow, however,
positions Pratiques (The Settling of Smoke over
is properly placed at the forward edge of the gas the Decks of a Ship; Tests on Models and Practical
opening, and not at the forward edge of a stack Arrangements)," ATMA, 1951, pp. 285-307
 Sec. 68.15 ABOVEWATER-FORM LAYOUT 565

(10) Ower, and Burge, C. H., "Funnel Design and

E., circular outlet not more than 3.0 ft in diameter
Smoke Abatement," INA, 1950, Vol. 92, pp.
for a gas velocity S of the order of 55 to 75 ft
J19-J37; also ASNE, Aug 1951, p. 704. Seven
references are listed on p. 730 of this latter article.
per sec [MacMillan, D. C, SNAME, 1946, p. 68;
(11) Acker, H. G., "Stack Design to Avoid Smoke Sharp, G. G., SNAME, 1947, p. 465; SuUivan,
Nuisance," SNAME, New England Sect., Oct 1951 E. K., and Scarborough, W. G., SNAME, 1952,
(12) Valensi, J., "Sur un Moyen Propre h Eviter le The top of each stack casing could
pp. 488-490].
Rabatteraent des Fumfees sur les Fonts des Navires
then have a width of say 3.5 or 4.0 ft with a
(On a Good Method of Getting Rid of the Smoke
ft. This leaves room for a
fore-and-aft length of 5
Settling on the Decks of Ships)," Bull. Tech. du
Veritas, Mar 1952 safety-valve escape pipe and for a damper and
(13) Thieme, H., "A Contribution to Funnel Aerody- its mechanism to keep the stack-gas velocity
namics," Schiff und Hafen, Nov 1952, p. 453 high at reduced powers, as when running in the
(14) Richter, E., "Neuzeitliche Schornsteinformen (New
Port Amalo canal and the river below Port Correo.
Forms of Stacks)," Schiffstechnik, Aug 1954, pp.
36-44 To give the structure rigidity without the use of

(15) Craig, R. K., "Passenger Liner with Engines Aft," heavy scantlings or stays, the bottom width is

IME, Deo 1955, Vol. LXVII, Figs. 21 and 22, pp. of the order of 5 ft. The bottom length is increased
446-447; abstracted in SBMEB, Dec 1955, pp. to some 8 ft to give the profile the appearance of
689-693.
sturdiness. The aft edge is raked downward and aft
like the transom profile. The streamlined casing,
The obvious advantages of placing the pro-
form
in the of a round-cornered rectangle at the
pelling machinery as far aft as practicable in the
top, converts to a square-cornered rectangular
ABC design are augmented by moving the exhaust shape just above the fidley. This is to provide a
fan or smoke discharge aft with it, where the gas
rigid foundation where the ends and sides of the
may be projected upward through one or two stack casing attach to the transverse beams and
tall, slender stacks.
fore-and-aft carlines directly below them.
The superstructure for housing the passengers
If it were considered that an underwater smoke
and the public spaces is a unit placed well aft to
discharge, into the — Ap region of the separation
clear the forward deck for the handling of package
zone, along the lower edge of the transom, could
cargo and to be close to the pitching axis. The be worked out in the course of the design of the
derrick posts forward are to be in pairs, so it
vessel, the position of the steam generators well
appears logical and architecturally consistent to
aft would lend itself admirably to this arrange-
carry this scheme aft by mounting two tall
ment.
inlet-and-exhaust-air shafts over the superstruc-
"Necessity, if not reason, has provided another flourish.
ture and placing two steeple-type smoke stacks
Large steamships now e.xpel their waste gases through
well one over each steam generator. An
aft, giant chimneys surmounted by all manner of strange
estimate of the extent of the turbulent region devices. To prevent these unpleasant vapours obstinately
over the ship is sketched in Fig. 68. with a M returning to spotless decks below, invention has run riot
in providing amusing, if not always elegant or effective,
moderate true wind of 25 kt from ahead, on the
headgear for funnels. Angels' wings, admirals' caps,
basis of H. G. Acker's estimate that the thickness
upturned pudding bowls, skeleton triplanes all of these—
of the turbulent zone over the top of the super- and other fancies now proudly sail the oceans in the cause
structure is of the order of 0.8 the height of a of science and clean decks. What shall we see tomorrow?
stepped-front superstructure above the main hull. Perhaps someone may get rid of those obnoxious fumes
Combined with a ship speed of 20 kt, the relative- somewhere else? Why not through the stern?" [SBSR,
1 Apr 1954, p. 401].
wind velocity is 45 kt, or about 76 fps.
The stack gases from each of two modern Some excellent comments relative to the dis-
8,500-horse steam generators should require a posal of the products of combustion, made by

,.
Combustion
- — ;j.^
..'-'^"*%.
Estimated
-
Upper Limit of Turbulent and
/
Eddv/inq Flo Not Less Than 0.8 hg

GQsesp Exhaust -^'r] ^^ "Tf

^IL

Fig. 68.M EsTI^LA.TED Air-Flow Pattern Over the ABC Ship

566 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 6R.16

John Johnson two decades ago, are still worthy neath. A transom stern may have its immersed
of serious consideration b}^ the ship designer draft increased to the point where the transom
[Thomas Lowe Gray lecture, IME, 10 Jan 1936; does not clear at the designed speed. Finally, a
SBSR, 16 Jan 1936, p. 74]. propeller designed for the original displacement
68.16 Reducing the Wind Drag of the Masts, may be heavily overloaded at a later one, when
Spars, and Rigging. Tall, raked masts on a the average draft has increased.
self-propelled vessel are undoubtedly reUcs of 68.18 Preparation of Hull Lines for Model
saiUng-ship days. They serve well for the flying Tests. It is recalled that the design rules for
of flags, the carrying of navigation lights, and screw-propeller apertures and clearances em-
the working of long derrick booms. Nevertheless, bodied in Sec. 67.24 are in many cases based upon
with their attendant rigging they are subject to propeller-blade widths, upon the thicknesses of
heavy loads when rolling and they represent rudder posts, and so on. To determine whether
wind resistance out of all proportion to their there is room for the propulsion devices on the
usefulness. A tall vertical pole or post, properly outside and, in the proper places, for the propelhng
attached to the ship structure and without machinery within the ship, it is necessary to run
benefit of stays, can mount a radar antenna, through a prehminary design of these devices, in
hold up one end of a radio antenna, support a the manner outlined in Chaps. 67, 69, 70, and 71.
crow's nest, carry a range or masthead light, and Before attempting to delineate the whole ship
serve as an air intake or exhaust, all at the same hull on a single drawing, the fixed and movable
time. It can not easily be streamlined for flow appendages need to be roughed out and checked
on all bearings in which high relative winds are for position, shape, and dimensions. This pro-
encountered but its wind drag is at least justified cedure is described in Chaps. 73 and 74. Further-
by the number of functions which it performs more, the hull-and-appendage combination re-
simultaneously. quires design attention and checking to insure
Masts intended to be used as ventilators that shallow-water maneuvering, wavegoing, and
appeared as far back as 1860 on the steamer other requirements are met. These matters are
Ly-ee-Moon [SBSR, 9 Nov 1939, p. 507]. It is covered in Chap. 72 and in Parts 5 and 6 of
possible that these in turn were rehcs of the early Volume III. Simultaneously the preliminary
smoke stacks which were extremely tall in order design needs working over for arrangement,
to obtain good natural draft. volumes, capacities, strength, metacentric sta-
Self-supporting masts and derrick posts, with bihty,damage control, and other non-hydro-
all stays eliminated to reduce wind drag, inter- dynamic requirements.
ference, and expense, are coming rather rapidly With this work accomplished, and with the
into use [SBSR, 8 Oct 1953, pp. 484-485; MENA, shape and principal features of the underwater
Dec 1953, p. 53; SBSR, 24 Jun 1954, pp. 800-801]. and abovewater hulls, propulsion devices, and
On the Uner Orsova the running rigging for the appendages worked out, a set of lines for the hull
derricks is carried entirely inside the posts as a whole is drawn. This is in no sense a set of
[SBSR, 20 May 1954, p. 645]. lines to which the ship is to be built. For the
68.17 Consideration of Increased Draft hydrodynamic design, its principal function is to
Through the Years. Before leaving the pre- guide the building of a model or models for towing,
hminary design of the abovewater body as finished self-propulsion, maneuvering, shallow- water, wave-
it is to be remembered that, as the result of a going, and other tests.
continual series of modifications and changes in The preparation of lines to embody all the
the course of its life, most of which act to increase features developed in the foregoing sections is

the weight, the ship sinks slowly but steadily largely a matter of drafting, except as mathe-
deeper in the water. This is specially true for a matical processes such as those discussed in
combatant vessel or for a merchant vessel which Chap. 49 may be used to calculate the offsets
islikely to be converted to a naval auxiliary in for drawing (and fairing) these lines.
time of emergency. A heavy or pronounced flare A high degree of precision at this stage is not
or a sharp knuckle may in this way be brought called for. The fines should be to a sufficiently
too close to the designed waterline. A flat counter large scale, not only for construction of the
may be lowered to the point where it is subject model, but for a fairly detailed design of all the
to frequent sea slap and slamming from under- appendages which are eventually to be added to it.
 CHAPTER 69

The General Design of the Propulsion Devices

69.1 Introductory Comment 567 ances and Reserves 576
69 2 . Type and Number of Propulsion Devices . 567 69. H Selection of Feathering, Adjustable, Re-
69 3 . Positions and Limiting Dimensions .... 568 versible, or Controllable Features .... 578
69.4 Effect of Type and Design of Propelling 69. 12 Propulsion Devices to be Used with Contra-
Machinery 570 Vanes, Contra-Guide Sterns, and Contra-
69 5
. Number and Position of the Engines . . . 570 Rudders 579
69 6
. Use of Systematic Wake Variations .... 572 69 13. Disadvantages of Unbalanced Propulsion-
69.7 Rate and Direction of Rotation of Propul- Device Torque 579
sion Devices 572 69 14 . Propulsion-Device Design to Meet Maneu-
69.8 Design to Equalize or to Apportion the vering Requirements 580
Powers of Multiple Propellers 573 69.15 Relation of Propulsion-Device and Hull-
69 9
. Powering Allowances 574 Vibration Frequencies 580
69.10 Graphic Representation of Powering Allow-

69.1 Introductory Comment. There are con- down the procedure in systematic form. The
sidered in this chapter only those features which outline given here may serve until something
are common to the design of all mechanical ship- better is developed, remembering first, last,
propulsion devices which on the water.
act and always that no propulsion device, whatever
Discussions of specific devices such as screw its type and position, can be expected to perform

propellers, paddlewheels, rotating-blade propel- well in a region of poor flow.

lers, and the like, are found in the two chapters The type is selected first, on the basis of:
following. The systematic treatment of these
(1) Operating requirements, including limiting
design features does not necessarily follow the
draft of vesseland available depth of water
order in which the characteristics for any one
(2) Maximum
ship speed and total power re-
type of propulsion device are worked out or
quired to be absorbed by the device (s)
selected in actual practice.
(3) Best general position in the vessel, considering
69.2 Type and Number of Propulsion Devices.
the latter's type, functions, and duty
Only rarely can lines be sketched for the form of a
new ship without first making a tentative decision (4) Amount of wavegoing anticipated, with
as to the type, number, and position of the pro-
consequent change of position of the instantaneous
pulsion devices. Too often these features are
water surface with reference to the region in
determined by the types, sizes, and powers of the which thrust is being produced, such as the disc
propelhng units available; admittedly this pro- of a screw propeller

cedure is inescapable at times. It is proper to (5) Type of propelling plant available or desired.

remember, however, that the propulsion devices This boils down generally to the rate of rotation
are installed to drive the ship. The function of of the output shaft on the last machinery unit,
the propelling machinery is to drive these devices just ahead of the propulsion device. In the past,

at rates and powers which result in the highest slow-speed engines drove screw propellers through
efficiency and the greatest economy for both. multiplying gears, and in the present, high-speed
Generally speaking, therefore, the type, number, engines drive paddlewheels through reduction
and position of the propulsion devices are deter- gears. Therefore there need be few Umitations in
mined directly from the ship requirements. The this respect.

corresponding features of the machinery are (6) Facihties available for repair or replacement
selected to suit the devices. of the propulsion devices and their parts in the
So many considerations, most of them con- areas where the ship is to operate, either by the
flicting, enter into the selection of the propulsion- ship's force or by repair crews
device characteristics that it is difficult to set (7) Frequency with which the propulsion devices
567
568 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 69.3

are to be used, such as those on a self-propelled the design demand, and no more than the number
floating crane. for which good working positions can be found.

Concerning the Jiumbcr of propulsion devices, Positions and Limiting Dimensions. The
69.3

the following considerations govern: matter of how far to keep the thrust-producing
areas away from the hull and its boundary layer,
(a) Available depth of water in operating areas, or how close to bring them to the hull, is discussed
limiting extreme draft, probable draft of hull of
for screw propellers in Sees. 67.23 through 67.25
vessel, and approximate beam-draft ratio of hull.
and for paddlewheels and other devices in Chap.
This item involves factors such as adequate tip 71.
submergence to prevent air leakage to submerged The selection of the particular position of the
devices, adequate hydrostatic head to prevent
propulsion device(s) in any ship takes into
cavitation, most efficient blade lengths, and per-
account:
missible extension, if any, below the baseplane.
may be necessary, for some of these reasons, to (1) The nature of the flow into the possible
It
number of small-diameter or small-size
positions, considering wake fraction, uniformity
fit a larger
propulsion devices, or a fewer number of large-
of inflow velocity, non-axiahty, and absence of
excessive turbulence
diameter ones.
requirements such as those (2) The possibility of fitting contra-flow or
(b) Special operating
contra-guide devices adjacent to the propulsion
for maneuvering in restricted waters and emer-
device (s)
gency stops. Wing propellers provide appreciable
swinging moments by going ahead on one and (3) Freedom from entrained air coming along
the hull from forward, leakage air coming from
backing on the other.
the free surface, and eddies in or trailing abaft
(c) Probability of large exciting forces and exces-
separation zones
sive hull vibration if large powers are concentrated
(4) The tip submergence considered necessary in
in too few propulsion devices. As of 1955, the
largest power applied to the propeller of a single-
view of the specified loading and anticipated
wavegoing conditions
screw vessel, the tanker W. Alton Jones, is about
Nov (5) Permissible depression of the blade tips
22,000 horses [Mar. Eng'g., 1955, p. 119].
below the baseplane. Usually this can not exceed
However, powers of the order of 50,000 horses
are being developed by the individual propellers about 4 or 5 ft, the height of the keel blocks in
the average drydock.'
and these may
of quadruple-screw installations,
(6) Available propelling-machinery positions
eventually be reached by the propellers of fast,
within the hull.
single-screw ships. K. E. Schoenherr pointed out
some years ago that it was then "possible to Each design case is considered on its own
design propellers to transmit 50,000 horsepower merits, taking account of all the items listed in
on one shaft and to obtain propulsion efficiency this section and in Sec. 69.2. It is difficult to set
of as high as 80 per cent on single-screw ships" down rules which apply even in the majority of
[SNAME, Phila. Sect., 21 Feb 1947]. cases, especially when the relative importance of
(d) Interference likely to be caused with internal the several controlling items often is not known
arrangements in the vessel by the presence of one, in advance. N. J. Brazell has given some good
two, or more shafts, including their shaft alleys ideas in a paper entitled "The Positioning of
or tunnels Propellers and Shafts" [ASNE, Feb 1948, pp.
(e) Efficiency of propulsion. One large propulsion 32-48]. On the motor vessels Brunshausen and
device, if there is room for it and if good inflow is Brunsbiittel the single propeller is mounted about
indicated, almost invariably proves more efficient 9 ft abaft a clear-water stern post, in an effort
than two or more small ones, reckoning efficiency to improve propulsive efficiency and to reduce
here on the basis of the least propeller or shaft vibration [SBSR, 12 Jan 1956, p. 38; MENA,
power for a given weight displacement and length Jan 1956, p. 28; both references embody photo-
of the ship. graphs of the stern].
(f) Reliability and safety aspects of the entire The result of an analysis by H. Dickmann
engine-shaft-propulsion-device combination [Ingenieur-Archiv, 1938, p. 452], set down briefly

(g) A
good general rule is to use no more pro- by K. E. Schoenherr [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 145],

pulsion devices than the special requirements of is that:

Sec. 69.3 GENER/VL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES 569

". for best efficiency of propulsion the screw propeller

. . propelling machinery. It is probable that the
should be located in a high friction wake, a negative or designer of ship-propulsion devices always has
low positive streamline (potential-flow) wake and in the
been faced and always will be faced with the
crest of a wave."
fact that existing fabrication and shipping
The condition that the propeller work in a facilities for these devices are too small. Never-
negative or low positive potential or streamline theless, larger facilities have always been built in
wake is that which obtains generally in a normal the past and they will continue to be made
form of ship if the hull is assumed to be expanded available in the future. There no reason why is

to include the displacement thickness 6* (delta the propulsion-device designer should be bound
star)of the boundary layer. With run lines of by existing facilities if he can produce a better or
easy slope, such an expanded form has only a more efficient ship.
moderate positive streamline wake fraction due Since most propulsion devices rotate, there
to potential flow. are problems of gearing and transmission, which
To achieve the highest practicable negative may govern the rate of rotation and through it
streamline wake fraction, propellers could be may influence the size of the propulsion device,
mounted on outriggers abreast the section of the thrust-load coefficient, and the hydrodynamic
maximum area, about the same
occupying efficiency. Furthermore, the necessity for me-
position as Here the speed of
paddlewheels. chanical protection of the propulsion device
advance becomes greater than the ship speed. against damage by external objects, and for
Because there is no ship forward of the side shielding it against air leakage, as is done for a
propellers, the thrust-deduction fraction becomes screw propeller by the main hull of a single-screw
practically zero. High negative-wake fractions tug, may call for a diameter smaller than would
are actually to be found inside Kort nozzles and otherwise be used.
other types of fixed propeller shrouding. The required thrust-producing area Aa of any
When some form of hydraulic jet propulsion is type of propulsion device being considered is
employed, requiring large volumes of water to readily calculated from the ship resistance Rt
be taken within the hull boundaries and discharged and the speed V. After estimating or assuming
from internal ducts, the positions and shapes of values of the wake and thrust-deduction fractions
the inflow and the outflow openings become almost w and t and selecting a thrust-load factor Ctl
a part of the main hull design. These features, of which will give a good value of the real efficiency
which relatively little is known, are indeed (0.8?;/), the values are substituted in the formula
worthy of more attention than is normally
i2j C, Cr
devoted to the position of a screw propeller and T =
the shape of the hull in its vicinity. Following the AoVl Ao[F(l - w)f
practice on jet-propelled aircraft, the ram action
of the water flowing toward the hull is utilized whence
to force water into the inlet and to keep it moving
2Crz.(l - t)
against the friction and pressure resistance en- A„ =
pRrlVil - W)f
countered the internal ducts. This is
within
accomplished, where practicable, by an inlet E. Burtner gives a simple dimensional formula
opening facing directly forward or forward and for determining quickly the diameter of a screw
outward. propeller in the course of a preliminary design
As for the limiting dimensions of propulsion [ASNE, Aug 1953, pp. 545-548]. This formula
devices, it is obvious that there are practical appears to give reasonable values for both 3- and
limits dictated by good all-around engineering, 4-bladed wheels and for a rather wide range of
good mechanical design, and economic operation expanded-area ratio. It is

of the vessel which are in conflict with hydro-

[Ps (in horses)]"
dynamic requirements for the ultimate in pro- D (in ft)
(rpm)°"
(69.i)

pulsion-device efficiency. To increase the latter

means increasing the thrust-producing area and On page 547 of the reference Burtner includes
lowering the thrust-load coefficient Ctl but at the a small-scale nomogram for finding any one of
expense of increased volume occupied by and the three values quickly when the other two are
increased weight of the propulsion device and the known. For example, assuming for the ABC ship
570 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 69.4

that Ps is 16,000 horses and D is 20 ft, the esti- (1) An electric generating plant, driven by a
mated rpm are about 118. The rates of rotation steam, internal-combustion, or gas-turbine engine,
derived by the use of several propeller charts in or a plant of some type unknown at present but
Sec. 70.6 varyfrom about 104 to about 110 rpm. which may
be found feasible in the future.
69.4 Effect of Type and Design of Propelling This plant is to be in units of sizes and powers
Machinery. The general design of propulsion which lend themselves readily to manufacture,
devices is never dissociated entii'ely from the to mstallation in the most advantageous posi-

type and design of propelling machinery because tion (s) in the ship, to economical and efficient

these units or systems are, always figuratively operation, and to progressive maintenance.

and generally literally, at opposite ends of the (2) An electric transmission system, either AC
same shaft. Nevertheless it may not be amiss to or DC, with the necessary safety and control

point out in this book that the greatest freedom devices

of choice for the design, construction, and position (3) A reasonably high-speed rugged electric

in the ship for both the propulsion-device and motor or motors, suitably cooled and protected
the propelling-plant systems is afforded by a from dirt, moisture, spray, and liquid. The
suitable combination of the following elements: modern railway traction motor fulfills all these
requirements.
(a) A type of power-generating plant which (4) Speed-changing gearing of the single- or
need not be located in the ship in some specific double-reduction or epicycUc type, utilizing

region, dictated by the position of the propulsion wherever practicable the so-called flexible con-
device (s), but which can be placed where it best struction which provides uniform load distribution
satisfies ship operating conditions. It should not along the gear faces and consequent maximum
—
be forced into a certain and not always de- loading on the teeth.
sirable —
position because the propulsion-device
Practically all the elements required by the
design requires compliance with a completely
foregoing, although some of them in limited
different set of conditions, nor should it be such
powers only, are available and have proved
that it will fit into only one position in the ship.
themselves in severe service afloat [Lisle, 'T. O.,
(b) A completely flexible power-transmission
Motorship, New York, Mar 1953, p. 36], often
system by which a power-generating plant or
where weight and space are at a great premium.
driving member can be connected to a driven
It is to be hoped, for the sake of the ship designer
member on the propulsion-device shaft with who is keenly interested in the hydrodynamics
freedom of direction of rotation, direction of
of his propulsion device (s), that active develop-
shaft axes, relative position in the vessel, and
ment along these lines will continue.
distance between the two. Freedom of this type
69.5 Number and Position of the Engines.
is afforded by electric-wiring or piping systems.
ParalleUng the comment in items (a) through (g)
(c) A propulsion-drive unit which is small, light, on the number of propulsion devices,
of Sec. 69.2,
compact, and adaptable as to location, requiring it may be said that:
a minimum of maintenance
(a) A single machinery unit is lighter, more
(d) A propulsion-drive speed changer which
permits use of the optimum speeds for both the compact in total volume occupied, more cheaply
propulsion-drive unit and the propulsion device. and easily installed and maintained, and cheaper
to run than several units of the same total power.
At the time of writing (1955) these requirements Aside from only one engine there is only one
are met for a wide range of powers by the following thrust bearing, one line shaft, one propeller or
units grouped in one machinery plant. The import- stern-tube shaft, and one set of shaft bearings
ant matters of space, weight, and cost are not and hull stuffing boxes. The space and weight
disregarded but are for the moment considered of the fuel saved may be devoted to other useful
secondary to The specific mention here
flexibility. items.
of an resembUng an electric-drive
installation (b) A single unit requires fewer operating per-

plant is intended solely as an example and not as and weight

sonnel. This in turn reduces the space
indicating the best or the ultimate achievement devoted to crew accommodations and required
to fulfill the requirements of the preceding for crew's stores.

paragraph. Such an installation comprises: (c) Modern machinery may not yet be sufficiently
Sec. 69.5 GENERAL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES 571

reliable so as never to require any reserve pro-
pelling unit(s) to bring the vessel
event of casualty. It is, however, vastly more
than was the machinery of a former age,
reliable
which saw a shift to twin-screw machinery
largely to provide this measure of safety.
vessels San Francisco (old) and Maui of the
home in the early and middle 1910's, running between San
Francisco and Honolulu. Two later Matson
hners, designed primarily for carrying cargo, and
having the single-screw machinery installed way
aft, were the Manulani and the Manukai [MESA,

Sep 1921, pp. 707-708]. This arrangement,

The position of the propelling machinery in
incidentally, was adopted as far back as the
the vessel is of interest in the hydrodynamic
period 1843-1845 in the American auxiliary
design principally because it:
sailing ships Commodore Preble and Bangor
[Bradlee, F. B. C, "Steam Navigation in New
(d) Affects the declivity and the horizontal
angle (s) of the propeller shaft(s), as well as the
England," Salem, 1920] and in the Edith and the
Massachusetts, built for R. B. Forbes [American
shape and positions of the shaft struts or bossings
external to the main hull Neptune, Jan 1941, Pis. 2, 5]. A much later

the size and shape of the hull in way version is the Shaw-Savill finer Southern Cross,
(e) Affects
motors, gears, condensers, or other a pure passenger ship, with a single mast and
of large
machinery parts which need certain clearances single stack, far aft [111. London News, 19 Dec
from the hull structure 1953, p. 1020; MENA, Dec 1953, p. 569; SBSR,
Int. Des. and Equip. No., 1954, pp. 3-4]. In
(f) Concerns the readiness with which the screw
propellers are kepi submerged in all operating
Europe an after machinery position was first
conditions. This item is considered most important
used on the EngUsh coastal colher John Bowes
in 1852 [Bowen, F. C, SBSR, 30 Sep 1937, pp.
[Rupp, L. A., and Jasper, N. H., SNAME, 1952,
421-422]. It is no longer necessary, as on the
pp. 352, 354].
latter vessel, to put the machinery and the smoke
(g) Affects the disposition of the products of
combustion and the air resistance of stacks, stack "right aft," out of the way of the fore-and-

standpipes, or other deck erections

aft sails on three masts. Nevertheless, the other
reasons for placing the machinery in the stern
(h) Controls the possibilities and the methods of
are as valid today as they were in 1845, 1852,
underwater gas exhaust.
and again in 1892, when the steamer Turret was
Assuming that the ABC ship is to be driven by built in this fashion. These reasons, stated at the
screw propellers at the stern, the following hne of time by F. C. Goodall [INA, 1892, pp. 194-195]
reasoning was employed when determining the and later by G. C. V. Holmes ["Ancient and
proper number. With the tentative beam-draft Modern Ships," 1906, Part II, p. 120] are sum-
proportions of the first combinations of Table marized here from those authors:
66.e of Sec. 66.11, varying from 78.25:26 to
74:26, it appears easy to fit twin screws. However, (1) When the ship is without cargo it helps her

the propellers are there to drive the ship, not

to trim by the stern, and thus gives good immer-
sion to the propeller
necessarily to make it easy to design or construct.
On the basis of requirement (5) of Table 64.a, for (2) Water or fuel tanks may be fitted in the after
part of the vessel, to help submerge the propeller,
"Performance of the required transportation as
efficiently and economically as the present state
as shown on Plate XXIII of the Goodall paper

of the art permits," a single screw is definitely

of 1892. This is now standard on all Great Lakes
indicated. The resultant saving in fuel and vessels, and is incorporated in the ABC design.

corresponding increase in other useful items (3) The main shaft is shorter and lighter, with
should be of the order of 3 per cent. It is agreed, fewer bearings to watch and lubricate
however, between the designer and the future (4) The hold space occupied by the shaft tunnel
owner and operator, that a prehminary design is saved
with twin screws is to be worked up if time and (5) Using the most valuable part of the hull, the
opportunity permit. rectangular section amidships, greatly facilitates
The layout selected for the ABC design calls the stowage of cargo [SBMEB, Jan 1953, p. 4]
for the machinery units to be placed as far aft as (6) Less useful volume is lost, around the machin-
practicable, following in some measure the ery components, if they are placed in the after
designs of the combination passenger and cargo part of the vessel.
572 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 69.6

A subsequent commentary is equally applicable:
"... of the ship in a big swell pitching, thebow and
stern moving through many feet and the amidships
movement only angular, and this space occupied by the
engine, and the engine was never seasick ." [Lord
Brabazon, SBSR, 23 Oct 1952, p. 555].
Comments on machinery-aft positions were made
by G. Gravier, concerning the performance of
the passenger steamer El Djezdir [SBSR, 23 Sep
1954, p. 397], and by A. C. Hardy [SBSR, 7 Oct
1954, p. 465].
More recently E. C. B. Corlett has
further study of the advantages and disadvan-
tages of installing machinery aft, based upon
modern conditions. He also discusses the question
of placing the navigating bridge and all
accommodation aft [The Motor Ship, London,
Feb 1955, pp. 483-485; IME, Jun 1955, Vol.
LXVII, pp. 84-85].
69.6 Use of Systematic Wake Variations. It
the ship. Were it necessary to equalize the blade
loads per unit length for any reason this could be
done by narrowing the blade at its inner end and
widening it at its outer end.
. .
For practical and mechanical reasons, it is
advantageous to have the greatest blade load
nearest to the point where the torque is delivered
to the wheel. The increased loading at the inner
end paddlewheel blade, or at the hull end of a
of a
Kirsten- Boeing rotating-propeller blade, is accord-
ingly accepted. The rotating blades of a Voith-
made a Schneider propeller develop thrust on opposite
sides during any one revolution. It is possible to
take advantage of the velocity variation in and
beyond the boundary layer by local changes in the
the crew width but not in the section of a blade.
69.7 Rate and Direction of Rotation of Pro-
pulsion Devices. Rather extensive comment
concerning the rate of rotation of screw propellers
is given by J. E. Burkhardt [ME, 1942, Vol. I,

has been said [author unknown] that "The more pp. 28-35]. These remarks, coupled with the
uniform the wake, the simpler does it become to discussion of Sec. 70.10 on the rate of rotation of
design an efficient propeller." Fortunately, be- screw propellers as an element in design, is
cause of the practicability of changing the size, sufficiently general so that no further comment is
form, and attitude of the blade sections along a needed here about other propulsion devices. The
length or a radius,it is only needful that this matter of selecting a rate of rotation that will
uniformity maintained for the complete
be not cause vibration of the ship structure or of its
travel path of any given blade section. For a major parts in resonance with the shaft or blade
screw propeller this calls for circumferential frequencies is discussed briefly in Sec. 69.15.
uniformity in the wake fraction at any radius. The selection of the direction of rotation of
When examining wake diagrams such as those these devices for a new ship
design usually depends
in Chap. 60 the procedure is to look for systematic upon the importance of the propulsive
relative
variations which permit the propulsion device to efficiency to be achieved and the maneuvering
be adapted locally to them. The next step is to and other qualities desired. For small craft it
determine the correct or proper average wake may also depend upon the availability of pro-
characteristics in the regions where the variations pelling plants developing the necessary individual
from this average are the smallest. shaft powers and which rotate in the directions
When contemplating the design of a paddle- desired, left-hand or right-hand. For the smaller
wheel, for instance, it is known that, apart from a vessels, where one may have to use available
consideration of ship-wave effects, the wake stock machinery, rotation in a desired direction
velocities near the ship hull are positive because may be too expensive because of necessary modifi-
of the viscous flow in the boundary layer along- cations or may involve the carrying of too many
side. Farther from the ship, outside the boundary spare parts on a craft equipped w^th engines
layer, these velocities are negative because of the rotating to both hands. In large vessels practically
accelerated regions of potential flow abreast the all propelhng plants, at least in the design stage,
diagram
ship, indicated in the velocity profiles of can be made to operate in either direction.
C of Fig. 6.B. Theoretically, the paddle blade The interposition of reduction or multiplying
elements away from the ship should travel faster gears may or may not change an engine direction
than those next to the ship. However, this is not to the desired propeller direction. Nevertheless,
feasible in a shipboard installation and it might it is generally possible, even in the construction
not be advantageous hydrodynamically for other stage, to obtain a desired direction of rotation of
reasons. The blade load per unit area next to the the propulsion-device shaft if there are sufficient
ship is therefore larger than at a distance from advantages to be gained thereby.
Sec. 69.8 GENERAL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES 573

Assuming that the latter is the case, a syste- Powers of Multiple Propellers. As soon as it is

matic variation in the flow at the position of the decided to use multiple propulsion devices, two
propulsion device is looked for, one which will or more in number, the designer begins to think
give a superior efficiency or perhaps a larger about the problem of equahzing the powers
absolute thrust for a particular direction of absorbed by all of them. This corresponds to the
rotation. This matter is discussed in Sees. 33.4 proper proportioning of the powers, regardless
and 33.6. If the upward componenton of flow of the number of propulsion devices, to the de-
the outboard side of a twin skeg is larger than signed powers of the propelling units which are to
on the inboard side, outward-turning screw drive them. The large quadruple-screw liner
propellers are indicated so that the outer blades Empress of Britain of the early 1930's was pro-
moving downward may "meet" the water flowing pelled by two large inboard screws plus two smaller
upward to them. If for some special reason the outboard ones. All four were to be used in trans-
reverse is the case, as with the outside water ocean service but for around-the-world cruising
flowing horizontally and the inside water upward the outboard screws were to be removed entirely,
through a tunnel, inward-turning propellers are leaving the ship to be driven by the inboard
found more efficient. If circumstances limit the propellers only.These were capable of absorbing
design of long deflection-type bossings or asym- two-thirds of the total power and were the only
metrical skegs to a particular diversion of the ones which could be reversed.
surrounding water the screw-propeller rotation is Proper design procedure involves consideration
selected to take advantage of provided of it, and, if possible, control of the following items at
course that other design requirements are met. each propulsion-device position:
Considering hydrodynamics only there are
(a) Boundary-layer thickness and velocity profile,
very few reasons why any propulsion device of a
for both clean- and foul-bottom conditions
single- or multiple-unit installation may not
(b) Retardation or possible reversal of flow behind
rotate in the direction which best produces
blunt bossing or skeg endings, involving wake
the desired performance of that unit by itself.
fractions with large positive values, possibly
This is on the basis that the outflow jet from
any one device does not pass through the disc
exceeding LO
or thrust-producing area of another device, and (c) General and local direction of flow through
that the resulting unbalanced torque applied by propeller discs or other thrust-producing areas,

the propelling plants to the hull, discussed in plus wake-survey data. This is a case where
Sec. 69.13, lies within acceptable limits.
consideration of only the axial component of
customary for large flow is definitely not adequate.
It is vessels, but by no
means necessary for all vessels, that screw pro- (d) Non-axiality of flow, due not only to the
pellers be rotated in the following directions: shape of the adjacent hull but to the necessity
for placing shafts to suit the engines inside and
(a) Twin screws, in opposite directions, especially
the propulsion devices outside
if the flow patterns are decidedly of opposite
(e) Possibility of an outflow jet from a propulsion
hands, symmetrical with the centerplane
device ahead finding its way into the inflow jet
(b) Surface propellers or those which run for
of one abaft it
much of the time with part or all of their upper
(f) Rate of rotation of the various propulsion
blades out of water, must rotate in opposite
devices when absorbing the designed powers.
directions in pairs if the large lateral forces pro-
The propeller torque may
be so large that the
duced by them are to be balanced
engine delivers rated torque at less than the
(c) Triple screws embody wing propellers rotating
designed rate of rotation, preventing the develop-
in opposite directions. The center propeller
ment of full rated power. On the other hand, the
rotates in the most and convenient
suitable
speed of advance may be so high that the engine
direction, especially if under some conditions the
reaches its rated rpm when developing less than
vessel is to be propelled entirely by the center
the rated torque.
propeller, with the wing propellers free-wheeling.
(g) Necessity for accurate correlation of torque
(d) Quadruple screws rotate, in pairs, in opposite
and rate of rotation to achieve full rated powers
directions on opposite sides of the ship.
for internal-combustion engines driving (single or)
69.8 Design to Equalize or to Apportion the multiple propellers.
574 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 69.9

The
available data relating to power equaliza- applying to the hydrodynamic features of a new
tion and proportioning and to correlation of ship whose principal characteristics are being
torque and rate of rotation on existing merchant formulated, is set down in Sec. 65.3. The emphasis
ships or on self-propelled models of them are in that section, repeated subsequently in the
by no means extensive. J. M. Labberton in a present one, is concentrated on the outstanding
paper entitled "A Method for Determining advantages to be gained by designing a speed
Proper Pitch for the Inboard and Outboard margin rather than a power margin into the ship.
Propellers on a Four-Screw Ship" [ASNE, Nov This means that the ship hull is shaped to be
1937, pp. 576-584], discusses this question and driven efficiently at a speed greater than the
gives the following data for the old Mauretania, sustained speed when developing its maximum
taken during the trials of 1907: power. The alternative method, practiced in

Port Port Star. Star. some quarters, is to design the ship hull for the
Outer Inner Inner Outer sustained speed and then to add a large power
allowance. This might be acceptable if the
Rate of rotation, rpm 187.3 186.6 1S8.6 188.6
problem were only one of overcoming increased
Shaft power, horses 17,350 20,650 20,650 18,600
resistances due to heavy weather and to fouling.
AH four propellers had a diameter of 17 ft and However, it results in overdriving and poor
a pitch of 15.75 ft. In this case the rates of rotation performance at the augmented speeds necessary
were as uniform as could be hoped for in such a for a ship which, running on a definite schedule,
large new ship but the inner propellers were has to make up time after a spell of bad weather.
absorbing some 53.5 per cent of the total power, Good design of the propelUng plant of any
or about 15 per cent more than the outer pro- water craft calls for a reserve of power (1) to
pellers. meet emergeircies, (2) to enable the plant to
The designer may find that he has only limited keep running and to deliver a sort of average
freedom in shaping the hull and placing the power with minor casualties, and (3) to permit
propulsion devices. After he has done what he it to run much of the time at less than maximum

can in positioning these devices properly and rating. With pressures, loads, and other factors
working out the adjacent appendages he is able reduced, wear and tear is usually diminished and
to make use of existing model-testing techniques the periods between overhauls is increased.
which indicate and record the flow velocities and Almost every plant is capable of developing an
directions at the propeller positions, both at emergency overload power for a few minutes,
the hull and appendage surfaces and at distances perhaps for a few hours, if it becomes a matter
from them. It is possible, for example, to make a of saving life or the ship. Since this may result
wake survey at an after propeller position with a in slightbut permanent damage to the machinery,
model propeller working in a position ahead. it is not considered in the customary powering

Facilities have been developed but are not yet in calculation. The maximum designed shaft power
general use in model basins, whereby a wake is therefore that "for which the propulsion
survey is made just ahead of a working propeller. machinery is designed to operate continuously"
From these data it is possible to estimate [SNAME, Stand'n. Trials Code, 1949, p. 11].
rather closely the wake magnitude and distribu- For powering a boat or ship, the machinery
tion at each propeller position. An estimate of reserve is reckoned below this level.
the individual thrust-deduction fractions is, In general, the reserve of power is a function
however, still difficult. Before a model is self- of the length of time that operation at maximum
propelled it should be possible to determine what designed power is required. For a racing motorboat
variations in propeller design are necessary to which may run at full throttle only a few hours
compensate for hull features not under the control between engine overhauls, but which must then
of the designer. One or more series of self-propelled do its utmost, the reserve is practically zero. If
tests, possibly with a change in propeller design in the game is considered worth the candle, so to
between, should insure reasonably close equaliza- speak, the emergency power is called upon, in
tion or apportioning of the full-scale shaft powers, which case the reserve is negative. The other
and correlation of the torque-rpm values. extreme is a boat or sliip wliich operates under a
69.9 Powering Allowances. A doctrine in- wide range of conditions and which stops for
volving design and performance allowances. repairs only when it will no longer run. The
Sec. 69.9 GENERAL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES 575

reserve may then be as much as 0.3, 0.4, or 0.5 propeller, not in terms of the power absorbed
of the maximum designed power. (in horses) but in terms of the torque required to
Notwithstanding that the word "designed" turn it and the thrust achieved at the thrust
implies that the machinery is able to develop its bearing, all at a specified rate of rotation [Smith,
maximum power continuously, a full measure of E. H., lESS, 1954-1955, Vol. 98, Part 3, pp.
reUable everyday operation, over most of its 127-128]. The encountered in transmission
losses
life, is assured by limiting the maximum designed between the thrust bearing and the propulsion
speed to that which is developed by say 0.95 of device are then to be estimated or predicted by
themaximum designed power [Burkhardt, J. E., the propeller designer in cooperation with the
ME, 1942, Vol. I, p. 28]. It is usually assumed machinery designer.
that this speed is to be achieved at the full-load As has often been done in the past, the designer
or other specified draft, in smooth, deep water of may wish to add a reserve of power over and
the given specific gravity, in fair weather (little above that necessary for the sustained speed to
or no wind), and with a clean bottom. In other be achieved under trial conditions in good
words, it represents a trial speed at 0.95 of the weather, following the method of (c) preceding.
maximum designed power, with a so-called He may add an average percentage to this power,
machinery reserve of 5 per cent. using a figure taken from good practice, or he
Actually, a ship design starts with the designed may wish to base his reserve on an analysis of
sea speed or service speed, determined from the the particular situation involved. At least four,
schedule which the ship is to maintain, or from and sometimes six or more factors enter into the
a study of economic and other reasons. For the percentage increase applied to the power pre-
ABC design this operation was completed by dicted for sustained speed in good weather and
the owner and operator before the design require- with clean bottom. These factors, with their
ments were formulated. To compensate for slowing customary percentages, are:
down in heavy weather a reserve of speed above
(1) Weather, involving an increase in
the designed sea speed is necessary. This is
power to maintain speed against
achieved either by one or by a combination of the
head winds and seas or to make
following:
up time lost by slowing in waves 8 to 15
(a) Specifying it as an increment of speed, (2) Fouling by marine organisms or 6 to 20
resulting in the 1.8-kt differential of the ABC other roughness or more
design (the difference between 20.5 and 18.7 kt) (3) Increase with age of structural and
(b) CaUing for a 'percentage increase in speed propeller roughness and of dis-
over the designed sea speed, varying from about placement (in some vessels) 2 to 5
8 to 15 per cent (4) Machinery reserve, to care for
(c) Requiring a percentage increase in power minor casualties, inefficient
over that necessary to drive the ship at the handling, fuel under standard
designed sea speed under trial conditions, usually quality, normal wear and tear,
from 20 to 30 per cent or more. and slow deterioration in per-
formance with length of service 4 to 6
When taking account of small percentages the
(5) Still-air and normal wind resist-
question arises as to the point in the ship at
ance of ship 2 to 4
which the maximum designed power of the
(6) Scale effect between model and
machinery is to be delivered; also as to the kind
ship (may be plus or minus) 1 to 3 or 4
of power represented by it, whether indicated,
(7) Cavitation loss in high-powered to 10
brake, shaft, or propeller power. There are
vessels or more.
different means employed to measure power, and
there is still some uncertainty as to just where All these factors, if taken into account, may
along the hne, from the heat-to-work conversion totalfrom 23 to 54 per cent or more, depending
point to the propeller, the power is to be measured. upon their individual signs and values. It is
It is most important, therefore, that the hull and customary to omit some and to emphasize others,
propeller designers know exactly where this particularly the increase for fouUng. The total
point is, and what is transmitted there. In fact, increase in power, over that required to maintain
there are many good reasons for rating the the sustained sea speed under trial conditions, is
576 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 69.10

then of the order of 20 to 30 per cent [ME, 1942, conditions at the designed trial speed but with a
Vol. I, p. 28; Troost, L., SNAME, 1953, p. 576]. power increase ofabove that
12.5 per cent
It is to be noted that item (6) of the tabula- required for This 12.5 per cent
trial conditions.

tion above does not include a sort of average
allowance for appendages, as is customary in
some quarters. This is taken care of by the model-
testing establishment, on the basis of the kind,
number, shape, size, and location of the append-
ages, relative to the hull and to each other.
increase is a sort of selected average between
clean-bottom trial conditions with no adverse
forces acting on the ship and a 25 per cent
increase to be expected toward the end of the
docking interval, \vith some adverse weather and
other overloads thrown in.

When estimating and applying the power Data derived from this procedure are definitely
percentages to the predictions derived from to be preferred, for predicting service performance
model tests it is most important to insure that and for design of the ship propellers, to data
an allowance corresponding to one or more of the derived from driving a smooth model faster than
foregoing factors has not already been worked the sustained speed by the use of the maximum
into the model-basin predictions. In America power that it is proposed to put in the ship.
it is customary to omit all the allowances listed It is pointed out in Sec. 65.3, and it is again
except the S(ACi?) for plating, structural, and emphasized in a discussion of speed reduction in
coating roughnesses to be expected on a clean, wavegoing in Part 6 of Volume III, that a ship
new vessel under trial conditions; see Sec. 45.18. is in much better position to maintain a high
It is generally necessary, at some stage in the sustained speed if it has a speed margin designed
formulation of requirements or in the preliminary into it rather than a power margin designed into
design, to know the speed-power relationships the propelling machinery alone. The speed
when some or all of these increases in resistance margin may be a percentage above the sustained
and power are in effect. For example, when the speed or it may be a speed increment, as men-
bottom is dirty the wake fraction becomes tioned (a) and (b) preceding. It may be
in
greater and the thrust loading of the propeller is determined by a graphic method such as that
increased. It must also be decided at what described in Sec. 69.10. Whatever the method
power the propelling plant is to operate at maxi- employed to determine the speed margin, the
mum efficiency. At a later stage the detail pro- designer has more assurance of achieving the
an estimate of the propulsion
peller design calls for extra speed required to make up for lost time if
factors at what might be termed the propeller- the ship is fashioned to make that extra speed
design point, to be explained presently. easily.
Model-testing techniques [C and R Bull. 7, 69.10 Graphic Representation of Powering
1933, p. 32] permit running a self-propelled Allowances and Reserves. Assuming a no-over-
model under conditions in which the model load condition for the ship, involving only the
propellers develop thrust under or over that unavoidable plating, structural, and coating
necessary to push the model through the water. roughnesses to be expected in the clean, new
The auxiliary towing or retarding force is adjusted condition, a typical speed-power curve is as
to provide the equivalent of underwater body indicated by AGB in Fig. 69. A. If the clean, new
resistance, additional drag due to roughness of ship were run at the maximum designed power
the hull surface, and any overload that may be f Mas under perfect trial conditions, the speed-
,

expected on the ship due to fouling, adverse power point would be at B and the speed would
weather, and the like. This procedure admittedly be Fmsx If the power were limited to 0.95 of the
•

does not change the velocity profile, the thickness, maximum designed value, the speed-power point
and other features of the boundary layer cor- would be at G and the speed would be Firiai •

responding to the effects of the roughnesses which Running the vessel at the power Pmsi with A;,
produce the additional drag but it does increase per cent of increased resistance due to adverse
the model propeller thrust loading. Any desired elJects, along the curve DGjC marked "AVER-
thrust overload can be applied to the model or AGE OVERLOAD" on the figure, gives the
runs can be made \vith varying overload to give speed-power point C for a speed somewhat less
predictions for any estimated power increase at a than the trial speed Ft rial The ship can now •

given speed. One method successfully used for run at this speed with maximum designed power
many years predicts ship and propeller operating Pmox or it can run at a reduced speed Vt with
Sec. 69.10 GENERAL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES 577

0.95 of Moximum Designed 5hoft Power = Pfv^q,, less Mochirier>)

No Covilotion Allowances Shown Here

Curve of Shaft Power on Speed for

FULL OVERLOAD Conditions, Involvinc) Storrrnj
Weather, Heavu Foulinc),and Unexpected
Adverse Effects~^

Curve of Shaft Power on Spaed for^

AVERA&E OVERLOAD, with Averoe^e
Adverse Wind and Sea and Averaoe Trial5 peed Vy
FoulBottom. Points on This Curve. ot Power Pg5
ore Often Selected for Under Perfect
Propeller-Desiqn Points, Trial Conditions

Represent(nq Averaqe Conditions ^-r , ^, ;.

'^^ _^ ^^^Curve of Shaft
^^
>

Lower ^^^wer on Speed with

Ends of NO OVERLOAD but Includinej
Curves Resistance and Normal
Still-Air
Not Rouqhness Allowance for o Clean, New
Shown Vessel, Correspondinq to Model Basin
Prediction for These Conditions

All Curves Are for Desicjned Displacement and

Ship Speed, kt "^Sustained ^Triol

Fig. 69. a Explanatory Diagram for Powering Allowances in a Large Vessel

95 per cent of maximum power. Under what sustained speed and of keeping up with its

might be termed "FULL OVERLOAD" con- schedule.

ditions, corresponding to the curve FGaE, and Unfortunately in practice the designer rarely
utilizing only 95 per cent of the designed maximum if ever knows the precise location of the average-
power, the ship is able to maintain a sustained overload or the full-overload speed-power curves
speed Fsu.t at the speed-power point Gj
, . on his plot, despite the availability of procedures
If the ship is really to sustain this speed for such as those in Sees. 45.22 and 60. 15. He is reason-
long periods it must be capable of running faster ably certain in the design stage of the no-overload,
than Fsust part of the time. Assuming full-over- speed-power curve AGB, with its values of
load conditions all the time this is not possible Fjuns and FTrioi • He knows, furthermore, that
by Fig. 69. A unless the power is increased above the speed-power values along the curve AGB can
P95 (and above Pm^i as well). Rather than to be checked by carefully conducted ship trials.

do this it is assumed, and logically so, that the He also knows the required sustained speed. He
sustained speed is to be achieved under average- may therefore select a speed Fi such that the
overload conditions, along the curve DG2C in the speed margin (Fi — Fsust) is sufficient in his
figure.This means that with a sort of average opinion, and in the judgment of the owner and
power, represented by the ordinate of the point H, operator, to make good the sustained speed.
the ship has a reserve of power represented by From the no-overload ctu've of the figure, this
the ordinate HG2 With . this reserve, extending up speed Fi then corresponds to the point A, also
to P95 at the point Gi , it is capable of achieving easily determined in advance with reasonable
the speed Fa This speed is somewhat less than
• accuracy and subject to confirmation on trial.
FTriai but as long as the speed margin (F, —
, The corresponding power is PNom, which with ,

Fsu.t) is greater than the possible speed reduction an average overload should give a speed F3 ,

(F3 — F4) to be anticipated over any lengthy slightly in excess of the sustained speed or at
period, the ship is assured of maintaining the least not less than that speed. For most ship
578 IIYDROnYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 69.11

designs, Pm.i about 1.25 or 1.30 times PNorm

is higher speed is aimed for, at maximum designed
One means of making this procedure more power corresponding to an average overload at
precise is to have the self-propelled model run the point C, the speed-power and the propeller-
with an estimated average overload, say 1.25 design points are then represented by that point.
times the no-overload ship resistance, as men- It is again emphasized that speed-power
tioned in the preceding section. Then curve points such as G2 or C are only achieved acci-
DGiC as well as curve AGB is obtained and the dentally on a ship, when the overload from all
speeds Fj and V^ are predicted reasonably well. causes happens to be either the average or the full
The next problem, equally as important as the value assumed by the designer. It is therefore not
establishment of these speed-power-overload rela- possible to check these points on an actual ship
tionships, is selecting the condition for which the by full-scale tests. On the other hand, the speed-
propeller is to be designed. First, it must be power points B, G, and A are easily reached and
capable of absorbing the power Pm.i at some rate checked under planned trial conditions. It is
of rotation n which can be acliieved by the engine therefore logical to embody one of these points,
when delivering that power. Second, it must say G, as one of the design requirements and to
operate efficiently at either P95 or PNorm which- , call for a check of it as a sliip-contract stipulation.

ever the owner and operator thinks most im- This is essentiallywhat was done in Table 64.
portant, and at a ship speed corresponding to and Sec. 66.9 for the ABC design, when the trial
the selected power and to an overload condition speed of 20.5 kt was required at a power expendi-
at which the owner and operator wishes the ture of 0.95PMai , corresponding to the point G
ship to do its best. This is usually but not neces- on Fig. 69. A. To prevent the problem from be-
sarily the power for which the propelling plant is coming too complicated, especially as overload
designed to run most efficiently and economically. values are not accurately known, the ABC
At the power, ship speed, and overload condition propeller is also designed in Chap. 70 for the
selected the rate of rotation of the propeller and speed-power point G. The data from the model
the propelhng plant must also correspond. self-propulsion test, without overload, correspond
In general, the propeller-design point may be to that point. The additional shaft power from
taken as Gi in Fig. 69.A. If so, a check is made to P95 to Pjnax is taken care of by the macliinery
insure that the propeller efficiency does not fall designer.
off appreciably at the points D and H. This is Under other circumstances the propeller could
one reason why some propeller designers ai'e be designed equally well for the points Gi or G2 ,

reluctant to work a propeller near the peak of depending upon advance knowledge as to over-
its efficiency curve, for fear that at the lower loads, the type ofmachinery to be installed, the
loadings and real-slip values the so-called working judgment of the designer, and the wishes of the
point will pass over the maximum-efficiency owner and operator.
hump and slide down the steep side of the r/-curve. 69.11 Selection of Feathering, Adjustable,
If internal-combustion propelling machinery is Reversible, or Controllable Features. Feathering
utilized the maximum power Pmsi can be devel- features on paddlewheels form an integral part
oped only at the exact rpm for which the engine of the design of these devices. As such they
isdesigned. This rate of rotation must in turn are discussed in Sees. 71.6 and 71,7.
correspond to a certain ship speed for that power. Feathering and folding propellers are fitted
If maximum efficiency at a sustained speed cor- almost exclusively on sailing yachts with auxiliary
responding to full overload is desired, the speed- power, as a means of reducing the drag of the
power point G2 should be the propeller-design stationary propeller. Notes relative to their use
point. Although F is also a point on the full- are found in Sec. 71.13.
overload speed-power curve it may not represent Adjustable sci'ew propellers, described briefly
the power developed by the internal-combustion in Sec. 32.19, carry blades whose position relative
engine at a rate of propeller rotation correspond- to thehub can be changed only when the adjust-
ing to the speed V^ . However, if the engine- ing mechanism is out of water. They permit
propeller combination can drive the ship at full pitch changes in the event that the ship resistance
overload at the speed corresponding to the in service is found not to agree with that predicted
point G2 almost certainly can, with some lesser
it in the design stage. Altering the pitch in this
power, maintain the slower speed at F. If a manner is one means of insuring that internal-
Sec. 69.13 GENERAL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES 579

combustion engines can run at the proper rate of condition [Rupp, L. A., SNAME, 1948, p. 273].
rotation to develop their maximum power. It may The problems involved in the detailed design
also befound in service that fouling rates, with and so
of controllable propellers are so speciaUzed
consequent increased friction powers, are higher complex that no attempt is made
any to present
than those contemplated during the design. of them in this chapter. It may be assumed that
The foregoing advantages, including the very- organizations which have produced successful
practical one of replacing a damaged blade, are service installations are in much better positions
balanced against the slightly diminished efficiency to design controllable propellers than is the ship
resulting from the larger hub and from unfairness designer.
around the blade attachments. This matter is The fairing caps of the hubs of many controllable
discussed at length in Sec. 70.43. propellers contain essential parts of the blade-
Reversible propellers, in which the blades shifting mechanism and are as long if not longer
swivel and the shaft continues to rotate in the than the propeller hub proper. It may be necessary
same direction, eliminate reverse gears and to cut a notch in the leading edge of an all-
reversing mechanism in the propelhng plant. This movable rudder blade to clear the hub cap
is only done at the expense of mechanical com- [Mar. Eng'g., Feb 1953, p. 1; Jan 1955, p. 104].
pUcation in the shaft and the propeller, increased 69.12 Propulsion Devices to be Used with
diameter and bulk of the propeller hub, and Contra-Vanes, Centra-Guide Sterns, and Contra-
certainhydrodynamic disadvantages described in Rudders. In general, as described in Sees. 33.12,
Sec. 32.19.However, if reversibihty of thrust is 36.8, 36.9, and 37.16, it is immaterial whether
the primary object, the latter are not too import- rotation is introduced in the inflow jet of a screw
ant. The problems are then primarily ones of propeller and taken out by that propeller or
engineering rather than hydrodynamics. whether the rotation produced by the propeller is
So many extraneous problems enter into a taken out by a contra-rudder or equivalent device
decision to use controllable propellers that no placed in the outflow jet. However, for a given
attempt is made to give them here. The designer average resultant water velocity at the blade
may with benefit study the references Usted in elements, the angular speed of the propeller is

Sec. 32.19 and repeated here for convenience: usually sUghtly less if some rotation is imparted to
the inflow jet ahead of it. Actually, as far as the
(a) McEntee, W., SNAME, 1927, pp. 87-91, and Pis.
43-47 design of the propeller concerned, it may be
is

(b) Gutsche, F., Zeit. d. Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 15 Sep 1934, proceeded with on the basis of no prerotation,
p. 1073 following which an adjustment may be made to
(c) Ackeret, J., Escher-Wyss Bull., May-Jun 1935, p. 63
determine the probable angular speed for a given
(d) Fea, L., Ann. Rep. Rome Model Basin, 1938, Vol. VII,
torque and thrust.
pp. 74-89
(e) Rupp, L. A., "Controllable-Pitch Propellers," Good propulsion-device design, and good ship
SNAME, 1948, pp. 272-358 design as well, calls for a thrust-producing device
(f) Burrill, L. C, "Latest Developments in Reversible which inherently leaves as little systematic dis-
Propellers," IME, 1949, Vol. LXI, pp. 1-11; INA, turbance as possible in its wake, and which
1949, Vol. 91, pp. J3-J32
Nichols, H. J., "An Hydraulically Controlled C-P
requires the least amount of predeflection or pre-
(g)
Propeller System," Motorship, New York, May rotation in the inflow jet.

1949, pp. 22-23, 44-46 69.13 Disadvantages of Unbalanced Propul-

(h) Baader, J., "Cruceros y Lanchas Veloces (Cruisers
and Fast Launches)," Buenos Aires, 1951, p. 209
(i) Doell, H. A., "What is the Controllable-Pitch Pro-
peller?" Mar. Eng'g., Aug 1953, pp. 71-76
(i) Van Aken, J. A., and Tasseron, K., "Comparison
Between the Open- Water Efficiency and Thrust of
the Lips-Schelde Controllable-Pitch Propeller and
those of Troost-Series Propellers," Int. Shipbldg.
Prog., 1955, Vol. 2, No. 5, pp. 30-40.
A word Do not expect
of caution is included:
that be found worth while to install a con-
it will
trollable propeller solely to enable the propeller
to run at the proper pitch for any given loading
sion-Device Torque. On semi-planing and plan-
ing craft carrying multiple propellers below the
hull in such position that the flow to both the
port and starboard sides of each propeller is sub-
stantially the same, there are numerous practical
reasons for selecting and installing main engines
and propellers which rotate in the same direction.
However, this arrangement has the disadvantage
that, because of the rotation in the propeller
outflow jets or races abaft the propellers, there
may be a resultant asymmetrical lateral force
from the rudder (s). It may be difficult to find
580 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 69.14

the neutral angle for each and this angle may are usually too small to be of any considerable
change with speed. An effect of this kind is more benefit in rapid maneuvering. Indeed, if any
pronounced when the rudders lie within the pro- drastic change is to be made in a vessel's turning

peller outflow jets. Furthermore, there is a path it is necessary to reverse the wing propeller(s)
cumulative torque reaction from all the engines on the inside of the turn. It is doubtful if any
which results in an appreciable listing or heeling vessel carrying screw propellers can have its
moment and an ever-present heel at moderate to turning characteristics materially improved by
high speeds. any practicable positioning of the wing screws or
This heeling moment due to torque should be wing shafts at a large distance from the center-
counteracted, not by a fixed moment, as of ballast plane.
or rnachinery asymmetry, but by a torque which Despite the overwhelming percentage of time
varies generally as the engine torque, increasing during which any ship is employed in ahead
gradually with speed and power. This is best operation, the requirements for developing astern
accomplished by applying a hydrodynamic torque thrust and for maneuvering may and often do
which automatically increases with speed. For influence the design of the propulsion device (s).
right-hand engines and propellers, a positive For example, on a paddle tug with independent
heeling moment is required, acting to produce a wheels, frequently employed in backing and
starboard heel. On some V-bottom planing craft turning, the paddle blades are properly straight
[Bureau of Ships Bull, of Inform. 32, 1 Oct 1948] rather than curved in section. They should,
the chine spray strip is modified to slope its lower furthermore, enter and leave the water vertically,
edge downward and outward, giving it a negative if this is feasible without too much complication.
dihedral angle with the bottom of the boat. The An icebreaker which needs powerful astern
water moving out transversely from under the thrusts to fulfill its mission may advantageously
boat is deflected sharply downward, and an up- have screw propellers with blade sections nearly
ward force results from this change of direction. or completely symmetrical, as for the screw
The hydrodynamic compensating torque is also propellers of the double-ended ferryboat.
produced by a well-cambered hydrofoil placed in By and large any special requirements for
an offset position in the propeller outflow jet, so starting, stopping, and turning are fulfilled by
as to develop a lift force forming a torque opposite propulsion devices with large thrust-producing
to that of the propeller. Fig. 73. P illustrates and areas. The larger these areas the better, since
Sec. 73.21 describes a pair of twisted hydrofoils in for a given speed of advance V a the thrust depends
the form of a cross, placed in the outflow jet of a upon the thrust-load factor and ultimately upon
single screw propeller to accomplish this purpose. the disc area.
69.14 Propulsion-Device Design to Meet 69.15 Relation of Propulsion-Device and Hull-
Maneuvering Requirements. The design of ship Vibration Frequencies. A discussion of machin-
hulls to meet maneuvering requirements is dis- ery and hull vibration as such is definitely outside
cussed in Part 5 of Volume III. There are pre- the scope of this book. Nevertheless, it is pointed
sented here a few features relative to the type, out here that the rate of rotation of the propulsion
position,and size of the propulsion devices when devices, whatever their type, should not be fixed
maneuvering is a major consideration. For stop- until a study has been made of the probable
ping and running astern, some design comments vibration characteristics of the hull and propelling
and pertinent references are given by J. E. Burk- machinery under various loading conditions
hardt [ME, 1942, Vol. I, pp. 35-38]. Fortunately [Lewis, F. M., ME, 1944, Vol. II, pp. 130-137;
there are available sufficient data from tests of Kane, J. R., and McGoldrick, R. T., SNAME,
model propellers running astern, listed in the 1949, pp. 193-252]. This insures that the propul-
references of Part 5, to enable the designer to sion-device rpm or the blade frequencies n{Z) do
check the ability of a propeller to produce a not coincide with a 2-noded or 3-noded hull
specified thrust for astern operation. There are frequency in vertical or horizontal flexure, so that
also available in Sec. 60.18 the results of backing a slight mechanical or hydrodynamic unbalance
tests on one self-propelled model. is magnified over the whole ship. Strictly speaking,
While it is true that ships can be and have been the torsional hull frequencies should also be
steered by changing the rates of rotation of wing estimated and compared with the proposed shaft
propellers carried by them, the turning moments rpm.
Sec. 69.15 GENER/VL DESIGN OF PROPULSION DEVICES 581

It is usually easy to design or to alter local Probable torsional and longitudinal resonant
structures or small parts of the ship to keep their fre(]uencies of the propulsion-device-shaft-gear-
resonant frctiucncies out of the range of propdev turbine (or motor) system are likewise estimated,
rpm or blade frequencies at speeds where the to insure that they do not fall within the range of
exciting forces are high. However, to make shaft or blade frequencies at or near service
material changes in these characteristics of the power or maximum desigued power [Sullivan,
hull proper, or of large parts of it, is often well- E. K., and Scarborough, W. G., SNAME, New
nigh impossible. Engl. Sect., Apr 1952].
 CHAPTER 70

Screw-Propeller Design
70.1 General Considerations 582 70.25
70 2
. Design Requirements for a Screw Propeller . 583 70 26
.

70.3 Comments on Available Design Methods

and Procedures 583 70.27
70.4 Requirements for, Availability of, and List-
ing of Propeller-Series Charts 584
70.5 Comments on and Comparison of Propeller- 70.28
Series Charts 589
70.6 Prehminary-Design Procedure, Employing
Series Charts 592
70.7 Modification of Series-Chart Procedure for
Other Design Problems 596
70.8 Preliminary Comments on Propeller-Design
Features 596
70 9
. Selection of Propeller Diameter 597
70.10 Determining the Rate of Rotation 597
70.11 The Proper Pitch-Diameter Ratio; Pitch
Variation with Radius 598
70.12 Choice of Number of Blades 599
70.13 Use of Raked Blades 600
70.14 Propeller-Hub Diameter; Hub Fairing ... 601
70.15 Determination of Expanded- Area Ratio;
Choice of Blade Profile 602
70.16 Selecting and Applying Skew-Back .... 603
70.17 Design Considerations Governing Blade
Width 605
70.18 Selection of Type of Blade Section 605
70.19 Shaping of Blade Edges and Root Fillets . . 606
70.20 Partial Bibhography on Screw-Propeller
Design 606
70.21 Design of a Wake- Adapted Propeller by the
Circulation Theory 609
70 22
. ABC Ship Propeller Designed by Lerbs' 1954
Method 611
70.23 Choice of the Number of Blades for the
ABC Design 612
70.24 Determination of Rake for the ABC Pro-
peUer 612 70.46
Sec. 70.3 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 583

avoids major duplication and appreciable overlaps "(III) Must not vibrate or must eliminate whatever
with published material in books, papers, and vibration may be due to the existing propeller

reports, especially those readily available to the

"(IV) Must not erode, or at least must be better in this
respect than the existing propeller
average marine architect. The major portion of
"(V) Must be of sufficient strength and first-class work-
the chapter devoted to a description of the
is
manship to ensure a long life free from trouble.
short method H. W. E. Lerbs for the
of Dr.
design of a screw propeller, based on the circulation "The information given in the papers gave no
theory. Accompanying a step-by-step description guidance in these directions. It might be the
of this method, a sample calculation is carried case that these 'purchaser's' requirements can be
along for a propeller to be used with the transom- met but it is surely a serious
in exceptional cases,
stern design of ABC ship, the hull of which is laid reflection on ordinary practice to suggest that
out in Chaps. GG, 67, and 68. This description, inci- propellers as now fitted are, on the average,
dentally, is believed to be among the first based 10 per cent less efficient than they might be."
on this theory by which all the elements in the 70.3 Comments on Available Design Methods
design are derived by a continuous, straight- and Procedures. It is expected, when many
forward procedure. This makes it suitable for a minds work on a problem in the atmosphere of a
designer mth no background or experi-
Uttle or democratic way of fife, there will be many fines
ence, save the knowledge of flow and circulation of attack and many partial or complete answers.
and its apphcation to the ship and screw-propeller This is as it should be, because different kinds of
combination, to be found in Chaps. 14-17 and answers are required for different situations.
32-34 of Volume I of this book. —
Furthermore, the problem screw-propeller de-
The symbols, terms, and definitions employed —
sign in particular is so complex that no single
in this chapter conform to those listed in Appendix line of attack can do more than make a rather
1 of this volume. They are described in SNAME narrow path through the entire region to be
Technical and Research Bulletin 1-13, containing covered.
"Explanatory Notes for Resistance and Pro- The procedures now in use among naval
pulsion Data Sheets," July, 1953, and illustrated architects and marine engineers vary from the
in Figs. 32.F, 32.G, and 32.H of Sees. 32.8 and heavily theoretical to the intensely practical, but
32.9. fortunately each is useful in some particular
70.2 Design Requirements for a Screw Pro- situation. An engineer may select a propeller
peller. It is possible that one reason for the diameter and pitch by some simple formula or
shortcomings in the numerous design methods nomogram and order a propeller out of a catalog,
and procedures, including those discussed in or he and his assistants may toil for several
Sec. 70.3, is a partial lack of appreciation of the months, calculating a propeller design for which
basic requirements to be met and of the practical no ready rules or precedents are available. The
needs of the ship owner and operator. Perhaps day is past, or nearly so, when the marine engineer
even more basic are what might be termed sketched his propeller freehand in the foundry-
the practical needs of the ship itself. man's notebook, penciling in the few principal
For example, as long ago as 1938 a propeller dimensions.
designer, F. McAlister, when discussing the It is well to recognize, therefore, that a group
results symposium on marine propellers
of a of several of these methods has its place in the
[NECI, 1937-1938, Vol. LIV, pp. D141-D142], scheme of things, even in a so-called advanced age.
declared that, as reported in SBSR, 6 October For example, in the design of the underwater
1938, page 415, "none of the papers in the sym- hull of the ABC ship, begun in Chap. 66, one of
posium tabulated the qualities required (the italics the principal aims is to swing as large a propeller
are those of the present author) for full-sized as possible. Since the limit of ideal efficiency
propellers for ships under service conditions. He described in Sec. 34.2 increases as the thrust
suggested that from the purchaser's point of loading decreases, and the latter decreases as
view these requirements were: the propeller diameter increases, it works out
That the (new) that the larger the propeUer, the greater the
"(I) propeller must be of the highest
possible efficiency —
say 10 per cent (or more) higher propeller efficiency, aU other things being favor-
efficiency than the average existing propeller able. The tentative diameter of 20 ft, on a 26-ft
"(II) Must not sing or be unduly noisy draft, is based on a propeUer somewhat larger
584 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.4

than that given by the rule of thiunb, D < 0.7//, The first group labors under the disadvantage
equal in this case to 0.7(26) or 18.2 ft. that it applies only to propellers with the same
When, at a later stage of the design, after the number of blades, blade shape, section shape,
had been estimated, together
resistance of the hull and so on, as the propellers of the series tested.
with the wake and thrust-deduction fractions, it The second is deficient in that factual knowledge
was possible to calculate the thrust-load factor concerning the nature of the physical water flow
and to know that it was low, as desired. When the around a propeller and the applicable hydro-
shaft power was estimated, it was found from dynamic theories, as well as the necessary con-
several propeller-design charts that a 20-ft firmations of the latter, lag rather far behind
propeller would absorb it when running at a the necessity for knowledge to give the practical
reasonable rate of rotation. answers.
At a still later stage, when
was necessary to
it The chart method tellsonly what happens to
pick a suitable stock propeller for the model the overall forces and moments on a propeller
self-propulsion test, the P/D ratio and other which someone has already fashioned, whether
principal characteristics were determined approxi- it be well fashioned or not. The analytic method
mately by several established methods, called leads gradually but surely to a better understand-
chart methods, mentioned presently and de- ing of the physics of the problem, which governs
scribed in Sec. 70.5. the forces and moments, and hence to an indica-
For the latter part of the preliminary design tion of just how a screw propeller should be
of the ABC ship, a final design of screw propeller fashioned to give the desired results.
for a second series of model tests (not conducted) and
70.4 Requirements for, Availability of,
was carried through by the Lerbs short method, Listing of Propeller-Series Charts. It should be
based upon the circulation theory, described in
recognized at the outset that any chart or analytic
Sees. 70.21 through 70.38.
procedure may, and probably will take a different
These several methods are mentioned to show form, depending upon the characteristics that
that the approximations, estimates, and calcu-
are given or fixed and those which are to be
lations required at different stages of a ship and derived. For the pvn-pose of this book, one pro-
propeller design call for different procedures.
cedure only of each kind is described, embodying
Some call these 5-sec, 5-min, 5-hr, and 5-day freedom of choice for the designer in that primary
procedures, depending upon how soon the answer
characteristic which should, for the best perform-
is wanted. The precision of each is of the same permit him the greatest leeway. For
ance,
order as the time required. Others call them
example, in the hull design of the ABC ship,
the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th approximations.
roughed out in Chap. 66, the weights to be
The important fact is to realize that the first carried by the ship are specified, as is the speed,
approximation is based upon the application optimum
leaving the length free for selection of the
of one single rule of thumb; the last one upon all
dimension.
the scientific and engineering information avail-
For the propeller designs to be worked out as
able. All of them have their logical functions in
examples in this chapter, the power to be ab-
the design of any one propeller.
sorbed is governed by that required for driving
In general, neglecting the thumb rules, the
the hull at the designed speed. It is anticipated
various procedures fall into two groups:
that the best screw propeller will be that having
(1) Those based upon systematic experimental the greatest practicable diameter, so the hull in
data, derived from tests of model propellers in the vicinity of the propeller position is designed
methodical series, with uniformly varying param- with this in view. Strictly speaking, this means
eters and characteristics. The data, when checked that the propeller diameter is fixed at the be-
and analyzed, are put in the form of graphs, ginning of its design, but at a figure which should
diagrams, or charts, whence the name chart design. produce a most efficient wheel. The rate of rota-
(2) Those based upon the application of hydro- tion, the pitch-diameter ratio, and other factors
dynamic theories and knowledge of flow, embody- remain to be selected so as to give high propulsive
ing such gap-fillers and correction factors (derived efficiency in service. In other circumstances the
usually from experimental data) as are required propeller power and rate of rotation might be
to compensate for lack of accurate and adequate fixed, with the best diameter to be found.
knowledge here and there. Regardless of the primary characteristics given
Srr. 70.4 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 585

and to be derived, a good screw-propeller dala (6) Possibility and effect of cavitation, perhaps
sheet or design chart meets the following require- by auxiliary charts.
ments, listed in the order of their importance: (k) There should be sufficient charts in a group
As for any graph of its kind, it should ". to permit a propeller designer to enter them with
(a) . .

given values of any of the primary variables

show at a glance the variation of the most import-
ant dependent variables with the independent
SNAME,
variable" [Schoenherr, K. E.,
629]
(b) The range of the sheet or chart should cover
all propulsion conditions that may reasonably be
expected
(c) The most important variable to be derived
from each sheet should appear in the formulas
applicable to that sheet in its first power and
should occupy the principal position in the formula
or chart
(d) The primary numerical design values to be
taken from the chart should require little or no
(1) Future chart groups should embody the
approved symbols adopted by the International
1951, p.
Towing Tank Conference.
Propeller-series charts must necessarily be
adaptable to the several variations of the design
problem actually encountered. These depend upon
which factors are known or given and which are
unknown. K. E. Schoenherr has set down this
situation in systematic fashion, from which the
following is adapted [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 159]:
First, Preliminary Design.
Given the designed ship speed V, the
(i)

corresponding effective power Pjs or total resist-

interpolation between curves to give the precise
ance Rt and the propeller diameter D. Required
engineering answer ,

to find the propeller pitch P and the rate of

(e) The primary variable on at least one sheet of
rotation n (in rpm) for the best propeller efficiency.
a group should be the pitch/diameter ratio
(ii) Given the designed ship speed V, the cor-
(f) The chart should be readily entered and the
responding effective power Pe and the rate of
desired values found without effort, confusion, ,

rotation n of the propeller shaft. Required to

or misunderstanding. It is better to have separate
find the propeller pitch P and diameter D for
charts than to embody too many features on one
the best efficiency.
chart. In other words, a propeller design chart
Second, Final Design. Given the curve of effective
"should possess graphical simplicity, permitting
ease of I'eading and interpolating" [Kane, J. R.,
power P E as a function of ship speed V, the pro-
SNAME, pellerdiameter D, the rate of rotation n (in rpm)
1951, p. 626].
All chart parameters should be dimensionless,
and the engine output in horses, at the designed
(g)
with dimensions in any system of units to be rpm, as delivered to the propeller shaft. Required
to find the propeller pitch P, the propeller
derived by simple substitution and calculation
(h) The chart should be no larger than necessary
efficiency 570 ,
and the ship speed V obtainable

for the precision required in ship and propeller under the given conditions.
Third, Analysis. Given the propeller dimensions,
design but large enough for easy visual selection
the ship speed V, the shaft power Ps the pro-
of the data desired ,

peller thrust T, and the rate of rotation n, in rpm.

(i) Nomograms should be embodied, wherever
practicable, for determining the values of chart
Required to find the fractions Sr for real slip,
parameters and certain physical quantities w for wake, and t for thrust deduction.
(j) With at least three variables given, the chart A considerable number
of chart groups are
should yield all the data for the preliminary now form or another, to the
available, in one
design of a screw propeller, specifically: propeller designer. These are fisted hereunder,
as an adaptation of a listing and a description by
(1) Diameter, pitch, and pitch-diameter ratio
F. M. Lewis [SNAME, 1951, pp. 612-613]:
(2) Number of blades (considering propeller
efficiency only), expanded-area ratio, mean- width (I)Charts of R. E. Froude; also known as the
ratio, and blade-thickness fraction series charts ofR. W. L. Gawn [Froude, R. E.,
(3) Blade shape (outline) and blade-section INA, 1892, pp. 292-294; INA, 1908, pp. 185-204;
shape Baker, G. SD, 1933, Vol. II, Fig. 14 and pp.
S.,

(4) Hub-diameter ratio 41-44; Gawn, R.W. L., INA, 1937, pp. 159-187;
(5) Maximum or actual open-water efficiency van Lammeren, W. P. A., RPSS, 1948, pp. 251-
or both 256].
586 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.4

The coefficients are, in Baker's notation: in fresh water. Since the coefficients are dimen-
sional they do not produce ship-design data for
Slip constant X =— — ,
where A'' is in salt water unless a correction is made for the
differences inmass density [Kane, J. R., SNAME,
rpm, D in ft, and Fi (= Va) is the speed of 1951, pp. 625-626]. D. W. Taylor's statement
advance in kt that "... marine propellers work in water of
Diameter constant practically constant density ." [S and P, 1943,. .

p. 100] is too sweeping. Many ships operate in

_fl_ r p/D ifi)
fresh water only, and others in water that varies
D'Vl 1{P/D) + 21J\bJ'
from fully fresh to fully salt.
where H is the thrust power in horses, Vj the A table of values of Va^, for a range of Va in
speed of advance in kt, P and D are in ft, and B kt from 5 to 50, is given by L. P. Smith [ASNE,
is a thrust factor for the blade type, actually an Nov 1935, p. 562].
arbitrary function of blade-area ratio. The latter (Ill) Charts of K. Schaffran. First published in
ispresumably the ratio Ad/Ao Cross curves of . German in "Systematische Propellerversuche
the diameter constant Y and the revolution (Systematic Propeller Experiments)," Strauss,
constant X^Y are plotted on a grid of X, Y, and Berlin, 1916. Later published in English in what
77(eta). The developed-area ratio A^/Ao of was virtually a on the subject, entitled
treatise
Gawn's series propellers extended up to 1.10. "The Influence of Propeller Revolutions Upon the
The method of using the R. E. Froude-Gawn Propulsive Efficiency of Merchant Ships," NECI,
charts is explained by W. P. A. van Lammeren in 1923-1924, Vol. XL,
254-320 and Pis.
pp.
detail in the reference cited. II-XII. Some of these data were published sub-
(II) Charts of D. W. Taylor [S and P, 1943, pp. sequently in WRH, 15 Nov 1934, Vol. 15, pp.
99-102, 109-112, 275-292]. The basic coefficients 324-327; see also W. P. A. van Lammeren,
RPSS, 1948, pp. 191-196.
The coefficients are:
Nd
= -:^
8 (delta) where A'' is in rpm, d is the
y A
,

Slip constant C, = nD _nD where n is the

diameter in ft, and Va is the speed of advance in kt Ve ~Va
rate of rotation in rps, Z) is the diameter, and
NP°
B, ,
where P is the propeller power VE (or V a) is the speed of advance, all in con-
VI
sistent units
in horses. The number of blades is generally
added as a subscript to the basic coefficient, such Revolutions-torque constant C„„ = Uy
'71'
as 5p3 .

where M is the torque

Bu = ,
where IJ is the thrust power in
v\ Diameter-torque constant d^ =
horses.
Cross curves of and =
on a grid of P/D
6

as ordinate
efficiency e are plotted
and Bp or B^ as
Diameter-thrust constant d DVj,
where &

abscissas. Other chart forms are used with the is the thrust
coefficients:
Revolution-thrust constant C„ =
U VI
Cv = a ,
where a is the pitch ratio The basic grids are C. on d and C, on C„ .

"^
UOOO/ (IV) Charts of W. Schmidt ["Zusammenfassende
p/d, U is the thrust power in horses, d is the Darstellung von Schraubenversuchen (Summar-
diameter, and p is the pitch, both the latter in ft ized Description of Propeller Experiments);" this
is a pamphlet published by
Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch
lOOOaU Ing., in 1926; copy in TMB Ubrary. See also a
Av =
.

,2x^3
a yA
— ,
, ^,
where the symbols are as de-
, ,

paper entitled "Vorausberechnung der Giinstig-

scribed previously for the Taylor charts. sten Schiffsschraube (Calculation of the Most
These coefficients and charts, as given in the Favorable Ship Propeller)," by H. Volker; ab-
reference quoted, are for model propellers tested stracted by W. Hinterthan in WRH, 1 Dec 1939,
Sec. 70.4 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 587

pp. 368-370]. Schmidt's presentation was based

B„ = NP"
'Vr2.5 ,
where P is the propeller power
upon the model-test data of K. Schaffran. vl
The coefficients are J (= F^/nZ) by standard in English horses
ses

notation) and:
lOOOl^lP
© PHP A„ = — — ^:rrj73 ,
where Ho is the pitch in ft

© PHPw" —
D IP
'

a =
PHP D •(my
® ,3
pD'Ve
where PHP is the propeller power Viooo/

in horses,Ve = Va is the speed of advance in kt, = where U the thrust power m

Bu „2.6 is
and D is the propeller diameter in ft.
,

There is another set of coefficients in which the English horses

propeller power is replaced by the thrust power.
Cross curves of P/D ratio and e ( = tjo in standard V, = ^ (— V where K, is the 0-diml thrust
notation) are plotted on a logarithmic grid of J
coefficient, K„ the 0-diml torque coefficient,
and coefficient © of the preceding list. The other
A (lambda) the advance coefficient Vs/nD, and
coefficients are determined by inclined logarithmic
rjj, the propeller efficiency.
scales.
The contours are 8 and tj, on a grid of Ho/D
(V) Charts of K. E. Schoenherr [PNA, 1939, Vol.
ratio and Bj, A^ on a grid of the same kind, Cp
,

II, pp. 158-168].

on the same kind, and £„ on the same kind.
The principal coefficients, all dimensionless, are:
(VII) Charts of L. Troost ["Open Water Test
Series with Modern Propeller Forms, Part 3,
Thrust coefficient K, = Two-Bladed and Five-Bladed Propellers," NECI,
prv'd*
1950-1951, Vol. 67, Part 3, pp. 89-130].
This is a later system developed by Troost,
Torque coefficient K. = —^,i , where K, and
pna known as the continental or "/i(mu)-o-(sigma)"
K^ correspond to the standard Kt and Kq ,
and system. The principal relationships are:
d is the propeller diameter

H = n
=
Efficiency e
^{^
= V
The values of K, ,K^ and
, efficiency e are plotted
to a base of J.
e{-qn), and (^(phi) are
Cross curves of P/D,
(VI) Charts of L. Troost and W. P. A. van
plotted on a grid of and <r. ju
Lammeren [RPSS, pp. 1948, These 196-223].
(VIII) Charts of Newport News Shipbuilding and
are based upon a so-called A-series of model
Dry Dock Company. These are described briefly
propellers, copied from G. S. Baker, in which
and one of them is illustrated in a discussion by
rather narrow blades and airfoil sections give
good performance but are suitable only for lightly
J. R. Kane [SNAME, 1951, pp. 626-627; also
p. 629].
loaded propellers, outside the cavitating range;
The coefficients are J and:
and a so-called B-series, in which wider blades
are able to carry greater thrust loadings, the '550 PHP when n is
lossesfrom cavitation are small, and the propellers B to be used limited
pVl
are generally free from singing.
The basic coefficients are: to be used when D is
/ 550 PHP
ND
8 = -r-^ where A^ is the rate of rotation in
limited, where PHP is the propeller power in
,
English horses.
rpm, D is the propeller diameter in ft, and Cross curves of P/D are plotted on grids of J,
F„ (=. Va) is the speed of advance in kt e (= efficiency r/o), and B or A (delta).
588 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.4

(IX) Charts of H. H. W. Keith (formerly pro-

MIT). These were
fessor of naval architecture at
Loading coefficient Ku =
PD'V}
carefully drawn to about 7.25 in by 7.25 in, but
were never pubUshed. They involve two coeffi- Efficiency e(= jjo) =
jf^'^'
cients:
These charts give contours of the 0-diml co-
Cn = NU° (this is identical with D. W. efficients Kt Kq Ku and e (= efficiency r?o),
, , ,

as listed in the foregoing, on a basis of J and

Taylor's B^j)
P/D, using data from the Wageningen B.3 and
tto.s B.4 series of model propellers. A number of
Cr, examples in the reference cited show how these
DV\
charts are used.
where A'' is the rate of rotation in rpm, U is the (XIII) Charts of W. E. Fermann, formerly of the
thrust power in English horses, D is the propeller General Motors Corporation, developed specif-
diameter in ft, and Va is the speed of advance cally for towing and similar situations where the
inkt. values of the advance coefficient are extremely
The values of Cn and (= efficiency rjo) are
e low. These charts are in four groups:
plotted on a grid of Co and P/D. The latter scale
is uniform and exceptionally large. Photostats
Design coefficient So = VA[p<f/PsY^^ as ab-
scissas and pitch-diameter ratio a = p/d as
of these charts are in the TMB library.
ordinates (uniform scale), with contours of pro-
(X) Charts of J. G. Hill [SNAME, 1951, pp.
631-633]. The principal coefficients are;
peller efficiency ep and advance coefficient
J = 101. 3dV a/ {Npd), and a reference line of
_
— 2TrQn ei>(Maj)with So constant
(_ P
Design coefficient S^ = V a[p/{PsNp)]^''^ as
vD'V
abscissas and pitch-diameter ratio a = p/d as
ordinates (uniform scale), with contours of ep and
J = 101.33V a/ (Npd), and a line of e^jMaj, with
(Sjv constant
Design coefficient Eo = VA[pd^/PuY^^ as ab-
where V is the speed of advance {V^ in ITTC nota- scissas and pitch-diameter ratio a = p/d as
and ordinates (uniform scale), with contours of Cp
tion) all other symbols are standard. The
propeller efficiency ijo (not so marked) is shown by and J = 101.33V a/ (Npd) and a line of ep(Mai)
contours on the two sets of diagrams. To render with Ej) constant
them more compact they are plotted as the square Design coefficient E.y = Va[p/{PuNp)Y^^ as
abscissas and pitch-diameter ratio a = p/d as
roots of Cp and Cs on a base of J in each case.
(XI) Charts of C. W. Prohaska. These are log- ordinates (uniform scale), with contours of ep and

arithmic-type diagrams based upon the earlier J = 101.33V a/ (Npd) and a line of epfu^x) with
charts of G. Eiffel and W. Schmidt. They embody Etf constant.

both the dimensional coefficients of D. W. Taylor Here Va is the speed of advance in kt, Ps is
and a group of corresponding 0-diml coefficients, the shaft power (per shaft) in horses, Np is the
with double inclined logarithmic scales. Examples propeller rpm, d the propeller diameter in ft,
of these charts are given in Figs. 70.A and 70.B p the propeller pitch in ft, and p the mass density
to follow, and they are described in Sees. 70.5 of the water.
and 70.6. As mentioned previously, Fcrmann's charts are
(XII) Charts of F. M. Lewis [SNAME, 1951, particularly valuable for the design of propellers
pp. 612-615 and 618-620]. The principal coeffi- for tugs and for towing purposes which operate
cients are: at low speeds of advance and high thrust-load
For many of these problems the range of
factors.
T
Thrust coefficient Kt = D. W. Taylor's charts is entirely inadequate.
pn'D*
The Fermann charts have not been published
Torque coefficient Kq =
or circulated but a set is available in the TMB
p7l'D library.
Sec. 70. •) SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 589

So far known, the design methods and

as Schmidt in Germany, indicated by the following
charts developed by C. W. Dyson ["Screw Pro- references to Eiffel's work:
pellers," Simmons-Boardman, New York, 1924]
(1) "Nouvelles R6cherches sur la R&istance de
are no longer used by propeller designers.
I'Air et I'Aviation (New Research on Air Resist-
70.5 Comments on and Comparison of Pro-
ance and Aviation)," Paris, 1914
peller-Series Charts. Some or all of the pro-
(2) "Travaux Ex^cutfe Pendant la Guerre,
peller-series charts listed in Sec. 70.4 possess
1915-1918 (Projects Completed During the War,
certain disadvantages, rendering them less than
1915-1918)," Paris, 1919
convenient for the use of the propeller designer:
(3) "L'Etude sur I'H^lice Aeri6nne (A Study of
(a) The parent series of models possesses charac- the Airscrew)," Paris, 1920.
teristics known to be inferior to those of later
The most modern and the most useful, as well
designs. Specifically, they have ogival root
as the most comprehensive logarithmic presenta-
sections, blade outlines without skew-back, blade
tion is that of C. W. Prohaska, of the Institute
root sections that are too thin, and so on. This is
of Technology of Denmark,
in Copenhagen.
no fault of the chart makers but a feature in-
Many of these diagrams are based upon test
herent in their age.
data from the Wageningen series of propellers
(b) It is necessary to interpolate between irreg-
developed by L. Troost but there are others in
ularly curved lines to find the proper P/D ratio.
the group based upon tests of single propellers.
The basic series diagrams or Bp and Bu charts of
One such diagram is presented in Fig. 70. A.
D. W. Taylor [S and P, 1943, pp. 275-292] are
This diagram contains the usual propeller
admirable in this respect, with their uniform
characteristic curves of torque coefficient Kg ,
scales of pitch-diameter ratio, closely subdivided.
make preliminary
thrust coefficient Kt
and open-water efficiency
,

(c) It is necessary to calcula-

7j„ , all non-dimensional. The abscissas, embodying
tions or tabulations, to draw an auxiliary curve
two separate scales, are 0-diml values of the
on the chart, and to locate its intersections with
advance coefficient ./ and dimensional values
certain chart curves before determining the
(in English units) of the Taylor advance coeffi-
value of the parameter desired
cient S. The ordinates are a series of simple
(d) The charts as reproduced in the literature
numbers, ranging from 0.006 to 1.0, for the
are too small and too crowded with lines for
0-diml coefficients and for the efficiency fractions.
everyday work. This situation may be remedied
Both horizontal and vertical scales are logarith-
in some cases by procuring large-scale prints of
mic.
the charts from the originators.
There are 4 diagonal scales on the diagram,
(e) They are not usable for small values of the
3 double and 1 single. The upper scales of each
advance coefficient J or large values of the real
of the three pairs represent the dimensional
slip ratio Sr, , as for problems involving towing.
values of the factors A, Ba , and Bp of D. W.
The Fermann charts are in effect inversions of
Taylor's notation, respectively. The mathematical
many of the standard charts, in that the param-
expressions for each of these, in English units of
eter values corresponding to low advance coeffi-
tons, feet, horses, and knots, are listed in a
cients and extra-large real-slip ratios are at the
column in the upper left-hand corner of the
working ends.
diagram. The lower scales of each pair represent
Considering the rather varied amovuit of pro- the 0-diml thrust-load factor Ctl ,
and the basic
peller information useful in the preliminary 0-diml factors 6,. and bg of Prohaska, respectively.
design of a ship, where backing, maneuvering, The fourth single scale gives values of the 0-diml
and operations other than propulsion must be fraction TD/Q.
considered, the type of
so-called logarithmic The Prohaska charts, such as those
original
propeller chart has much to recommend it. This from which 70. A and 70.B are adapted,
Figs.
is on the basis that the designer does not object carry additional scales showing the values of
to a rather concentrated serving of technical 7vo Kt and tjo for / = 0, and the values of /
, ,

information, all on one piece of paper. for Kq = and Kt = 0. These hmit scales are
The logarithmic method of presentation, as omitted from the reproductions to avoid excessive
far as can be learned, was originated by Gustav complication.
Eiffel in France and later developed by Wilhelm The values on the three curves of Kq Kt and
, ,
 Sec. 70.5
590 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN

PROPELLER FOR DOUBLE-ENDED TERRYBOAT H.EN0RD5TROMJ947

Number of Blodes Z" 3
Exponded-Areo Ratio ° 0.42
Me on- Width Ratio
(Width Qt 0.9R)/(MeonWidtl^
Pitch Ratio P/D-- 0.960
Blode-Thickness Fraction^ 0.045
Hub-Diometer Ratio d/D'0.16
Ro><e Angle = Zero
Sl<ew- Bock : None
Blode Sections Symmetricol
Wash Back:
Diameter of Model Propeller
LOGARITHMIC
m rps Units for Mixed Form are in:
/j= 1.99 Ib-sec^/ft^ n is
PROPELLER DIAGRAM
^ Kt ,- Ka N is in rpm ton s, feet, Horses, knots
jo6''"'af>' 'yid '
'7o"

Logarithmic Chart of C. W. Prohaska for a Single

Screw Propeller
Fig. 70.A
Sec. 70.5 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 591

7/0 of Fig. 70. A are related to each other by a first basic coefficient br at the intersection near E.
vertical ordinate intersecting all three of them By and large, the use of any particular series

at the particular advance coefficient J (or 8) chart for the preliminary design of a screw pro-
at which the propeller is Such an
operating. peller gives essentially thesame kind of answer.
ordinate is drawn in broken
on the figure
lines This on the basis that the test data for the
is

through the points C, E, and F. Corresponding model propellers from which the charts were
values on the three double and one single inclined constructed did not suffer from scale or surface
scales are determined by dropping perpendiculars effects, that the observed data are accurate and

on them from the three intersecting points C, E, carefully plotted, and that the use of dimensional
and F, indicated in the diagram. A single perpen- expressions does not omit important factors or
dicular CM
is dropped from the r/o-curve inter- introduce unknown errors. For example, since
section to the scale of TD/Q. Two perpendiculars model propellers are almost invariably tested in
are dropped from the point E on the Kr curve, fresh water, the derived data are also for fresh
one to the double scale of first basic coefficient water. A mass-density factor p(rho) which is

and the other, EG, to the double scale of thrust- omitted for convenience or simplification, as
load coefficient. A single perpendicular is dropped was done by D. W. Taylor, may make a 2 or 3
from the point F at the Kg-curve intersection to per cent difference in ship-propeller data calcu-
the point H on the double scale for the second lated for salt water [Kane, J. R., SNAME, 1951,
basic coefficient. By
having the two scales of p. 626; Schoenherr, K. E., SNAME, 1951, p. 628].
each pair opposite each other at the feet of the A comparison of five kinds of propeller-series
perpendiculars EG, FH, and the second short charts then in use was made some two decades
perpendicular from E, it is convenient to pick ago by H. F. D. Davis [ASNE, Feb 1932, pp.
off either dimensional or non-dimensional values, 8-24]. The discrepancies between the five sets of
or to enter the diagram with these values. preliminary-design characteristics worked out
Assume that a symmetrical-section propeller from the charts was rather more than would now
such as that depicted on Fig. 70. A is to be used be acceptable. It must be remembered, however,
and that the 0-diml thrust-load factor Ctl is that the parent propellers all had rather different
L065. The scale of Ctl is entered at the point characteristics, especially with regard to mean-
G and a line GE is drawn perpendicular to that width ratio and blade-thickness fraction. Unfor-
scale until it intersects the Kr-curve at E. The tunately, a more modern comparison is not
ordinate CEF is erected through the point E available, worked out in the same detail. Some
and the 0-diml J value is read from either the rather general comments are to be found in the
top or the bottom scale as 0.596. If the speed of discussion of a recent paper by F. M. Lewis
advance Va and the propeller diameter D are [SNAME, 1951, pp. 621-641].
known, the rate of rotation is obtained directly For a beginner in the field, it is bewildering to
from the relationship n = Va/(.JD). The actual find so many kinds of charts, all ostensibly for
working efficiency at the point C on the ijo curve the same purpose, but actually varied to suit the
is read off from the side scale as 0.6L type of initial data and the nature of the answer
The 0-diml value of the second basic coefficient desired by several groups of people, experienced
bg is determined by dropping a perpendicular in these procedures. It is likewise most confusing
from F whereupon the
to the inclined scale at H, to find different symbols on each kind of chart,
0-diml value of bg is read off as 0.313. With with some expressions dimensional and others
the values of mass density p, speed of advance non-dimensional. After trying them all, or all
Va and rate of rotation n all known, the torque
, that are available, he is in better position to
Q is determined from the bg formula given on decide which meets his own particular needs,
the diagram. The power Pp which will be absorbed either for analysis or for practical design.
by the propeller is calculated from the derived It is characteristic of any and all propeller-
values of n and Q. series chart-design procedures that the numerical
If the rate of rotation n is given and the power values required for the full-scale ship are obtained
Pp is known, corresponding to the situation in only by estimating the wake fraction w and the
Sec. 59.15, the torque Q is derived by direct thrust-deduction fraction t. The Vq of the open-
calculation. The thrust T is
found eitheiifrom the water test corresponds only to Va on the ship,
value of TD/Q at the intersection M, or from the whence V = Fx/(1 — w), and the thrust T
592 HYDRODYNAATICS IN SHIP DESIGN Srr. 70.6

required of the ship projieller is greater than the derived in Chaps. 66 and 67. The designed ship
predicted total ship resistance i?r by the ratio speed, for wliich the propeller is to give optimum

1/(1 —
0- Further, the propeller efficiency t/b performance, is 20.5 kt. The ship resistance at

behind the ship is greater (or less) than the open- this speed estimated in Sec. 66.9 as 171,830 lb,
is

water efficiency ijo by the relative rotative effi- or say 172,000 lb. The corresponding effective
ciency These three unknown factors may be
Tjfi . power Pb is 10,827 horses. The wake fraction w
estimated from analyses of trial data on similar is estimated from Eq. (60. ii) in Sec. 60.8 as
ships [Davis, H. F. D., ASNE, Aug 1932, pp. 0.261. This figure from the 0.255
is different
332-352; Schoenherr, K. E., PNA, 1939, Vol. II, worked out as the example in that
illustrative
Chap. Ill] or, as is usually the case, they may be section because it is calculated at an early stage
determined from tests of a self-propelled model. of the design, using preliminary dimensions and
70.6 Preliminary-Design Procedure, Employ- parameters instead of the final ABC values in-
ing Series Charts. For the screw-propeller- serted in the illustrative example. •

design procedure set down in this book several The thrust-deduction fraction / is estimated
of the series charts are utilized in the preliminary- by the method described in Sec. applying 60.9,
design stage, particularly for determining the a 15 per cent reduction to the value derived from
characteristics and for selecting a suitable stock Eq. (60. vi) because of the very thin skeg con-
propeller to be used in the first self-propulsion templated ahead of the propeller. This gives a
tests of the ABC ship models. This is not to be predicted value for ^ of 0.111.
taken as an indication that series charts are To keep the propeller loading as low as possible,
suitable for making only first approximations in consistent with good performance, four (4) blades
the early stages of a ship design. In fact, by far are to be used. This means that the blade width
the greater number of propellers designed in and blade thickness can be small, with a resulting
practice and manufactured for ships are worked rather high efficiency. The mean-width ratio
up from these charts, insofar as the propeller Cm/D is taken tentatively in the range of 0.20
features can be determined from them. The blade-thickness
to 0.25. fraction t^/D is
The references of Sec. 70.4 in which the various assumed to be These
of the order of 0.04 to 0.05.
propeller-series charts are published usually values are typical for 4-bladed propellers [PNA,
describe in considerable detail the procedure to 1939, Vol. II, p. 157] and are considered reasonable
be followed .for the particular problem at hand. for the first approximation. Since adequate
In many cases they also contain examples worked clearance is allowed in the design of the propeller
out to illustrate these procedures. aperture on the transom-stern ABC ship, and
As examples of the methods of using propeller- since the skeg ahead of the propeller is relatively
series charts there are given here the steps thin, the inclination of the streamlines in the
employed and the calculations made for the pre- inflow jet with reference to the propeller axis
liminary design of a propeller for the transom- should not be unduly large. There appears to be
stern ABC ship, leading to the selection of a no need, therefore, of raking the blades, especially
stock propeller for self-propulsion tests of the as they would then have to be thicker to with-
first model.
stand the offset centrifugal forces.
The following three methods were used:
The Prohaska preliminary-design procedure is

(1) That of K. E. Schoenherr, based upon tests described and illustrated first. Prohaska's pro-
of EMB series propellers, as set down in PNA, peller-design chart, as contrasted to the propeller-

1939, Vol. II, pp. 158-168, including propeller- data chart of Fig. 70. A, is somewhat more intricate
design charts 1 through 4 and is used in a somewhat different manner.
(2) That of F. M. Lewis, based upon tests of Fig. 70. B, adapted from one of these charts,

Wageningen B-series propellers, as described in contains five sets of Kq graphs, five Kt graphs,
SNAME, 1951, Vol. 59, pp. 618-620 and five -qo graphs, one each for a given P/D
(3) That W.
Prohaska, based upon logarith-
of C. ratio, plus the four sets of diagonal scales of
mic charts embodying the test data of the Wagen- Fig. 70.A. In addition there are three maximum-
ingen B series of model propellers. efficiency graphs for use when:

Certain data were taken as basic for all three (i) The tbrust-load coefficient Ctl or the factor
methods, using a propeller diameter D of 20 ft, .1 is known
Sec. 70.6 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 593

Fig. 70.B Logarithmic Chaet of C. W. Prohaska for Five Propellers, Wageningen B.4.40 Series
594 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.6

(ii) The basic factors br or Bu are known described, except that instead of picking r/o and
(iii) The basic factors bg or Bp are known. J values for the crossing of the Ctl perpendicular
and the graph of "r/Max for Ctl or A," they are
For the study on the ABC ship, the propeller
picked for the crossings of that perpendicular
diagram for the B.4.40 series is selected. This
series number indicates that the propeller has
with the several Kt graphs for a range of P/D
values. The latter crossings are marked by small
four (4) blades and that its expanded-area ratio
open circles. The values derived for the complete
Ab/Ao is 0.40. The mean-width ratio is only
from the information block in the upper
range of P/D available on the chart are listed
0.189,
in Table 70.a.
right corner, but this group of propellers appears
to correspond most nearly to that desired. TABLE 70.a Variation op Epficienct with Rate
The first step is to find the thrust-load coefficient OF Rotation and P/D Ratio
Ctl using the expression Ctl — T/{Q.5pAqVI).
,
The data listed here are for the Wageningen B.4.40 series

The thrust T is obtained by dividing the total propellers from Prohaska's logarithmic chart, Fig. 70.B.

resistance Rt oi 172,000 lb by (1 - ^ = 0.889;

Thrust-
it is found to be 193,476 lb. The speed of advance

VA is the ship speed, 20.5 kt, times [(1 — w) =

0.739], or 15.15 kt. The thrust-load coefficient then
becomes
193,476
Ltl —
(0.5)(1.9905)(0.7854)(20)'[(1.6889)15.15]'

= 0.945.

Prohaska's chart. Fig. 70.B, is entered on the

lower of the pair of upper right-hand diagonals,
marked Ctl Draw a perpendicular to this line
at the value of Ctl =
0.945, marked on the
diagram by an arrowhead. Where this perpendic-
ular crosses the graph marked "tjmsx for Ctl ,"
P/D from the
interpolate for the correct value of
Kt curves for various P/D ratios.
series of five
The optimum P/D value corresponding to the
crossing marked with an "x" on the diagram is

1.02.
From this crossing draw a vertical line to the
top of the diagram. Where this line cuts the series
of r/o efficiency curves, at a point corresponding
to a P/D
of 1.02, marked by a small solid circle,
read the corresponding efficiency value ?jo From •

the scales at the right or left the open-water

efficiency is 0.68.
Continuing up the vertical fine to the lower
horizontal scale at the top, the value of the ad-
vance coefficient J is read off as 0.703. From the
relationship J = Vo/inD) or ra = Vo/{JD),
calculate the rpm as follows:

Vo_ _ Vj_ _ 1.6889(15.15)60

= 109.2 rpm.
JD JD (0.703)20
If this rate of rotation appears to be not suit-
able, for some reason or other, it may be necessary
to sacrifice some propeller efficiency for a desired
rate which is faster or slower. The amount so
sacrificed is determined by following the procedure
Sec. 70.6 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 595

Then Schoenherr's K, = K„i{J)~. For a range of

values of the advance coefficient J from O.GO to
0.80, the calculated values of K, are listed in
Table 70. b. The parabola corresponding to these

TABLE 70.b Data for Plotting Auxiliary

Curve on Schoenhbrr Chart
From the text, K,^ = 0.371245 = 0.371.

Advance Coefficient A', = K,,J^

0.1336
0.1569
0.1819
0.208S
0.2376

values is then drawn lightly in pencil on Chart L

At the intersection of this pencil parabola with
the heavy broken line marked "eMax (or rjuax) for
Ktd Const." the following optimum values are
picked off:
596 HYDROnVNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.:

gave graphs and rules for finding the developed- [RPSS, 1948, pp. 259-260], based upon the follow-
area ratio of a screw propeller in the preliminary- ing references:
design stage ["Recent Data on Cavitation
(a) Kempf, G., HSPA, 1940, Vol. II, p. 46
Criteria," Inter. Shipbldg. Progr., 1954, Vol. 1,
(b) Conn, J. F. C, lESS, 1934-1935, Vol. 78, p. 27
No. 1, pp. 39-47]. The following values pertaining
(c) Gebers, F., Schiffbau, 1933, p. 235
to the ABC transom-stern design were used to (d) Robertson, J. C, MESA, 1929, p. 102.
calculate the ratio Ad/Ao by the procedure on
page 45 of the reference: The only comprehensive data available on the
characteristics of model propellers for what might
Thrust to be delivered by the propeller in salt
backing conditions are those given
be termed full
water, 193,476 lb
by H. Nordstrom in "Screw Propeller Charac-
F.
Rate of rotation n (assumed), 109 rpm or
teristics" [SSPA Rep. 9, 1948]. In this report
1.817 rps
Nordstrom presents the results of tests on nine
Speed of advance Va or Ve ,
15.15 kt or 25.59
4-bladed model propellers, with P/D ratios
ft per sec
varying from to 1.6, over a range of advance
Number of blades Z, 4
coefficient J from -|-2.0 to —2.0.
Submergence of propeller axis below at-rest
The problem of designing screw propellers
waterline, 15.5 ft
intended to run normally in the partly immersed
Assumed height of stern-wave crest above
condition is discussed under surface propellers in
at-rest WL, 1 ft
Sec. 71.10.
Assumed vapor-pressure head e, 1 ft
70.8 Preliminary Comments on Propeller-
Atmospheric-pressure head, 33 ft
Design Features. Strictly speaking, any pro-
Value of pressure head (p„, — e)/iv, 48.5 ft.
and
peller series chart intended for analysis

The derived values were: design purposes is valid only for other propellers
having the same geometric shape and physical
Diameter D, 19.75 ft
characteristics. For example, systematic data
Mean pitch-diameter ratio P/D, 0.952
based on tests of model propellers having small
Cavitation number ao at a value of R/Bm^^ =
solid hubs do not represent the expected perform-
0.8, in the 12 o'clock position, 4.01
ance of full-scale propellers with larger built-up
Developed-area ratio Au/Ao 0.532.
hubs. In the case of almost every new design it is
,

By one of the alternative calculation methods necessary to depart from the parent propeller
given by van Manen the value of Ao/Aa (his in some physical respect. The designer must have

FJF) is 0.546. The developed-area ratio is at least some indication of the effect of these
sufficiently close to the expanded-area ratio, at changes upon the predicted performance of the
least for not-too-wide blades, so that no distinction new design.

need be made between them. A few of the principal propeller features have
The diameter is thus slightly smaller than that to be decided upon before the preliminary design
assumed in the calculations preceding, and the is begun; they are the given quantities, so to
pitch-diameter ratio is some 5 or 6 per cent less, speak. Others can be determined after the principal
but the area ratio is considerably larger. However, characteristics are known, such as the exact shape
the final design computations for the ABC pro- of the blade profile or the rake.

peller, at the end of Sec. 70.31, give a r&t\o A e/A^ An alternative method is to work up a series of

of 0.478, indicating reasonable agreement with preliminary designs with the given quantities
the foregoing. varied systematically, and then to select the best
70.7 Modification of Series-Chart Procedure of the series for further development toward a
for Other Design Problems. For preliminary final design. done by K. E. Schoenherr for
This is

designs in which the propeller is required to have four different propellers, to determine the effect
good backing performance, as for tugs and ferry- of varying D and n [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, Table 18,

boats, there are few propeller-series charts avail- p. 172]. If series charts are used, the time involved
able. The stopping and backing situation is for each design is so small that this should almost
discussed rather fully in Part 5 of Volume III be considered as routine procedure.
of this book. Suitable propeller-design features Rather than to burden the description of the
are well set forth by W. P. A. van Lammeren series-chart method in Sees. 70.5 and 70.6 or the
 Sec. 70.10 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 597

Lerbs short method in Sees. 70.21 through 70.38 propeller was to keep the thrust-load coefficient
with paragraphs involving considerations of low and to obtain a wheel that would work in a
engineering instead of analysis for hydrodynamics, region of the highest possible ideal and real
there are given here some brief comments on the efficiencies, the latter represented by a value of
selection of certain physical features as governed about O.Sjjj Another reason was that pointed
.

by the problem in hand. out by E. K. Sullivan and W. G. Scarborough in

70.9 Selection of Propeller Diameter. In their paper on "Machinery Design of the Schuyler
both the series-chart and the Lerbs short-cut Otis Bland" [SNAME, 1952, pp. 467-503]. There
exaritiples worked out in this chapter the propeller (on page 474) they stated that, as a result of
diameter is selected in advance. If there are their studies, "the largest propeller that could be
operational or other limitations on diameter, the accommodated would have the least total annual
designer has Httle or no freedom of choice. He operating cost."
must do the best that is possible under the Objections against large casting and shipping
circumstances, but with a clear understanding on sizesand weights can be overcome by develop-
the part of everyone concerned that it is not the ments in detachable blades and welded assemblies
best that could be done if he were free of these described in Sec. 70.43. It is assumed in the
limitations. foregoing that the rate of rotation n of the
he has freedom of choice as to diameter, he
If propeller shaft can be and is adjusted to suit the
proceeds on the basis that the propeller is the optimum diameter. If not, n becomes a given
most important unit in its part of the ship, and quantity and D is one of those to be found by
that it can have whatever diameter best fits it the design procedure.
for the task to be performed. If propulsive effi- Means of determining the proper diameter,
ciency is not a primary requirement then almost and comments on optimum screw-propeller diam-
any available propeller can be used and only eters, are given by:
the sketchiest of design procedures is necessary.
(1) Schoenherr, K. E., PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 159, 165,
Sec. 34.2 describes and illustrates the reasons
170, 172
why screw propellers with the largest diameter (2) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., RPSS, 1948, pp. 232-233
and the lowest thrust loading may be expected (3) Lewis, F. M., SNAME, 1951, pp. 619-620
to work at the highest real efficiency. Some years (4) Van Manen, J. D., and Troost, L., SNAME, 1952,

ago K. E. Schoenherr said ". in general, that . .

pp. 446-448
(5) Edstrand, H., "Model Teats on the Optimum Diam-
propeller is the best choice which has the largest
eter for Propellers," SSPA Rep. 22, 1953 (in EngUsh).
diameter admissible in the propeller aperture"
[PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 166]. F. M. Lewis removed If the propeller power and the ship speed are
the latter restriction by saying that "In nearly low, the friction and pressure drag of the blades
all cases of modern ships the optimum diameter becomes large in proportion to the thrust. Some
will be the largest that is practical, . .
." [SNAME, efficiency 7nay be gained by reducing the propeller
1951, p. 619]. If the ship hull is designed to diameter below the optimum given by the
accommodate the propeller, rather than the orthodox design procedures. However, the designer
other way around, the latter will be properly is cautioned against any reduction of this kind

guarded against air leakage from the surface, for higher powers and higher speeds, where it
against racing at sea, against rotating through a may result in an actual loss of efficiency. The
region of excessively high wake, and against all arguments against this are set forth by H.
other ills to which a large propeller is supposed Edstrand, in reference (5) preceding, especially
to be subject. pages 24-27 and Figs. 13 and 14. His diagrams
The aim in the prehminary design of
principal illustrate clearly the reasons for decreasing D
the ABC was to swing the largest possible
hull in one case and holding it in another.
single propeller. This was the reason for develop- 70.10 Determining the Rate of Rotation.
ing the arch type of stern, which permitted a Closely related to the selection of propeller
propeller diameter D of 24 ft on a draft of only diameter is a determination of the proper rate
26 ft. The arch recess afforded effective shielding of rotation. On the basis that the propeller designer
from air leakage and was hoped) equally
(it has the same freedom of choice as for propeller
effective protection against racing when the diameter, and that optimum propulsive perform-
ship is pitching. The reason for using the large ance is desired, the rate of rotation n should be
598 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.11

that which gives the maximum propeller efficiency the selected P/D ratio (interpolated if necessary),
Tjo under the trial or designed-load conditions gives the working efficiency r; to be expected.
specified. When propulsion is by a piston-type internal-
While the design procedures described by combustion engine in which the mean effective
examples in this chapter give n as a part of the pressure in the cylinders is limited to a maximum
solution, several practical requirements are to be value, it becomes necessary, as pointed out in
met before this value can be approved, as it were. Sec. 69.8, to match the rate of rotation and the
The first involves the ability of the selected or torque very carefully in order to achieve the
probable type of propelling machinery to deliver maximum or rated brake power. In other words,
the required torque and power at the specified if the power of the engine is to be utilized,
full

rate of rotation. This situation is discussed at deUvered at a certain rate of rotation and at
some length by J. E. Burkhardt [ME, 1942, Vol. I, none other, the power absorbed by the propeller
pp. 28-33]. It is assumed here that no problems connected to it has to be exactly the same,
are presented because of the type of engine and neglecting transmission losses. It is most im-
of the reduction gear or transmission system portant, therefore, that after the engine is selected
employed. both the pitch and the diameter of the propeller
K. E. Schoenherr illustrates a procedure be correct for the shaft power and rate of rotation
whereby the effect on propeller efficiency tjo of available.
varying n, P/D, and certain other variables is Experience through the past several decades
readily determined [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, p. 172 indicates that inaccurate predictions almost
and Tables 19, 20]. always err on the side of designing a propeller
Finally, the vibration characteristics of the which absorbs too much power at the specified
ship, the engine, the shafting, and the machinery rate of rotation. If slowed down to match the
foundations must be considered when selecting power of the engine, the rate of rotation is usually
the rate of rotation. However, this is primarily less than for maximum engine power. The common
a matter of the number of blades, and as such is remedy is to cut off the blade tips; this enables
discussed in Sec. 70.12. the engine to run up to rated speed (and power)
70. 11 The Proper Pitch-Diameter Ratio Pitch ; but often spoils the shape of a useful part of the
Variation with Radius. Assuming that the rate propeller.
of rotation for the designed maximum or other There is a great deal of discussion in the litera-
specified power is fixed, or that it is to he within ture on screw propellers concerning the wisdom
certain limits, the pitch of the propeller is the or the necessity of attempting to match the
next factor which logically evolves, since for pitch at each radius with the average wake
zero real shp the effective pitch is the average velocity at that radius. This matching is under-

speed of advance divided by the rate of rotation. taken on the basis that the blade element at each
However, and ship-design purposes
for analysis radius should work at an effective angle of attack
the pitch-diameter ratio is found to be a preferable that is efficient for that radius. Obviously, some
parameter. elements should not be underloaded while others
In Sec. 34.15 the effects on propeller efficiency are overloaded, by any reasonable method of
of too high and too low a P/D ratio are described reckoning. Furthermore, overloading the extreme
and illustrated. In practically all propeller-series blade tips involves excessive tip-vortex losses.
design charts it is possible to pick a P/D ratio Three situations are to be considered here, in
which gives the maximum propeller efficiency which there may be:
rjo for a given set of working conditions. In Fig.
70.B, for example, it is noted that there is a (I) An appreciable variation of wake velocity
curve of optimum efficiency jjodua:;) for thrust-load (or wake from the propeller
fraction) with radius
factor Ctl A normal to the inclined double
line axis, combined with a reasonably uniform wake

scale for Ctl and A cuts the heavy line for velocity around the circumference at any radius.

lodnnx) at the best J-value. Interpolation between This situation occurs abaft most bodies of revolu-
Kt for the various pitch-diameter
the values of tion, like torpedoes, when the propeller axis
along the normal line mentioned, gives the
ratios, coincides with the body axis.

optimum P/D values. A point vertically above (II) Some consistent variation of wake velocity
this intersection, on the curves of efficiency tj for with radius from the propeller axis, but in which
Sec. 70.12 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 599

the magnitude of wake velocity around the cir- gain which might be achieved in tlie ideal or hydrodynamic
efficiency by the adoption of these procedures is very
cumference at any radius is highly irregular. This
small, andis overshadowed by the effects of blade-efficiency
is the case in the disc position of a single screw (i.e., section-drag losses, etc.) introduced by the changes

carried abaft a centerline skeg on a ship
form.
(Ill) A possibility or probability of cavitation, or
perhaps a certainty of it if the effective angles of
attack of the blade elements at each radius are
not kept within certain limiting values. Although
cavitation is not normally to be expected in the
upper blade positions of the propeller of a single-
screw ship, it can and probably does occur if the
vessel is fast and if it is driven hard in a loading
condition where the at-rest tip submergence is
small, approaching zero.
of normal in angles of incidence where the wake concentration is high
"(3) On the other hand, the above results suggest that no
from the adoption
special loss in efficiency is to be expected
of moderate pitch variations which are favourable from
the point of view of cavitation or flow breakdown, and
this leaves the designer considerable freedom in the
matter of adopting such alternative pitch-variation lines
from root to tip of the blades as might be considered
desirable from this point of view
"(4) It appears that the quantity designated relative-
rotative-efficiency has a real meaning, in terms of the
methods of analysis usually adopted,and its value can be
estimated by calculation, in the manner described in
the paper. The numerical values obtained agree reasonably
well with the experimental data."

Good propeller design to meet situation (I)

unquestionably calls for a radial variation in In the example of propeller design by the circu-
pitch corresponding generally to the radial varia- lation theory carried through in detail in Sees.

tion in wake velocity, so that a given distribution 70.21 through 70.38 of this chapter a propeller is

of thrust with radius fraction is achieved. It has worked up by the Lerbs short method for the

been the aim of many inventors and ship designers single-screw transom-stern design of the ABC ship.
to incorporate a stern bulb around a single-screw It may be argued that, by the Burrill-Yang
propeller axis which would produce a high average criteria, the variations in wake velocity and

wake velocity as well as one which was reasonably wake fraction for this case, indicated by Figs.
uniform around a circumference at each radius. 60.M and 60. N, are not sufficient to justify the
However, because of the predominantly upward design of a wake-adapted propeller. Furthermore,
component of flow under the sterns of most ships, cavitation is not expected to be a problem in the

this desirable end has so far not been attained. propulsion of this vessel. Nevertheless, the Lerbs
L. C. Burrill and C. S. Yang made a compre- 1954 design procedure is carried through on the
hensive theoretical study of many situations, basis that both of these features do require
involving both uniform and non-uniform wake special attention. This renders the design solution

velocities over the propeller disc, for a series of more general in character and makes it fully

screw propellers having a great many types of applicable, as described, for a situation where
variation of pitch with radius [INA, 1953, pp. radial wake variation and the possibiUty of
437-460]. In fact, they cover analytically most cavitation should definitely be taken into account.
of the situations that would be encountered in a If large ship propellers could be and were pur-

wide variety of ship designs. They arrived at chased from stock, there might be some reason
certain general conclusions concerning radial for omitting a propeller-design calculation that
pitch variation which appear to cover most requires more than one or two man-days. For a
phases of situations (II) and (III) preceding that large ship, expensive to run as well as to build,
a ship designer might be likely to encounter. requiring a custom wheel, so to speak, there is
Items (1) through (4), listed hereunder, are every reason why a propeller-design procedure
quoted verbatim from page 446 of the Burrill should take account of all the possibiUties and
and Yang reference: should take advantage of all the latest develop-
ments in the art.
"(1) From the point of view of overall efficiency, and apart
from any consideration of cavitation or flow breakdown, 70.12 Choice of Number of Blades. The
there appears to be no material advantage to be gained choice of the number of blades is one of the first
from the adoption of a radial variation of pitch, both in a decisions to be made in the design of a screw
uniform stream and in a variable wake-stream two
propeller. As an aid in reaching this decision,
"(2) In particular, it seems that there is no special advan-
tage to be gained from the application of the various
or more preliminary designs may be worked up
alternative methods of design, based on the principle of as a sort of series, each with a different number of
minimum-energy loss, which have been examined, as any blades. The final selection is usually based on a
600 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.13

consideration of the natural frequencies of vibra- It is interesting to note that screw-propeller

tion of the hull, the machinery foundations, the designers, even in the earliest days of develop-
propelling plant, and the propulsion system ment of this device, considered that they had
[Kane, J. R., and McGoldrick, R. T., SNAME, some latitude in the number of blades and usually
1949, Vol. 57, pp. 193-252]. The number of exercised it.

blades which best avoids these frequencies or their
major harmonics in the operating speed range is
chosen [Brehme, H., Schiff und Hafen, Nov 1954;
abstracted in English in MENA, Aug 1955, pp.
318-321].
In some cases restrictions on propeller diameter,
or the need for large blade area, coupled with
high power requirements, indicate the use of 5 or
even 6 blades. Also this number of blades may be
70.13 Use of Raked Blades. Due to the
contraction of the inflow jet ahead of the propeller,
the water enters the propeller disc at a slight
inward angle, depicted in Fig. 32. M. A slight
rake aft places the blades normal to the flow,
with a gain in efficiency. On the other hand, rake
causes an increase in the bending stresses in the
blade due to the fact that the centrifugal force is
offset from the blade root. In heavily loaded or

necessary to keep resonant frequencies outside of high-speed propellers this latter factor is usually
the operating speed range. Two-bladed propellers the controlling one in limiting rake. Rakes of
are used on sailing ships with auxiliary power, as over 15 deg are seldom used in any ship or propeller
they offer the least resistance when housed abaft design.
the skeg in the saiUng condition. Forward rakes are rarely seen. Sir Charles
For twin- or multiple-screw ships, a 4-bladed Parsons at one time advocated a forward rake
propeller can be of smaller diameter than a of 1 in 10 for very thin propeller blades on the
3-bladed propeller for the same power. This means high-speed experimental vessel Turbinia. His idea
that smaller bossings and struts can be used to was that an axial component of the centrifugal
maintain the same hull tip clearance. Usually, the force onthem would act in an after direction and
reduction in appendage resistance more than help balance the thrust forces acting forward
compensates for the small loss in propeller [Burrill, L. C, IME, 1951, Vol. LXIII, p. 15].
efficiency when using four blades. As in single- In some ship designs, where the maximum
screw ships, propeller efficiency is usually a volume must be crowded into a given length,
secondary consideration in the choice of the the hull profile is not only carried well aft toward
number of blades. First, there is little variation the propeller position (s) but the waterlines have
between 3- and 4-bladed
in efficiency propellers large slopes in this region. Blades may then be
and second, vibration considerations will again raked aft to augment the fore-and-aft clearances
be the controlling factor, especially for ships of between the propeller sweep line and the forward
moderate to high power. In many cases other edge of the aperture opening, if the vessel has
factors, such as type of engine, number of cyl- a single screw, or between the sweep line and
inders, and the like, enter into the choice of the the hull, bossings, skegs, or struts if it has multiple
number of blades. screws. W. P. A. van Lammeren [RPSS, 1948,
Further discussions of the proper number of p. 229] gives the following limits (not design or
blades to be used for a screw propeller are given by: optimum values) for rake:

(a) G. S. Baker, SD, 1933, Vol. II, pp. 49-50 With moderately loaded screws for merchant
(a)
(b) R. H. Tingey, ME, 1942, Vol. I, pp. 277-278
vessels, 6 to 10 deg for single-screw ships, and 8
(c) D. W. Taylor, S and P, 1943, pp. 143-144

(d) W. P. A. van Lammeren, RPSS, 1948, pp. 225-226. to 12 deg for twin-screw ships
(b) With heavily loaded, fast-running screws for
Although it appears absurd from the point of
warships generally no rake is used.
balancing and of reduction of bending moments
on the propeller shaft, there are some appi'eciable When running under load a propeller blade
advantages in the use of a single-bladed propeller. actually bends forward. This may be as much as
These are discussed by S. Sassi [Ann. Rep. Rome 0.10 or 0.12 ft at the tip of a destroyer propeller.
Model Basin, 1938, Vol. VII, pp. 95-99]. There is Thus if it is desired to run at the designed speed
reported the case of a sliip which normally with no rake it would be wise to design the pro-
traveled at 10.5 kt at 70 rpm but which, with all peller with a little rake aft to allow for this
blades except one broken off, made 7 kt at about bending effect.
85 rpm [SBSR, 6 Mar 1924, p. 289]. If proper attention is given to the details of
Sec. 70. SCREW-PROPJiLLER DESIGN 601

the stem arrangement in the design stage, allow- but is attached to the fixed part t)f the rudder,
ing ample clearances in all directions, little or no the rudder horn, or the rudder itself, as described
rake is required. There is usually no excuse to in Sec. 74.15 and illustrated in Figs. 66. Q and
be forced to excessive angles of rake in order to 74.K.
obtain proper aperture clearances. It is customary and convenient, as well as
70.14 Propeller-Hub Diameter; Hub Fairing. good design, to shape the propeller hub and its
Some general comments on hub-diameter ratios cap as a fair, tapering continuation of the barrel
d/D are given here. More detailed comments are or boss just forward of the propeller which houses
to be found in Sec. 70.43, under a discussion of the propeller bearing. This means that the end of
the mechanical construction of screw propellers. the propeller hub next to the bearing has a
It is rarely possible to consider hydrodynamics diameter about equal to that of the bearing
alone in a discussion of hub shape and diameter barrel. The end away from that barrel has a
for a screw propeller, especially for one at the reduced diameter, as small as is consistent with
stern of a hull. Obviously the blades must be the necessary mechanical strength and rigidity
attached to some sort of hub or enlargement on for the type of attachment of the hub to the shaft.
the shaft, which can not have too small a diameter. In the case of built-up propellers with adjust-
Further, the geometric pitch angle 0(phi) becomes able or demountable blades it is rarely possible
very large as the radius R is diminished toward to make the hub diameter as small as the bearing
zero; too large, in fact, to make any blade lift barrel so that the fair surface of revolution between
effective in producing useful thrust. Finally, the latter and the end of the hub cap has a bulge
there is no point in making the hub much smaller in it in the vicinity of the disc plane.
than the diameter of the housing for the propeller In a speed range where the smaller, pointed
shaft bearing just ahead of it. end of a propeller fairing cap is covered with a
There have been recurring proposals, over the hub vortex or swirl core, sometimes having a
past century or more, for propeller hubs having diameter half as great as that of the cap at its
diameters of one-third or more of the propeller larger end, the portion of the cap within the core
diameters. Some early ship propellers were is obviously serving no useful purpose. It is

built in this way. While it is true that the root possible, in some cases, to eliminate the swirl
sections of a normal screw propeller do relatively core or hub vortex entirely by cutting the cap
little work as a rule, at least they permit the off square at about two-thirds or three-quarters
water to pass through, which a large solid hub of its length from the after end. The separation
would not do. drag which occurs abaft this blunt end is almost
From considerations of strength and mechanical certain to be less in magnitude than the drag
attachment, both of the hub to the shaft and the resulting from the presence of vapor pressure
blades to the hub, the diameter of the propeller only inside a swirl core of somewhat smaller
hub depends partly upon the diameter of the shaft is low enough and other
diameter. If the pressure
and partly upon the widths of the blade sections at conditions are favorable, the swirl core may
the root, where they join the hub. It usually varies persist, even abaft a blunt or square ending
between 0.16D and 0.20D for solid propellers. For ["All Hands," Bu. Nav. Pers., U. S. Navy Dept.,
controllable or built-up propellers the diameter of Feb 1953, pp. 18-19].
the hub may be as large as 0.28 or 0.30Z), with It appears unlikely, on a fast or high-speed
a possible maximum 0.25D for a propeller
of ship, that any reasonable slope at the pointed
having blades that are demountable but not end of a fairing cap will eliminate the swirl core
adjustable [ME, 1942, Vol. I, Fig. 2, p. 269]. or hub vortex entirely. Certainly the small slopes
It is pointed out in Sec. 70.43 that a loss of of 8 and 10 up to 20 deg (with reference to the
efficiency of from 1 to 1.5 points may be expected shaft axis), previously used on the fairing caps
if a built-up rather than an integral hub is used; of the fastest vessels, such as the World War II
for example, a drop in tj from 0.685 to 0.675 or German cruiser Prinz Eugen, are inadequate for
0.670. this purpose.
To avoid separation and cavitation abaft the Swirl cores abaft the fairing caps of model
hub, a fairing cap is usually fitted at the after propellers have been observed and photographed
end. This cap also covers the propeller nut. In inmodel basins, variable-pressure Avater tunnels,
many cases the hub fairing cap does not rotate and circulating-water channels. However, because
602 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.15

of theknown and unknown scale effects, it is not the area ratio of the parent model (s) may be
yet safe to make full-scale predictions from a expected to give the performance indicated by
model experiment. Swirl cores and hub vortexes the chart. Variations from the parent values
have been and can be observed on ships through have in the past usually been left to the experience
special glass viewing ports installed in proper and judgment of the designer, with little to rely
locations in the shell. upon if he does not have that kind of experience.
70. 1 5 Determination of Expanded-Area Ratio ;
Only recently there have appeared a new
Choice of Blade Profile. For design purposes in series of graphs and a procedure based upon
this book the blade area of a propeller corresponds cavitation characteristics of the models of certain
to the expanded area of all the blades. This is propeller series, devised by J. D. van Manen,
usually expressed as the ratio of the expanded whereby values of the proper developed-area
area Asto the disc area .4o As a means of arriving
. ratio may be determined [Inter. Shipbldg. Progr.,
at the blade outUne or profile, use is made of the 1954, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 39-47]. Data derived by
mean-width ratio, represented by the ratio of this method are presented at the end of Sec. 70.6.
the average expanded chord length c^f of one In the example of the Lerbs' method of design-
blade to the propeller diameter D. The high and ing a wake-adapted propeller by the circulation
low limits for these ratios, in recent and current theory, described in Sees. 70.21 through 70.38,
propeller design, are given by K. E. Schoenherr in which cavitation is definitely to be avoided,
and W. P. A. van Lammeren [PNA, 1939, Vol. the chord widths of the sections at the outer
II, p. 157; RPSS, 1948, p. 227]: radii are selected to give —Ap values which will

Propellers for
Sec. 70.16 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 603

Van Lammeren, W. P. A., RPSS, 1948, pp. 226-227 Arc for Meosurinq Ancjles 40 45 50
(a)
of Rotation 25^''(
(b) Schoenherr, K. E., PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 157, 162.
On page 157, 1st col., there given a formula (119)
is First Position of |g \

which produces a practical form of expanded blade Tronsporent /\ J>^^\.

outline that is generally elliptical in shape. Although
5heet ot X .^ x
not stated there, this is for a propeller not subject
2 R *\/ V=^/\ ^iieq
Ending-,
to cavitation.

Comments concerning proper blade widths are

given in Sec. 70.17.
70.16 Selecting and Applying Skew-Back.
The hydrodynamic reasons for applying skew-
back to screw-propeller blades are explained in
Sec. 32.15. Repeated briefly, skew-back is used
to prevent certain corresponding points on the
blade sections at every radius, or at a group of
adjacent radii, from passing simultaneously Intersection
through a region of high wake velocity directly
abaft a skeg ending, a bossing termination, or a
large strut. The necessity for skew-back in the
design of a surface propeller is perhaps somewhat
easier to understand. Here it is not desirable
that the entire length of the leading edge of a
blade, oran appreciable portion of that edge,
should swing downward and strike the water
surface at the same instant.
The actual application of skew-back is handi-
capped, however, because it is not yet known
just what part a blade element requires to be
of
time or in angular position,
offset successively, in
from the high-wake region. This part is probably
not the leading edge, nor the trailing edge, nor
the locus of the midlengths of the expanded
elements. It is possibly the locus of the centers of
pressure of the elements, possibly the locus of the
points of maximum thickness, or better still the
locus of points opposite a certain part of the pres-
sure field of each element, as yet not known.
Lacking this information, the locus of the positions
of maximum blade-element thickness is probably
the best but, as explained presently, the use of
this line is neither convenient nor practical.
Little is yet known about the rate at which
the backward offset of the selected skew-back line
should change with blade radius or, in other
words, what should be its shape, defined in
Sec. 32.15. Manifestly, the basic reference line
or plane for estabUshing skew-back is the position
of the region of maximum wake velocity, at or
near its intersection with the plane of the pro-
peller disc. For a vertical, symmetrical, center-
plane this is the vertical plane
skeg ending
through the propeller axis. For a contra-guide
skeg ending the locus of the maximum-wake
positions in the plane of the disc is not known
604 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.16

(e) Straight in the disc plane, not coinciding with -projected outline as the one whose radial segments
a radius, from the hub radius to the tip radius should swing successively and uniformly into the
(f) Curved, usually with a sweep-back toward high-wake region.
the tip that is opposite to the direction of rotation. It is not feasible, however, by any method as
yet known, to fashion a suitable projected-blade
Whatever the shape of the locus on the propeller outline, with fair root-to-tip characteristics, by
which is not to pass simultaneously across the working from the leading edge. Experience indi-
basic reference trace abaft the hull ending, the cates that the locus of the midlengths of the
former drawn on a sheet of thin transparent
is
expanded blade is the most suitable
sections
material to the same scale as the reference trace. construction which to introduce the
line in
In Fig. 70. C the transparent material is shown skew-back. This midlength locus, to which are
as rectangular in outline and the selected-skew- applied the half-chord expanded lengths of the
back locus is drawn in its proper position with forebodies of the blade sections at the various
reference to a straight radial line tangent to the then adjusted in shape until the leading
radii, is
locus at the hub radius. To the transparent sheet edge resulting from this construction gives the
there are added concentric circles at 0.2/?, 0.3i2, desired equidifferent angular intersections. This
and so on. A pin is inserted through both the
is determined by the method diagrammed in
transparent overlay and the under sheet upon Fig. 70. C, substituting the leading edge for the
which the skeg ending is drawn, at the propeller- purely schematic rotating locus shown there.
shaft axis, so that the overlay may be rotated to At or near the tip it is expected that the angular
simulate the rotation of the propeller. An arc
differences will increase because of the large-
is added on the under sheet, just outside the tip radius curves used to form the tip profile. The
circle in the figure, to indicate the angular amount midlength locus is preferred over the locus of the
by which the overlay is rotated from an assumed chordwise positions of the maximum thickness
zero position. of each section because the former is usually
The overlay is turned in the direction of pro- made tangent to the pitch reference line at the
peller rotation until the locus on it crosses the hub and it has less curvature at the outer radii.
basic reference trace at some selected fraction of Until more is known concerning the controlling
the maximum radius, say at 0.2/2. The angular locus, it appears wise, if possible, to give definite
position of the overlay is then noted, following angular separation at the successive radii to both
which it is turned until the locus crosses the the midlength-of-chord locus and to the position-
reference trace at the next selected radius fraction, of-maximum-section locus. In addition, both
say 0.3/2. The angular position is again noted. should be fair from root to tip of the blade, as
By taking the angles between successive angular should the leading and trailing edges.
positions, set down as first differences in the table Good values for the skew-back at the tip,
on Fig. 70.C, it is possible to determine at a measured as indicated in Fig. 70. of Sec. 70.36
glance whether the successive differences between and by Fig. 78. L, lie between 20 to 25 per cent
a group of adjacent angles are small or appreciable, of the maximum chord length Cmsi of the blade.
or whether they are equal or unequal. A group The designer is cautioned, on a moderately or
of equal and appreciable differences indicates heavily loaded propeller at least, never to apply
successive crossings of the locus and the reference an appreciable amount of skew to a screw-
trace at equidifferent angular and time intervals. propeller blade in a forward or ahead direction,
A group of zero differences indicates a simul- for the reasons given in Sec. 70.44.
taneous crossing over the corresponding portion For a given maximum thickness tx at each
of the blade radius. This simultaneous crossing section, a blade with large sweep-back has a
is almost invariably to be avoided. smaller thickness ratio tx/c because the lengths
A limited study of propellers with swept-back of the sections are usually greater in the circum-
blades that have performed well in service ferential direction of flow across the blade than
indicates that successive crossings of the leading they would be in a blade with no sweep-back.
edge are spaced at more nearly uniform angular This thinness is generally a help in deferring
intervals than the crossings of any other known cavitation.
locus. Therefore, until a better locus is found it Theoretically the dynamic ram pressure built
appears acceptable to take the leading edge of the up on the extreme leading edge of a fast-running
Sec. 70.] S SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 605

propeller is large, and its harmful effect can be p,Af: 3,058(125.66)

reduced by skew-back, but the angle made by pn^d" 1.9905(1.8333)'(20)'
the leading edge with the radius has to be large to
384,268
make much difference here. 0.359
1,070,410
Design Considerations Governing Blade
70.17
Width. The matter of proper blade width for a For a speed of advance of 15.15 kt or 25.59 ft per
screw propeller, usually expressed as the mean- sec,
width ratio Cm/D, follows rather closely after
25.59
the discussion of expanded-area ratio in Sec. 7 = Zl = =
nd "
0.698.
no preconceived ideas (1.8333)(20)
70.15. If the designer has
regarding the blade width he usually encounters For a p/d ratio of 1.0 this point falls well within
difficulty in this phase of the problem. A partial the region of no cavitation.
solution is to adopt the blade width, or approxi- (2) Cavitation check by the van Lammeren
mately that value, of the series model propeller method, employing his symbols:
which appears to give the best performance from
Po — p. = p, = 3,058 lb per ft'^, from (1) preceding
the chart-design procedure. For example, W. P. A.
van Lammeren gives [RPSS, 1948, pp. 204, 214] Po - P. 3,058 3,058
" = 4.69
the chord length of the widest section for one 0.5pF; 0.99525(25.59)' 651.7
series in terms of the propeller diameter D.
J. G. Hill includes some brief instructions Factor = <To{FJF„)p = 4.69(0.4) (1.0) = 1.87

[SNAME, 1949, p. 152].

Assuming that the blade width and outline are J/p = = 0.698
'-ff
selected, the next step is a check to determine
whether the blade area is sufficient to avoid Using these factors, the plot of Fig. 47.
cavitation, using one of the available cavitation indicates that they are in the region of no cavita-
tion.

(a) RPSS,
L. C. Bunill, 1948, Fig. 123a, p. 186 One featui'e concerning blade width, rarely dis-
(b) Wageningen Model Basin, RPSS, 1948, Fig. 123a, cussed in the literature, is that of its effect upon
p. 186 the periodic vibratory forces excited in or on the
(c) J.D. van Manen and L. Troost, SNAME, 1952, Fig. adjacent ship structure. Assuming the same shape
455
14, p.
of — Ap (and -)-Ap) chordwise pressure-distribu-
(d) J. D. van Manen, Int. Shipbldg. Prog., 19.54, Vol. 1,
No. 1, pp. 39-47 tion curve on both wide and narrow blades deliver-
(e) H. W. E. Lerbs' data in PNA, Vol. II, Figs. 30 and 31, ing equal thrust, the mean — Ap (or -|-Ap) on
pp. 179, 181 the wide blade is smaller and the pressure peaks
(f) W. p. A, van Lammeren's chart in 6th ICSTS, 1951,
are less pronounced. It follows that, for a given
Fig. 30, p. 94, reproduced with some modifications
volume.
rate of rotation, the periodic forces exerted . by
of detail in Fig. 47.G of the present
the wide-blade pressure fields should be smaller
Two examples illustrate how this is done, both in magnitude and longer in duration. Both
for the 20-ft propeller of the ABC transom-stern features favor the wide-blade propeller in lessen-
ship: ing the vibratory forces on the ship carrying it.

(1) Cavitation check with Lerbs' data, using the 70.18 Selection of Type of Blade Section.

symbols given in Figs. 30 and 31 of the reference, The and proportions

selection of the proper type

with a rate of rotation of 110 rpm and a depth of the blade sections is important. These may be
to the shaft axis of 15.5 ft. different for the inner, the intermediate, and the
outer radii. What is more important, perhaps, is
Ae/Ao = 0.40,
that the type, shape, and proportions of the blade
Ae = 0.40(Ao) = 0.40Tr(10)' = 125.66 ft' sections be suited to the work to be performed.
Of the blade-section types illustrated in Fig.
n = 110 rpm or 1.8333 rps
32. K, the single-ended and double-ended sym-

Pst.tic = p. = Po - p. metrical sections are employed primarily on

propellers intended to give good stopping and
= 14.7(144) + 15.5(62.43)(1.027) - 52
backing performance, and to run astern for long
p. = 2,116 -I- 994 - 52 = 3,058 lb per ft' periods, as on a double-ended ferryboat.
606 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.19

Airfoil sections with what is known as lifted Both leading and trailing edges must be thin
leading and trailing edges, set back from a base enough to:
chord passing through the main portion of the
(d) Eliminate excessive dynamic pressures along
way of the roots and the
face, are necessary in
the leading edge because of the relatively large
inner radii to obtain good flow through the
velocity with which the blade passes through
regions where the blades are close together; see
the water. This is particularly true for the
the blade-spacing diagrams at the lower left-hand
sections at the outer radii. Although screw pro-
corners of Figs. 70.O and 78. L. If the leading
pellers are rarely designed for partial immersion,
edges are not lifted sufficiently, cavitation and
there are large dynamic pressures due to impact
erosion are liable to occur on the faces, close abaft
when the exposed blade portions strike the water
those edges.
surface.
There are many types of airfoil section suitable
(e) Eliminate losses due to separation drag at
for screw propellers. Some
most satisfactory
of the
the trailing edge
forms are those developed by the National (f) Prevent the formation and shedding of eddies
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, based upon and the lateral vibration which causes noise and
the principle of superposing the ordinates of a singing.
symmetrical hydrofoil upon a curved or cambered
meanline, with or without minor modifications For the leading-edge shape, a circular arc is
here and there. The merits of these NACA simple and satisfactory. This is achieved as
sections and the advantages of using them are indicated in the axial view of Fig. 70.O by
described in detail by I. H. Abbott, A. E. von bringing the face and back section outlines in to
Doenhoff, and L. S. Stivers, Jr., in NACA Report tangent points on a small circle. For the trailing
824, issued in 1945, and entitled "Summary of edges much smaller circular arcs are used. If,

Airfoil Data." The manner in which these sections however, the blade sections are rather thick at
are developed for a particular case is described the extremity of the run, they are given a chisel
in Sec. 70.31. shape, illustrated by Fig. 70.P in Sec. 70.46.

Shaping of Blade Edges and Root It is possible that some full or rounded form of
70.19
Fillets. In former years many propeller drawings
edge at the blade tip may be found which will
diminish the intensity of the tip vortexes by
did not specify the detailed shapes for the blade
increasing the diameter of the vortex cores.
edges but this procedure is no longer compatible
In the working drawing of a final propeller
with good design. One method of doing this, for
the exact shapes of the leading and trailing edges
sections with circular noses and
and setback
tails
and of the tip edge are to be shown by an adequate
as well, is shown by W. P. A. van Lammeren
[RPSS, 1948, Fig. 126,
number of large-scale details, such as those given
p. 190].
The leading edge of a blade must be thick by R. H. Tingey [ME, 1942, Vol. I, Fig. 6, p. 280,
enough to:
Detail "A"]. W. Henschke gives a tip radius (in
thickness) of 0.0015Z) and a trailing edge radius
(a) Withstand the impact of small objects without of 0.008c ["Schiffbau Technisches Handbuch,"
nicking or deforming the blade edge permanently 1952, p. 145].
(b) Avoid local cavitation, either on the face or The root fillets, days
also lacking details in
back, when the angle of attack changes from its gone by, are now shape
of the constant-stress
predicted value; that is, when the direction of diagrammed by R. H. Tingey in Fig. 16 on page
the incident velocity shifts with respect to the 292 of "Marine Engineering" [Vol. I, 1942]. This
blade. This change can occur throughout one produces a form resembling that given by nature
revolution because of local circumferential varia- to the bottom of a tree, where the trunk joins
tions in the wake velocity or it can occur for the the roots and where large bending moments are
whole propeller because of changes in displace- to be resisted.
ment, in ship resistance, and in thrust loading 70.20 Partial Bibliography on Screw-Propeller
over the disc area. Design. Although they are not all quoted in this
(c) Render the blade section reasonably invul- and other chapters relating to screw propellers,
nerable to changes in the angle of attack, due to there is given here a partial bibliography of the
variations in the local speed of advance, in the principal references on the design of screw pro-
direction of flow, and other factors. pellers for ships, most of them dating from about
Sec. 70.20 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 607

1939. A few applicable references covering air- (11) Prandtl, L., and Betz, A., "Vier Abhlandlungen zur
Hydrodynamik und Aerodynamik (Four Treatises
screw design are included.
on Hydrodynamics and Aerodynamics)," Gottin-
A very complete bibliography containing 227 gen, 1927
items, listing references in the literature for some (12) Helmbold, H. B., "tJber den Vortriebswirkungsgrad
50 or 60 years prior to 1939, is given by K. E. (On Propulsive EfHciency)," WRH, 22 Apr 1928,
Schoenherr [PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 187-194]. p. 151
(13) Goldstein, S., "On the Vortex Theory of Screw
Another extensive bibliography with 191 items,
Propellers," Proc. Roy. Soc, London, Series A,
many of them duplicating the PNA items but
1929, Vol. 123, pp. 440-465
extending only to the year 1942, is given by (14) Weick, F. E., "Aircraft Propeller Design," McGraw-
W. P. A. van Lammeren [RPSS, 1948, pp. 295- Hill, New York, 1930

(15) Lerbs, H. W. E., "Kurventafeln zur Berechnung

301].
Starkbelasteter Freifahrtschrauben nach der Trag-
The references in the appended list appear
fltlgel theorie (Graphs for Calculation of Heavily
generally in chronological order, without any
Loaded Open- Water Screw Propellers According to
attempt at grouping or classification. They do Airfoil Theory)," HSVA Rep. 101; WRH, 1 Feb

not duplicate the references in Sec. 70.4, listing 1933, pp. 29-31

the literature concerning propeller-series charts (16) Gutsohe, F., "Versuche an Propellerblattschnitten
(Tests on Propeller Blade Sections)," Schiffbau,
for analysis and design purposes.
1 Aug 1933, pp. 267-270; 15 Aug 1933, pp. 286-289;
(1) Betz, A., mit geringstem
"Schraubenpropeller 1 Sep 1933, pp. 303-306
Energieverlust (Screw Propeller with Minimum (17) Kempf, G., and Foerster, E., "Hydromechanische
Loss of EnergjO," with an Appendix by L. Prandtl, Probleme des Schiffsantriebs (Hydrodynamic Prob-
Nachr. der Kon. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften lems of Ship Propulsion)," Teil II, Oldenbourg,
zu Gottingen, Math-Phys., 1919, p. 193 Munich and Berlin, 1940. This book contains a
(2) Betz, A., "Eine Erweiterung der Schraubenstrahl- number of papers relating to ship propellers, with
Theorie (An Expansion of the Screw-Race The- summaries in English.
ory)," Zeitschrift fiir Flugteohnik und Motor- (18) Helmbold, H. B., "Uber den Einfluss der Strahlkon-
luftschiffahrt, 1920 traktion auf die Wirkungsweise breitfiiigeliger
(3) Helmbold, H. B., "Zur Aerodynamik der Treib- Schraubenpropeller (On the
(Schiffsschrauben)
schraube (On the Aerodynamics of the Screw Influence of theRace Contraction and its Effect
Developing Thrust)," Zeitschrift fiir Flugtechnik on Broad-Bladed Screw Propellers (Ship Screws)),"
und 1924, pp. 150 and 170
Motorluftsohiffahrt, WRH, 15 Nov 1933, pp. 319-324
(4) Kdrmdn, Th., "Zur Theorie der
Bienen, Th., and von Champ Hydrodynaniique
(19) Chartier, C, "Sur le
Luftschrauben (On the Theory of the Airscrew)," autour d'une Helice k Trois Pales (On the Hydro-
Zeit. des Ver.Deutsch. Ing., 1924, p. 1237; Vol. 68,
dynamic Field Around a Screw Propeller with
Nos. 48, 51; Vol. 69, No. 25 Three Blades)," CR, Acad. Sci., Paris, 1933, Vol.
(5) Bienen, Th., "Die gunstigste Schubverteilung fiir die
196, p. 1642
Luftschraube bei Berucksichtigung des Profilwider-
(20) Gutsche, F., "Verstellpropeller (Variable-Pitch Pro-
standes (The Most Favorable Thrust Distribution
Deutsch. Ingr., 1934, Vol.
peller)," Zeit. des Ver.
for the Airscrew)," Zeitschrift fiir Flugtechnik und
78, p. 1073;mentioned in NECI, 1937-1938, Vol.
Motorluftsohiffahrt, 1925, p. 209
LIV, p. D212. In the latter reference Gutsche
(6) Helmbold, H. B., "Die Betz-Prandtlsche Wirbel-
tells about a series of propeller charts giving
theorie der Treibschraube und ihre Ausgestaltung
T, Q, and and going down to zero speed or 100
t]

zum Teohnischen Berechnungsverfahreu (The per cent slip.

Betz-Prandtl Vortex Theory and its Development
(21) Schoenherr, K. E., "Recent Developments in Pro-
into a Technical Calculation Method)," WRH,
peller Design," SNAME, 1934, Vol. 42, pp. 90-127
9 1926, pp. 565-569; 22 Dec 1926, pp. 588-595.
Dec
EMB
Transl. 15, Feb 1936. (22) Smith, L. P., "Quick Approximation for Preliminary
English version in
PropeUer Design," ASNE, Nov 1935, pp. 557-568
(7) Horn, F., "Versuche mit Tragflugel-Schiffsschrauben
(Tests with Airfoil-Section Ship Propellers)," (23) Durand, W. F., "Aerodynamic Theory," Vol. IV,
STG, 1927, Vol. 28, pp. 342^46 Division L, written by H. Glauert, Springer,
"Practical AppUcation of Modern Berlin, 1936
(8) Slocum, S. E.,
Hydrodynamics to Marine Propulsion," ASNE, (24) Chartier, C, "Champ Hydrodynamique autour
Feb 1927, pp. 1-38 d'une Helice Marine Triple Propulsive (Hydro-
(9) Helmbold, H. B., "Nachstromschrauben (Wake- djTiamic Field Around a 3-Bladed Screw Pro-
Adapted PropeUers)," WRH, 7 Dec 1927, pp. peller)," CR, Acad. Sci., Paris, 1936, Vol. 203, p.

528-531
(10) Hehnbold, H. B., and Lerbs, H., "Modellversuche zur
Nachpriifung der Treibschrauben-Wirbel theorie
(Model Tests to Verify the Vortex Theory for a
Propeller Producing Thrust)," WRH, 7 Sep 1927,
pp. 347-350
1232
(25) Gutsche, F., "Die Entwicklung der Schiffsschraube in
Licht derNeuzeitlichen Stromungslehre (The
Development of the Ship Propeller in the Light of
Modern Flow Theory)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch.
Ing., 26 Jun 1937, pp. 745-753. A partial translation
 608 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.20

of this paper is given in ETT Stevens Note 202 of on the Functioning of the Blade Sections Used in
12 Oct 1952. Ship-Screw Design)," STG, 1938, Vol. 39, pp.
(26) Losch, F., "Uber die Berechnung des induzierten 125-175
Wirkungsgrades stark belasteter Luftschrauben (33) Schoenherr, K. E., "Propulsion and Propellers,"
unendlicher Blattzahl (On the Calculation of the PNA, 1939, Vol. II, Chap. III. This chapter, on
Induced Efficiency of Heavib' Loaded Airscrews pp. 187-194, lists 227 items of reference.
of Infinite Blade Number)," Luftfahrtforschung, (34) Flugel, G., "Die giinstigste Sohubverteilung bei
Jul 1938, Vol. 15, No.7. English version in NACA Propellern (The Optimum Thrust Distribution in
Tech. Memo 884, Jan 1939. Propellers)," Schiffbau, Schiffahrt und Hafenbau,
(27) .\t the session of the North-East Coast Institution of 15 Apr 1940, pp. 108-112; 15 Sep 1940, pp. 250-
Engineers and Shipbuilders for 1937-1938 there 253; 15 Oct 1940, p. 272
was held a "Symposium on Propellers," at which (35) Gutsehe, F., "Versuche an umlaufenden Fliigelsch-
the following ten papers were presented. These nitten mit abgerissener Stromung (Experiments on
papers are published in NECI, 1937-1938, Vol. Rotating Airfoils in the Stalling Condition),"
LIV, pp. 237-414, with the discussions on pp. STG, 1940, Vol. 41, pp. 188-226
D133-D222. The paper titles and authors are: (36) Tingey, R. H., "Propellers and Shafting," ME,
1942, Vol. I, pp. 267-304
(a) Baker, G. S., "The Qualities of a Propeller Alone and
(37) Lerbs, H. W. E., "Der Stand der Forschung iiber den
Behind a Ship"
Schiffspropeller im Hinblick auf die Technische
(b) Horn, P., "Measurement of Wake"
Berechnung (The Present Status of Theoretical
(c) Allan, J. P., "Aerofoil Sections in Screw Propellers"
(d) Duncan, W. "Torsion and Torsional Oscillation Research on Ship Propellers with Respect to its
J.,

of Blades"
Technical Application)," WRH, 15 Feb 1942, pp.

(e) Gawn, R. W> L., "Effect of Shaft Brackets on Pro-

57-62; TMB
Transl. 243, Jan 1952

pellerPerformance" (38) Burrill, L. C, "Developments in Propeller Design

(f) Troost, L., "Open- Water Test Series with Modern
and Manufacture for Merchant Ships," IME,
Propeller Forms" Aug 1943, pp. 148-169. This is a comprehensive
but concise paper of general interest, covering
(g) Kent, J. L., "Propeller Performance in Rough Water"
(h) Kempf, Model Tests on Immersion of
G., "Further
many phases on the subject. On pp. 13-14 the
author gives a list of 24 recommended references.
Wake and Viscosity"
Propellers, Effect of
(39) Burrill, L. C, "Calculation of Marine Propeller
(i) Benson, F. W., "Propellers for Tugs and Trawlers"
Yamagata, M., "Model E.xperiments on the Optimum Performance Characteristics," NECI, 1943-1944,
(j)
Vol. 60, pp. 269-294 and Pis. 8-11. Design is
Diameter of the Propellers of a Single-Screw
normally based upon the model-test data of
Ship."
D. W. Taylor. The circulation or vortex theory is
(28) Troost, L., "Open- Water Test Series with Modern utilized to develop improvements not incorporated
Propeller Forms," NECI, 1937-1938, Vol. LIV, in existing series. A mean camber line is selected
pp. 321-326 and D185-D192. This paper covers and the blade sections are superposed on it.
the tests of the 4-bladed narrow-tip A. 4.40 Wage- (40) Baker, G. S., "Fundamentals of the Screw Propeller,"
ningen series, the B.4.40, and the B.4.55 series. IME, Jan 1944
These had 15-deg rake and airfoil sections at all (41) Ludwieg, H., and Ginzel, I., "Zur Theorie der
radii. Breitblattschraube (On the Theory of the Broad-
(29) Troost, L., "Open- Water Test Series with Modern Bladed Screw Propeller)," Aerodynamische Ver-
Propeller Forms, Part 2, Three-Bladed Propellers," suchsanstalt, Gottingen, Rep 44/A/08, 3097, UM
NECI, 1939-1940, Vol. LVI, pp. 91-95 and 1944
D41-D48. This second paper by Troost covers (42) Guilloton, R., "Considerations sur les Helices (A
the tests of 3-bladed propellers of the B.3.35 and Discussion of Screw Propellers)," Publications
B.3.50 Wageningen series, also having 15-deg Scientifiques et Techniques de la Direction des
rake and airfoil sections at all radii. Industries Aeronautiques, Paris, 1944
(30) Troost, L., "Open-Water Test Series with Modern (43) Abbott, I. H., von Doenhoff, A. E., and Stivers,
Propeller Forms, Part 3, Two-Bladed and Five- L. S., Jr., "Summary of Airfoil Data," NACA
Bladed Propellers, Extension of the Three- and Rep 824, 1945
Four-Bladed B Series," NECI, 1950-1951, Vol. 67, (44) Strassel, H., "Camber Corrections for Screw Profiles,"
Part 3, pp. 89-130; discussion in Part 5, pp. MAP Volkenrode, MAP-VG 90-T, 1946
D45-D50; author's closure in Part 6, pp. D51-D54 (45) Schoenherr, K. E., "Propellers," SNAME, Phila.
(31) Kramer, K. N., "Induzierte Wirkungsgrade von Sect., 21 Feb 1947. There isan abstract of this
Besf^Luftschrauben endlicher Blattzahl (Induced paper on pages 17 and 18 of the SNAME Member's
Efficiencies of Optimum Airscrews with a Finite Bulletin for May 1947.
Number of Blades)," Luftfahrtforschung, Jul (46) Weissinger, J., "The
Lift Distribution of Swept-Back
1938, Vol. 15. An
English translation of this paper Wings," Zentrale fiir Wissenschaftliches Berichts-
appears in NACA Tech. Memo 884, Jan 1939. wesen, 1942, No. 1553. There is an English trans-
;(32) Gutsehe, F., "Einfluss der Gitterstellung auf die lation of this paper in NACA Tech. Memo 1120,
Eigenschaften der im Schiffsschrauben Entwurf Mar 1947.
bexiuteten Blattschnitfe^ (Influence of the Stagger (47) Burrill, L, C, "On Propeller Theory," lESS, Mar
Src. 70.21 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN r,oo

1947, Vol. 90, pp. 449-488; ,Iun 1947, pp. 489-501. developed-area ratio A^/Ao from 0.2 to 1.1. The
On pp. 475-476 there is a bibliography of 27 items. data are plotted in chart form.
(48) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning, (64) Lerbs, H. W. E., "Moderately Loaded Propellers
J. G., "Resistance, Propulsion and Steering of with a Finite Number of Blades and an Arbitrary
Ships," 1948, Chap. II, Propulsion. This chapter Distribution of Circulation," SNAME, 1952, pp.
has a huge bibliography of 191 items on propellers 73-123
and propulsion. (65) Van Manen, J. D., and Troost, L., "The Design of
(49a) Glauert, H., "The Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew Ship Screws of Optimum Diameter an Unequal
for
Theory," Cambridge, England, 2nd ed., 1948 Velocity Field," SNAME, 1952, pp. 442-468
(49b) Weinig, F., "Aerodj'namik der Luftschraube (The (66) Burrill, L. C, and Yang, C. S., "The Effect of Radial
Aerodynamics of the Airscrew)," Berlin, 1940 Pitch Variation on the Performance of a Marine
(50) Loftin, L. K., Jr., "Theoretical and E.xperimental Propeller," INA, 1953, pp. 437-460
Data for a Number of NACA 6A-Series Airfoil (67) Hannan, T. E., "Principles and Design of the Marine
Sections," NACA
Rep. 903, 1948 Screw Propeller," Ship and Boat Builder, Part 1,
(51) Lerbs, H. W. E., "The Applied Theory of Free- Jan 1953, pp. 221-227; Part 2, Feb 1953, pp.
Running Ship Propellers," Rep. 42/48, AEW 263-270; Part 3, Mar 1953, pp. 306-311; Part 4,
Nov 1948 Apr 1953, pp. 347-353
(52) Burrill, L. C, "Propeller Design and Propeller (68) Lerbs, H. W. E., "The Loss of Energy of a Propeller
Theory," read on 11 May 1948 before the Ship- in a Locally Varying Wake Field," Rep. TMB
building Group of Dansk Ingeniorforening; pub- 862, Nov 1953
lished by Teknisk Forlag A/S Dansk Ingenio- (69) Edstrand, H., "Model Tests on the Optimum Diam-
forenings Forlag, 1949. (In English) SSPA Rep. 22, 1953
eter for Propellers,"
(53) Hill, J. G., "The Design of Propellers," SNAME, (70) Berggren, R. E., and Graham, D. J., "Effects of
1949, pp. 143-192 Leading Edge Radius and Maximum Thickness
(54) Kane, J. R., and McGoldrick, R. T., "Longitudinal Chords; Ratio on the Variation with Mach Number
Vibrations of Marine Propulsion-Shafting Sys- of the Aerodynaniic Characteristics of Several
tems," SNAME, 1949, pp. 193-252 Thin NACA Airfoil Sections," NACA Tech. Note
(55) Guilloton, R., "The Calculation of Ship Screws," 3172, 14 Apr 1954
INA, 1949, Vol. 91, pp. 1-26 (71) Lerbs, H. W. E., "Propeller Pitch Correction Arising
(56) Lerbs, H. W. E., "An Approximate Theory of Heavily From Lifting Surface Effect," Rep. 942, TMB
Loaded Free-Running Propellers in the Optimum Feb 1955
Condition," SNAME, 1950, Vol. 58, pp. 137-183 (72) Silverleaf, A., and O'Brien, T. P., "Some Effects of
(57) Lewis, F. M., "Propeller Coefficients and the Power- Blade-Section Shape on Model Screw Perform-
ing of Ships," SNAME, 1951, pp. 612-641 ance," NECI, 1955. Abstracted in SBSR, 10 Feb
(58) Lerbs, H. W. E., "On the Effects of Scale and Rough- 1955, pp. 172, 174.
ness on Free-Running Propellers," ASNE, Feb (73) Van Manen, J. D., and van Lammeren, W. P. A.,
I
1951, pp. 58-94. On pp. 93-94 the author gives a "The Design of Wake- Adapted Screws and their
list of 15 references. Behavior Behind the Ship," lESS, 1955, Vol. 98,
(59) Ginzel, I., "Influence of Blade Shape and of Circula- Part 6
tion on the Camber Correction
Distribution (74) Burrill, L. C, "Considerations sur le Diametre
Admiralty Research Lab., ACSIL/
Factor," Optimum des Helices (Considerations Governing
ADM/52/46, Oct 1951 the Optimum Diameter of Ship Propellers),"
(60) Burrill, L. C, "Sir Charles Parsons and Cavitation," ATMA, 1955, Vol. 54, pp. 231-261
Parsons Memorial Lecture, IME, 1951, Vol. (75) Burrill, L. C, "The Optimum Diameter of Marine
LXIII, pp. 1-19 Propellers: A New Design Approach," NECI,
(61) Okeil, M. E., "The Optimum Loading of a Marine Nov 1955, Vol. 72, Part 2, pp. 57-82; abstracted
Propeller," INA, Jul 1952, pp. 162-178. This in SBMEB, Apr 1956, pp. 267-271
represents a study under the supervision of L. C. (76) "Propeller Design and Performance Calculations,"
Burrill, based upon the circulation or vortex SBSR, 5 Jan 1956, pp. 9-10.
theory of the screw propeller. Most of the references
on pages 177 and 178 are included in this bib- For the reader's benefit, there are some 17
liography. additional references, closely related to this
(62) Ginzel, L, "Theory of the Broad-Bladed Propeller,"
subject, given by J. G. Hill [SNAME, 1949,
Admiralty Research Lab., Jun 1952
Gawn, R. W. L., "Effect of Pitch and Blade Width on p. 170].
(63)
Propeller Performance," INA, 29 Sep 1952, Vol. 70.21 Design of a Wake-Adapted Propeller by
94, pp. 316-317; SBSR, 16 Oct 1952, p. 496 and the Circulation Theory. Propeller design by the
pp. 509-511. Describes open-water tests of 37 chart method is analogous to the design of a hull
model propellers in a systematic series. All the
by working from a series such as the TMB Series
propellers are 20 inches in diameter, are 3-bladed,
and have ogival blade sections with elliptic blade 60, or by virtually copying a previous design

outlines and no skew-back or rake. The series having the proportions desired, combined with a
covers a range of P/D ratio from 0.4 to 2.0 and of good performance. However, there comes a time
 610 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.21

when the design requirements are so unusual, or adapted propellers by the circulation theory,
the situation is so special, that there no existing
is there are gaps and omissions which make it
design from which to work. New waters must be practically impossible for anyone except an expert
traversed, so to speak, which are not only un- in the field to carry through a design by the
familiar but for wliich there are few reliable methods described. The sections to follow in this
One such situation occurs when
sailing directions. chapter give a complete and continuous story
cavitation is to be expected and avoided. — for anew method, recently (1954) developed by
Another occurs when wake surveys show an Dr. H. W. E. Lerbs of the David Taylor Model
unusual distribution of velocity at the propeller Basin staff. It is a short-cut method based on the
position, or when it is desired to take full advan- theory he described completely in his paper
tage of a more-or-less normal wake variation. A "Moderately Loaded Propellers with a Finite
third might arise if it were desired to eliminate Number of Blades and an Arbitrary Distribution
all possibility of tip-vortex cavitation cores, of Circulation" [SNAME, 1952, pp. 73-123].
requiring the blades to be almost completely No attempt is made to give here a theoretical
unloaded at their tips. explanation of the principles involved. There are
For problems of this kind, and for developments quoted only the formulas actually employed,
of the future leading to appreciable improvements accompanied by a written and tabular explanation
in propeller performance, it is necessary to fall of their use.
back upon an analytic method. This in turn must Lerbs' short-cut method was chosen for several
be based on the fundamental hydrodynamics of reasons:
the problem, in this case the theory of circulation
as applied to a screw propeller. There are to be
(i) It has not been published before in this form
found in the literature at least six papers dealing and thus offersa new approach to the problem

with this subject and making use of the successive (ii) It produces the answer rather directly and
developments of the theory up to the time each involves a minimum of reliance on intuition,
paper was prepared and published. These are: background, and previous propeller-design ex-
perience
(1) Schoenherr, K. E., "Propeller Design by the Betz-
Prandtl-Helmbold Circulation Theory," PNA, 1939, (iii) It gives promise of becoming an excellent
Vol. II, Chap. Ill, Sec. 10, Art. 3, pp. 168-170 method of rational design for a wide variety of
(2) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., "Design of a Wake- Adapted
screw propellers
Screw by Means of the Circulation Theory,"
RPSS, 1948, Chap. II, Sees. 138-140, pp. 248-250 (iv) It is backed up by Lerbs' theoretical papers
(3) HiU, J. G., "The Design of Propellers," SNAME, and is based on sound hydrodynamic principles
1949, pp. 143-192
(v) Design calculations using this short method
(4) Van Manen, J. D., and Troost, L., "The Design of
Ship Screws of Optimum Diameter for an Unequal
were checked by parallel calculations with Lerbs'
Velocity Field," SNAME, 1952, Vol. 60, pp. 442^68 rigorous method, described in his referenced
(5) Van Manen, and van Lammeren, W. P. A.,
J. D., paper. The results gave satisfactory agreement.
"The Design of Wake-Adapted Screws and their
Bahaviour Behind the Ship," lESS, 1954-1955, Lerbs' theory for moderately loaded, wake-
Vol. 98, pp. 463-482 adapted propellers is based on the assumption
(6) Eckhardt, M. K., and Morgan, W. B., "A Propeller
that the induced-velocity components of the
Design Method," SNAME, 1955, pp. 325-374.
second and higher degree can be neglected. In the
For the design of what is called a wake-adapted development of the short-cut method two addi-
propeller, the procedure is to employ the funda- tional assumptions are made; first, that the
mental hydrodynamic concepts of circulation set induced velocity is always perpendicular to the
forth in Chap. 14. At the present stage of the art resultant relative velocity and second, that the
necessary to call upon certain semi-analytic
it is Goldstein function may be applied, relating the
and experimental sources for information which behavior of a propeller with a finite number of
will enable a propeller designer to start with his blades to that of one with an infinite number of
requirements and end with a screw-propeller blades.
design. To do this, the designer need have only The propeller design is carried out in this
the knowledge that is set down in Volumes I chapter along the following lines. The terms
and II of this book. fisted are defined and described as the discussion
In most discussions of the design of wake- proceeds:
Sec. 70.22 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 611

(a) Determine the number of blades, the pro- the notation of D. W. Taylor [S and P,
peller diameter, the hub diameter, the rake, if 1943, p. 134]
any, and the rate of rotation k Ludwieg-Ginzel curvature correction,
(b) Calculate the required thrust-load coefficients applied to the camber ratio
and advance coefficients m.Yo Maximum section camber, corrected
(c) Determine the ideal efficiency with jet rota- Sc Allowable stress in a propeller blade,
tion from Kramer's charts based upon the notation of D. W.
(d) By successive approximations, calculate the Taylor [S and P, 1943, p. 137]
hydrodynamic pitch angle and the thrust distri- Ti Non-viscous thrust, as in a perfect
bution over the blade which allows the propeller hquid
to develop the required thrust x' Ratio of local radius R to tip radius
(e) Determine the lift-coefficient product, apply ^Max of propeller
the lifting-surface correction to the hydrodynamic iSi- Average local wake fraction
pitch angle, and calculate the hydrodynamic pitch Wj' Average local wake fraction, corrected
distribution to match the effective wake
(f) From strength considerations determine the (3/ c (beta) Corrected hydrodynamic pitch angle
blade-thickness fraction and the maximum-blade- e Drag-lift ratio of an airfoil or blade
thickness distribution (epsilon) section

(g) Choose the type of meanline and thickness Tjff(eta) Kramer's ideal efficiency, with jet

form to be used for the blade sections rotation

(h) Using cavitation criteria, determine the maxi- X Absolute advance coefficient, equal to

mum camber of the meanline and the chord (lambda) yx/(7mD)

lengths of the blade sections from appropriate Xs Absolute advance coefficient, based
charts upon ship speed V instead of speed of

(i) Fair the blade outline and determine the

advance Va
ju(mu) Viscous-flow correction
final chord lengths, camber ratios, and lift co-
(Ts Cavitation number based upon ship
efficients

Apply the curvature correction to the camber

(sigma) speed V instead of the resultant inci-
(j)
dent velocity F^ on a blade section.
ratio
(k) Correct for viscous flow by adding an angle 70.22 ABC Ship Propeller Designed by Lerbs'
of attack at the various blade sections. Calculate
1954 Method. As a help in understanding Lerbs'
the final pitch distribution. method, and as a practical illustration of its use,
(1) Determine the amount of skew-back, if any a screw propeller is designed here for the transom-
(m) Draw the propeller stern ABC ship. The design is based upon the
(n) Calculate the final propeller efficiency cor- wake survey diagrammed in Fig. 60. M.
responding to the design conditions. Although cavitation is not expected on this
ship, and the wake-velocity distribution is in no
Owing to the intricacy of all existing design
way unusual, the design procedure is carried
methods screw propellers, based upon the
for
through as though these two features presented
vortex or circulation theory, it is necessary to
real problems.
employ a number of special symbols. For the
Lerbs method described and illustrated in the
When selecting the model propeller to be used
sections following, all the special symbols, addi-
in the self-propulsion model tests of the transom-
tional to the standard symbols listed in Appendix stern ABC ship designed in this part of the book,

are defined when they are first used. Neverthe-

an estimated propeller thrust of 193,476 lb was
1,
used. This led to the conclusion presented in
less, these special symbols are listed here in one
Sees. 70.6 and 78.4 that the stock model propeller
place, with brief titles for each:
should have a P/D ratio of 1.02, four blades of
{Ctl)s Thrust-load coefficient based upon the moderate width, and airfoil sections along the
ship speed V instead of upon the usual inner radii. The calculated rate of rotation was
speed of advance Va 109.2 rpm at the designed ship speed of 20.5 kt.
i Tangent one half the angle of rake
of The corresponding advance coefficient J was
of a screw-propeller blade, based upon 0.703, and an open-water efficiency of 68.0 per
612 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.23

cent was expected. That this estimate was fairly propeller circle, where the propeller passes the
accurate is shown by the recorded rpm of 109.7 at skeg ending and cuts through the boundary layer
20.5 kt in the model self-propulsion test. However, beneath the transom. Cutting back the lower
using the resistance of the ship with appendages, portion of the skeg should have reduced the
obtained from the resistance test of TMB model magnitude of the wake velocities in the lower
4505, and a thrust-deduction fraction of 0.07 at half of the propeller circle. Nevertheless a localized
20.5 kt, obtained from the self-propulsion test region of moderate positive wake velocities
with TMB model propeller 2294, a revised thrust remains in the neighborhood of the 6 o'clock
is calculated. position. With such a wake configuration, it is

V = 20.5 kt; Pe = 10,078 horses, from model- advisable to use a propeller with an even number
resistance test; thrust-deduction fraction t = 0.07 of blades, to minimize the unbalance in thrust
between the blades in the 12 o'clock and 6 o'clock
550Pb 550(10,078)
=
Rq 160,098 lb positions and to reduce the periodic bending of
1.6889(20.5)
the propeller shaft in a vertical plane. A 4-bladed
R, 160,098
T = - = 172,148 lb. propeller is the logical choice, as has been found
1 t 0.93 from long experience with single-skeg single-screw
The predicted thrust required to drive the ship ships, unless a subsequent analysis indicates that
is much less than the estimated thrust. This a 6-bladed propeller is needed to place the blade

means that a new combination of P/D ratio and frequency (n times Z) in a certain range.
rate of rotation n might give a higher propeller Ample edge clearance is allowed in the propeller
than the combination used in selecting
efficiency aperture of the ABC transom-stern design, be-
the model stock propeller, based on the higher tween the end of the skeg and the propeller
thrust. sweep line, to keep vibratory forces to a minimum.
Consulting Prohaska's logarithmic charts for 70.24 Determination of Rake for the ABC
Wageningen Series B.4.40 and B.4.55 model pro- Propeller. The propeller aperture and stern
pellers, one of which is reproduced as Fig. 70. B, arrangement of the transom-stern ABC ship are
and entering with the thrust-load coefficient designed so that no rake is required. There is
Ctl of 0.709, based on the lower thrust value and some contraction in the inflow jet, to be sure, as
an effective wake fraction of 0.195 from the self- for any screw propeller, but this is not augmented
propulsion test, the following optimum charac- greatly at the disc position because the lines of
teristics are determined: the skeg ending ahead of it are deliberately
made fine. The rake angle is set at deg for the
P/D =1.2 J = 0.86
design carried through here but it could have
n = 1.620 rps or 97.2 ipm r?o = 0.72 been set at any angle up to about 5 deg if the
The open-water propeller efficiency obtained from designer wished to take advantage of the inflow
the self-propulsion test with the stock propeller contraction.
at the designed speed was roughly 68 per cent. 70.25 Propeller-Disc and Hub Diameters.
This means that there a possible gain of about
is The transom stern of the ABC ship was designed
4 per cent in propeller efficiency, with a cor- to accommodate the largest practicable propeller
responding increase in the propulsive coefficient. diameter on the given draft of 26 ft. This was
A new propeller design for the ABC ship is thus done to obtain the greatest possible propulsive
definitely indicated. coefficient, on the basis that the machinery could

Choice of the Number of Blades for the

70.23 be designed to produce the required shaft power
ABC General comments concerning the
Design. at whatever rate of rotation appeared best for
number of blades to be used in a screw-propeller the propeller. The maximum propeller-disc diam-
design are embodied in Sec. 70.12. Those in this eter resulting from this procedure was 20 ft.
section are limited to the final design of propeller The diameter of the propeller is thus considered
for the transom-stern ABC ship. fixed at the outset of the design. The rate of
This vessel, with the afterbody profile of Fig. rotation n in rpm and the P/D ratio are now to be
66. Q, supplemented by Fig. 67.U, is designed with chosen to give the maximum propeller and pro-
what is known as a clear-water stern. As might be pulsive efficiency.
expected, and as is revealed in Fig. 60.M, there is For a design situation where the diameter is

a high-wake-velocity region near the top of the not fixed, it is necessary to determine the optimum
Sec. 70.26 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 61-

value of D by the use of existing propcllcr-design Pe = 10,078 horses, from model resistance test
charts, subject to thecomments given earlier in Thrust T = 172,148 lb
Sec. 70.9, or by model experiment. Thrust-deduction fraction I = 0.07; 1 — / = 0.93;
On the ABC ship, no shaft calculations were from model self-propulsion test for 20.5 kt
made for the transom-stern design, so the hub Effective wake fraction w) = 0.195; I —w= 0.805;
diameter was assumed as 0.18Z), the same as from model self-propulsion test for 20.5 kt
for the stock model propeller. The hub is faired Rate of rotation n = 1.620 rps or 97.2 rpm;
into the rudder horn as shown in Figs. 66. Q, from Sec. 70.22
67.U, and 74.K. Number of blades Z = 4
70.26 Calculating the Thrust-Load Factors Average local wake fraction at the various radii,
and the Advance Coefficients. With some of the w^. from the wake survey on TMB model 4505,
,

primary characteristics fixed it is possible to derived by the method described subsequently

start the design of the wake-adapted propeller by in this section
Lerbs' short method. For the ABC propeller- p = 1.9905 slugs per ft^ for salt water at 59 deg F
design problem only the thrust T, the ship speed 0.5p = 0.99525 slugs per ft'.

V, and the maximum propeller diameter D are

The next step is to calculate the thrust-load
fixed. The rate of rotation n is to be chosen to
maximum
coefficients and advance coefficients. The initial
give efficiency. In many design cases
calculations are based on non-viscous flow.
all
there will be limitations on rpm due to
as well,
It is therefore necessary to convert the thrust
restrictions on the size of reduction gears or by a
calculated from the model test to a non-viscous
requirement for a given rate of rotation at a
given power with a direct-drive diesel engine. In
thrust. A good approximation for this is given
by the following relationship, which was deter-
these cases, the designer accepts the limitations
mined by considering the viscous forces on a
and attempts to attain the maximum propeller
blade element:
efficiency possible, even though it is less than the
optimum. Tj = 1.03T
For the ABC ship a rate of rotation to give
where T is the customary thrust in viscous flow
maximum propeller efficiency was chosen in
and Ti is the thrust in non-viscous flow.
Sec. 70.22, on the basis of the Wageningen Series
propeller data as laid down on Prohaska's loga- Ti = 1.03(172,148) = 177,312 lb
rithmic charts. These indicated an t/o of 0.72 for
Speed of advance Fa = F(l - w) = 34.622(0.805)
an n of L620 rps or 97.2 rpm.
= 27.871 ft per sec
For Lerbs' short method it is best to work on a
Thrust-load coefficient
thrust basis. Because of the assumptions involved
in this method, described in Sec. 70.21, correspond- Tr Tr
C TL —
ing formulas on a power basis do not yield equally i0.5p)AoVl (0.5p)7r(fiMa.)'Fl

good results. When using the rigorous method

described by Lerbs in his referenced paper on
= 177,312
0.99525(3 14. 16) (27. 871)'
^7
moderately loaded propellers, either a thrust
The thrust-load coefficient based on ship speed is
basis or a power basis can be employed. Thus if
the designer is limited to a given power plant, he
('• TLjS —
must convert the shaft power to effective power {0.5p)AoV-
Pe and this Pe to thrust. In the design of the 177,312
ABC ship, there is no maximum limitation on = 0.4731
0.99525(314. 16)(34.622)
shaft power, so the design is started by using the
thrust obtained from the model resistance test The absolute advance coefficient J^b, or
with appendages, calculated in Sec. 70.22.
The following data are known: X = V, 27.871
= 0.2738
wnD (3. 14) (1.620) (20)

Diameter, D^a. = 20 ft Radius Rm.. = 10 ft

The absolute advance coefficient based on ship
Ao = 7ri?Ma. = 314.16 ft' speed
Designed ship speed V = 20.5 kt = 34.622 ft per V 34.622
0.3401
wnD (3.14)(1.620)(20)
611 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.26

.001 0,002 0.004 5.01 0.02 0,04 0.1 0.2 0,4 I 1,5 Z 3 4 56
Absolute Advance Coefficient A =
irnD

Fig. 70. D Khamee's Contours of Ideal Efficiency t/a- with Jet Rotation

Using the calculated values of Ctl = 0.730 and rem, considers only the axial component of the
X = 0.2738, enter Fig. 70.D, a chart prepared by induced velocity.
Kramer [see reference (31) in Sec. 70.20], and To
get a good value it is best to plot a curve of
determine the ideal efficiency with jet rotation tik riKon a basis of C'tl Enter Fig. 70.D with X
This ideal efficiency tja- differs from the t// de- along the bottom scale, in this case 0.2738, follow
scribed in Sec. 34.2 in that it considers the effect the diagonal line up to the number of blades Z,

of both the axial and rotational components of then move vertically to the several curves oi rj^
the induced velocity. The better-known ideal in the vicinity of the thrust-load coefficient
efficiency ?;/ derived from the momentum theo-
, Ctl = 0.730 previously calculated. The final
Sec. 70.27 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 6L5

The average local wake fraction w,- at each

0-diml radius, obtained from the wake survey,
0.85 isshown in Fig. 60.N. It is found that the average
wake fraction over the propeller-disc position
obtained by pitot-tube measurements with the
model propeller not mounted, called the nominal
wake fraction, rarely agrees with the wake fraction
obtained from the model self-propulsion test at
the same speed, known as the effective wake
fraction. This is a common occurrence in model
testing. It indicates that the action of the pro-
peller and the presence of the rudder have a
definite influenceon the wake velocities. For the
°-™a4 05 06 OB 09^
077
ABC ship, the nominal wake fraction over the
Thrust-Load Coefficient Cj|_
propeller disc, obtained from the wake survey
Fig. 70. E Vaeiation of Ideal Efficiency with
yik and shown in Fig. 60.N, is 0.1735 at 20.5 kt, as
Thrust-Load Coefficient
compared to the effective wake fraction of 0.195
from the model self-propulsion test. To compen-
determination of tjk for the exact Ctl is shown in
Thus = = sate for this difference, the local wake fraction at
Fig. 70.E. r,K 0.783 for C'tl 0.730.
each radius is multiplied by the ratio of (1) the
70.27 Approximation of the Hydro-
First
dynamic Pitch Angle and the Radial Thrust
effective wake from the self-propulsion test to
(2) wake from the pitot-tube survey.
the nominal
Distribution. The next step is to calculate the
hydrodynamic pitch angle /3/ using the following
The method thus makes use of the wake-fraction
,

distribution found by the wake study, with the

formula, which represents Lerbs' approximate
numerical values modified so that its average
optimum condition for a wake-adapted propeller:
over the propeller is the same as that derived
tan /3j = -7 • — -; (70. i) from the self-propulsion test. In the ABC pro-
peller design, the local nominal wake fraction at
Here x' is the ratio of the local radius R to the each radius is increased by the factor
tip radius i?Ma:i of the propeller, namely x' =
^/Bmsi and Wx- is the corrected average wake 0.195
,
= 1.1239 OTW,. = 1.1239 iZi,-
at each radius, to be explained presently. 0.1735

TABLE 70.d Calculation of Hydrodynamic Pitch Angle

Col. A
filfi HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Ser. 7n.2S

The calculation of ffi from Eci. (70.i) is shown

in Table 70.d.
The next step is to calculate a thrust-load co-
efficient d{CTL)s , at each radius, based on the
ship's speed, using the formulas to be given
presently. These values, when integrated over
the whole radius, should give a thrust-load co-
efficient which is close to the desired coefficient,

{Ctl)s ,
calculated earlier in Sec. 70.26. If the
values are not close, within 1 or 2 per cent, then
it is necessary to make additional approximations
by modifying the hydrodynamic pitch angle Pi
until the required accuracy is obtained.
The formulas necessary for executing this step
are:

tan ^ = ^=^ (1 - w,.) (70.ii)

UiT _
~ 2 sin )3, sin {I3j
(70.iii)
Va sin^

^ = ^(1-h;..) (70.iv)

(70 .va)
(7

(70. vb)

where 13 is the advance angle

UiT is the tangential component of the induced
velocity
K (kappa; capital) represents what is known as
the Goldstein factor.
Most of the relationships in the preceding
paragraphs and several which appear in sub-

Propeller-Shaft N/ of Aheod Thrust

Sec. 70.29 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 617

l.b
618 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.29

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a6 c366o6c366o6
Sec. 70.29 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 619

^1.0
620 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.30

distribution than the fraction 1/2 shown there.

The calculations for the lift-coefficient product
and the lifting-surface correction are given in
Table 70.g.
Having applied the lifting-surface correction
factor to the hydrodynamic pitch angle, it is
possible to calculate the initial hydrodynamic
P/D ratio for each 0-diml radius by the formula
(P/D)^. = irx' tan 4, (70.ix)

where 0(phi) is the pitch angle and is equal to

/3/c at this stage of the design. This calculation
is also shown in Table 70. g. A plot of the P/D
ratios is given by the lower curve of Fig. 70.1.
The upper curve in this figure is explained later.

134
 Sec. 70 Jl SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 621

Substituting in Eq. (70.x) obtained with the NACA64A, and 65A

16, 66,
thickness forms. These, in combination with one
(908) (3 ,3 12 .5)
(4.123)(97.2)(20)'(/o/^)
+ of the meanlines recommended in the following
paragraph, give which have low
airfoil sections
(20)\97.2)'
= 6,000 + drag-lift ratios and
uniform distribution of
12,788
pressure along the chord length. For the latter
whence ta/D = 0.053. reason they have favorable cavitation charac-
The radial distribution of the maximum thick- teristics. The four recommended thickness forms
ness of the blade elements is obtained from the are listed in the order of preference, although
following equation, given by J. D. van Manen there is little difference among them. The NACA
and L. Troost ["The Design of Ship Screws," 66 form has zero thickness at the trailing edge;
SNAME, 1952, Fig. 11, p. 453]: therefore, for use on marine screw propellers it

(h 'tjp
must be modified slightly to give finite thickness

D^ + /I
D D
]

J
(70.xi)
at that edge. The other thickness distributions can

where tx/D is the ratio of the maximum blade-

be used directly without modification. The NACA
16 thickness form has performance characteristics
section thickness to the diameter at any 0-diml
radius a;' and t-nJD is assumed as 0.003, a typical
similar to those of the TMB EPH section. The
combination of an ellipse at the nose,
latter is a
value.
two parabolas along the two sides, and a hyperbola
Values of / for the various radii are:
at the tail; it derives its name from the first
x' = R/Rm„ 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
letters of these three types of curve. It an is
/ 0.788 0.665 0.551 0.443
efficient thickness form but unfortunately there
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.00
0.344 0.251 0.162 0.079
is no EPH design chart available, corresponding
to those for the NACA sections. A propeller
The calculations for tx/D values are made in designer should use it with caution because the
accordance with Eq. (70. xi) and the values are eddying abaft its trailing edge might cause the
set down in Col. B Table 70.h.
of blade to flutter or to sing. Additional comments
Any method of strength calculation may be on thickness forms are made in Sec. 70.34.
used in this phase, as long as the required tx/D Meanlines commonly used with the thickness
ratio at each radius is obtained. A designer is by forms listed are the circular-arc and the so-called
no means restricted to using the formula shown in a = 1.0, a = 0.8, and a = 0.8 (modified) meanline.
this section. The strength of the propeller is The "a" meanlines have uniform chordwise
related definitely to the design problem, but is pressure distribution from the leading edge to the
independent of the fundamental propeller theory. point designated by a = x/c, where a; is a distance
70.31 Blade-Section Shaping by Cavitation from the leading edge. From this point to the
Criteria. It is now possible, by using cavitation trailing edge the load decreases linearly. The
criteria, to determine the camber mx of the mean- a = 0.8 (modified) meanline has slight curvature
line,the chord length c, and the lift coefficient of in the decreasing portion of the load curve.
each blade element. This is done by the use of Because of this pressure distribution the "a"
charts; Fig. 70. K is one of them. meanlines have good cavitation characteristics.
To use these charts it is first necessary to Also when combined with a given thickness form
decide on the blade-section shape. Modern airfoil they give blade sections with less hollow on the
shapes are found as satisfactory as any. They face than if the same thickness form were used
are obtained by superposing a given set of thick- with the circular-arc meanline. The a = 0.8
ness ordinates on a given meanline. What happens, (modified) meanline is usually associated with the
in effect, is that a selected airfoil sectipn, with a NACA 6A-series airfoils. Complete data for the
straight base chord through its midwidth, is NACA 16 and 66 thickness forms and the a = 1.0
bent until this base chord becomes the selected and a = 0.8 meanlines are given in NACA Report
curved meanline. In this way, all cambered airfoil 824, 1945. The data for the NACA 64A and 65A
sections are transformed from symmetrical sec- thickness forms and the a = 0.8 (modified) mean-
tions. line are given in NACA Report 903, 1948. The
The same shape is used for all blade sections exact process for combining a meanline and a
from the root to the tip. Good blade sections are thickness distribution to obtain an airfoil section
622 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.31

.
o o o o o o

lOOOOOOOOi

6 6
d
^ „

o o oO O 1

0,00,0

rH .-I O O O O O <

o ft o

o o o o o o o

o o o o o

ooooooooo
H 3

O O O O '

CO.

O
to.
O 'OOOOOOOO

O O O O O O O

OOOOOOOO'H
Srr. 7031 SCREW-PROPELLER DE.STGN 62.^

is explained iu detail in NACA Report 824, 1945,

pages 3-4.
The chart in Fig. 70. K was constructed for
Karman-Trefftz blade sections. This type of sec-
tion, obtained by a conformal transformation
from a circle, has a circular-arc face, a circular-arc
back, and a circular-arc meanline. Fig. 70. K can
be used, with only a .slight sacrifice in accuracy,
for a circular-arc meanline in combination with
various thickness forms, such as the NACA 16 or
the 60-69 series. It can not be used, however, for
any other meanlines. In the design of the propeller
for the ABC ship the circular-arc meanline is

adopted because, at the time of writing (early

1955), the chart shown in Fig. 70. K was the only
one available. Similar charts for the following
combinations of thickness forms and meanlines
are under construction at the David Taylor
Model Basin:
Thickness Form
624 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sfc. 70J]
where T'^ is the resultant velocity approaching from the crest at the stern adds a shght margin
the blade element of safety against cavitation.
is the cavitation number at each blade
(Ts

element, with the blade in the upper vertical or

p. = 14.7(144) + 15.5(64.043) = 3,110 lb per ft'

Po, - e = 3,110 - 52 = 3,058 lb per ft'

12 o'clock position, based on the ship speed V
a is the cavitation number, based on the The remaining calculations for cavitation
resultant velocity Vn numbers and for the maximum-camber ratio

the static pressure at the shaft axis, or the rux/c, thechord length c, and the lift coefficients
Poo is
of the blade elements at the various radii are
atmospheric pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure
with the ship at rest shown in Table 70.h.
e is the vapor pressure of salt water at an average
When entering Fig. 70.K to pick the ratios
rrix/c and ix/c, the value of <r is reduced by 15
service temperature, taken here as 0.36 psi or
52 lb per ft'
per cent, as shown in Col. M of Table 70.h. It is
customary to do this for all merchant ships as a
x'{Rm^x)w is a term to correct the cavitation
safety factor to guard against intermittent cavi-
number to each blade element, with the blade in
tation which may arise from the non-uniformity
the upper vertical or 12 o'clock position
of the wake in a peripheral direction. For ships
w is the specific weight of standard salt water =
in which there are highly concentrated wakes,
64.043 lb per ft'
such as those behind a bossing or a large strut, the
x' is the 0-diml ratio R/Rm^x
reduction should be as much as 20 per cent. For

For the ABC ship the shaft centerline is 15.5 high-speed, high-powered vessels with fast-run-

ft below the designed waterline. The wave crest

ning propellers, where it is almost impossible to
or hollow due to the wave profile at the designed avoid cavitation, no reduction in a
is made.

speed ignored in these calculations. There are additional limiting factors in the
is In the
ABC propeller design which must be considered at
ship, the positive wave height resulting
this time. First, the blade-thickness ratio tx/c at
the hub section or at the 0.2/2 section should not
l.0f? = Rr
exceed values of 0.16 for destroyer-type propellers,
and 0.18 to 0.20 for merchant-ship propellers.
Above these limiting values, the drag-to-lift
ratio of a blade section begins to rise rapidly.
Second, the lift-coefficient Cl for any blade
section should not exceed about 0.6. Values
Expanded Blade Outline From greater than this give propellers with poor stop-
CoYitotion Criteria
ping and backing characteristics and increase the
liability of air leakage from the surface.
Using the values of 0.85(7 and C tic/tx), calcu-
lated in Tables 70.h and Fig. 70.K, the blade-
thickness ratios tx/c and camber ratios mx/c are
Rodiol Disc Line /
found only for the 0.5 to 0.95 radii. The inner
.

/
radii are off the chart, which means that cavitation
is of little or no concern at these blade sections.

Faired Outline In this case, a limiting value of tx/c of 0.20,

OA H mentioned in the preceding paragraph, is assumed
at the Q.2R section. The Q.2R chord length is
then calculated. This length, together with those
0.3 R determined from Fig. 70. K, are laid down on a
-Expanded Width at 0.2R sketch and a smooth expanded blade outline is
II Petermined lyy Strength and drawn. The result is illustrated in Fig. 70.L.
O.Z R^.^ Riqidity Considerotions
I
The expanded blade lengths are, for the time
being, laid out symmetrical to the radial disc line.
Fio. 70. L Expanded Blade Outlines with Minimum The method of introducing skew-back is described
Widths for Cavitation Prevention later.
Sec. 70.33 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 625
626 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.33
 Sec. 7035 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN G27

the hub. A wake-adapted screw for the latter k is the curvature correction
type of wake variation has a pitch distribution [A(?nxo/c)] is the reduction in camber ratio.
with the P/D ratio increasing toward the tip.
This procedure was tried for the ABC design,
Just the opposite is obtained in the ABC design.
but it resulted in an unfair pitch distribution and
70.34 Final Blade-Section Shapes for the
was considered unacceptable. It is moi'e or less a
ABC Design by Lerbs' Method. The ABC ship
trial-and-error method, i.e., the camber is reduced,
propeller, designed here, has hollow blade faces
an angle of attack added, and the pitch distri-
in the outer sections and a mussel shape in the
bution checked. These three items are then
outer radii, similar to many German designs of
adjusted until satisfactory relationships are
World War Hollow-face sections are unusual
II.
for merchant-ship propellers at the time of
obtained. Since the ABC ship propeller is an
unusual case, the hollow-face sections are accepted
writing (1955) but if they improve the cavitation
rather than to adopt flat sections with an unfair
performance of a propeller they are worth while.
pitch distribution. In the normal merchant ship,
Taking advantage of modern production methods,
hollow sections can be avoided, if desired, by
hollow sections are only slightly if any more
using one of the other recommended meanlines,
difficult to manufacture. By use of the a = 1.0 or
= and by adjustment of the angle of attack and
a 0.8 meanlines, the hollow in this case could
camber ratio as necessary.
probably be reduced or eliminated. Since the
charts used in this design, shown in Figs. 70. Hollow-face sections, as obtained in this design,

and 70.M, were not available for the a = 1.0 undoubtedly have satisfactory cavitation
will

and a = 0.8 meanUnes

combination with
in
performance. However, when these sections have
thin leading edges, as they would with the
suitable thickness forms, the circular-arc meanline
was employed and the hollow sections accepted. NACA 16 thickness forms, they are sensitive to

The design procedure is the same regardless of changes in angle of attack, which occur in any
what meanline or design chart is used. wake field due to non-uniformity of flow into the
The propeller designer is cautioned, however,
propeller. A
blunter leading edge reduces this

that screw propellers with hollow-face sections do sensitivity. For this reason, the NACA 65A
not perform well when backing; some do not even thickness form [NACA Rep. 903, 1948, pp. 6-7]
is used for the ABC ship propeller. It gives the
meet normal needs for routine ship maneuvering.
desired leading-edge thickness with only a sUght
Whether they would in the case of the ABC ship
loss in the cavitation characteristics along the
is not determined here. For this and other reasons
rest of the chord length. If the blade sections have
some propeller designers prefer to use airfoil
sections at the inner radii and circular-back no hollow then the NACA 16 thickness forms are
better.
sections with straight faces (orthodox ogival
shapes) for the outer radii. The NACA 65A thickness form with the
In many cases the hollow can be removed by circular-arc meanline gives airfoil sectionswhich
reducing the camber ratio mxo/c until it is no are curved near the trailing edge. The back or
more than Q.5tx/c, where tx/c is the blade-thick- — Ap side is convex to the flow, and there is a
ness ratio. The loss in lift due to reduction in concavity on the face or +Ap side. Again this
camber is then compensated for by the addition can be avoided by using the a = 0.8 (modified)
of an angle of attack aj The pitch angle 4> be-
.
meanline, in which case the trailing-edge surfaces
comes /3/c -f «] -f ofj .
are straight lines.

The added angle of attack needed to compensate Undoubtedly more desirable blade sections will
the lift for any reduction in camber ratio depends be obtained with the new design charts, similar
on the meanline. For a circular-arc meanline, the to Fig. 70. K, in course of preparation when
correction is given by Eq. (70.xviii). This formula, the ABC project was underway [Eckhardt, M. K.,
when used with a = 1.0 or a = 0.8 meanhnes, and Morgan, W. B., "A Propeller Design
introduces only a small error. Method," SNAME, 1955, pp. 334-338]. However,
the main purpose of this chapter is to outline a
method of propeller design. Availability of the
^2 = 2(57. 3)/c (70.xviii)
[4^)] new charts will not change the method.
70.35 Introducing Skew-Back in the ABC
where a^ is the added angle of attack in deg Blade Profile. Sec. 70.16 states that a good
628 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.35
Sec. 70.37 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 629

range of values of the skew-back at the tip is from teristics, except that
has constant rather than
it

0.20 to 0.25cMax . For the ABC propeller, the tip variable pitch, is illustrated in a photograph
skew-back is taken as 0.245cMax or L25 ft. An published by The Marine Engineer and Naval
easy curve, representing the locus of the mid- Architect [Aug 1954, p. 300].
lengths of the blade-section chords, is then drawn One point needs explanation. The required
for the skew-back line, starting at the extreme-tip blade-thickness fraction to/D is 0.053 as calculated
section and approaching the pitch reference line from the strength considerations. The blade-
as a tangent at the hub. The expanded outline is thickness fraction shown on Fig. 70.O is only
laid out, half a chord length on each side of the 0.049.
skew-back line. From this the projected outline The axis thickness to on Fig. 70.O has been
is drawn, explained in Sees. 32.9 and 32.10 and determined graphically by conventional practice
illustrated in Fig. 32. L With the projected outline [SNAME, Tech. and Res. Bull. 1-13, Jul 1953,
sketched in, the angular variation of the leading p. 22]. As can be seen from Fig. 70.O, this con-
edge as each blade section passes the vertical vention gives a blade-thickness fraction that is
plane through the 12 o'clock propeller position not truly representative of the thickness at the
is checked. The interval between sections for hub. Thus the actual tx equal to AB in Fig. ,

the ABC ship propeller, drawn in Fig. 70.O of 70.O, is greater than CD, indicated by the con-
Sec. 70.36, is as follows: struction lines for determining to The propeller .

actually has the correct thickness required by

0.2ft-
strength considerations, and to/D would equal
1.5 deg
0.053 if the face and back lines were straight.
0.3ft-
However, for the sake of uniformity, the con-
2.1 deg
ventional method for finding to graphically should
0.4ft-
always be followed.
2.4 deg
70.37 Calculating the Expected Propeller E&-
0.5ft-
ciency. The final step in the design, by Lerbs'
2.8 deg
short method, is to calculate the expected pro-
0.6ft-
peller efficiency. This is given by the following
2.7 deg
relationship:
0.7ft-
2.7 deg 1 - 2X,e
(70.xix)
0.8ft-
4.4 deg [-(i)d
0.9ft-
where rjo is the propeller efficiency
This shows a fairly regular interval and is con- r]K is the ideal efficiency with jet rotation and is

sidered satisfactory. It may

be necessary at equal to 0.783, from Fig. 70.E
times to draw several skew-back lines before a e(epsilon) is the drag-lift ratio of a blade section

satisfactory angular interval is obtained. or airfoil.

Several schemes were tried to achieve this. It A close approximation of e is given by:
was finally concluded, as related in Sec. 70.16,
0.008 0.008
that the locus of the midlengths of the expanded 0.0261
Ci, at 0.7ft 0.3064
blade sections represents the most convenient
construction line. It is almost impossible to start Cl is obtained from Col. D, Table 70.i.

with an arbitrary projected outline and finish Xj = x' tan /3, c at 0.7ft, where tan /J/ c is obtained
with fair contours in the expanded outline. from Col. G, Table 70.g.
70.36 Drawing the Propeller. All unknowns
0.7(0.5302) = 0.3711
have been calculated or determined so it is now
possible to delineate the propeller. The final 1 - 2(0.3711)(0.0261)'
7/0 = 0.783
drawing of the ABC design, following the arrange- 0.026l \
ment and details laid down in Fig. 32. F of Volume 1 + 2Y
3A0.371I/ J
I or on the SNAME PD sheet of Fig. 78.L, is
= (0.783)(0.9367) = 0.733
shown in Fig. 70.O. A large propeller having the
same general blade shape and the same charac- no = 73.3 per cent.
630 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.38

By way of comparison, as discussed in Sec. (13) Draw the propeller

70.22, Prohaska's logarithmic chart for the (14) Calculate the final propeller efficiency; use
Wageningen propeller series B.4.40, Fig. 70.B, Eq. (70.xbc).

indicates a P/D ratioand a propeller

of 1.2 The Lerbs 1954 method, described here, is con-
efficiency t/o of 0.72. The same parameters as sidered neither too long nor too intricate for the
calculated by Lerbs' short method are P/D = final design of a screw propeller to go on an
1.193 at the 0.7 radius and t/o = 0.733. This important or costly ship, especially as it gives the
shows satisfactory agreement with a good stand- designer more flexibility in taking account of
ard propeller series. unusual conditions than a method based solely
70.38 Summary of Design Steps for Lerbs' on empirical or experimental data. The calcula-
Short Method Schoenherr's Combination. Sum-
;
tions proper can be made by anyone who knows
marizing the procedure of Sees. 70.21 through arithmetic, algebra, logarithms, and elementary
70.37: trigonometry. The several correction factors
involved in this procedure, some of them semi-
(1) Determine the number of blades Z, the
rake,
empirical, will disappear with increasing knowl-
the propeller diameter D, the hub diameter d,
edge. The analytic framework of this method
and the rate of rotation n
should serve well for the insertion of results of
(2) Calculate the thrust-load Ctl coefficient ,

future research and the presentation of additional

the coefficient {Ctl)s and the absolute advance
,

useful data for the propeller designer, especially

coefficients Xand Xs
when more is known of the flow in and around
(3) Determine the ideal efficiency with jet rota-
the propeller position.
tion riK from Fig. 70.
K. E. Schoenherr has recently [SNAME, 1955,
(4) With successive approximations, determine
p. 366] outlined a logical, workable combination
the hydrodynamic pitch angle ^i and the thrust ,

of the propeller-design chart and analytic method

distribution over the blades which will allow the
embodying the following steps, adapted from the
propeller to develop the required thrust; use
reference:
Eqs. (70.i) through (70.vi) and Fig. 70.G
hft-coefficient product (a) is first solved by the use of
The problem
(5) Determine the
Cl{c/D), apply the lifting-surface correction, and design and the methods described in
charts
calculate the hydrodynamic pitch-diameter ratio PNA, Vol. II, Chap. Ill
P/D for each blade section; use Eqs. (70.vii) (b) The method of Th. Theodorsen in his

through (70.bc) book "Theory of Propellers" [McGraw-Hill,

(6) From strength considerations,
calculate the New York, 1948] is then applied to obtain the
blade-thickness fraction to/D, and the maximum- lift-grading curve

blade-thickness distribution ratio tx/c; use Eqs. (c) The blade area, blade width, and blade-
(70.x) and (70.xi) and Fig. 70.J thickness distribution are chosen to keep the
(7) Choose the type of meanline and thickness
propeller out of cavitation, to meet strength
form to be used for the blade sections requirements, and to give good thickness ratios
(8) Using cavitation criteria, determine the maxi- (d) Lift-coefficient curves for the sections are

mum camber of the meanhne nix the chord ,

calculated, if not already available, by the method
lengths c of the blade sections, and the Uft co- of L. C. Burrill, explained in reference (39) of

efficients Cl of the sections; use Eqs. (70.xii) Sec. 70.20

through (70.xiv) and Fig. 70.K (e) The angle is read from the lift-
of attack

Draw and fair the blade outline and determine coefficient curves and the final pitch distribution
(9)
the final chord lengths, maximum cambers, and is obtained by smoothing out the calculated
lift coefficients; use Fig. 70.M if necessary results
The effective pitch obtained from the fore-
(10) Apply the curvature correction to the camber (f)

ratio; use Eq. (70.xvi) and Fig. 70.N

going calculations is compared with the pitch
obtained from the design chart as a check on the
(11) Apply the viscous-flow correction and cal-
distribution; use Eqs. accuracy of the solution.
culate the final pitch
(70.xvii)and (70.ix) According to Schoenherr, "... variable wake
(12) Determine the amount of skew-back and can be introduced readilj'" into this design

lay out the skew-back fine procedure.

 Sec. 70.40 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN G3I

70.39 Avoiding Air Leakage with Inadequate This is shown by L. P. Smith for several models
Submersion. For a designed-speed and a de- of ship propellers, where, after reaching low
signed-load condition, assuming no severe limits points in the thrust curves due to cavitation, the
imposed by the projected service of the vessel, thrust begins to rise steadily as the rate of rota-
a tip submergence so inadequate as to permit tion is increased [ASME, Jul 1937, Vol. 59, pp.
drawing air is a matter of ship rather than pro- 409-431, esp. pp. 415-419 and Figs. 6, 7, and 11].
peller design. Nevertheless, limitations are often It is also shown by R. W. L. Gawn for a pair of
imposed, and ships do have to propel themselves motor torpedoboat propellers [NECI, 1948-1949,
with reasonable efficiencyat drafts (and tip Vol. 65, Fig. 14, p. 370], where at an advance
submergences) less than the designed amounts. coefficient / of about 0.62 to 0.67, the values of
The operation of propellers under these con- Kt begin to increase after reaching their minimum
ditions is 7L10
described in the references of Sec. values. In fact, for one propeller, the Kt value
and is well summarized by W. P. A. van Lammeren at J = 0.6 is as high as at / = 0.75 and at
[RPSS, 1948, pp. 262-263]. From this reference it J = 0.83, with a mimmum value at J = 0.67.
". . appears that screws having blades with wide
. Under the conditions described, not only is the
tips and circular-back sections are more likely to pressure over the whole suction side of the blade
be free from air-drawing." then reduced nearly to zero absolute, representing
70.40 Design Comments on Propellers for the the limit for service conditions, but the friction
Supercavitating Range. If the cavitation noise, resistance on the back of the blade is eliminated,
erosion, and vibration are not serious, a certain because moving water no longer touches it.
amount of either bubble or sheet cavitation, or Under these conditions the propeller is fully
both, may be tolerated on heavily loaded screw cavitating, and is said to be running in the super-
propellers, provided this loading represents the cavitating range. The flow over the blade then
maximum may
be encountered under any
that resembles that of the right-hand diagram in
condition of service. This is somewhat analogous Fig. 23.1.
to loading a boat to the gunwales if it is known There has been some theoretical work done in
that the boat is to encounter no waves. Russia on the supercavitating propeller but, so
When pushing screw propellers to their limit of far as known, the only published references trans-
ultimate performance, involving large — Ap's, lated into English at the date of writing (1955) are:
large real-slip ratios, and high velocities over the
backs of the blades, it becomes necessary, at (1) Posdunine, V. L.,"On the Working of Supercavitating
Screw Propellers," INA, 1944, pp. 138-149
least in the present state of the art, to accept
(2) Posdunine, V. L., "Problems in Ship-Propeller Design,"
sheet cavitation in the running range, and heavy
Soviet Science, Feb 1941; English transl. in SBMEB,
cavitation at that. This is the case with high- Feb 1946, pp. 69-70
speed and ultra-high-speed planing craft, par- (3) Epshteyn, L. A., "On the Action of the Ideal Super-
ticularly racing motorboats. cavitating Propeller," Inzhenerniy Sbornik, 1951,
It is described previously, in Sec. 23.12, that Vol. IX. This paper lists five previous Russian
references, published in the period 1943-1945.
the practical limit of intensity of the —Ap on
Posdunine, in his 1944 paper, speaks of experi-
the suction side of the blade, from which most
mental proof for his claim to reasonably high thrust
of the Uft and thrust are derived, occurs at the and efficiency in the supercavitating range. Despite
vapor pressure of water. As the cavitation number his assurance that these data would be forthcoming

is lowered, sheet cavitation covers more and more
of the back of each blade. The thrust falls off
rapidly and the rate of rotation increases, so that
the propeller serves no longer as a suitable or
efficient driving mechanism for the ship which
carries it.
they appear never to have been published in English.
In the discussion of Posdunine's 1944 paper by
F. H. Todd, on p. 144, there are given the results of
variable-pressure water-tunnel tests at the NPL,
Teddington, on a screw propeller, when extended
into the supercavitating range.

However, if the propelling machinery is able One feature of the design problem, upon which
to turn it unexpected situa-
fast enough, a rather much more remains to be done, is that of pre-
tion develops. When finally the whole back area venting the flow, when altered by the sheet
is uncovered and exposed to vapor pressure in the cavity over the back of one blade, from adversely
cavity a further increase in the rate of rotation affecting the pressure on the face of the following
usually results in a slowly increasing thrust. blade. This is done by:
632 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.41

(a) Reducing the number of blades and the blade the "antiUft." This force exceeds the dynamic
overlap (when viewed generally normal to the upward lift created by the lower blades if the
blade surface) to a minimum propeller rides too high but it is less than the
(b) Keeping the slip ratio low, with a reasonably
upward lift if the propeller rides too low. Means
low angle of attack on each blade of incorporating this feature in a propeller design
are described in considerable detail by E. C. B.
(c) Increasing the pitch-diameter ratio, to in-
Corlett [The Motor Boat and Yachting, Sep 1954,
crease the gap between blades.
pp. 387-388].
The slip ratio can only be held down by loading 70.41 Design of Bow Propellers, Coupled and
the propeller lightly. This may be achieved by Free-Riuining. Bow propellers are either driven
increasing the disc area or the expanded blade by independent engines, at a speed suitable to
area, but is best accomplished in the case of the the needs of the moment, or they are, in the case
supercavitating propeller by reducing the ship of many double-ended ferryboats, coupled to the
resistance and the propeller thrust to the lowest engine and the stern propeller by a straight-
possible values. At the high speeds in question, through shaft. Icebreakers with bow propellers
this is only possible with planing craft in which are in the first category, along with the larger
the resistance varies as some power of the speed ferryboats, where fuel economy is important.
lessthan the square, possibly even less than the Icebreakers and other vessels with bow pro-
firstpower; see Fig. 53. D. pellers are usually required to back hard upon

Not more than three blades, and not too wide occasion, or to run in the opposite direction. The
blades at that, should be used on a propeller bow propeller then becomes the stern one. Under
working for the most part in the heavily cavitat- these conditions symmetrical sections are em-
ing or supercavitating range. Two-bladed pro- ployed, with straight meanlines. Actually, since
pellers are preferred. Pitch-diameter ratios should the propellers rotate in opposite directions at
probably exceed 1.4, and may run as high as 2.0 different times, the sections are elliptical or
or more. lens-shaped, symmetrical on each side of the
If it is known that a propeller will cavitate midchord position, similar to those of Fig. 70.
fully throughout the running range, its blade [S and P, 1943, Fig. 153, p. 132, Type 3]. What

sections may be of triangular shape, with blunt might be termed double-symmetrical blades of
or square trailing edges. The blade speed is so running in the open, give identical per-
this kind,
extremely high, and the static pressure usually formance when rotating one way or the other.
so low that the water can not possibly close in 70.42 Open- Water and Self-Propelled Model
behind even a fair blade section. Wedge-shaped Tests. No existing propeller-design procedure is

propeller blade sections for supercavitating pro- sufficientlycomprehensive and reliable to give an
pellers are discussed by G. Rabbeno [Ann. Rep. accurate prediction of the open-water performance
Rome Model Basin, 1938, Vol. VII, p. 91]. The of a screw propeller built to a particular design,
stiffness —and strength — of the blade may be either on model or full scale. When the new pro-
concentrated in the metal near the trailing edge, peller design is only slightly different from that
enabling the leading edge and the blade section of a propeller which has already been tested it

to be considerably finer than normal. Comments would appear that the designer could be reason-
on supercavitating flow past foils and struts, ably certain of predicting its performance.
applicable to the propeller-design problem, are Nevertheless, minor changes which seem in-
given by M. P. TuUn ["Cavitation in Hydro- significant often produce appreciable differences
dynamics," NPL, Oct 1955, paper 16; SBSR, in performance. One never knows when this will

3 Nov 1955, pp. 570-571]. happen.

For the ultra-high-speed screw propeller which It seems wise, therefore, in the case of a new
provides the dynamic lift for holding up the stern propeller design, to build a model and to test it,

of a very fast planing with the propeller

craft, (1) in open water, (2) in a variable-pressure water
shaft, the struts, and the propeller hub normally tunnel, and (3) in a self-propelled model of the
out of water, it is important that there be a ship for which it is designed. Unfortunately, it

stabiUzing influence to hold the stern of the boat was not wake-adapted
possible to do this for the
at its proper level. One solution is to set up a propeller designed in Sees. 70.21 through 70.37,
compensating downward vertical force known as nor to include the test data in Chap. 78.
 Sec. 70.43 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 633

70.43 Mechanical Construction Type of Hub ; distant future there will be developed a strong,
Shaping and Finish of Blades. The mechanical not-too-expensive, corrosion-resisting, weldable
design and the details of construction of screw ferrous alloy for propeller blades which will
propellers, of both the solid and the built-up permit the separate blades of a screw propeller
types, have become rather well standardized in to be cast individually with specially shaped root
the past century. They are described and illus- palms and welded to a steel hub, or to an enlarge-
trated by R. H. Tingey [ME, 1942, Vol. I, pp. ment on a short stub shaft. An arrangement
267-293, esp. pp. 291-293] and by the authors diagram of the latter scheme, for the arch-stern
of up-to-date handbooks on marine engineering. ABC ship, is sketched in Fig. 74.L.

The choice of whether a particular design of (3) The availability of a strong, rigid, ferrous
propeller is to be of the solid or built-up type is alloy will, among other things:
usually made by the owner and operator, often
(a) Enable the larger propellers, whose ship-
based upon considerations far removed from ment expensive and inconvenient, to have their
is
hydrodynamics. The marine architect is called hubs and blades assembled by welding at the
upon only to state how much reduction in effi-
yard where the ship is built. Annealing of the
ciency is involved if the wheel is built up. This
welds is possible by induction heating.
depends upon the ultimate size and shape of the
(b) Eliminate the trouble, expense, and vul-
hub, including the flanges at the roots of the
nerability of tapered fits, keyways, keys, screw
blades, the fairing of the bolts and nuts for these
threads, and nuts necessary to attach the present
flanges, the fairing of the whole hub into the
propellers to their shafts. Bolted flanges are
hull, and other features. The probable reduction much simpler and more reliable.
in efficiency on the ship, mentioned in Sec. 70.14,
(c) Eliminate the need for galvanic-action
is of the order of 2 or 3 per cent. If a solid pro-
protectors in the neighborhood of bronze pro-
peller has an efficiency tjo of 0.70 the equivalent
pellers, with their never-ending added drag and
built-up propeller may have an ijo of (0.70) (0.97)
continual expense
= 0.679. In what are known as points, often used
By
(d) the use of plated chromium or some
by marine engineers to indicate a change in
other material, such as on the stub shaft project-
percentage numerals, this is a reduction of
ing abaft the ABC ship propeller in Fig. 74. L,
(70 - 67.9) = 2.1 points.
eliminate the need for bronze bearing sleeves on
As a means of reducing this loss and retaining steel shafts.
the demountable-blade advantage, there are
several possibilities which call for comment:
Constant pressure and attention applied to
the manufacture of more accurate propellers for
(1) The built-up propeller without adjustable the past two or three decades, that is, propellers
features. In the orthodox design, followed for conforming more nearly to the design drawings,
many decades, the base or bolting flange of each has produced valuable results. Tolerances of
blade is circular. This permits some adjustment in plus or minus 1/4 per cent in mean face pitch
geometric pitch when the blade is bolted firmly over a blade, and of plus and minus 1/2 per cent
in place on the hub. However, if the blade is in local pitch variation, are now being approached
shifted in this process, the shift must be a constant or exceeded. Blade thicknesses in important posi-
angle d(j> for all blade sections. This is by no tions are being specified and measured. This is

means equivalent to a constant change in linear excellent as far as it goes, but it still leaves as un-
pitch P, or even to a constant percentage change specified the shape of the entire back or —Ap
in P, because P = 2:rfl tan <^ and the distance surface of the blade. However, there is a growing

2tR changes with radius. The great number of appreciation of the importance of back shape
a small need for
solid propellers in use indicates among owners and operators as well as among pro-
the adjustable feature and for changing pitch in peller designers. Lack of suitable equipment to
service. By eliminating the adjustment in angle, make measurements on large propellers, both
and with it the need for the circular base flange on during manufacture and inspection, is delaying
each blade, it is possible to make the blades progress along this line.
detachable or demountable without greatly in- Edge shapes of propeller blades are important.
creasing the size of the hub. These require delineation on the drawings by
(2) It appears almost certain that in the not- large-scale details or by geometric dimensions.
634 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.44

described in Sec. 70.19. They are rather easily Rather complete procedures for determining
checked b.v small full-scale templates. blade thicknesses adequate for strength and
Considering that the surfaces of a screw-pro- rigidity, and for calculating stresses in the blade
pellerblade almost always travel through the material, are found in the following references:
water faster than the ship, and the surfaces of
(a) Schoenherr, K. E., SNAME, 1934, pp. 113-114
the outer portions often several times as fast, (b) Schoenherr, K. E., PNA, 1939, Vol. 11, p. 1.57
the blade surfaces should be as smooth as modern (c) Taylor, D. W., S and P, 1943, Chap. 29.3, pp. 127-141
tools and techniques can make them. Indeed, in (d) Tingey, R. H., ME, 1942, Vol. I, pp. 281-291

keeping with the necessity for smaller roughness (e) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., RPSS, 1948, pp. 269-273
(f) Hecking, J., "Strength of Propellers: Analysis Made in
tolerances on a large ship than on its model, to
Connection with Classification Rules at the Ameri-
make the two surfaces hydrodynamically smooth, can Bureau of Shipping," MESA, Oct 1921, pp.
the full-scale propeller surface should actually 762-767.
be smoother than that of its model.
It may very well be that elastic deformation
In particular, no lifting holes should be drilled
under heavy load of the blades of a nearly perfect
through the blades, contrary to the design shown
"static" design will modify rather appreciably
by R. H. Tingey [ME, 1942, Vol. I, Fig. 1, p. 268],
the shape and the performance contemplated by
nor should nicks and bent-over portions of the
the designer. This is a manifestation of hydro-
edges be permitted to remain after the first
elasticity, described in Sec. 21.5 and mentioned
opportunity to repair them. It often happens that,
in Sec. 70.13. Furthermore, this deformation
if the dock trials are run with the ship's own
may take place periodically and in varying
propellers in place, pieces of wire rope and other
amounts as a blade rotates through a complete
debris which have been dropped overboard at
revolution, leading to blade vibration and other
a fitting-out dock may be picked up by the pro-
objectionable results.
pellers, with damaging effects. If a ship's propellers
It is interesting to note in this connection the
have been so menaced, it is wise to have all blade
comments made by Dixon Kemp in the late
edges examined by a diver after the vessel is in
1890's in his treatise on yacht design ["Yacht
clear water, before it is permitted to undertake
Architecture," Cox, London, 1897, 3rd ed., p. 284]:
standardization and acceptance trials.
In this connection the following is quoted from "There would seem to be some advantage if the blades
the Conclusions of the Sixth International Con- are elastic, and bend whilst revolving, especially in the
case of small vessels; and Messrs. Yarrow have recorded a
ference of Ship Tank Superintendents, 1951,
case within their e.xperience of torpedo boat propulsion
page 10: where, by submitting a thin elastic blade for a perfectly

"6. The Conference re-emphasizes Decision 2 of the 1948

rigid one, the speed was altered from n\ knots to 19 knots."

Conference on this subject, which stated that 'It is neces-

It is unfortunate that no record has yet been
sary that the model propellers should be made to a. high
degree of precision and in all published work the measured
found of the shape and materials of these thin,
tolerances and the quality of the surface finish should be elastic blades, nor an explanation of their superior
"
stated.' performance.
To return to a consideration of modern wheels,
How to keep this ship-propeller surface smooth,
the propeller designer is advised to sketch a
even on the "stainless" metals which are essen-
so-called deformation diagram of his propeller,
tially resistant to corrosion and erosion, is still
in which the estimated deformations under thrust
a problem, but one for metallurgists rather than
load are greatly exaggerated for emphasis. The
marine engineers.
aim is to delineate the shape of the propeller
70.44 Blade Strength and Deformation. On
blade under load and to determine changes in
many if not most screw propellers it is necessary
pitch at various radii. Procedures for constructing
to shape the root sections, and possibly also
these diagrams are as yet not well formulated
some others, to give the necessary strength and
but a few hints may be helpful for guidance:
rigidity to the blades. On icebreakers and ice-
ships, structural considerations may outweigh (a) The thrust forces are exerted roughly normal
those of hydrodynamics. However, it is not to the line joining the nose and tail of each section.
possible in book to devote space to this
this The drag force may be neglected because it acts
feature, other than has already been done in generally in line with the chord of each section.
Sees. 70.19 and 70.30. (b) At the effective angles of attack normally
Sec. 70.45 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN G35

encountered, and with hydrofoil or airfoil section increases the lift on the outer elements, and in-
shapes, the lift force may
be expected to act at a creases the twist deformation. The effective angle
point between 0.25c and 0.40c abaft the nose of of attack «; thereupon becomes still greater. A
each section vicious cycle continues until the vessel speeds up
(c) Tlie bending forward (in the direction of to match the increased thrust, the engine slows
thrust) of cantilevered screw-propeller blades due down because of the increased torque, or the
to thrust load is usually not diminished as the blade takes a permanent set in twist.
designed thrust-load factor decreases because the A sequence of events of this kind is encountered
blades are made thinner in an effort to increase when a heavily loaded propeller with swept-back
the efficiency blades has its direction of rotation reversed, as

(d) The centrifugal forces acting on raked blades during a crash-back maneuver. The greatly dis-
are functions only of the amount of actual rake, turbed condition of the water around it probably
taking deformation into account, the radii of saves the propeller but at least one case is on

the sections involved, and the rate of rotation record where blades have been bent in a sudden

CO (omega). high-power reversal.

70.45 Propeller Materials and Coatings to
The deformation of heavily loaded screw-pro- Resist Erosion. One of the most satisfactory
peller blades is best counteracted, not by thicken- materials now known for use in screw propellers
ing the blades but by using materials of the highest which must resist corrosion, erosion, and impact
practicable modulus of elasticity. The nickel- from sand, ice, and the Uke is an alloy composed
copper alloys and the corrosion-resisting chro- of approximately 14 per cent chromium and 86
mium-iron alloys are considerably superior to the per cent iron. This alloy is capable of heat treat-
best bronzes in this respect, although accurate ment to give yield points of the order of 70,000
data as to elastic moduluses are often difficult to lb per in^. As for other iron alloys, the yield
obtain. point is fairly definite; this is not the case for the
Screw-propeller blades which have long, thin bronzes and brasses containing large quantities
trailing overhangs such as those of the weedproof of copper. The proper kinds of corrosion-resisting
type shown in diagram 12 of Fig. 32. L and those irons and have proved in practice their
steels
fitted on the liner Normandie in the early 1940's, ability to withstand severe usage on vessels which
almost certainly suffer some bending of the must work in the ice.
overhang in an ahead direction. This reduces the A corrosion-resistant alloy of austenitic charac-
geometric pitch angle 4>, straightens out the mean- teristics was employed by the Germans some
line, and diminishes the blade camber in that years ago for the propellers of destroyers and
region. The net effect is to reduce not only the similar naval vessels. This is an alloy containing
local but the overall lift of the blade sections at 22 per cent chromium and 11 per cent nickel, with
those radii.A slight additional camber of the most of the remainder composed of iron. Screw
overhung portions may well be introduced to propellers of this alloy require special casting
overcome this deformation and to make all the techniques,speci^-l cutting tools, and tedious
blade area work effectively. machining procedures but once fabricated they
On a propeller which is loaded moderately or stand up well in service. Examples are the two
skewed to an appre-
heavily, the blades are never corrosion-resisting steel propellers removed from
ciable extent in the forward or ahead direction. the German destroyer Z37 and now (1954) on
Were this done, the centers of pressure on the exhibition at the Engineering Experiment Station
outer elements, lying near the forward quarter- at Annapolis, Maryland.
or third-points of these elements, would be much Some comments on cavitation erosion and
farther ahead of the torsion axis in the root means of preventing it on marine propellers and
sections of the blade than they are abaft that otherappendages are given by S. F. Dorey
axis in a blade swept or skewed normally aft. Inst. Metals, Great Britain, Jul 1954;
[Jour.
This would mean a greater twisting moment ASNE, Feb 1955, pp. 94-96]. On page 95 of the
forward, and a greater increase in the geometric latter reference appears the following, modified
pitch angle than the reduction in that angle slightly for emphasis:
when the blades are swept back. This increment "A reasonable assessment of the erosion-resistance of an
A0 increases the effective angle of attack «/ ,
alloy is given by the product of (1) the suifaoe Brinell
636 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 70.46

hardness number and (2) the erosion-fatigue resistance Application and curing of a durable plastic
(4)
expressed in tons per in- for 50 million cyeles of reverse
coating to all the external surfaces except those
bending. The more highly resistant alloys have values in
excess of SOO, and in descending order of merit they include
which have to be in metal-to-metal contact with
the propeller shaft.
(a) Austenitic stainless steels
It beheved that the blistering and other
is
(b) Aluminum bronzes, with or without nickel additions
(c) Low-nickel stainless steels
difficulties with plastic and similar propeller
(d) Silicon monel coatings in the past have arisen from the presence
(e) Monel metal of moisture and gases within the metal proper,
(f) High-tensile bronze underneath the coating. The procedure outlined
(g) Turbadium bronze.
in the foregoing is similar to that which was found
"Below 800 are placed the normal: necessary and which has been employed success-
(h) Manganese bronzes fully for many years in vacuum-impregnating the
(i) Silicon bronzes wound coils of electric motors and other electric
(j) Phosphor bronzes devices.
(k) Gun metals 70.46 Prevention of Singing and Vibration.
(1) Cast irons
(m) Aluminum alloj's.
It is assumed in Sec. 23.7 that the singing of
propeller blades is due to the alternating circula-
"This does not imply that the manganese bronzes tion component around a blade section, and the
which have given such good servide have poor resistance,
periodic variation in lift, accompanying the shed-
but they are used purely as a basis of comparison."
ding of alternate vortexes in a vortex street or
trail. It is possible to relate the frequency of
Designs and techniques have been evolved, and
lateral vibration with the blade velocity, the
are in use on the blades of propeller-type turbines
Strouhal number S„ and the Reynolds number
in hydroelectric plants [ASNE, Nov 1946, pp.
,

547-549; Maritime Reporter, Mar Rn provided the diameter or transverse dimension

1 1955, p. 17],
of the vibrating (and eddy-creating) body is
whereby a thin corrosion-resisting steel cladding
known. This transverse dimension corresponds
is applied to a cast-steel blade by welding, either
in the form generally with the thickness t in Fig. 70. P,
of a multitude of welding beads from
corrosion-resistant rod or a thin sheet of rolled
Anqle at E, Separation
Tanqent at E,
corrosion-resisting metal. Should Be Point
some form of plastic
It is entirely possible that 18 deq or More, E
With Respect to
coating may be evolved which will protect a
Ton
blade from minor mechanical damage. This
coating might resist the action of sand and mud,
prevent corrosion, resist erosion by cavitation,
NOTE! Points Ei.Eg, ond Ej Must 8e Shorp to be
and serve as an insulating layer over a copper Effective
alloy so that no galvanic-action protectors would Estimated General Direction of Flow
be needed on the adjacent steel surfaces of the in Vicinity of Trailinq Edqe
hull and the appendages. To make such a coating
reliable and successful, however, will undoubtedly
call for a special application procedure, involving
the following operations:

(1) Heating the entire propeller in an oven for a Not Less Than 165 d

considerable period, to drive out all the moisture

Fig. 70.P Sketch of Chisel Type of Trailing Edge
in the interstices between the metallic crystals
To eUminate singing effectively it is most important that
(2) Subjecting the heated propeller to an almost the corners at Ei E2 and E3 be sharp, to create definite,
, ,

complete vacuum, to pull out not only all the fixed separation points there.
moisture but all the gases to be found within the
metallic structure roughly average position of the
abreast the
(3) Application of a sealing compound while the separation points E
on one or both sides of the
propeller heated and under a vacuum, to
is still blade. If the trailing edge of the section were
fill up all the internal crevices and pockets where approximately semi-circular it would be easy to
gases or moisture might otherwise collect estimate the value of /, but difficult to confirm it.
Sec. 70.46 SCREW-PROPELLER DESIGN 637

For a complex shape of trailing edge, as in the Hmiting values of S„ are found. The value of t
figure, the eftective thickness is both difficult to for the limiting radii is then estimated and from
estimate and to confirm. A means of making a Eq. (70. xx) the frequency / is calculated. If /
tentative prediction is given by F. Kito [Zosen lies within the audible range, objectionable singing
Kokai, Japan, May 1948, No. 277; also Abstract is possible. An example illustrating this procedure
Notes and Data for 6th ICSTS, 1951, pp. 41-42 is worked out in Sec. 46.9.
(in English)]. If singing is thought probable, or if it is actually
From Sec. 2.22 the Strouhal number is occurring, it isalmost invariably prevented or

S„

Here /
= =^

is
, or / = ,S„(|) = S„ ^
the vibration frequency, lying within the
(70.XX)
eliminated by the use of the so-called chisel edge,
sketched in heavy Unes in Fig. 70. P. Provided
there
edge
no large slope well ahead of the trailing
is

where separation might begin, the two

audible range to produce singing, generally above corners thus formed comprise two definite and
10 per sec and below 10,000 or 12,000 per sec. fixed separation points at the upstream end of a
Practically, the highest audible frequency of a narrow separation zone between them. The eddy
singing propeller is about 700 to 1,200 cycles per pattern in this zone remains sensibly steady, to
sec. The velocity U is the blade velocity Feude ,
the extent that any eddy pattern can do so. At
obtained by combining vectorially the rotational least, the circulation around the blade does not

velocity 2-KnR with the advance velocity V a The vary periodically, with a frequency in the audible
blade velocity varies with radius R, with rate range, nor does it fluctuate in magnitude at any
of propeller rotation n, and with ship speed V. such frequency.
The maximum occurs at or near the tip at full Other methods of providing fixed separation
designed speed; the minimum some smaller
at points along the trailing edges of propeller blades,
combination of the three variables. As a low to prevent singing, are shown by J. A. van Aken
limit it should be satisfactory to use R = 0.4/?Ma:c [European Shipbldg., 1955, Vol. 4, Fig. 3, p. 31].
n = 0.5nMai and V = O.ST^Max
,
• The singing propeller is discussed briefly by
The blade-section Reynolds numbers R„ are F. M. Lewis [ME, 1944, Vol. II, p. 131]. A partial
calculated for these two extremes, and from the list of references relating to singing propellers is
graph at the left in Fig. 46. G the corresponding given in Sec. 46.10.
 CHAPTER 71

The Design of Miscellaneous Propulsion Devices

71 . 1 General Considerations 638 Jet Propulsion 648
71.2 Design Features of Paddletrack Propulsion . 038 71 10
. The Design of Surface Propellers 050
71 3 . Notes on the Hydrodjoiamies of Paddlewheel 71.11 Asymmetric Propulsion 051
Design •.
. 038 71.12 Feathering and Folding Propellers .... 651
71.4 Calculating the Blade and Wheel Propor- 71.13 Auxiliary Propulsion for Sailing Yachts . . 652
tions and Dimensions 641 71 14
. Vertical Drive for Screw Propellers; Under-
71 5 . Alternative IMethods of Determining Paddle- the-Bottom Propellers 053
wheel Blade Area 642 71 15
. Design of Devices to Produce Transverse and
71 6 . Relation of Paddlewheel Diameter and Pro- Vertical Thrust 654
pulsion to Ship Hull Design 643 71.16 Design Features of Tandem and Contra-
71.7 Design Notes on Paddlewheel Details and Rotating Propellers 655
Mechanism 645 71.17 Design Notes Relative to Rotating-Blade
71.8 Variations fromNormal Paddlewheel Design 648 Propellers 656
71.9 Design Notes for Hydraulic-Jet and Pump- 71.18 Airscrew Propulsion 658

General Considerations. The screw pro-

71.1 Very little analytic work has been done on
peller isnow so widely employed for propulsion paddletracks and there has been only a moderate
in water that ahnost any other type of device amount of systematic experimentation on model
is unusual by comparison. Likewise, in a pro- and full scale. Correlation of the large number of
gram of research, experiment, and development specific tests, on both self-propelled models and
that is in keeping with the total number of full-scale craft, made in the United States during
propulsion devices employed, a very large pro- the period 1940-1955, is difficult and time
portion has been devoted to screw propellers. consuming, so much so that it may not be under-
As a result, the design of other types has suffered taken or completed for an indefinite period.
rather severely. In fact, in most books of this The hydrodynamic design requirements for
kind the discussions of other propulsion devices reasonably efficient paddletrack propulsion in the
aire hmited to brief mentions only. Design notes water have been pushed rather far in the back-
and rules for these miscellaneous devices are ground by the need for closely spaced cleats which
notable by their absence. This situation is not will insure adequate traction and support on the
easily nor quickly remedied, hence the notes and ground. It so happens that almost any kind of
comments for these devices, in this chapter, are deep cleat gives some measure of propulsion in
by no means as comprehensive, definite, and the water (or in liquid mud) but only certain
helpful as they should be. cleat designs provide substantial support and
Although the title does not so indicate it, this withstand severe usage over any type of ground,
chapter treats also of certain design aspects when including submerged rocks, reefs, and concrete
screw propellers and other propulsion devices are roads.
intended to work in unusual positions. Examples For the reasons given, no attempt is made here
of this are under-the-bottom screw propellers, to furnish design notes or criteria for paddletrack
tandem propellers, and contra-rotating propellers. propulsion.
The order of subjects in this chapter follows 71.3 Notes on the Hydrodynamics of Paddle-
in general those of Chaps. 15 and 32 in Volume I. wheel Design. It is reported that S. W. Barnabj',
Data for predicting the performance of pro- in his treatise on propeller design of 1885, stated
pulsion devices of all types, or references to those that "As a propelling instrument the paddle is
data in the literature, are given in Chap. 59. not inferior to the screw and some of the best
I 71.2 Design Features of Paddletrack Propul- recorded performances have been obtained with
sion. Paddletrack propulsion is mentioned it." Screw-propeller performances have improved

briefly in Sec. 15.4, described in Sec. 32.2, and since then but so have those of the paddlewheel,
illustrated in Fig. 32. A. especially of the feathering type.

638
Sec. 71.3 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES 639

There are many rivers in the so-called navigable The action and
geometry of the feathering
areas of the world in which the depth of water is paddlewheel, a type which is almost universally
of the order of 2 or 3 ft only, and inwhich trees, used when the propulsive efficiency is important,
logs, and all manner of debris, floating and water- are described in Sec. 32.3 and illustrated in Fig.
logged, are constantly encountered. Under these 32. B. The text and drawings include definitions
conditions paddlewheel or sternwheel propulsion of the various hydrodynamical and .mechanical
is almost a necessity [Hobson, C. A., "Sternwheel terms. Diagram 2 of Fig. 15. G indicates that the
Vessels for River Work," Ship and Boat Builder effective thrust-producing area of a pair of side
and Naval Architect, London, May 1953, pp. paddlewheels, equivalent to the disc area Aq oi
371-377]. a screw propeller, is equal to the combined
Paddlewheels are still to be considered for (transverse) length 2s of the blades of both wheels
pleasure steamers, tugs, and other craft plying times the maximum immersion of their lower
on the smooth, shallow waters of lakes, estuaries, edges, known as the dip. The dip ratio is the dip,
and rivers, where draft restrictions prevent the measured to the at-rest WL, divided by the blade
use of screw propellers large enough to give high width or height h. '

or even moderate efficiencies. If the paddles are
separately driven, as on many European tugs, the
maneuverability can not be approached by any
other type of propulsion except multiple rotating-
blade propellers diagrammed in Fig. 37. P.
The low n of paddlewheels
rate of rotation
does not match the high n of most modern pro-
pulsive machinery, but the current and future
developments in reduction gearing and flexible
couplings give promise of adequate means for
utilizing both, while retaining their individual
advantages.
Although the paddlewheel does not retain the
prominence it once enjoyed, it is still reckoned
as one of the standard ship-propulsion devices,
for which design data should be available. For
this reason, and because the paddlewheel data
in the Uterature are rather scanty and widely
scattered, some space is devoted here to a more-
or-less systematic presentation of them.
Judged on the basis of the rotating-blade
propeller and the screw propeller with a Kort
nozzle, both reasonably acceptable as shallow-
water propulsion devices, the efficiency curves of
Figs. 34. Mand 34.N reveal the paddlewheel as
a rather poor third. If, however, corresponding
curves were added for screw propellers working
under tunnel sterns, as alternatives for shallow-
water propulsion, it would be found that they
too had low efficiencies. In fact, it is believed that
the latter will average about 0.4 at reasonable
Based upon the principle that the most efficient
propulsion takes place when the least -|-A?7 value
is imparted to the greatest mass of hquid, the
blades of an efficient paddlewheel should have
the greatest area (transverse length times radial
width or height) consistent with a balanced
wheel-and-ship design. Plunging the blade into
the water and lifting it out again constitutes
unwanted and undesirable motion and involves
wasted energy in the water. The blades are
therefore as long, parallel to the water surface,
as their positions and as operating requirements
permit. In other words, blade area is achieved
preferably with blade length measured trans-
versely, rather than with radial width or height.
Theoretically, since the ships on which modern
paddlewheels are fitted encounter waves only on
rare occasions, there are apparently no Umits to
the transverse length of blade except those
imposed by mechanical and structural considera-
tions. When the blade length becomes excessive,
with undue twisting of the blade on a feathering
wheel, two separate paddlewheels, side by side,
are mounted on each side of the vessel and keyed
to the port and starboard ends of a single shaft,
with a separate feathering mechanism for each of
the four assemblies. However, if the blades are
too large and the thrust loading is too small,
too great a proportion of the work is expended in
blade friction through vertical motion, and there
is too much churning through plunging each

thrust-load values, and that these efficiencies will
rarely approach or exceed 0.5 in actual service.
Provided, therefore, that the thrust-load factor
of a paddlewheel design can be kept between
1.0and 0.5 or below, it need not suffer from the
handicap of low propulsive efficiency for its
particular applications.
blade into the water and Ufting it out again.
Like a screw propeller, the paddlewheel can
have too much blade area for its own good.
The volume swept through by an immersed
blade is partly boundary layer, with an average
U less than the ship speed V, and partly a poten-
tial-flow region where the average U is almost
640 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 71.3

than V. Since so little is known

certainl}' greater larity of feathering blades as they swing around
of these velocities for the paddlewheel positions the circle and the presence of external rings
on ships, especially as the wheels extend outward serving as guards and as ties between the arms.
from one-third to one-half the beam, it is cus- "The actual slips can only be determined by
tomary to assume that the speed of advance V a careful analysis of the path of the paddles at
and the ship speed V are the same. given speeds of boat and wheels" [Taylor, S.,
There has been in the past some difference of SNAME, 1908, p. 245; Stevens, E. A., Jr.,
opinion among commentators and designers with SNAME, 1908, p. 246]. It appears customary,
regard to the radius at which the tangential however, to measure the tangential blade velocity
velocity of a paddlewheel blade is to be measured, at the midheights of the blades for a radial
for the purpose of determining the slip ratios. wheel, and at these positions or at the trunnion
By some measured at a radius
this velocity is centers for a feathering wheel [SNAME, 1926,
corresponding to the distance from the wheel p. 187]. The difference usually is not appreciable.
center to the bottom of a blade in its lowest Fig. 32. B indicates that the circle corresponding
position. Twice this radius is roughly the overall to these trunnion positions is in this book called
wheel diameter, leaving out of account the angu- the hlade circle. The tangential velocity of this
circle is represented by the symbol V° (vee circle).
The vector diagram in the lower right corner
FeQtherino
Link and Blade
of Fig. 71. A indicates all the velocities known to
Blade Lent^th is

Normal to Paae Foul Here be acting in the case of a paddlewheel drive, with
their correct ahead or astern directions. Their
magnitudes diagram are, however, purely
in this
schematic. The}^ will remain so until more data
are made available, covering the flow across the
entire width of a paddlewheel (length of a blade),
from its inboard to its outboard end. When the

curved paths of the blades and the waves on the

surface of the adjacent water are taken into
account, the velocities are not all horizontal, nor
do they remain the same in various parts of the
field swept by the blades. In the past, as previously

described, this situation has been simplified at one

stroke by assuming that V = V. The apparent- a.

slip ratio is then

V of blade circle — Va
V of blade circle

_ V of blade circle — F of ship _ V° — V

V of blade circle v°
For radial wheels the ratio Sa ranges from 0.2
to 0.3. For feathering wheels on ships of relatively
fine form it varies from 0.1 to 0.2, averaging about
0.15. E. M. Bragg gives values of Sa for nine
Positive Wave- Wake Speed
passenger ships, ranging from 0.146 to 0.223,
I

Blade Dip- WG <?Ne(jQtive Potential-Flov« Woke

Biometer of Trunnion when reckoned on a basis of the tangential speed
Shtp Speed V-
Cirde-A|C°2AC u.auii of the midheight of the (feathering) blades
r*—'<j^Speed V plus Induced U-
Actual Sli|
sj^
[SNAME, 1916, PL 90]. For paddlewheel tugs
Velocity
H-n-n(AC) O. Teubert gives a range of s^ values from 0.3
Fig. 71. a Definition and Design Sketch for to 0.5 ["Binnenschiffahrt (Inland-Waters Ship
Feathering Paddlewheels Operation)," 1912, p. 445]. For operation in
For the wheel shown here, the trunnions are placed at shallow and restricted waters, Teubert adds 0.1
midheights of the blades. to all the apparent-slip ratios mentioned.
 Sec. 71.4 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES 641

7L4 Calculating the Blade and Wheel Pro- Rq

{s)h =
portions and Dimensions. Each side paddlewheel 2p7°(7° - 7)
may be assumed to act on a quantity of water
moving within the bounds of a horizontal stream 176,400
= 163.4 ft'
tube of rectangular cross section, corresponding 2(1.9905)(41.2)(6.58)

to the length s and the height h of one blade. For a check, consider the Long Island Sound
The water speed in the outflow portion of the passenger steamer Commonwealth, for which trial
tube may be assumed equal to the tangential data are given by E. M. Bragg [SNAME, 1916,
blade-circle speed V°. The volume of water so PI. 90]. This vessel is selected from among the
acted upon per unit time is nine listed in the table because it has the greatest
engine power and a speed of 20 kt, close to the
Q = sih){V of blade circle) = sih)V° (71. i) 20.5-kt speed of theABC ship. With an indicated
power P, of 12,000 horses for the 20-kt speed,
The mass of the water passing through the and an assumed overall mechanical efficiency of
tube in unit time isp(rho) times the quantity 0.92, the shaft power Ps is 11,040 horses. With a
rate in Eq. (71. i). The increased velocity imparted propulsive coefficient r)p of 0.5, also assumed,
to it (F of blade circle — F of
by the blade is
the effective power Pe is 5,520 horses. At 20 kt
ship) or (F° —
V). Assuming that all the blades or 33.78 ft per sec the total resistance Rt is
encountering water on each side can be replaced 5,520(550)/33.78 = 89,876 lb. A third unknown
by one effective blade on that side, the thrust is filled in by assuming that the thrust-deduction
exerted is then fraction is 0.0, so that the thrust T is also 89,876 lb.
r(per effective blade) = p{s)hV°{V° - V) (71. ii)
The diameter over the blades of the Common-
wealth wheel is 31.0 ft. With a blade width of
When the thrust-deduction fraction is taken as 5.0 ft, the diameter measured to the midheights
0.0, the thrust T exerted by the two effective of the blades is 26.0 ft. At full power the wheel
blades of the two side paddlewheels equals the ran 29.8 rpm or 0.497 rps. The tangential velocity
total resistance Er of the ship. Then at tne midheight circle, taken for the moment as

Rt = 2[r(per effective blade)]

the blade circle, is x(26)0.497 = 40.59 ft per sec.
The value of (7° - 7) is then 40.59 - 33.78 =
= 2pis)hV°iV° - V) 6.81 ft per sec. The apparent-slip ratio s^ is 6.81/
40.59 = 0.1677, which agrees closely with Bragg's
The effective area of a blade on each wheel, of
tabulated value of 0.167.
length s and height h, is
Substituting in Eq. (71.iii) to obtain the effec-
Rq tive area of a blade
{s)h (71.iii)
2pV°{V° - V) rr
(s)7i =
As a practical example, assume that the ABC 2p7°(7° - 7)
ship of Chaps. 64 and 66 is to be driven by two
89,876
paddlewheels instead of by a single screw pro- = 81.67 ft'
3.981(40.59)(6.81)
peller. Also that the total hull resistance Rt for
a given condition at 7 = 20.5 kt or 34.62 ft per The blades on this vessel were actually 14.5 ft
sec is 176,400 lb, derived in Sec. 66.9 from the long by 5.0 ft wide, with an area of 72.5 ft' per
meanhne 56.M. Assume also that the
of Fig. blade. This gives a reasonable correlation with
apparent-shp ratio Sa is 0.16, and that the thrust- the calculated value, considering the assumptions
deduction fraction t is 0.0, so that Rt = T. Then that had to be made and the simplifications
involved in the formulas used, to be explained
s^ = V° - V = 0.16, presently. The thrust per unit area of each blade
7°
works out at 89,876/[(2)72.5] = 619.8 lb per ft'.

whence (F° - V) = 0.167° and V° = 1.191 F To continue with the design example for the
proposed paddlewheels to drive the ABC ship,
= 41.2 ft per sec.
it is firstnecessary to decide whether the calcu-
The so-called slip velocity is (F° — 7) = 6.58 lated effective area per blade of 163.4 ft' is to be
ft per sec. Then reduced by some factor which brings the simplified
642 IIYDROnYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 71.5

calculation of Eq. (Tl.iii) into agreement with Taylor [S and P, 1943, p. 150], who states that
corresponding values calculated from observed good practice requii'es the blades for a seagoing
ship data. There are several difficulties here. The vessel to be no longer than one-third the beam.
published data available to the analyst lack one A blade length of O.iB is a good figure for any
or more important values necessary for a
of the type of smooth- water ship; a maximum value for
logical The simple formula of Eq.
calculation. any design, except paddlewheel tugs, is 0.5B.
(71.iii) takes no account of velocities induced by The average pitch ratio, illustrated in Fig.
adjacent blades, spillover around the edges of the 32. B and defined as the circumferential distance
blades, motion of the blades in a loop-shaped path between adjacent trunnions of a feathering paddle-
as worked out in the early years of paddlewheel wheel divided by the blade height, is of the order
propulsion [S and P, 1943, Figs. 168 and 169, of 1.5 for the most modern designs in the Bragg
p. 149], and changes m the elevation and shape table. This gives a circumferential spacing on the
of the. water surface in way of the blades. Further- trunnion circle, assumed for the moment as
more, assumes that not several but only one
it equal in diameter to the circle passing through
blade at a time, on each paddlewheel, is acting the midheights of the blades, of 1.5(6.5) = 9.75 ft.

upon the water. The rectangular area of the Taking 10 blades as a starter, the circumference
stream tube in which momentum is being imparted of the ABC trunnion circle is 9.75(10) = 97.5 ft;

to the water, when so derived, is undoubtedly its diameter is 97.5/7r = 31.03 ft.

larger than the rectangular area of one blade. It The outside diameter of the paddlewheel,
may be more nearly the area of the thrust- assuming no circumferential rings external to the
producing segment indicated by the hatched rec- blades, is approximately 31.03 -{ 6.5 = 37.53 ft,
tangles on each side of diagram 2 of Fig. 15.G. giving a blade-height ratio of 6.5/37.53 = 0.1733.
Purely as a means of working out a numerical This is somewhat larger than the largest value of
example it is assumed here that a reduction 0.168 (for the Tashnwo) in Bragg's table. It could
factor may be applied to the calculated blade be reduced by using 11 blades instead of 10 but
area, because of the conditions described in the with the selected pitch ratio of 1.5, this would
preceding paragraph. This factor is established increase the overall wheel diameter to about
arbitrarily for the moment as 0.90. The necessary 40.7 ft. The blades could be narrowed to 6.0 ft,

area per blade on the ABC paddlewheel is then giving a blade-circle diameter of [11(6.0)1.5]/
only 163.4(0.9) = 147.06 ft^ A better reduction X = 31.5 ft and a blade- height ratio of only
factor may be taken when it is found. For paddle 6.0/(31.5 -I- 6.0) = 0.16. However, this would
tugs it is possible that no reduction in calculated increase the blade length to 147.06/0.6 = 24.5 ft.

effective area should be made. While still of the order of one-third of the beam
The next step is to select the proportions of of 73 ft for the ABC ship, the length-height ratio
the blades. The narrower and shallower they are, of each blade is 4.09, which is considerably too
the smaller can be the wheel diameter and the large for actuation by one feathering crank at
higher its rate of rotation, but at the expense of one end.
shaft and paddlewheel length and overall beam 71.5 Alternative Methods
Determining of
of the vessel.The deeper and shorter the blades, Paddlewheel Blade Area. methods of Other
the less can be the wheel width and the overall calculating the effective area per blade, such as
beam but at the expense of greater wheel diameter that described by D. W. Taylor [S and P, 1943,
and a slower rate of rotation. The slower the rate p. 150], are based upon the same combination of
of rotation the larger and heavier is the propelling the engine power (possibly determined previously
machinery. by the owner or operator), the ship speed, the
The average value
of length-height ratio s/h slip ratio, the wheel diameter, and the rate of
-ofa blade in Bragg's referenced table is slightly rotation. Taking the formula given by Taylor
in excess of 3.0, with a maximum blade width
for the nine vessels hsted of 5.0 ft. Assuming a A = K V (71. iv)
blade width of 6.5 ft for the ABC ship, developing
nearly twice the power of the fastest vessel where A is the area of two blades, in ft", one on
tabulated there, the blade length is about 22.6 each side of the ship
ft and the length-height ratio is just under 3.5. K is a coefficient depending primarily upon
This length is within the limit given by D. W. the apparent-slip ratio and secondarily upon
Sec. 71.6 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES 643

many other factors. For apparent-slip ratios T

Ct.
ranging from 0.10 to 0.30, K= [212.5 - 375(s^)] Q.bpAoV
P is the shaft or indicated power; unfortunately
89,876
a rather loose definition = 0.3599, say 0.36
0.9953(219.82)1,141.1
V is the ship speed in kt.
Assuming for the bare-hull ABC ship an Assuming the same value of Ctl for the ABC
effectivepower of 10,816 horses, from Sec. 66.9, ship at a speed of 20.5 kt or 34.62 ft per sec, and
and a propulsive coefficient rjp of as high as 0.55 using the value of 72r = T = 176,400 lb mentioned
for a modern design, the value of P for Eq. (71.iv) earlier,
is about 19,660 horses. That of K, for an assumed
Equivalent area
apparent-slip ratio of 0.16, is [212.5 - 375(0.16)]
= 152.5. Substituting in Eq. (71. iv) T
^0 =
C'rL(0.5p)F-
A = Kyz = 152.5
^^^ = 347.9 ii\
176,400
= 410.8 ft'
0.36(0.9953)1,198.5
The on each side of the vessel
effective blade area
is half of this value or 173.9 ft^. This is a somewhat
This is the estimated thrust-producing area on
larger area per blade than the value of 163.4 ft^ both sides of the vessel; on one side it is 205.4 ft'.
calculated by Eq. (71.iii) but the discrepancy is With a tentative dip ratio of 1.35, the estimated
perhaps not too large, considering the assumptions area of one blade is 205.4/1.35 = 152.1 ft'. This

made. value is only slightly larger than the estimated

The additional formulas given by W. F. Durand area of 147.06 ft', derived previously in this section

[RPS, 1903, pp. 198-201] and by 0. Teubert by using the momentum method, with a reduction
factor of 0.9.
["Binnenschiffahrt," 1912, p. 446] are dimensional,
as is the formula given by D. W. Taylor. They The usefulness of the Ctl method obviously
require in addition an estimate of the wheel
depends upon knowledge as to proper thrust-load
coefficients for design purposes. For instance, the
diameter and the rate of rotation, or both.
Another method value of Ctl for the Tashmoo from Bragg's table,
of approximating a suitable
blade area, if complete and reliable reference data using a mechanical efficiency of 0.9 and a propul-
sive efficiency of 0.55, is only 0.26 as compared to
were available, is to make use of the thrust-load
coefficientand to work backward to find the the 0.36 of the Commonwealth. For a paddle tug,
pulling heavy loads at slow speeds of advance,
equivalent thrust-producing area Ao by the
following formulas, assuming as before that the thrust-load coefficient might reach or exceed

Vj, = V: 10 times these values.

71.6 Relation of Paddlewheel Diameter and
T Position to Ship Hull Design. Taking account
Cr
Q.bpAaVl 0.5p(equivalent ylo)F' of general design considerations, the selection of
paddlewheel diameter is one rather closely related
Equivalent area ^o , for both sides,
to the overall ship design, because it concerns the:

(a) Space which can be allowed for the wheel

CrL(0.5p)F' boxes or recesses
(b) Overall beam of the vessel, measured to the
For example, taking the total resistance Rt oi
guards outside of the wheels
the Commonwealth, derived earlier in this section
(c) Type of engine, and of reduction gear if fitted
as 89,876 lb, and assuming that it equals the
(d) Rate of rotation n of the paddlewheel drive
thrust T of both paddlewheels, with a thrust-
(e) Speed of the vessel
deduction fraction t of 0.0, it is possible to derive
(f) Probable values of wake fraction w and real-
the thrust-load factor Ctl for this vessel. The
slip ratio Sr .

speed is 20 kt, or 33.78 ft per sec. The apparent

dip of the blades, so called by Bragg because it is In general, the greater the wheel diameter the
measured to the at-rest WL, is 7.58 ft and the more efficient is its propulsive action. With a
length of each blade is 14.5 ft, so that Ao = 2(7.58) larger diameter the blades enter and leave the
14.5 = 219.82 ft'. Then water more nearlv tangential to the resultant-
644 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 71.6

Blodes, Trunnions, Crank Arms, and Line Normal to Blode Face

Links in Solid Lines ore^ Approximote /*"
C'
Drown for Trunnion' Sweep Lines
at Lower Cerrter Flonqes Stiffen Ends of Blodes
I

of Blodes and Reduce

Water Spillover at
These Points
I

Center of Poddiewheei Shaft-

Broken Lines -Show Speciol

Blode Actuated
DK

el ft
875 ft 3+5 fj

Trunnion Axis for Blade

Fig. 71. B Layout Accompanying Example of a Feathering Paddlewheel Design for the ABC Ship

velocity vector, indicated in the left-hand diagram Fig. 78. Ja, it appears that the best fore-and-aft
of Fig. 32. B and in the layout elevation of Fig. position for a pair of paddlewheels on that vessel
71. B, for a greater part of their width. There are is at about Sta. 11. This happens to coincide
also more blades acting simultaneously, with a very nearly with the position of maximum water-
lighter loading on each and smaller losses from line beam.
induced effects. Furthermore, the submerged The next problem is to determine the vertical
blades move more nearly parallel to the straight- position of the paddlewheel shaft center with
aft direction in which the water is to be accelerated respect to the designed waterline. The selection
by them. of the dip ratio, or the decision as to how far the
The correct fore-and-aft position of paddle- bottom of the deepest blade is to drop below the
wheels, important for efficiency if the wave at-rest waterline at the designed draft, may
profile has marked crests and troughs, is governed hinge on practical rather than hydrodynamic
by the position of the wave crests along the ship reasons. It depends upon the wheel diameter, how
when running at the speed for which the best many blades are to be in the water at any one
propulsion performance is desired. This feature time, whether feathering is employed or not, and
is much more important for a vessel running in the maximum variation in anticipated draft for
shallow water than in deep water. To take which propulsion is to be reasonably efficient.
advantage of the wave wake the wave crest For a shallow-water vessel, the greatest submer-
should be approximately under the wheel center. gence depth of the bottom of a blade should be
This position can sometimes be estimated for a slightly less than the draft. Consideration of these
new design, and it may be predicted by com- and other factors, for vessels of various types,
parison with an existing design if the hulls have results in blade immersions varying from only
the same shape. Wave some paddle
profiles for some 0.7 of the height to immersions of 1.4, 1.5,
steamers are shown in Sec. 52.2; references are or more of the blade height. D. W. Taylor points
given there for other published profiles. The out that the dip ratio may reach 2.0 for a very
wave profile is quickly and reliably determined, long, narrow blade on a large wheel, without
however, from a model test. loss of efficiency [S and P, 1943, p. 150].
From the wave profile of the ABC transom- Another relationship between the wheel diam-
stern ship, given on the SNAME RD sheet in eter and the blade dip involves the angular
Sec. 7 J. DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES 645

length of arc of the blade circle, passing through featheringmechanism is to be outside the wheel,
the blade trunnions, which is immersed in the with the eccentric pin carried by a fore-and-aft
designed-draft condition. For a paddlewheel to guard forming the lower edge of the paddlewheel
run at a medium rate of rotation, or perhaps box. If there is an outer shaft bearing carried by

above average, say not more than n = 35 rpm
or 0.58 rps, this arc should extend for about 50
deg forward and aft of the lower center position,
or a total of 100 deg. For a fast-running paddle-
wheel of less than average diameter, with normal
dip, the arc on either side of lower center may be
55 deg or more, corresponding to a total of 110 deg.
this guard the feathering links must be pinned
to an eccentric strap around the shaft, and possibly
also around the bearing. The mechanism then
resembles that sketched in Figs. 32.B and 71.A.
Although the dip appears large when drawn in
the elevation from aft of Fig. 71. B, the markers
showing the WL elevations at Sta. 11 for the

For use in selecting a final dip ratio for the two variable-load conditions of Sec. 66.32 and
ABC ship, in the designed-load condition at Fig. 66.T indicate that the dip is actually too
which the paddlewheels are to give their best small for those lighter displacements.
performance, Bragg's table has values of apparent Some paddlewheels are designed so that both
dip measured to the at-rest waterline,
ratio, the radial width or height and the radial position
varying from 1.27 to 1.52. The ABC value of of the blades may be changed without too much
1.35, selected tentatively in Sec. 71.5, combined difSculty and expense after the ship is built.
with a blade height of 6.5 ft, gives a dip of 8.76 ft. A certain measure of adjustment is desirable if
With a diameter of 37.53 ft and a radius of 18.77 the draft at the wheel axisis to change more-or-

ft, the wheel center lies 18.77 - 8.76 = 10.01 ft less permanently during the life of the vessel.
above the at-rest water level. The circle passing It would be very much better, of course, if the
through the midheights of the blades, with a vertical position of the paddlewheel axis could
radius of 18.77 - 3.25 = 15.52 ft, therefore be changed as well.
strikes the at-rest water surface at an angle ahead 71.7 Design Notes on Paddlewheel Details
of the lower center of cos"'(10.01/15.52) = 49.8 and Mechanism. The next phase of the design
deg. This is acceptable, and the dip ratio of 1.35 involves an analysis of the dimensions, ratios,
may be considered as fixed. proportions, and other features to insure that
With an apparent-slip ratio of 0.16 the value those tentatively established in Sec. 71.6 will

of V° = 41.2 ft per sec, from Sec. 71.4. Dividing produce a good overall mechanical and hydro-
this value by the blade-circle circumference of dynamic design. This involves a more careful
97.5 ft gives a rate of rotation n of 0.4225 rps or consideration of the features selected rather
25.35 rpm. arbitrarily in Sees. 71.5 and 71.6.
It is now possible to sketch a layout of the Clearance between inboard paddle ends and
proposed paddlewheel alongside the transom- the fixed hull is generally limited to the minimum
stern ABC ship, about as indicated in Fig. 7 LB. permissible mechanical value, say from 0.2 ft on
Rounding out the dimensions to get rid of the small vessels to 0.5 on large ones. The value of
ft

small decimal fractions, the paddlewheel center 0.4 ft indicated in Fig. 71.B is rather small but
is placed 10.0 ft above the DWL, or at the 36-ft not too small. Every fraction of a foot added
WL. The external wheel diameter is nominally here adds to the overhang of the shaft.
37.5 but for a wheel of the feathering type the
ft, The blade-spacing or pitch ratio, defined as
volume swept through by the outer edges of the the circular-arc distance CJ over the blade width
blades is not a true cyhnder. Nominally, the FG in Fig. 71. A, should preferably be about 2.0
outside wheel diameter is twice the distance from times the blade depth, to avoid interference
the wheel axis to the bottom of the blade at the between blades. However, this calls for very
lower center or 6 o'clock position, corresponding large wheel diameters. Practical limitations on
to twice the distance AG in Fig. 71.B. weight and space are usually such as to reduce
The maximum waterline beam lies very close this ratio to as low as 1.6 or 1.5. If the dip ratio
to Sta. 11,and a mechanical clearance of 0.4 ft WG/FG of that figure is made about 1.2 to 1.5
between the hull and the inner ends of the blades the combination of pitch ratio with dip ratio and
appears to be adequate. With blades 22.6 ft long, a reasonable blade-circle diameter gives a total
their outer ends lie 23 ft from the widest portion of immersed-blade area of from 2.0 to 2.5 times the
the ship's side (including the shell plating). The area of one blade, irrespective of the angular
646 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 71.7

position of the wheel. The pitch ratio of 1.5 and to the resultant-velocity vector PiQ on the forward
blade spacing of 9.75 ft previously adopted for side of the wheel. However, on the after side, the
the ABC wheel appear not too small. leaving edge of the blade XjYi is far from tangent
The average position of the center of pressure or parallel to the vector QiPj . The blade would
CP on each moving blade, in the course of its have to shift angularly about its trunnion to the
travel through the water, is somewhat below its position XY to comply with this condition.
geometric center, only 0.4 times the
possibly Furthermore, if one wishes to make a compre-
blade width from the bottom. It is customary to hensive analysis, the position of the wave profile,
place the blade trunnion at a point somewhat the direction of flow within the wave, and the
below the midheight point H in Fig. 71. A. This known component velocities of Fig. 71.A all

means that the blade-circle or trunnion-circle require to be taken into account.

diameter is somewhat greater than twice the The practical solution is to make the lower
radius to the midheights of the lowest blade, at edge of an entering blade meet the water surface
the 6 o'clock position. For the nine vessels listed with the blade tangent to the resultant velocity
in Bragg's table, reference (14) of Sec. 59.6, this vector. Curving the blade radially, with its
diameter ratio varies from 1.00 to 1.04. The concave and +Ap side aft, helps to accomphsh
ratio of the height of trunnion above the lower this. However, this very curvature can be said
edge of the blade in the 6 o'clock position to the to impart a greater upward component of velocity
blade height varies from 0.40 to 0.50. For the when the blade leaves the water than would be
ABC ship of Fig. 71.B it is taken as 3.0/6.5 = the case if its surface were flat. The major source
0.462. Thus from starboard, at
in the elevation of noise and vibratory forces in a paddlewheel
the left of Fig. 71. B, GH is 3.0 ft and HF is drive appears to be the periodic impact of the
3.5 ft. The trunnion circle passing through H entering blades. This involves a sufficiently heavy
has a diameter of 2 (AH) = 2 (AG - GH) = blow, for example, to render a paddle vessel
2(18.75 - 3.0) = 31.5 ft. audible before it appears around a bend in a river.
Having determined the trunnion-circle diam- It is important, therefore, to favor this condition
eter, the blade width, and the blade spacing, the and to provide as nearly shock-free entrance as
number of blades becomes approximately ir times possible at this point. It is the excessive lifting
the trunnion-circle diameter divided by the blade of the water as the blade leaves the surface which
spacing, CJ in Fig. 71.B, to the nearest whole raises the high crest abaft most paddlewheels, >

number. There is no particular advantage in pictured in Fig. 73.J, and which makes it possible
using an odd or even number of blades but the to use a fixed contra-vane abaft the wheel to
minimum practical number is about 6, preferably such good advantage.
not less than 7, although paddlewheels have been There is no fixed value, nor are there very
built with only 5 blades. The number 10, selected definite limits, for the radius of curvature of the
for the ABC ship in Sec. 71.4, is a good average blade faces. This may be as large as 1.5 times the
value from the Bragg table. blade-circle radius, AC in Fig. 7 LA, or as small
There undoubtedly an advantage in mounting
is as 1.0 times that radius. The latter ratio is used
the port and starboard paddlewheels on their in the layout of Fig. 71. B, where it is taken as
shafts at an offset or phase angle corresponding 15.5 ft.

to half the angular distance between adjacent
blade trunnions, so as to have the water entry
of the port blades taking place midway between
those of the starboard blades. This would depend,
however, on the torsional-vibration characteristics
of the paddlewheel shaft.
Even with feathering blades, it is almost never
possible to use a wheel diameter (or trunnion-
circle diameter) large enough to cause the blade
edges to enter and leave the water in a direction
parallel to the resultant-velocity vectors at those
points. For instance, in Fig. 7 LA the lower edge
If feathering wheels are fitted to a double-
ended ferryboat or other craft which must run
equally well in either direction the blades are
made flat rather than curved. The feathering
mechanism can be so designed that they enter
and leave the water at about the same angles
when going astern as when going ahead.
To provide plenty of leverage for the unbalanced
forces acting on the entering and leaving blades
the lengths of the crank arms are made from 0.5
to 0.7 times the blade width. This length is 4.0
ft, or 0.615 times the blade width of 6.5 ft, for

of the entering blade TS is almost exactly tangent the layout of Fig. 71. B.
Sec. 71.7 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES 647

Whereas most elementary diagrams of paddle- base chord GF of the lowest blade intersects the
wheels show the crank arms at right angles to top of the blade circle. Actually, for the wheel
the base chord of the concave blades [S and P, shown, the base chord for the blade section at J
1943, Fig. 170, p. 150], these arms are sometimes passes through Ci the base chord ST, when
;

set as much as 15 deg or more, up or down, from extended, passes through Bi That through .

the normal positions. Using an up angle, as in X,Yi passes through still another point, and
the ABC ship layout and as indicated at D, in these points would all change position for new
Fig. 71. A, results in a larger angle between the blades in corresponding positions if the wheel
feathering link and the crank when the lower rotated one blade space.
edge of the entering blade touches the water. If the pin-circle radius were zero, such as would
There is one fixed arm on the orthodox feather- be the case if all the inner ends of the feathering
ing hub or eccentric which serves to turn it as hnks were pivoted at the eccentric or hub center
the wheel rotates. The drag links connecting B, the locus of the outer ends of these links, cor-
this hub or eccentric to the crank arms of the responding to the points and D
in Fig. 7 LA, M
blades are attached to the hub by pins spaced would be a true circle with its center at B. For
uniformly around its periphery. These lie on this simplified special case, the problem of finding
what is known as the pin circle. The result is the proper position for B (relative to A) such
different angular positions of the several blades that the entering and leaving blades would
when" each successive blade trunnion passes have the proper attitude for the conditions
through the lower center (the position C in Fig. selected is still not easy, because of the curvature
7 LA). In other words, if the wheel of Fig. 7 LA of the blades. When the pin-circle radius is finite,

is rotated by one blade space, the angular positions there are as many solutions as there are number
of the several blades will be different than shown of blades, depending upon the position around
there. This is because the eccentric strap does not the circle of the fixed arm KD actuating the
move by an angular amount of [360/ (number of feathering mechanism.
bla,des)] deg about its own center when the wheel The problem is partly simplified by using the
proper rotates through this distance, due to the fixed arm to position the entering and leaving
angularity of the fixed arm on the eccentric strap blades, as is done in the left diagram of Fig.

and the blade crank to which it is pinned. Thus, 7 LB. Even so, the problem remains one of trial
and leaves
as the wheel rotates, each blade enters and error because the designer does not know
the water at slightly different angles from all the radius APi and the tangential-velocity
,

the other blades. The smaller the pin circle on vector PiR, until the linkage is sketched in for a
the hub or eccentric, as shown in Fig. 7 LB, the given position of B and for given values of the
smaller is the variation. It is one of the reasons other parameters involved. Having arrived at a
for mounting the feathering mechanism on the reasonable solution for the entering blade, the
outside of a paddlewheel which does not have an position of the leaving blade is then sketched.
outboard bearing [ATMA, 1906, Vol. 17, Pis. It may be far out of proper position, farther than
V and VI]. The other reason is that the eccen- indicated at the extreme left of Fig. 7 LB.
tricity E and the vertical offset Z of the center A new solution is worked out, perhaps taking
B of the rotating hub can be shifted readily after account this time of the wave profile in the
the ship is built and placed in service, in case it is vicinity, omitted from Fig. 71.B. Bragg's refer-
found desirable to shift the blade angles with enced table reveals that good designers by no
respect to the at-rest water surface. A large means arrive at the same answers, but it may
strap, rotating on a fixed eccentric around the very well be that they are trying to achieve a
inboard shaft bearing of the paddlewheel, in- slightly different result each time.
volves more lubrication problems and does not There is undoubtedly a best geometric relation-
lend itself to shifting its position at a later date. ship between the eccentricity i? of a feathering
In many elementary treatises on paddlewheels paddlewheel, the trunnion-circle diameter AC
it is stated that the use of a feathering mechanism of Fig. 7 LB, and the blade-crank length CD.
effectively doubles thewheel diameter. In other For the French paddlewheels illustrated by M.
words, the blades are supposed tomove as though Hart [ATMA, 1906, PL V], E is 0.5 meter, D is
they were part of a radial wheel having a center 5.660 meters and the blade-crank length is 0.8
at or near the point Ai in Fig. 7 LA, where the meter. For the Anatolian paddler of reference (8)
CM HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN See. 71.S

of Sec. 59.6, E is 0.24 meter, D i.s 3.56 meters and ticularly efficient. They impart useless upward
L(blade-crank length) is 0.36 meter. Tlie eccen- and downward components of motion to the
tricity ratio is 0.5/0.8 = 0.625 in the first case water [Teubert, 0., "Binnenschiffahrt," 1912,
and 6.24/0.36 = 0.667 in the second. The eccen- Figs. 305, 306, p. 441; S and P, 1943, Figs. 168,
tricity ratios of the more recent vessels of Bragg's 169, p. 149] and they leave a great deal of energy
table vary from 0.584 to 0.69. That of the ABC in a series of short, steep waves trailing astern.
paddlewheel in Fig. 71.B is 2.625/4.0 = 0.656. Wheels with fiat, smooth blades geared to a
It is possible, by raising the eccentric center shaft so as always to stand with their heights
B above the level of the wheel axis A, to: truly vertical, and with annular support rings
always above the waterline, as devised by Georg
(1) Help bring the leaving blade more nearly
Fricke of Lembruch, Germany, have proved
tangent to the resultant-velocity vector on the
excellent for propulsion in calm waters, grown
after side
thick with grasses and weeds. The blades press
(2) Avoid or reduce the mechanical interference
the weeds down vertically and do not become
between a blade and the feathering link which
foul [Deetjen, R., Schiff und Hafen, Mar 1952,
operates it, on the forward side of the wheel.
pp. 80-81; this German article is abstracted in
In diagram 1 of Fig. 32.B, the nearly horizontal
feathering link on the forward side just clears
SBSR, 8 May 1952, p. 579].

the upper edge of its blade. The same is true in

A partial list of references in the technical
literature on paddlewheels, relating to both
Fig. 71. A but, for the ne.xt blade above, the
model and full-scale devices, is to be found in
feathering link actually fouls the inner edge of
Sec. 59.6.
the blade. A similar situation in practice is met
It should be clear from the foregoing that,
either by making the feathering links of rec-
whatever its place in the scheme of things pro-
tangular section and bending them so as to clear
pulsive, the analysis and design of a paddlewheel
the blades [Teubert, 0., "Binnenschiffahrt," 1912,
represents a marvelous exercise in practical
p. 444], or by notching the inner edges of the
hydrodynamics and practical machine design.
blades to clear the hnks [Hart, M., ATM A,
Not only does the paddlewheel need an extension
1906, Vol. 17, Pis. V and VI].
of the motion analysis published by M. Hart
With the usual feathering mechanism, having [ATMA, 1906, Vol. 17, Pis. II and III] but the
an eccentric center forward of the shaft center, experience gained in such an analysis would be
the feathering links are in compression, especially invaluable when analyzing the action of other
when the blades are entering or leaving the water. propulsion devices and in preparing systematic
The links can not, therefore, be too slender for rules for their design.
their length without risk of buckling. J. Scott 71.9 Design Notes for Hydraulic-Jet and
Russell proposed a variation of the usual geo- Pump- Jet Propulsion. Methods of achieving
metric arrangement whereby the eccentric center what is often termed hydraulic propulsion are
(B in Fig. 71.A) Hes abaft the wheel axis. The described in Sec. 15.8 and elaborated upon in
blade cranks are thus on the after or +Ap sides Sec. 32.5. The efficiencies of the principal systems
of the blades, and the feathering Unks are, when are discussed in Sec. 34.13. In Sec. 59.8 there is

loaded heavily, always in tension. given a list of the principal references on this
71.8 Variations from Normal Paddlewheel subject, both historical and technical. Some of
Design. Where damaging debris is frequently them are valuable in design as indicating the
encountered and repairs to blades must be made pitfalls to be avoided.
on the spot or locally, often by the ship's force, It is pointed out in Sec. 15.8, and it is again
radial blades are used, bolted to the wheel arms. emphasized here that the air, gas, or water jet
The blades can be shifted in or out, radially, to employed for propulsion may, hke that from the
suit a more-or-less permanent change in draft or airscrew, be discharged into the atmosphere
trim. They can be varied in width, or shifted above the water. An example of this is the Russian
radially, to permit the wheel torque and speed shallow-draft river launch propelled by twin
to be varied so as to obtain the maximum engine water jets and pictured in The Illustrated London
power with the greatest ship speed or towline News [11 Dec 1954, p. 1070].
tension. The radial blades are simple and cheap Hydraulic-jet propulsion lends itself to craft for
and they produce thrust but they are not par- special duty, where the outside of the hull must
Sec. 71.9 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES 649

be kept clear of protuberances or where some both the inlet and the outlet water, so that the
similar characteristic is more important than the hydraulic losses will be a minimum
downright efficiency of propulsion. In most (4) Estimating or calculating the rating of the
lifeboat installations (those operating from hfe- pump or impeller and the power necessary to
saving stations ashore) the jet ducts can not drive it.

protrude beyond the fair hull hne, and a con-

siderable sacrifice in propulsive efficiency is There have been many recent successful devel-
accepted. If, as may be expected for these craft, opments of guide-vane assembUes by which the
good backing qualities are required, the pump flow of water can be changed in direction abruptly
must be of the axial-flow or propeller type unless yet efficiently. Relatively sharp turns can now be
flap valves in the ducts are employed. worked into the ducts of the hydraulic propulsion
ManeuverabiUty and steering as well as pro- setup without excessive hydraulic losses. This
pulsion are achieved with a pivoted jet, arranged gives the designer considerable latitude in leading
to discharge water in any relative direction a stream of water around inside a vessel. Prac-
desired. As with a steering propeller, however, it tically all modern circulating-water channels and
is mandatory to incorporate a low-friction thrust variable-pressure water tunnels for the testing
bearing in the swiveUng head, because all the of model propellers under cavitating conditions
propulsive thrust is exerted through this swiveling embody corner guide vanes of this type. Up-to-
connection between the jet elbow and the boat, date design rules and criteria have been worked
indicated in Fig. 71.C. If the friction is large out by the St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Labora-
tory in Minneapolis, Minnesota. In fact, it is

possible by employing a large rotary valve with

sSwivelina vanes to "switch" the water from one duct to

Stern Mechanism Water.from Pump another or to reverse its direction.
Bottom of Boat Centrifugal pumps of good design show effi-
ciencies of well over 0.80 and reaching 0.90 at
the rated output. Propeller-type or axial-flow
impeller pumps with do at
fixed blades should
Propelling
Jet least as well [Rouse, H., EH,
Chap. XIII].
1950,
Design and performance data on hydraulic
Swivelinq-Nozz-le Assembly pumps of various kinds are given by J. W. Daily
Is Shown in in the reference cited and by G. F. WisUcenus
Solid Black
[FMTM, 1947].
Fig. 71. C Schematic Arrangement of Rever- Supercharging of the pump, to increase the
sible Jet-Propulsion Device for a Small Boat ambient pressure and to delay or prevent cavita-
tion of the blades, may be accomplished by

in this large-diameter bearing, often incorporating making use of the ram or dynamic pressure built

a watertight stuffing box as well, the craft can up at the duct inlet by the motion of the craft

not even be steered. through the water. This is also used to help force
When working up the design of one of these the required quantity of water through the duct

systems the procedure divides itself naturally into toward the pump, against the friction resistance
several steps: of the walls.
The hull of a craft designed for reasonably
(1) Determination of the quantity-rate or amount efficient propulsion with fixed ducts requires
of water per unit time to be handled, the area(s) special forming in way of the jet intakes and
and the amount
of the jet(s), of increased velocity discharges, whether these openings are at the
to be imparted to this mass of water to produce bow or stern or along the hull. The design of any
the thrust required installation of importance should be checked at
(2) Working out the method whereby this leastby flow tests on a small model and preferably
quantity-rate is to be taken in and led to the by performance tests and pressure measurements
pump or impeller which is to impart the augment on a larger model.
of pressure and velocity to it The curved-vane diffusers and the various
(3) The fashioning of the ducts and passages, for other means adopted by hydraulic engineers to
650 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 71.10

raise the operating efficiencies of propeller-type developed by hydraulic engineers for the design
pumps can all be applied to the propulsion of of ducts and pump impellers rather than by
a ship, if the hull has a shape which lends itself those worked up by marine engineers for pro-
to the building in of the necessary ducts or jet pulsion working in the open. Unfor-
devices
boundaries. It hardly to be expected that a
is tunately, the data on hydraulic-jet
design
form of underwater hull which, over many propulsion apparatus are relatively meager, par-
decades, has evolved into one suited to the screw ticularly because there has been little in the way
propeller will be found readily adaptable for of logical, progressive, modern development
the efficient use of fixed propeller shrouding, pro- except on classified projects for combatant
peller-type pump-jets, or hydraulic jets. Experi- vessels and new weapons. It should be kept in
ence with the Kort nozzle, described in Sec. 36.19, mind always, however, that efficient hydraulic- jet
indicates that it is not easily fitted to a vessel of propulsion requires the largest practicable diam-
normal form. eter of jet and the smallest relative velocity of
The same basic hydrodynamic laws and rela- jet water, reckoned with respect to the surround-
tionships are used for the design of axial-flow ing undisturbed water.
impeller pumps with casings as for open-stream It is proposed in Sec. 34.13, and repeated here,
ship propellers but the attack on the problem is that the whole jet-propulsion system be designed
quite different. The available engineering data on an energy or work basis, rather than on a
are in such form as to apply only to the design pressure and force basis, as is customary for
of each class of devices by itself. For this dis- screw propellers.
cussion they are known as impellers and propellers, 71.10 The Design of Surface Propellers.
respectively. There are no systematic data, so far as known,
The quantity rate of flow Q = ¥t = AUt, for the design of surface screw propellers. These
inside the solid casing boundaries of cross-section are deliberately intended to run with only
area A must remain the same from inlet to outlet,
,
partial immersion, either because of draft limita-
hence it is used as a basic quantity in the impeller- tions or because of the lift force that is to be
pump design. If Af7 is the increase in velocity obtained from them, described in Sec. 33.11.
imparted by the impeller from the casing inlet A few references pertaining to this particular
to the casing outlet, the impeller thrust T is, design phase are:
from Newton's second law of motion,
(a) Smith-Keary, E. M., "The Effect of Immersion on
Propellers," NECI, 1931-1932, Vol. XLVIII, pp.
T = [ p{AU) dQ = pQ(AU) (71 .v) 26-44 and D1-D17
Jq
(b) Kempf, G., "Immersion of Propellers," NECI, 1933-
This is the same as Eq. (71.ii) of Sec. 71.4 and 1934, Vol. L, pp. 225-248 and D123-D138
of Eq. (34.xxix) of Sec. 34.13. (c) Kempf, G., "The Influence of Viscosity on Thrust
Assuming that the inlet velocity is the differ- and Torque of a Propeller Working Near the
Surface," INA, 1934, pp. 321-326 and PL XXXIV
ence between the ship speed V and the wake
(d) De Santis, R., "The Effect of Inclination, Immersion,
speed V w at the inlet 'position, reckoned here the and Scale on Propellers in Open Water," INA,
same as the speed of advance V a at a propeller posi- 1934, pp. 380-385 and Pis. XXXVI-XXXVIII
tion, then Finiet = Fx = V— Vw The increase (e) Baker, G. S., "The Qualities of a Propeller Alone and
Behind a Ship," NECI, 1937-1938, Vol. LIV, pp.
in velocity AC/ through the casing and impeller
239-250 and D135-D146.
istaken as a fraction of the inlet velocity Va
Also Q = T/{pAU). The pressure or pumping General comments and design data on "Par-
head hp then required of the impeller is equal to tially Immersed Propellers" are given by W. P. A.
the increase in kinetic energy of the water passing van Lammeren, L. Troost, and J. G. Koning
through the pump, or [RPSS, 1948, pp. 262-263].
Some practical pointers for the design of surface
hp = KVa + Avy - VI] propellers on high-speed racing motorboats are
published by E. C. B. Corlett in "Trends in
Very High Speed Craft" [The Motor Boat and
Yachting, Sep 1954, pp. 386-388].
From here on the design problem becomes The thrust-load factor for a surface propeller
lengthy and complicated, to be solved by methods is of course based upon the fractional disc area
Sec. 71.12 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES 651

which is expected to be immersed when the of secondary importance in steering and possibly
propeller is operating, indicated by diagram 7 also in turning. For a saiHng yacht, this may
of Fig. 15.G. require carrying some small compensating rudder
The unbalanced blade-disc forces from the angle. As the mechanical propulsion is an auxiliary
immersed and working blades, depicted in dia- drive at the best, the helm handicap can be
gram 1 of Fig. 33. K, are usually balanced by accepted for larger benefits which may be derived
introducing equal and opposite forces from a when sailing.

second propeller rotating in the opposite direction. A rather comprehensive article entitled "A
If these forces are desired or needed to give the Propeller for the Auxiliary," with several illus-
craft angular acceleration when turning, and if trations of asymmetric drives for sailing yachts,
the turning always in the same direction, as
is is pubhshed by M. E. Williams [Yachting, Feb
in a motorboat which always makes left-hand 1955, pp. 54-55, 114]. This article reveals that
turns during a race, they are balanced by a asymmetric drives and auxiliary drives, the
lateral force produced by a constant rudder latter discussed in Sec. 71.13, both require the
angle when straight running is desired. same serious consideration of flow in their
Since there are certain to be air holes instead vicinity as is given to the propeller position on a
of cavitation pockets on the forward or reduced- much larger vessel.
pressure sides of the partly immersed blades, the 71.12 Feathering and Folding Propellers.
available thrust is low, as is the maximum pro- The proper design of all vessels with two or more
peller efficiency. Conservative design calls for means of propulsion, such as the sailing yacht
the use of an efficiency not greater than half or with auxiliary power, requires that the propulsion
two-thirds that of the same propeller working devices of one system be not a hindrance when
fully submerged. those of the other system are being used. The
At the average draft and running condition problem of the effect of screw-propeller resistance
to be expected in service, the hub of a surface on the sailing speed of a yacht is discussed by
propeller should be just clear of or just touching K. S. M. Davidson and D. S. Connelly ["If We
the water on its under side. This may eliminate Hadn't Been Dragging That Propeller," Yachting,
the necessity of a watertight stuffing box for the May 1940, p. 68]. Permitting one propulsion
shaft. It will certainly free the propeller of friction device to free-wheel or to coast, if it will, is one

resistance on the hub surface. answer but not always the best one.
A cover or guard is almost a necessity over the In the early days of steam as an auxiliary
upper blades of a surface propeller, partly for power in saiUng ships this problem was usually
safety and partly to keep down the showers of solved by fitting a 2-bladed propeller and placing
spray and geysers of water which would otherwise its blade axes vertical when it was stopped. The

be thrown up at the stern. sternposts on those ships were so wide that the
71.11 Asymmetric Propulsion. It is often two blades, if not the hub, could lie neatly in the
convenient to offset the propulsion device from "shadow" of the post, within the eddies of the
the centerplane of a vessel, especially in auxiliary separation zone directly abaft the post. Other
yachts where an aperture for a centerline pro- solutions of this problem are to feather the pro-
peller adds to the sailing resistance and detracts peller blades, as is done on modern aircraft, to
from the efficiency of the steering rudder [Baader, fold them, or to house the propeller in some
J., "Cruceros y Lanchas Veloces (Cruisers and suitable manner. J. Scott Russell mentioned
Fast Launches)," Buenos Aires, 1951, Fig. 203, feathering propeller blades nearly a century ago
p. 255 and Fig. 205, p. 256. The situation is similar [MSNA, 1865, p. 474].
to that of a crippled multiple-screw ship driven A is defined as one whose
feathering propeller
by one wing propeller, with all other propellers thrust-producing blades can be turned on their
missing. own axes so that the blade sections are generally
Moment calculations, supported by service parallel to the direction of motion. An under-
experience with damaged vessels, indicate that the-bottom rotating-blade propeller would be
if the rudder area is sufficiently large and if the feathered, for example, by rotating each blade
offset of the thrust line from the center of gravity on its spindle axis so that all the leading edges
does not exceed 15 per cent of the maximum would face directly forward.
beam, the asymmetric moment of thrust is only A folding propeller is one in which the thrust-
652 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 71.13

producing blades are hinged so that their axes put a permanent propeller, to serve as auxiliary
are swung into positions generally parallel to propulsion on a sailing craft? There is no good
the direction of motion. In a 2-bladed folding place. In almost any position the propeller is a
screw propeller each blade folds aft so that its nuisance for sailing and a misfit for propulsion.
blade axis is sensibly parallel to the shaft axis, To be honest, there is not even a least objection-
with a frontal area considerably smaller than able place. All locations have disadvantages, from
that of a feathered propeller. Both feathering and the point of view of both saiUng and propulsive
folding propellers are illustrated Baader on by J. efficiency. Even the temporary outboard pro-
page 210 of his book "Cruceros y Lanchas peller, hung over the stern or the side, has its
Veloces (Cruisers and Fast Launches)" [Buenos drawbacks.
Aires, 1951]. The usual position and arrangement, embodying
A 2-bIaded screw propeller with folding blades, a centerline propeller working in an aperture cut
for sailing vessels with auxiliary power, arranged partly from the sternpost or the after end of the
to swing aft and form a continuation of the keel and partly from the rudder, is depicted in
propeller hub, was proposed and illustrated by diagram 2 of Fig. 71.D. To be sure, the propeller
Henry Claughton in the early 1870's [INA, 1873, outflow jet impinges on the rudder but a sailing
pp. 52-55 and PI. IV]. The folding was accom- craft has a rudder adequate for controllability at
plished by a rod which slid lenghwise within the low speeds, regardless of the method of propul-
hollow propeller shaft. The inventor claimed, sion. The propeller aperture, small compared to
and rightly so, that the folding propeller was the boat profile, almost necessarily has thick
superior to the feathering one because the blades boundaries. If the craft is of wood, the edges of
of the always have some objectionable
latter the opening are liable to be very thick compared
twist, no matter what the angle at which they to the propeller diameter. As much fairing as
are feathered. At the time of writing (1955)
FISH-EYE VIEW
folding screw propellers are available in diameters
of the order of 1 or 2 ft. They are reported to
have a drag only 0.1 that of a solid propeller
when it is not rotating [Ship and Boat Builder
and Naval Architect, London, May 1953, p. 378].
An adaptation of the "shadowing" 2-bladed
propeller, lying in the eddies behind a wide
sternpost, is what may be called the housing Schematic Lowut of As-ymmetnc Screw Propeller with
Propeller ond All Appendoqes
propeller. This device, pulled in axially with its
on One Side
shaft and held snugly against the hull, was
proposed a half-century ago for large vessels Rudder Stock
[Hamilton, J., INA, 1903, pp. 233-235 and Pis. ^^--Jesioned Woterline

XXX, XXXI; De Eusett, E. W., INA, 1903, Propeller Shoft Line

Rudder
p. 237]. In the 2-bladed form, and with the feather-
Stock
ing feature developed in recent years, it is possible Leodinij Edi^e of Rudder is Recessed
Moment Gap Smoll
nto Keel, so that is
to swing the blades nearly fore and aft. They Tronsmilted
can then, when the propeller and shaft are pulled Through Here to 9
'-
Lower Portion Deep Keel
inward, be drawn into a relatively narrow groove
left for this purpose in the end of a skeg sup-
porting the shaft. Provided the mechanical
Rudder Stock
problems can be worked out, this affords one ..^^Jesiqned Woterline

solution for a 2-bladed bow propeller on an ice-

breaker, mentioned later in Sec. 76.26. Here Propeller [/* \s

the propeller is either very useful if it can be run is S\\c^ht\^/\ Rudder\\ , Hinge Gop i s Smoll for Its

or it is a nuisance if left extended, depending

Offset so \ \\ Entire Lenoth

entirely upon the ice conditions.

that Shaft \^ ^^
ond Tube are ^^~^---__3^
^^
3
71.13 Auxiliary Propulsion for Sailing Yachts. Clear of Rudder Stock

There is only one answer to the question often Fig. 71. D Auxiliart Propulsion Arrangements
asked by yachtsmen: Where is a good place to FOB Yachts
Sec. 71.14 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES 653

practicable on the forward and after edges is 249-256 (in Spanish)]. In this chapter he gives
indicated, to prevent behind the
separation three design graphs for the auxiliary powering of
forward side of the aperture, to keep the wake these yachts.
velocities from being irregular, and to minimize 71.14 Vertical Drive for Screw Propellers;
the augmentation of resistance on the after side Under-the-Bottom Propellers. The combination
of the aperture. A 2-bladed propeller lies generally of a screw propeller mounted on a short horizontal
within the aperture when mechanical propulsion shaft and driven by bevel gears from a vertical
is not required, 'provided there is a blade-position shaft is knowri everywhere in the form of the
marking inside the vessel, and there is some way familiar outboard-motor propulsion unit. How-
to place and hold the shaft in the proper angular ever, design features which can be accepted for
position. The aperture detracts from the steering units in which the power in horses rarely exceeds
and maneuvering characteristics of the vessel but one or two hundred are not always workable in
as the rudder is generally large enough for control larger units, such as are hkely to be utilized in
at speeds much less than that at which the the future. On all the modern portable installa-

propeller drives the craft, it remains adequate tions there a horizontal barrier or "anti-
is

for the purpose. cavitation" plate to prevent air in the separation

A propeller may be mounted above the top of the zone abaft the casing which carries the vertical
rudder with a short exposed drive shaft and a drive shaft from working down the after edge of
short single-arm strut [Rudder, Mar 1954, p. 37; the casing into the propeller disc. This plate must
May 1954, p. 78]. The propeller shaft must be be' considerably larger and must extend farther
offset slightly from the centerline to clear the aft when a more powerful propeller is used.
rudder stock. Indeed, the vertical casing sections will them-
A somewhat more ship-shape installation, based selves require lengthening and fining. Efficient
on both the mechanical and the hydrodynamic and reliable water-excluding and lubrication
features involved, is to drop the upper end of devices and systems are called for if the vertical
the rudder and leave, in its stead, a fixed portion drives are to transmit powers in thousands of
of the after end of the fin keel under the hull. The horses instead of hundreds, and if they are to
propeller shaft passes through this fixed portion run continually for days on end.
and the propeller is mounted abaft it. The Besides being retractable by hinging or swing-
arrangement permits a reasonably sharp fin-keel ing, as in the customary outboard-motor assembly,
ending ahead of the propeller, with fillets between vertical- drive propeller systems lend themselves
keel and hull which taper to zero at the extreme to packaging in self-contained units. These may
after end, about as indicated at 3 in Fig. 71. be installed in vertical recesses or wells and
[Yachting, May 1951, p. 62; Rudder, Apr 1954, removed when desired, similar to the Sea Otter
p. 37]. Again, however, the propeller and its installations of World War II. The propellers at
shaft must be offset slightly from the centerline, the lower ends of the assemblies may project
to permit the shaft tube and the rudder-stock below the baseplane, or below a flat, cut-up
casing to clear each other. The propeller bossing portion of the vessel at the stern, similar to that
in the fixed fin above the top of the rudder then for the usual type of rotating-blade propeller
has an offset termination similar to those of cer- installation.Large-diameter 2-bladed propellers
tain bossings and multiple skegs in large ships may be passed through small-diameter wells or
but with the disadvantage that in the smaller small openings by keeping the blades vertical. In
craft the flow may cross the swelling for the the early days of steam it was possible to lift

shaft at a slightly greater angle. the 2-bladed propeller up on deck through a

A yacht in which the mechanical propulsion well in the hull at the stern. A modern installation,
is of the same order of importance as the sail proposed for an oceanographic research vessel,
is that known as the motor sailer. A most useful is shown in Fig. 33. J.
discussion of the propulsion and design problems A partly sectioned isometric view of a modern
of this class is given by D. Phillips-Birt [Rudder, outboard-propulsion unit in package form, de-
May 1955, pp. 12-15, 46-55]. signed to swing the propeller upward by mechan-
J. Baader devotes a whole chapter to the ical means, is shomi by A. C. Hardy ["Modern
auxiliary propulsion of the sailing yacht ["Cruceros Marine Engineering," London, 1955, Vol. II,

y Lanchas Veloces", Buenos Aires, 1951, pp. p. 154].

654 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 71.15

Flow to under-the-bottom propellers, working bevel-gear mechanism if a different type of drive

below vertical wells which house retractable or is employed. The problem here is keeping the
removable units, is practically axial but it may gears small enough so that the area occupied by
suffer from non-uniformity because of the pres- the gear casing is not excessive. A straight-
ence of the boundary layer. If the propellers through installation of this general type is found
are actually below the baseplane, and in a region in the Canadian ferry Princess of Vancouver,
where the ship bottom is sensibly flat, parallel to except that the water is moved transversely
the direction of motion, there should be little through a duct of rectangular section by a
augment of resistance due to the pressure fields Voith-Schneider propeller [111. London News, 19
created by the propellers. Although thrust- Mar 1955, p. 516; MENA, Mar 1955, p. 112].
deduction forces were observed on the Sea Otter If sufficient beam is available at the position
model, this is believed due to the fact that the selected for the transverse propeller or thrust-
closures at the bottoms of the vertical wells in producing device it may be advisable to use a
the models were not watertight. The — Ap and vertical-shaft propeller in a Z-shaped passage
-f-Ap fields set up by each propeller extended up having offset openings to port and to starboard.
into the lower portion of each well, where small Fig. 71.F is a schematic arrangement for such an
forces acting aft, opposite to the direction of installation. It removes from the water passage

motion, were developed on both the forward the bevel-gear box which would be required for
and after walls of the well. a straight-through transverse duct, with a drive
71.15 Design of Devices to Produce Trans- shaft entering at right angles to its axis. The
verse and Vertical Thrust. For docking, mooring, two sets of cornervanes are placed in the two
and shifting berth, in areas where the port elliptical intersections of the circular ducts, where

facilities are not adequate, it frequently becomes the increased area compensates for the flow
necessary for a ship to sidle or to change its restrictions imposed by the multiple vanes.
heading. This usually happens when it is not The propeller shaft, shown vertical in the
possible to shift an appreciable distance either figure, may lead in any desired direction to the
ahead or astern, certainly not far enough to drive motor, permitting the latter to be placed
create the offset or make the change in heading in the most convenient and protected position
by the ordinary operations of maneuvering. This in the ship. The Z-shaped duct remains in the

offset or change in heading requires the applica- transverse plane through the drive shaft but
tion of a more-or-less static force at one or both this plane may be either vertical or horizontal
ends of the vessel, in a direction approximately or may lie at any convenient angle.
perpendicular to its centerplane and in line with To prevent separation of the inflowing water
the shift in position desired. at points such as E, and Ea in Fig. 71. F the
Normally these forces are applied by tugs
pushing and pulling or by ropes between fixed Alternative Bevel-Gear Drive

objects and the ship, connected to capstans or

winches. When neither the tugs nor the fixed
objects are available, and when the offsets and
changes of heading are required to be performed
frequently as a routine part of a vessel's operation,
this may be accomplished by fitting separate
auxiliary propellers which apply thrust in a
transverse direction [SBSR, 20 Nov 1952, pp.
659-660].
The simplest installation of this kind is the
straight-through type illustrated schematically in
Not Shown Here Are
Fig. 7 I.E. A substantial shroud ring encircles the Method of Attaohin*
propeller to carry the gear teeth. The increase Means of Preventino
in diameter —and area—at the propeller position Thrust Beorinas, Stuffing Boxes, and the like

enables a larger and more efficient wheel to be

used, and partly compensates for the area Fig. 71. ESchematic Arrangement of .Auxiliary
occupied by the shaft and its bearings, or by a Propeller for Exerting Transverse Thrust
Sec. 11.16 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES 655

may be short. They are well removed from the

center of gravity of the ship, so the turning
moments are large.
Any large transverse opening, such as for a
transverse propeller, cut through the thin skeg
of a ship just ahead of an unbalanced rudder at
its after end, may or may not be detrimental to
turning. The opening permits leakage of +Ap
built up by the rudder on the inside of a turn.
If the vessel is turning at a large drift angle,

Propeller
there may be cross flow through the duct from
I

I Shaft is the outside to the inside of the turn. Further-

Shown more, if the propeller is not locked by non-
Vertical
overhauling drive gears or a brake, it may wind-
Here But
It Con Be mill under these conditions.
/Placed in 71.16Design Features of Tandem and Contra-
/Any Desired
Rotating Propellers. Normally, it is not good
Position
Generally design to place propulsion devices of any kind
/Porollel to the in tandem, even when they are as far away as
enterplane
the bow and stern propellers of a double-ended
ferryboat. If, under unusual circumstances, it
Fig. 71. F Schematic Arrangement of Vertical-
becomes necessary or desirable to absorb a
Drive Screw Propeller for Exerting Transverse
relatively large amount of power by a propulsion-
Thrust
device combination occupying a limited disc or
entrances are rounded, say to a radius of 0.1 or thrust-producing area, it is possible to achieve
more of the duct diameter. There should be reasonable efficiency by driving the propulsion
enough hydrostatic head above the uppermost devices separately. This enables each to run at a
duct to prevent drawing air from the surface. proper advance coefficient J = V a.I(iiiU), de-
The efficiency of a propeller-type device to pending upon the speed of advance at its own
produce transverse thrust is measured, not by position. Still better is a type of drive which
the usual ratio of output to input but by whether automatically adjusts its rate of rotation so
or not the device works. This depends upon the that its propulsion device absorbs a pre-deter-
lateral thrust developed. The thrust in turn mined power.
depends first upon the diameter of the propeller For tandem screw propellers, described in

and the rate at which momentum is imparted to Sec. 32.20, a device which has possibilities for

the water in a transverse direction. It depends certain applications is a sort of contra-propeller

also upon the length and shape of the transverse interposed between the leading and following
duct, because of the friction and pumping- units of a pair of tandem propellers [Schmier-
pressure losses in the water being forced through schalski, H., WRH,
Sep 1939, pp. 278-279;
I

it. HSPA, Vol. II, 1940, pp. 79-102, with English

If thetwo openings of the transverse duct lie summary on pp. 217-218]. This star-shaped set
in regions where there is much slope to the water- of guide vanes, with or without a fixed shrouding
lines, there is liable to be some slight but definite around the outside, is intended to recover the
effect of these discontinuities when the vessel is rotational energy in the outflow jet of the leading
underway. It is generally not possible to close the propeller and to impart enough pre-rotation to
openings when they are not in use so that when the inflow jet of the following propeller so that
the vessel yaws or turns there may be some the rotational energy in the final outflow jet is
transverse flow of water through the duct. very nearly zero. The mechanical problems
This may cause windmilling of the propeller involved in placing a fixed appendage of this
unless it is locked. kind between two tandem screw propellers on the
The best positions for propellers producing same shaft have not, so far as known, been
transverse thrust are in the forefoot and in the tackled except on model scale.
aftfoot. These are usually thin, so the ducts It is customary, although not necessary, to
fifiG HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Ser. 71.17

place the discs of contra-rotating propellers tangential components of the induced velocities
close to each other, spacing them along the shaft are large. Normally, large P/D ratios accompany
axis at only a small fraction of the propeller small thrust-load factors Ctl
diameter, just sufficient for the hubs and the 71.17 Design Notes Relative to Rotating-
blades to clear each other. The following pro- Blade Propellers. The functioning of the rotat-
peller is made slightly smaller in diameter than ing-blade propeller is described and illustrated in

the leading propeller because of the contraction Sec. 15.13 and Figs. 15.1, 15.J, and 15.K. Its use
in the outflow jetfrom the latter. for steering and maneuvering as well as propul-
both propellers of a pair rotate oppositely
If sion is discussed in Sec. 37.22 and illustrated by
at the same rate, the pitch of the after wheel is the diagrams of Figs. 33.H, 37.0, and 37.P.
made slightly greater to produce generally the References to test results on propellers of this
same thrust, torque, and power as the forward type are given in Sec. 59.7. Additional references
one. There is no reason, however, why both in the technical literature are:
propellers need rotate at the same rate if other
(1) Mueller, H., "Schiffsmodellversuche im Stromungs-
rates or ratios are preferable. gerinne (Ship Model Testsa Flo wing- Water
in
For contra-rotating propellers such as those Channel)," Schiffbau, Sohiffahrt, und Hafenbau,
mounted on the afterbody of a torpedo, where 1936, Vol. 37, pp. 168-173, 206
(2) Mueller, H., "Einfluss des Hohlsogs auf das Arbeiten
the flow is definitely converging toward the
des Voith-Schneider-Propellers (Influence of Cavi-
shaft axis as approaches the leading propeller,
it
tation on the Working of the Voith-Schneider
both propellers of the group can be raked aft Propeller)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 1938,
to advantage, provided centrifugal-force and Vol. 82, pp. 566-568
other factors are properly taken care of. (3) Fuller, W. E., "A Radical Departure in the Conven-
tional Tugboat Design, and a New Use for Cycloidal
The design of contra-rotating propellers poses
Propulsion," ASNE, Aug 1953, pp. 639-645
a problem discussed in Sec. 67.22 for the contra-
(4) "German Craft with Voith-Schneider Propellers,"
guide skeg ending. It is to find the exact direction SBSR, 23 Sep 1954, pp. 409-413
of the flow in the outflow jet from the leading (5) "Voith-Schneider Propulsion;" booklet of 23 pages
propeller as meets the leading edges of the
it prepared and published by the J. M. Voith Com-
pany of Heidenheim, Germany (in English). Copy
blades of the following propeller. This is a matter
partly of determining the direction at which the
in TMB Ubrary.

flow leaves the trailing edges of the forward It is desired again to emphasize that this type
wheel and partly of the amount of induced of propulsion device can be employed to produce
velocity imparted to it by that wheel, at a dis- thrust in any direction within any selected plane
tance astern represented by the forward sweep of rotation, whether horizontal, vertical, or
line of the after wheel. inclined. Diagram 2 of Fig. 33. H illustrates
There are two published design procedures schematically a rotating-blade propeller fitted to
available: a submarine with its axis horizontal, or nearly so,
and its plane of rotation generally vertical and
(1) Lerbs, H. W., "Contra-Rotating Optimum Propellers
Operating in a Radially Non-Uniform Wake," parallel to the plane of symmetry.
TMB Rep. 941, May 1955. On page 22 there is a A suitable thrust-load factor Ctl for a
list of 6 references. In general, this method takes rotating-blade propeller, expressed by Ctl =
account of the effects arising from the difference of T/{0.5pAoVa), is based upon an area equivalent
the wakes at the propeller discs and from the
to Ac which is rectangular in shape. It represents
contraction of the race between them. Tlie design
procedure is outlined by steps but no example is the maximum transverse section through what is
given. known as the basket or barrel formed by the
(2) Van Manen, J. D., and Sentid, A., "Contra-Rotating blades, having a height equal to the blade length
Propellers," INA, Apr 1956; SBSR, 3 May 1956, and a width equal to the diameter of the pitch
pp. 302-303; SBMEB, Jul 1956, pp. 462-463; Int.
This corresponds to the hatched area of
circle.
Shipbldg. Prog., Sep 1956, Vol. 3, No. 25, pp.
459-473. Eight references are given and a numerical
diagram 6 of Fig. 15. G. In practice, the propor-
example is included. tions of this rectangle remain sensibly constant,
having a ratio of pitch-circle diameter to blade
H. W. Lerbs observes that contra-rotating length of about 1.5 to 1.75. W. Henschke gives a
pairs of propellers are efficient only for large sketch and a table of principal dimensions of
P/D ratios, say more than 1.2; that is, when the Voith-Schneider propellers, taken from "Schiff-
Ser. 71.17 DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS PROPULSION DEVICES 057

baukalender," 1935 ["Schifl'bautechnisches Iland- but the —Ap's are usually of smaller intensity.
buch (Ship Design and Shipbuilding Handbook)," It is probable that, with a stern cut away suffi-
Berlin, 1952, p. 192]. For this series of sizes the ciently to provide easy flow to an under-the-
ratio of (basket or barrel diameter) /(blade bottom propeller, in a direction generally normal
length) has a constant value of 1.67. to the blade axes, the thrust-deduction fraction
The nominal thrust-producing area of a willbe lower than for a normal-form stern with a
rotating-blade propeller may, and generally does screw propeller.
occupy more area normal to the direction of An efficient design and installation of a rotating-
motion than a screw propeller; sometimes more blade propeller calls for blades that are sufficiently
than twice as much. The thrust-load factor is narrow to eliminate interference between them
therefore, like that of the paddlewheel, much and sufficiently long to provide adequate area
less than for a screw propeller to do essentially for the thrust to be delivered. There must be
the same work. Diagram 2 of Fig. 34. M and the sufficient submersion of the whole assembly to
graphs of Fig. 34.N show that, below a Ctl avoid harmful cavitation in way of the upper
value of about 2.2, the efficiency of a Voith- ends of the blades. While the presence of the
Schneider propeller may be expected to exceed large flat under surface of the hull above the
the 0.8-ideal-efEciency value of a screw propeller. propeller minimizes air leakage to the —Ap
The thrust-producing area adjoins the hull at regions, it is difficult to prevent detrimental
its upper or inner end, without the tip clearance cavitation at high blade loadings.
associated with a screw propeller. The wake The arrangement shown in Fig. 71.G is in
fraction at the propeller position is therefore general similar to that of the stern of the turbo-
—
almost certain to be higher and more variable electric motorship Helgoland of 1939, at that
as well —
than for a screw propeller in the same time "the largest seagoing vessel yet fitted with
position. There are no published formulas or Voith-Schneider propulsion" [SBSR, 21 Dec 1939,
systematic data available for a prediction of the pp. 644-645]. This vessel had a length between
wake fraction. perpendiculars of 328 ft, a beam of about 43.5 ft,
Similarly, the thrust-deduction fraction is not and a speed of 17 kt. The rotating-blade propellers
readily determined from orthodox or routine were each designed to absorb a shaft power of
reference data. The area of the propeller inflow 2,000 horses, with electric driving motors mounted
jet is larger, because of the larger equivalent A„ ,
directly on the propeller casings.

Fig. 71. G Areangbment of Twin Rotating-Bladb Propellers at the Stern

658 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 71. IS

The rot.ating-l)lade propeller lends itself par- 538]. An air-rescue task is clearly indicated, since
ticularly well to craft which must hold position the wide, flat-bottomed craft was capable of a
against wind, tidal-current, and other forces speed of 50 miles per hour. A later type is shown
when stationary or nearly so. It is reported by D. Nicolson [NECI, 1937-1938, Vol. LIV,
[SBSR, 12 Mar 1953, p. 342], in an article on Fig. 5, p. 117]. Sea sleds or inverted V-bottom
"German Small Craft," that: craft driven by airscrews are illustrated in Motor
Boating [New York, Jan 1946, p. 112]. Two
"The Voith-Schneider propeller has proved of particular
value in applications where large athwartships thrusts types of high-speed boats driven by airscrews are
are required. It has therefore been fitted for buoy lifting shown by J. Baader, in a chapter in which he gives
and laying vessels which have to be operated in particularly design instructions and data for the powering of
difficult waters." this type of craft ["Cruceros y Lanchas Veloces
(Cruisers and Fast Launches)," Buenos Aires,
The article is accompanied by the outboard
1951, pp. 222-224].
profile of a small lighthouse tender with a long,
Propulsion by airscrew (s) is selected when:
sloping, cut-up stern and two Voith-Schneider
propellers, one well out on each side, set with (a) Weeds, and other marine growths
grasses,
their axes pointing upward and inward. The are so profuse and thick that hydrodynamic pro-
blade tips are well above the baseplane. However, pulsion by weedproof screw propellers, or by
the tops of the blades come rather close, perhaps sculling propellers, paddlewheels, and similar
too close, to the water surface. devices is out of the question
The large diameter of the rotating assembly of (b) The and the engine are so high above the
hull
a propeller of this type lends itself equally to a water surface, as in a, hydrofoil-supported craft,
high gear reduction from a high-speed engine or that it is undesirable or inconvenient to transmit
motor or to a low-speed motor drive. The angular the power to a propeller under water
speed of the propeller is usually not a major (c) It is necessary to eliminate the noise and other
design problem. disturbance made under water by mechanical
On the other hand, the rotating-blade propeller, propulsion devices. This may be mandatory for
of whatever type, has been plagued from the certain fishing operations.
beginning of its development by the unavoidable (d) It is desired to measure the hull resistance of
complication and relative Aoilnerability of the a craft, free of all hydrodynamic propulsion
internal mechanical gear. With half a dozen or efTects.

more blades to position, not only for straight- To compensate for the down-pitch moment of
ahead steady running but for changing the pitch the airscrew thrust, at a large relative height
and changing the direction of the resultant above the line of action of the water-resistance
thrust, the mechanical-design problem is difficult forces, any small boat carrjdng an airscrew must
at the best [Mueller, H. F., "Recent Develop- have a large hydrodynamic moment resisting the
ments in the Design and Application of the thrust moment. This is one reason for the use of
Vertical Axis Propeller," SNAME, 1955, pp. 4-30]. sled-type craft of rectangular cross section, re-
Simplifications have been effected to make the sembling the floats of early seaplanes.
parts more sturdy, but these changes have, more Airscrew propulsion is exceedingly inefficient
often than not, involved some reduction of the indeed, it is almost ineffective —when the speed
hydrodynamic efficiency. By dint of excellent of advance is low, as it would be for even a small
engineering the rotating-blade propeller continues swamp boat plowing through a heavy growth of
is possible that some of the developments
to run. It weeds. Air flow through the propeller then re-
which have brought a greatly increased measure sembles that depicted in Figs. 16. K and 16. L,
of rehability to the controllable propeller may when momentum is imparted to only a small mass
do the same for the most useful rotating-blade of "new" air in any given interval of time or given
device. distance of forward travel. The propulsive effi-
71.18 Airscrew Propulsion. An early type of ciency mounts rapidly as the speed of advance
"skimming boat" with airscrew propulsion, appar- increases in proportion to the velocity of the
ently intended for work in extremely shallow outflow jet of the propeller. For this type of
water, was designed and built by Yarrow of drive, therefore, the resistance of the craft to be
Glasgow about 1921 [Mar. Eng'g., Jul 1921, p. driven should be low and the resulting speed high.
 CHAPTER 72

Design Features Applicable to Shallow and

Restricted Waters
72.1 General 659 Water Operation 666
72.2 Reference Data on River, Canal, and Chan- 72.9 The Adaptation of Straight-Element Design
nel Slopes and Currents 660 to Shallow- Water Vessels 666
72.3 Economical and Practical Speeds in Shallow 72 10 . Bow Shaping 667
and Restricted Waters 660 72.11 Slope and Curvature of Buttocks 668
72.4 Design for Reduction of Confined- Water 72 12 . Adequate Flow of Water to the Propulsion
Drag, Sinkage, and Squat 661 Devices 668
72.5 Transverse Dimensions and Section Shapes 72.13 The Design Tunnel Stern
of a 669
for Shallow- Water Running 662 72.14 Hull Surfaces Abreast Screw Propellers . . 672
72.6 Typical Shallow- Water Vessels 663 72 15 . Powering of Tunnel-Stern Craft 672
72 7 . Length, Longitudinal Curvature, and Wetted 72.16 Handling of the Vibration Problem in
Surface 665 Shallow Water 673
72 8 . Modifications to Normal Forms for Shallow- 72 17 . Partial Bibliography on Tunnel-Stem Vessels 673

72.1 General. The elements of the flow average depth h. The speed V^ may always be
about a body or ship in shallow and restricted less than the critical speed Cc for the shallowest
waters are discussed in Chap. 18; the behavior part of the These craft usually carry
route.
of actual ships under the same conditions is passengers and moderate amounts of freight.
described in Chap. 35. Formulas, graphs, and (2) Self-propelled, full-bodied craft of moderate
procedures for predicting or estimating the speed, where V^ does not exceed about 0.7c ^ ,

behavior of ships in confined waters are set down for the carrying of the maximum amount of
in Chap. 61. cargo on a given set of limiting dimensions
The design comments, suggestions, and rules (3) Non-self-propelled barges, lighters, and scows
given here apply primarily and rather exclusively (4) Self-propelled pushboats and towboats, for
to craft which operate more or less continually which the free-running shallow-water speed V^
in water that is shallow with reference to the may exceed the critical speed Cc .

linear dimensions of the vessel. One rule of thumb

for all speed ranges is that a shallow depth is Design notes and rules for the latter two groups
one which is less than the beam of the vessel. are given in Part 5 of Volume III. For the second
Perhaps a better one is that a shallow depth is group, carrying capacity is usually of far greater

less than twice the draft. Another rule, for the

importance than efficiency of propulsion or
subcritical range only, is that the depth is less
hydrodynamic performance. Bottoms are flat and
than the so-called square draft; in other words, of large area, lying at the limiting-draft level.

less than the square root of the maximum-section

Waterlines are full and sides are vertical or nearly

area, or VAx. To be sure, many such shallow- so, except perhaps in way of the inflow jets to

water vessels are required to traverse deep spots screw propellers. The hydrodynamic design fea-
now and then but at some sacrifice in performance, tures in this chapter are therefore limited generally

if need be, to insure the best shallow-water to vessels in the first category preceding.
behavior. Design notes previously published for particular
For design and operational purposes, craft
types and for shallow-water vessels as a class
intended to run in shallow and restricted waters may be found in the following references:
are divided into four categories: (a) Ward, C, "Shallow-Draught River Steamers,"
SNAME, 1909, Vol. 17, pp. 79-108
(1) Self-propelled, fine-lined craft having a shal-
(b) Wilson, R. C, "Construction and Operation of
low-water speed V^ that is but always
close to Western River Steamers," SNAME, 1913, Vol. 21,
less than the critical speed Cc for the nominal or pp. 59-65

659
fifiO HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 72.2

(c) Baker, G. "Ship Design, Resistance and Screw

S., due to the declivity of the surface upon which a
Propulsion," 1933, Vol. I, pp. 209-212; Vol. II,
ship or body is floating is described in Sec. 57.10.
Chap. XXVI, pp. 136-142
(d) MitcheU, A. R., "Shallow Draught Ships," INA, Jul
72.3 Economical and Practical Speeds in
1952, pp. 145-153 Shallow and Restricted Waters. Decisions as to
(e) Mitchell, A. R., "Tunnel Tj-pe Vessels," lESS, 1952- the designed speeds for shallow-water vessels are
1953, Vol. 96, pp. 125-188. properly made b)y the prospective owners and
Reference Data on River, Canal, and
72.2
operators, on a basis of many factors other than

Channel Slopes and Currents. The free surfaces
of all flowing ri\'ers, tidal estuaries,
and canals in which horizontal currents flow,
have some slope with reference to the horizontal.
Data on the surface slopes of all the principal
rivers in the United States, subdivided into river
regions where the slopes change rapidly or where
there are reliable data, are given in both tabular
and graphic form in a paper by H. Gannett
hydrodynamics. However, the designer may be
called upon to give information and advice on
open channels,
this matter. He is therefore required to have
some knowledge of the factors involved and some
quantitative data for reference.
The first things to know about the shallow-
water and restricted-water regions in which the
ship is to run are the depth, bottom contours,
channel dimensions, water-section outlines, cur-

entitled "Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers of

rent directions, current velocities, and local

the U. S. Geological Survey, No. 44, Profiles of

current irregularities. This may
be greatly com-
plicated by variations in these factors due to
Rivers in the United States," U. S. Geological
flood and tidal conditions. These in turn depend
Survey, Washington, 1901.
Nothing in this paper indicates the slopes upon the weather as well as the seasons and the
rotation of the earth.
which might occur during flood conditions, or
those which might obtain in short reaches of the
It is not adequate to depend upon average
values of the water factors previously hsted,
order of 1 mile in length. The construction of
either as averages of distance or of time. It is
dams in many of the rivers since 1901 has of
necessary to assume extremes as well, if ship
course changed the situation materially. The
operation is to be maintained on schedule. Further,
slopes cover a rather wide range, as indicated
hereunder:
disaster may, and usually does lurk around the
corner of the one operating situation that has
Location Drop in ft per geographical mile of
not been investigated properly and for which
6,280 ft
preparations have not been made.
Sacramento River 3.0, maximum
Missouri River 1.0 average; varies from 0.7 to 1.3
First, a reasonably uniform depth h is deter-
Platte River Averages 5.0 or 6.0 mined for a certain section of the route, under
Colorado River Two steepest slopes are 22.0 and given conditions. The next step is to find the
31.2, corresponding to natural
speed of the solitary wave in that depth, so
tangents of 0.00417 and 0.00591;
that the ratioa given shallow- water ship
of
remainder are 6.0 to S.O.
speed Fj to the critical wave speed Cc may be
G. Nowka gives the surface slopes of some known. As an aid in relating contemplated ship
European rivers as about 1 in 1000 ["New Knowl- speeds to the solitary-wave speed for any depth.
edge on Ship Propulsion," 1944, BuShips Transl. Table 72. a gives the latter speed for a consider-
411]. Here the slope thrust is sufficient to produce able range of depths to be encountered in practice.
a speed which gives steerageway to a non-self- The values given in this table are for still-
propelled barge when drifting downstream. This water conditions, with no current. When the
is equivalent to a 5.28-ft drop per geographical water in an estuary, river, or channel is flowing
mile or a 6.08-ft drop per nautical mile. in one direction or the other, the solitary wave
The steepest reaches in any large navigable speed of Table 72. a is still valid when reckoned
river of the world are in the Yangtze in China, with reference to a point fixed in the water. When
where the river rises some 600 ft in the 1000 miles a ship is overtaking a solitary wave, therefore,
between its mouth and the city of Chungking. it makes no essential difference whether the ship
Certain sections when in flood have free surfaces is moving with the current or against it. The
so steep that the currents in the navigable chan- important factors are the wave speed and the
nels reach velocities of 12 to 14 kt. ship speed, both reckoned through the water.
The method of calculating the drag and thrust It is emphasized, however, that the critical
Sec. 12A DESIGN FOR CONFINED WATERS 661

speed of the solitary wave or wave of translation

can and does change rapidly with the depth of
water and the configuration of the bed. Since
the wave itself is short, a change in depth that
is relatively short in the direction of motion

changes the speed of advance of the wave rather

suddenly. For instance, in passing over a narrow
rock ledge its speed is changed in proportion to
the clear depth over the ledge. It may be more
than disconcerting to the pilot of a ship moving
at just below the critical speed in the deeper
water to find the sohtary wave suddenly dropping
back and raising the bow of his vessel.
The contours of Fig. 61. L indicate the regions
of both the critical-speed ratio V J -sfgh and the
square-draft to depth ratio a/Aj/Zi, where the
total shallow- water resistance Rn is only slightly
greater than the total deep-water resistance Rt ,

as well as the regions where the ratio of these

two values mounts rapidly. If the square-draft
to depth ratio 's/A^/h is low, the point where
the resistance begins to increase rapidly is at
about 0.8 Vgh or 0.8cc
This corresponds to a speed, in ft per sec, of

TABLE 72. a Solitary-Wave Speeds for a Range

OF Uniform Shallow- Water Depths
The celerity c of the soUtary wave or wave of translation
is related to the depth h by the formula c = y/gh, where
g is the acceleration of gravity. In Enghsh units is taken <;

as 32J74 ft per sec*. For this table, 1 kt is 1.6889 ft per sec.

Water depth h,
662 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 72.5

diagonal bulges of the maximum section is one water is a factor, is one having a low fatness
means of reducing the effect of the second factor. ratio, F/(0.10L)^, of the order of not more than
A better one, because most of the flow passes 3.0. Sometimes this ratio is as low as 1.4 or 1.5,

the ship under the bottom, is raising the floors or corresponding to displacement-length quotients
decreasing the draft. This gives more flow area A/(0.010L)' of from 40 to 43. If the overall
between the ship and the stream bed. size is limited,if power is cheap, and if useful

Fortunately, these are equally good solutions load crowded on, the designer may have to
is

to the handicap imposed by lateral boundaries fill the waterway section with all the ship that

close aboard. It is seldom that the beam or the can be pushed through it, regardless of the
waterline width of the sections can be appreciably square-draft to depth ratio vX^/Zi.
reduced because of the need for deck space, for One way to reduce the maximum-section area
large metacentric stability, or for lateral room Ax is to reduce the draft, but practical considera-
within the hull. In any case, the possible reduc- tions may set a minimum limit. There must be
tions in waterline beam or overall hull width are enough displacement volume to carry the weight
usually of inconsequential amount, except as of the vessel and its useful load. There must also

they may affect the behavior of the ship in a be enough hull depth to give it structural strength
tight-fitting lock. and rigidity. Too large a beam-draft ratio is not
The best and, in fact, the only known method advantageous for propulsion because it increases

of reducing the sinkage and squat found trouble- the waterline slopes at the bow and stern for a

some at high speeds is to increase the backflow given displacement volume. However, if propul-
area and the bed clearance. On the basis that a sive efficiency is not a major factor, there is no
given restricted channel can not be made wider hydrodynamic hmit to the beam of a craft

and deeper the solution is to make the vessel intended for restricted-channel operation. Ob-
shallower and the maximum-area section smaller. viously, it must be necessary for two such craft
There are no formulas or systematic data available to meet or pass each other in the same channel,
for predicting the sinkage and squat under or for a single vessel to pass through a lock. If
confined-water conditions but Sec. 58.4 contains the craft is sufficiently shallow to afford a sizable
some sinkage and change-of-trim values for a clearance under the bottom for the passage of
few vessels in shallow water. Sec. 58.7 lists displaced water, it may well be that a vessel with
references in which other data of this kind, a large beam-draft ratio and a small draft is
derived from model tests, may be found. actually easier to handle and less liable to run
The importance of this feature is emphasized foul of the banks or of other craft than one which
in the extractfrom a letter of F. A. Munroe, Jr., has less beam but also less bed clearance.
Marine Director, Panama Canal Company (of The most efficient solution, considering all

unknown date), published on page 74 of "Marine phases of the water flow around the hull, is to
Engineering" for January 1955: embody a large rise of floor in the midship or the
"A minimum of 5 feet of water under the keel is con- maximum-area section, together with a large
sidered essential to guard against the squatting effect of a bilge radius. The use of floor slopes as high as
large body moving in a restricted channel and the seiche 10, 15, or 20 deg in the transverse sections acts
in the Cut created by the drawing of water at the Pedro
to increase the draft but this is more of a nominal
Miguel Locks end of the Cut."
than an actual increase because of the limited
72.5Transverse Dimensions and Section width of the deep-keel portion. If the waterway
Shapes for Shallow-Water Riuining. The com- bed is soft or yielding, occasional encounter of
bination of water depth h and speed V^ to be this deep-keel portion with that bed does nothing

achieved is almost invariably fixed before the more than rub off the paint.
design of a shallow-water ship is undertaken. The maximum draft may be limited severely
This leaves the designer, if he has some freedom by some especially shallow part of the operating
with the length, the choice of the area Ax and area. The necessary displacement volume is
the shape of the maximum section and the then achieved only by using a nearly flat floor
overall draft H
in relation to the water depth h. and a relatively large maximum-section coefficient
Within reasonable limits, the hull most easily Cx ,
possibly 0.9 or more. When this occurs, it

driven at the relatively high speeds often required may be necessary to hold to the relatively flat
of these vessels, where wavemaking in shallow floor lines for only a limited length amidships.
Sec. 72.6 DESIGN FOR CONFINED WATERS G63

Bx' 37.6 ft Hx-8.l4n of The Franklin Institute, July 1879, Vol. 78,
</Hx -4.619
pages 18-27. A model of this vessel, 530, EMB
was made and tested at the old Experimental
Model Basin at Washington. The results were
reported upon most favorably by D. W. Taylor.
(b) Detroit River excursion steamer Tashmoo,
the body plan of which is reproduced in Fig. 72.A
[SNAME, 1901, pp. 1-12; PI. 3 contains the
Rise of Floor/Bx - 0.0246 Bilqe Podlus/Bx" 0.232, obout complete lines of both the Tashmoo and the
SNAME, HT, 1943, pp. 383-386]
City of Erie; also
Fig. 72. a Body Plan of Detroit River Steamer
(c) The Lake Erie steamer City of Erie, the
Tashmoo
body plan of which is given in Fig. 72. B. It was,
Along the greater part of the ship length, there is Tashmoo, designed by Frank E. Kirby,
like the

stilladequate room to pass the displaced water who and river steamers. Its
specialized in lake
underneath the bottom. This was done in the famous race with that vessel in 1901, in the
design of the Hudson River paddlewheei steamer relatively shallow waters of Lake Erie, is still

Mary Powell, with a rather flat floor [Int. Mar. remembered [SNAME, 1901, pp. 1-12].
Eng'g., May 1920, pp. 406-407], and in the (d) Hudson River steamer New York, the body
design of the large Lake Erie paddlewheei steamer plan of which is reproduced in Fig. 72. C [SNAME,
Greater Detroit, to be described presently.
72.6 Typical Shallow-Water Vessels. It is
helpful here to examine the forms and other data
or some fast shallow-water vessels with slender
hulls, —vessels which have given many decades of
splendid and even superior performance. The fact
that some were designed and built
of these craft
nearly a century ago is supplemented by the
amazing realization that their performance is
still good by the standards of today (1955).
Bili5ef?adius/Bx= 0.121 Rise of Floor/ Bx'0. 0224 !
Many of them, therefore, appear to be perfectly
valid bases for a modern, systematic analysis of Fig. 72. B Body Plan of Lake Erie Steamer
design for a fast, shallow-water vessel. City of Erie

Among these vessels are mentioned:

1906, pp. 31-40 and 15]. A model of
and Pis. 14
(a) The famous Hudson River steamer Mary this vessel, EMBwas made and tested at
529,
Powell, designed and built in 1861, when naval the old Experimental Model Basin at Washington.
architecture in the United States was only This and the two vessels preceding are listed in
emerging from the practical stage. The designed the table of E. M. Bragg [SNAME, 1916, PL 90].
waterline of the run of this vessel is illustrated in (e) Hudson River steamer Hendrik Hudson, de-
diagram B of Fig. 24. G. The complete lines are signed by J. W. Millard and Brothers, New York
to be found in "International Marine Engi- [Mason, C. J., MESA, Feb 1930, pp. 100, 104]

neering" for May 1920, pages 406 and 407; see (f) Lake Erie steamer Greater Detroit (sister
also a paper by B. F. Isherwood in the Journal vessel Greater Buffalo), designed by Frank E.

Afterbody Fore body

/Mom Hull Extends Above This Lin.

Frome Numbers Frame Number

Fig. 72. C Body Plan of Hudson River Steamer New York

664 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 72.6

Topmost Porlion Hull Not Shown 24( WL

,ol
resembhng the general design of the Greater
Detroit [SNAME, HT, 1943, pp. 97-134]. How-
ever, although they were of relatively shallow
draft, these vessels appear not to have been
designed to run in particularly shallow water.
They are not further described here as having
design features useful for shallow-water craft.
The design of shallow-water vessels for inland
waterways in Europe is discussed by G. Lauter-
Fig. 72.D Body Plan of Lake Erie Steamer
Greater Detroit bach in "Schiffbautechnisches Handbuch (Ship-
building and Ship Design Handbook)," Berlin,
Kirby in conjunction with H. C. Sadler [SNAME, 1952, pages 613-635.
1925, pp. 101-108 and Pis. 64-83]. Fig. 72.D is a Possibly because high-speed vessels built for
body plan adapted from the refer-
of this vessel, service in confined waters have been considered
ence. Earlier vessels of this general type are as specialized craft, factual data on the hulls of
described and illustrated elsewhere [SNAME, HT, these and other ships are rather hard to find in
1943, pp. 377-378, 382]. the technical hterature. For large vessels at
Some dimensions and form data on these least, pages printed nearly a century ago contain
vessels, unfortunately not complete and not too much more information than those of recent
rehable because of conflicting published figures, years. One outstanding article in the latter
are given in Table 72. b. Additional data on some category treats largely of the machinery and
of these vessels, pertaining principally to their speaks only briefly of the hull [SNAME, HT,
feathering paddlewheels, is given by E. M. Bragg 1943, pp. 97-134]. Most of the published data
[SNAME, 1916, PL 90]. are lacking the customary huU coefficients, or the
Steam navigation on Long Island Sound, in the essential information by which these data can
period from 1850 to 1910, resulted in the develop- be calculated. If the length is given the displace-
ment of fast vessels driven by side paddlewheels, ment may not be, and vice versa.

TABLE 72.b Dimensions and Form Data for American River Steamers of the Period 1870-1940
All the vessels in this table were driven by side paddlewheels.

Name of Ship
Sec. 72.7 DESIGN FOR CONFINED WATERS 6f)5

TABLE 72.C Dimensions, Ratios, and Proportions for American River Steamers oi'' the Period 1850-1870
The dimensions marked by asterisks (*) are tliose listed by J. Scott Russell [MSNA, 1865, Vol. I, p. 666]. Tlie remaining
ratios and coefRcients are derived from the published dimensions.

L*, ft
666 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 72.8

which acts to increase the friction resistance, For the 10-kt ABC s hip speed in the Port
especiall}'- with a high backfiow velocity. However, Amalo canal, T, is 10/\/510 = 0.443; at a draft

the gain from a small square-draft to water-depth of 26 ft, the value of depth /i/draft E = 28/
ratio yTAxlh is likely to be greater than the 26 = 1.08. From Fig. 58.E, using the T-2 tanker
loss from the increased wetted area. A ratio of as a basis, the estimated sinkage is 0.0043L at
\/X^//i less than 1.05, as shown by the curve the bow and 0.004L at the stern; or 2.19 ft and
of Fig. 61. G, produces a speed loss from aug- 2.04 ft, respectively. It is necessary to extra-
mented potential flow of less than 10 per cent, polate the graphs to obtain these values.
while a ratio below 0.375 is responsible for a For the 14-kt speed (through the wate r) in the
speed loss of only 1 per cent. river below Port Correo, T, is 14/^/510 = 0.62;
If the length is limited, increase the beam but at a draft of 26.5 ft in the fresh water, the value
hold a small draft. The additional bed clearance of hlU = 30/26.5 = 1.13. The estimated sinkage
provided for normal flow under the bottom at the bow is 0.0068L or 3.47 ft; at the stern it is
should more than compensate for the greater 0.0062L, or 3.16 ft. A much greater extrapolation
waterUne slopes associated with the wide beam. is required here, in Fig. 58. E, than for the Port
It is comforting to know that, in general, a Amalo canal estimate.
form of hull suitable for confined waters is found The Cp value of the T-S tanker is 0.74 compared
to give good performance in water of any extent to 0.62 for the ABC ship, and the fatness ratio
and depth, especially for low values of Cp and is 5.76 compared to 4.327. Despite the greater
of fatness ratio F/(0.10L)l Thus a vessel de- beam of the ABC
appears that the
ship, it

signed to do well in the shallow portion of a estimated sinkages could be reduced to about
all

route of varying depth is by no means at a dis- 0.8 of the values given. Even so, the nominal
advantage when operating in the deep portion 2-ft bed clearance in the Port Amalo canal is

of the route. reduced to only 2.0 — 1.75 = 0.25 ft; in the river
72.8 Modifications to Normal Forms for below Port Correo it is only 3.5 - 2.78 = 0.72 ft.
Shallow-Water Operation. For the vessel which These are small but probably representative of
runs mostly in deep water but also has to per- modern medium-speed operations in shallow-
form well in shallow and confined waters the water areas.
concessions to the shallow-water requirements 72.9 The Adaptation of Straight-Element De-
depend upon the relative importance of ship sign to Shallow-Water Vessels. A vessel re-

performance in one and in the other. A good quired to operate in confined waters, with restric-
example of this situation is the ABC ship, for tions to flow imposed by channel bed and bound-
which the design requirements are set forth in aries, should logically receive more than the usual
Chap. 64. amount of careful hull shaping. It needs every-

Considering the features of this vessel as thing that can be done to improve the flow around
regards its operation in the canal leading from the hull. Nevertheless, the bed and side clearances
Port Amalo to the sea, and in the river below for most of these vessels approach zero in some
Port Correo, it is noted from Table 72. a that for part of their operating areas; often in many parts
the 28-ft depth of the former the speed of the of those areas.

wave of translation is 17.77 kt. For the 30-ft The practical impossibility of shaping the hull

depth of the latter the critical speed is 18.40 kt. to compensate for more than a fraction of these

Both are well over the speeds contemplated in handicaps makes it good design, as well as good
those portions of the route, hence the ship will engineering, to take this opportunity of incor-

be running in the subcritical range in both cases. porating straight-element features in the under-
The matter of providing room for the backflow water form. A judicious use of chines, coves, and

under and around the ship is handled in Sec. developable surfaces affords a surprising degree
66.13, when laying out the contour of the maxi- of flexibility to the designer, as is evidenced by

mum-area section. the Hillman shallow-water pushboat. A body

A power is almost always available
reserve of plan of a craft of this type, 115 ft long by 27 ft
to overcome the augmented resistance in confined beam, is reproduced in Fig. 72. E. Its outboard
waters, because the deep-water speed at any draft profile, less numerous details, is drawn in Fig.
and trim is in excess of that permitted by local 72. F. While this vessel was designed primarily
regulations when traversing confined-water areas. for pushing, the general shape should serve well
Sec. 72.10 DESIGN FOR CONFINED WATERS 667

Station 20 at Extreme After End of Station at Forward End of Hul

Rise of Floor ^
-^ Ratio = 0.0432
about .J-S deq

Fig. 72. E Body Plan of Hillman Pushboat with Sthaight-Element Frame Sections

for any other type of shallow-water vessel running decks in a vessel which must carry most of its
at moderate speed. useful load above the main hull, produces the
The reentrant angles in the forebody sections large flares in the entrance shown on the body
forward of Sta. 2.5 prevent the flare from becom- plans of Figs. 72.A through 72.E.
ing excessive in way of the bow wave. At the If the length is not restricted, the designed
same time they provide support for a wide deck waterline slopes in the entrance and run can be
with its pushing pads (or for passenger accommo- made acceptably small, despite a large maximum
dations or cargo). Forward of and abaft Sta. 2.5 beam. This helps greatly to counteract the effect
the section lines lie approximately normal to of heavy flare in the entrance sections. The
the lines of flow as the water from ahead passes entrance slope of the DWL for the Mary Powell
under the vessel. In the afterbody, the extension was only about 6.5 deg; that of the New York
of the nearly vertical side down to a long hori- about 5 deg. The maximum run slopes were
zontal knuckle, lying at an appreciable distance 13.8 deg and 15.5 deg, respectively.
below the DWL, prevents leakage of air to the A scow, sled, or spoon bow lets most of the
propeller region, well inboard from the side. The water flow easily under the bottom but when
craft depicted in Figs. 72. E and 72. F was in the bed clearance is reduced nearly to nothing,
addition fitted with two Kort nozzles, shown in the bow must also let it flow easily around the

outline only in the latter figure, which served as sides. Further, something approaching the shape
additional shields against air leakage. Although it of a vertical skeg is required forward on a vessel

was not possible to arrange for a flow test of a with this type of entrance to provide a stabilizing
model of this vessel in the TMB circulating-water or fulcrum effect for assistance in steering and
channel, it appears that the water flow along the turning. This is the reason for the V-shaped fore-
afterbody would likewise move easily under the foot of the Hillman design of Fig. 72.E. A. R.
section lines shown. Mitchell recommends that on full-bodied ci'aft

72.10 Bow Shaping the bow and

Shaping. of this type the slope of the DWL forward be not
the entrance is a much more difficult operation on less than 28 deg, because at a lesser angle more
a shallow-water craft with a B/H ratio of from of the water flows around the sides and not under
4 or 5 to 10 than on a deep-water vessel, with a the bottom [INA, Jul 1952, p. 148].
ratio of 2.5 to 3.5. The large beam-draft ratio, He further recommends that to facilitate this
coupled with the usual requirements for wide under- the-bottom flow "... stem in profile should

Fig. 72. F Outboard Profile of Hillman Pushboat

Both Figs. 72.E and 72.F are adapted from drawings kindly furnished by the Hillman Barge and Construction Company
of Pittsburgh
fifiS HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 72.11

be swept aft as gently as possible below the load efficient propulsion. Further comments concerning
waterline; the buttocks forward should be very this feature are included in Sec. 71.6.
easy and the bilges rounded" [INA, Jul 1952, When hmitations on overall beam prevent the
p. 148]. This is done in the Hillman pushboat use of side wheels, the paddlewheels can always
previously referenced, as depicted in the profile be placed at the stern. Here they may be either in
of Fig. 72. F. The forefoot is cut away in similar the form of a pair, one on each quarter with the
fashion on the Mary Powell and the New York, drive mechanism in between, or there may be
indicated by the lines drawings in the references only a single wheel, extending all the way across
cited for those vessels. the ship. In either case it is by no means easy to
72.11 Slope and Curvature of Buttocks. In provide the necessary displacement volume at
the slow- and moderate-speed ranges, on a wide, the stern and at the same time to embody the
shallow craft, most if not very nearly all of the reverse curvature in the buttocks under the run
flow passes under the bottom. The buttock slopes which will project the inflow to the stern paddle-
and curvatures therefore demand the same atten- wheels in a direction that is roughly horizontal.
tion as the waterlines near the surface in a deep- The after termination of the hull, just ahead
water ship design. This calls for easy transitions of the stern wheel (s), should not present a surface
where the forward buttocks or forelmes curve against which the outflow jet, when the wheels
downward and and under the bottom. Ex-
aft are going astern, can be reflected aft from the hull.
amples of these are found m the keel profile and If an appreciable part of it is so reflected, an
the chine line at the bow of the Hillman design engine order for astern rotation is liable to be
ofFig.72.F. followed by an ahead motion of the ship!
For drafts of the order of 8 to 6 ft or less, it is
If rotating-blade propellers with vertical axes
well to hold the buttock slopes under the run to
are fitted at the stern, or at both bow and stern,
a maximimi of 15 deg with the horizontal; a
one or both ends are cut up toward a flat bottom
maximum of 12 or 13 deg is better.
region in the vicinity of each propeller. This
Apparently to save time and labor and to prevents the blade tips from extending below
facilitate fabrication and erection, the buttocks
the keel. The blades are approximately vertical
under the run of small shallow-draft vessels often
and the water coming from under the ship meets
have a sharp knuckle where they leave the base-
them in a nearly horizontal direction. It may
plane. Abaft this knuckle they are straight, with
be found advisable to fit several of these propellers
constant slope. If they are given reverse curvature,
abreast because the draft limitations are certain
so as to slope downward and aft behind the
to restrict the lengths of the blades.
propeller position, there is a second sharp knuckle
A shallow-water craft of normal form, to be
where this change is made. It is pointed out
driven by screw propeUers, generally requires at
repeatedly in Parts 1 and 2 of Volume I that
least two screws if the draft is limited and the
water resists this sudden change in direction,
speed is high enough to call for large powers.
often with objectionable consequences. It is
In addition, twin screws are useful if not manda-
usually found, furthermore, that with some
tory toovercome the sluggish maneuvering
planning and some alteration of the structural
quahties any vessel under which the bed
of
plans, it is just as easy to provide a good path
clearance is small. To prevent any undue reduc-
for the M'ater flow as to make a poor one.
tion in propeller diameter and disc area, with its
72.12 Adequate Flow Water to the Propul-
of
loss of efficiency and maneuvering power, designers
sion Devices. The provision of means whereby
of years gone by resorted to arrangements which
water may have free and easy entry to the pro-
are still used to advantage if the situation de-
pulsion devices is much more important in a
mands:
shallow-water than in a deep-water design. The
use of side paddlewheels eliminates the necessity (a) Make the tip submergence slightly negative,
of shaping the hull locally to suit some particular with the tips normally out of water, on the basis
kind of device, especially to msure good flow that they will have adequate submergence in the
to it. In fact, this problem almost solves itself, stern-wave crest. This is only feasible if there is

except for the proper fore-and-aft position of the to be such a crest at the propefler position and if

wheels along the hull to bring them in the crest the propellers are to be lightly loaded.
of a transverse Velox wave for the speed of most (b) Place the propellers under a wide torpedoboat
Scr. 72.13 DESIGN FOR CONFINED WATERS 669

stern,with its lower surface lying very slightly designer and builder of tliose craft, A. F. Yarrow
below the DWL, and with a small tip clearance ["The Screw as a Means of Propulsion for Shallow
under this surface. N. G. Herreshoff and others Draught Vessels," INA, 1903, p. 107]:
built many successful craft to this design.
"There be an increased resistance to the forward
will
(c) Use surface propellersfor extremely small
motion due to the action of the screw in
of the vessel,
draftSiThis scheme, of course, does not increase reducing the pressure of water at the inclined part of
the thrust-producing area in proportion to the the tunnel forward of the propeller, and this increased
increase in diameter. resistance is common, more or less, to all screw ships,

but it probably proportionately greater in this class

is
(d) Employ a tunnel-stern design, with at-rest
of vessel than in those where the propeller in in the usual
tip submergences ranging from a small positive position.There is also a loss of efficiency due to the resist-
to a large negative value. ance of the inclined surface of the tunnel aft of the pro-
peller."
72.13 The Design of a Tunnel Stern. The
tops or roofs of the tunnels described in Sec. 25.20 The region of maximum slope, at about half
and diagrammed in Fig. 25. M may lie below the height of the tunnel, is usually not far below the
designed waterline or extend above it. The DWL, where the hydrostatic pressure is small.
design rules given here apply generally to a tunnel Good design to prevent separation calls for a
whose roof extends above the DWL. maximum roof slope, in a vertical plane through
When laying out a tunnel stern, whether for the shaft, not exceeding 14 or 15 deg. A. R.
one or for multiple screw propellers, it is first Mitchell recommends a limit of 12 deg in fast
decided how much of the propeller disc and the vessels and 15 deg
in slow ones [INA, Jul 1952,
upper blades can be out of water. It is believed p. 148]. on the basis of a negligible change
This is

that a tunnel system can be designed to function of trim when underway.

properly even if the shaft axis has above the DWL, However, limiting the roof slope to avoid
as for a surface propeller. This extreme may be separation is only part of the story, on the basis
considered necessary to permit removing a that propulsive efficiency is a design factor of
propeller through an access hatch above, provided sufficient importance so that it can not be dis-

the vessel can not be trimmed by the bow for
this purpose. However, it is preferable to place
the axis at least O.IOD below the DWL, where D
is the propeller diameter. This keeps the propeller
bearing always lubricated (if this is a practical
item), keeps the tunnel entirely full of water,
and prevents cutting too much out of the
for the tunnel slopes forward and aft.
The hull tip clearances need be only large
enough to insure against mechanical rubbing
under all conceivable circumstances and to pass
any foreign material that may be in the water
without jamming it between the propeller tips
and the hull. A tip clearance of 0.04 times the
propeller diameter appears to be ample, both
mechanically and hydrodynamically. The small
tip clearances necessary to insure that the highest
part of the tunnel runs full of water
partial insurance against excessive
losses, particularly when the shp ratio
The next major step is to determine the maxi-
mum permissible fore-and-aft slope of the tunnel
top, forward of the wheel. Although described in
Sec. 25.20, it is well to emphasize here the effect
on propulsion of the roof slopes, both forward of
and abaft the wheel. In the words of a renowned
regarded completely. A value of i7p(eta) superior
to those achieved in the past, even though it is
not comparable to that of a large deep-water
vessel, is possible only by rather drastic levehng
of the tunnel-roof slopes, both forward of and
abaft the propeller position. These may have to
hull be of the order of 6 to 10 deg, instead of 12 or 15
to 18 deg. The Hillman design of Figs. 72.E
and 72. F achieves this and more. Moving the
tunnel boundaries farther forward of and abaft
the propeller position reduces the displacement
volume aft so that the stern portion of the hull
becomes not much more than a cover over the
propeller inflow and outflow jets.
There are major structural problems involved in
stiffening and supporting a long stern overhang
with a buoyancy that is small compared with its
may be a size and weight. One solution is to raise the deck
tip-vortex aft and increase the girder depth, as was done by
is large. the Dravo Corporation for the 200-ft pushboats
A. D. Haynes II and Valley Transporter [Mari-
time Reporter, 15 Dec 1955, p. 11].
Another important reason for small fore-and-aft
slopes in the roof of a tunnel oyer a screw pro-
peller is to provide as great an astern thrust as
possible with a given shaft power and a given
670 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 72.13

This Portion Transverse and Vertical, the ship centerline. The tunnels may, with
Main Decki^.. 1
/ |ii,e q Ironsom
propeller shaft axes, even diverge slightly with
distance aft. It often happens, on the other
hand, that the bed clearance is extremely small,
so small in fact that the propellers can not be
fed adequately with water from underneath.
One solution is to draw it in from the sides, from

the open regions abreast the hull, using oblique,

converging recesses that are tunnels in name only.
Fig. 72. GAfterbody Plan of Twin-Screw
Vessel with Oblique Tunnels These oblique tunnels were developed at least
as early as 1938 and were said to have performed
overall disc area of the propeller (s). All shallow- well in service, when the conditions were favor-
draft self-propelled vessels are required to do a able to their use.
great deal of maneuvering. Furthermore, they Figs. 72. G and 72. H, adapted from model fines
maneuver under the handicap of sluggish response published by A. R. Mitchell ["Tunnel Type
because of the limited bed clearance and the Vessels," lESS, 1952-1953, Vol. 96, Fig. 9, p. 141],
obstructions to under-the-bottom flow within illustrate one form of oblique tunnel for a twin-
that clearance. A configuration of the bottom of screw shallow-draft vessel. This proved its
the hull and the tunnel roof which facilitates superiority in self-propelled model tests over a

is therefore almost as important as a

flow from aft vessel with parallel tunnels, when run in shallow
configuration providing good flow from ahead. water. Fig. 24 on page 165 of the lESS reference
The slope of the roof abaft the wheel may have is a photograph of half the afterbody of a model
to be reduced to the order of 5 deg, if the backing built to this design. The same photograph is

characteristics are sufficiently important. reproduced in INA, July 1952, Fig. 10, facing
Contraction of the inflow jet to the propeller page 148. Results of the tests are described
isallowed for by flaring the sides and widening rather fully on pages 143 through 150 of the
the tunnel from aft forward, in much the same Mitchell reference.
manner the tunnel between twin skegs is
as For a tunnel-stern towboat, built without
widened. The same effect is achieved by pro- oblique tunnels, on which the flow to the pro-
gressively increasing the radius of the tunnel pellers was inadequate because of limited bed
roof, also from aft forward. clearance under the hull in shallow water, L. A.
It is customary to drop the elevated tunnel Baier and J. Ormondroyd effected a solution by
roof abaft the propeller position until at the building a large-diameter duct through the hull
extreme stern it meets or falls just below the for each propeller. This duct took in water for-

at-rest water level. This prevents air from being ward, above the baseplane, and discharged it
drawn into the tunnel when the propeller rotates downward and aft through the tunnel roof ahead
astern. It also keeps debris from floating into of the propeller [Third Midwestern Conf. on

the tunnel from aft when the vessel is at rest. Fluid Mech., Univ. of Minn., Jun 1953, pp. 406,
Unfortunately, this shape also gives an rise to 411].
added thrust-deduction force which detracts from H. Waas shows a twin-screw shallow-draft
the propelling power, described in Sec. 25.20 and river craft with propellers far outboard, each
earlier in the present section. The length required housed in a tunnel that fits the tip circles closely
for an easy slope abaft the propeller positions but is of limited circumferential extent. A partly
may be as much as 0.15 or 0.18L; that for a underhung, balanced rudder is fitted abaft the
14-deg maximum slope forward as much as 0.23 skeg endings just outboard of the wheels. The
to 0.25L. propellers are carried by struts forward of them
For vessels having two or more screw propellers, [STG, 1952, Figs. 16, 17, p. 213].
it iscustomary to provide a separate tunnel for If the exposed positions of the blade tips of

each propeller. If the vessels are to run in regions the propellers can be accepted, there is no reason
where there is enough bed clearance to permit a why the tunnel in which they work can not extend
good flow water to the propellers fro7n under
of abaft the propeller in a direction nearly hori-
appears best for the tunnel recesses
the bottom, it zontal. The elevated portion of the outflow jet,

ahead of the propeller positions to be parallel to acted upon by gravity forces, falls at a certain
 OUTBOARD PROFILE
Line of Top of Roof or Line, of Bottom of Hull
Crown of Tunnel Outboard of Tunnel

The Afterbody Plon of This Vessel is Shown on Fio. 72.&

FISH-EYE VIEW, STARBOARD SIDE

L<£,
II 10.5 10 9.5 9 Stations

Fig. 72.H Outboard Profile and Fish-Eye View of Vessel with an Oblique Tunnel

rate; in addition, the jet contracts aft. The top when the propeller is starting. When underway
of the tunnel can be bent downward shghtly to the flap levels out; its after end usually rises above
take care of these two effects. It is easy for the the waterline. A good tunnel seal is maintained
propeller, when rotating ahead and accelerating in all conditions of loading. The resistance is

the vessel in that direction, to sweep the air out lowered because of the reduced inclination of the
and to fill it completely with water.
of the tunnel tunnel roof abaft the propeller. Going astern, the
However, keeping debris out of the propeller and automatic flap is forced down onto a sill, which
keeping air out of the disc when going astern, as is set at the lowest point of flap travel. This
mentioned previously, require a closure for the maintains the seal in the tunnel and the propeller
after end. Indeed, if the after end is not closed continues to work in solid water [Mitchell, A. R.,
in some way the craft may not go astern at all. lESS, 1952-1953, Vol. 96, p. 183].
Making this closure by dropping the tunnel roof When the change in draft aft is small, for
is not always the best solution, especially when various service conditions, tunnel endings with
there are large changes of draft aft. This difficulty
is overcome by a simple yet effective hinged flap,
5tern of Vessel
introduced by A. F. Yarrow in the early 1900's,
which may be lowered to close the after end of
the tunnel. Fig. 72.1 shows schematically the -Flop in Roise^-^Position, as when Underway I

arrangement of a device of this kind. -Ap proximate Woterline L

The flap forms the upper part of the tunnel Lme of Hull, Ootboard \

ending, either close abaft the propeller or at a of Tunnel

Flop in Lowered Position
short distance from it. The raising and lowering Vertical Curtoin Plates
03 when Stortinq or
may be done mechanically or automatically; in Backinq on Each Side of I

Tunnel, Between i

the latter case the force exerted by the outflow

which the Flop Propeller '

jet holds the flap at the proper angle. The flap F,ts Neatly ^—
is sealed along its sides. Its lower edge is a fraction

of a foot below the at-rest waterline, with the Fig. 72.1Arrangement Sketch op a Hinged Flap
vessel in the light condition, so as to exclude air Closing the After End of a Propeller Tunnel
672 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 72.14

small down slope give satisfactory performance an example of what not to do. The hoisting
and avoid the added complications of the auto- fittingscan be of the recessed type, similar to
matic flap. C. E. Ward pointed out, many years those illustrated in Fig. 75.F. The doublers can
ago, that the design of a tunnel-stern craft should be converted to thick, single-layer shell plate
be such as to enable the vessel to pivot longi- and the strut-arm connections can be entirely
tudinally about the fore-and-aft position of the within the hull.
propeller(s) as the loading changes [SNAME, The strake or ring of plating abreast the wheel
1909, p. 100]. In other words, the draft at the is preferably made heavier than the rest, as
propeller position should remain more or less illustrated for the arch type of stern of the ABC
constant with changes in the displacement ship in Figs. 67.0 and 73.F. It is to be held in
volume and the trim. If, instead, the draft at the position securely by substantial internal framing.
stern can be kept nearly constant, the tunnel Careful fitting of any access hatch over the pro-
remains closed at its after end to the same degree peller is necessary to insure a flush surface in
and a tunnel flap is not necessary. the roof. Bolts, nuts, and other securing devices
One problem in twin- or multiple-screw tunnel for this hatch are to be kept clear of the tunnel
sterns, where a propeller is mounted so close to surface. The curved under surfaces of all tunnels,
the side that the hull plating forms virtually one both ahead of and abaft the propeller positions,
side of the tunnel, is that air is liable to be drawn are to be fair, with sufficient stiffness to remain so
into the inflow jet because of the reduced pressure and to avoid panting and vibration.
there. When the ship or tunnel side does not The Germans have proposed for small tunnel-
project far enough below the actual waterline to stern craft that the portion of the tunnel roof
form an adequate pressure barrier, air is sucked directly over the screw propeller be made of
under and into the propeller. Large chunks of air resilient instead of stiff material. In other words,
striking the propeller produce objectionable noise rubber rather than steel [STG, 1952, Figs. 6 and
and vibration. L. A. Baier and J. Ormondroyd 7, pp. 207-208]. There is a structural advantage,
report that "vicious stern vibration" on a twin- and possibly a lessening of the vibratory forces
screw towboat, resulting from air leakage of this ifthe hull boundary in way of the propeller tips
kind, was corrected by adding vertical stream- yields with the pressure variations in the blade
lined fins outboard of the propellers [Third fields. The effect of a yielding boundary on the
Midwestern Conf. on Fluid Mech., Univ. of continuity and other characteristics of the water
Minn., Jun 1953, p. 406]. flow is not known well enough to justify the use of

The necessary thrust-producing area ilo is not a resiUent boundary as more than an experiment.
easily obtained with a single screw propeller 72.15 Powering of Tunnel-Stem Craft. The
whose diameter is limited by a shallow draft. naval architect and marine engineer designing a
Tunnel-stern craft are, therefore, usually designed self-propelled shallow-draft vessel with screw
to be driven by two, three, or four screw propellers. propellers must face the fact that, in the present
There is, however, the case of the tunnel-stern state of the art, enclosing any appreciable sector
tugs built for Yukon River service in 1898, with of the tip circle within a tunnel recess reduces
six screw propellers, each 3.33 ft in diameter, on both the propulsive coefficient -qp and the effective
beam
a total Jun 1898;
of only 32 ft [Mar. Eng'g., propeller thrust T{\ — t) at low speed. This is

ASNE, Aug 1898, Vol. X, pp. 740-745; Ward, undoubtedly because of excessive thrust-deduction
C. E., SNAME, 1909, pp. 105-106]. forces on the tunnel roof(s) for relatively long
72.14 Hull Surfaces Abreast Screw Propellers. distances ahead of and abaft the disc positions.
The hull surface in way of the small tip clearance In any case, available published data, principally
provided under the roof of a tunnel should be those of A. R. Mitchell [lESS, 1952-1953, Vol.
flush, free of seam laps and butts, and preferably 96, pp. 125-188], reveal that rarely if ever is it

without projecting rivet points and welding safe to employ a value of -qp for speed and power
heads; in other words, as fair and smooth as predictions greater than 0.50. Indeed, Mitchell
good workmanship can make it. The finished goes so far as to state that:
tunnel illustrated by A. R. Mitchell [lESS,
"Generally speaking, it is most unmse to guarantee
1952-1953, Vol. 96, Fig. 15 on p. 155; INA, Jul
a specificspeed when the depth of water under the keel
1952, Fig. 6 opp. p. 147], with its protruding is less than the draught of the vessel" [INA, Jul 1952,
strut-arm pads, doublers, and hoisting eyes, is p. 152].
See. 72.17 DESIGN FOR CONFINED WATERS ri73

In this connection it is to be noted from Figs. Twin screws 3.41 ft in diameter are fitted in twin
tunnel recesses. The speed is 10.5 mph or 9.13 kt.
72.E and 72.F that whereas the Hillman boat
(4) Brief notes on "light-draught steamers," specifically
depicted there carries a pair of screw propellers the Melik and the Sullan, are to be found in
having a diameter large in proportion to the ASNE, May 1898, Vol. X, pp. 509-510; also
draft, there is only a vestige of a tunnel in the ASNE, Aug 1898, Vol. X, pp. 783-785
afterbody plan. Further, the down slope abaft (5) Ward, C. E., "Speed and Power Trials of a Light-
Draught Steam Launch," ASNE, Feb 1898, Vol. X,
the propeller position is rather small. This craft
pp. 183-192. This was a tunnel-stern, single-screw
is reported to perform excellently in all respects, craft, 60.5 ft by 10.5 ft by 4 ft depth, with a draft
and the principal reason given is the free flow of of 1.83 to 2.0 ft and a weight of 12.03 tons. The
water to the wheels [E. W. Easter, unpubl. Itr. propeller had a diameter of 2.5 ft. The art of

of 2 Feb 1951 to HES]. designing these craft would have advanced much
more rapidly than it did if all trial results had
72.16 Handling of the Vibration Problem in
been published in as complete a form as given here.
Shallow Water. Sees. 35.13 and 35.14 describe De Berlhe, B., "Note sur la Construction et I'fichan-
(6)
the manner in which vibration of the ship hull tillonnage des Navires Destines h. la Navigation
and its many smaller elements is manifested in Int^rieure (Note on the Construction and Inspec-
motion of the water and is magnified in a shallow- tion of Ships for Inland Waters)," ATMA, 1903,
Vol. 14, pp. 298-300. This paper contains drawings
water region. The only known method of avoiding
of eight types of tunnel sterns for shallow-draft
these objectionable effects is to eliminate the
ships.
vibratory forces at their source. The periodic (7) Yarrow, A. F., "The Screw as a Means of Propulsion
forces generated by the blades of various pro- for Shallow Draught Vessels," INA, 1903, pp.

pulsion devices are reduced, as explained in 106-117

(8) Ward, C. E., "Shallow-Draught River Steamers,"
Sec. 33.15, first by reducing the thrust loading,
SNAME, 1909, pp. 79-106 and Pis. 23-86;
using larger thrust-producing areas and lower especially pp. 96-101
slip ratios; then by cutting down the high loading Teubert, O., "Die Biuuenschiffahrt (Ship Operation
(9)
such as those of high wake.
in certain regions, on Inland Waterways)," Leipzig, 1912, Vol. I,

When water can not flow freely to a propulsion- pp. 476-481. A second edition, not much different

device position from one direction, because of from the first, appeared in 1932.
(10) -Wilson R. C, "Construction and Operation of
confined-water limitations, good design dictates
Western River Steamers," SNAME, 1913, pp.
that means be provided whereby it can come in 59-66
from another direction. This is the reasoning (11) "Mississippi- Warrior River Towboats," Mar. Eng'g.,
behind the oblique tunnels described in Sec. Jun 1921, pp. 432-437. This article describes and
72.13. However, it can not always be assumed, illustrates the vessels of the Natchez class, 200 ft
long by 40 ft beam by 10 ft depth, with a draft of
without the confirmation of flow tests with
6.5 to 7 ft. There are two propellers operating in
geometrically similar boundaries, that the water
tunnels, with a tip emergence at rest of about
will follow man-made paths, no matter how 0.37D. Each propeller has four blades, with
attractive they may appear to the eye. D = 9.33 ft and P = 8.5 ft.

72.17 Partial Bibliography on Tunnel-Stem (12) "Experimental Towboats," House (of Representa-
Vessels. There is a vast technical literature on tives), 63rd Congress, 2nd Session, Document 857,
1914, Vol. 27. This is the full report of a most
self-propelled shallow-water craft with tunnel
comprehensive investigation, both in America and
sterns but unfortunately much of it is superficial
abroad, to determine the best type of shallow-water
and descriptive. The partial bibliography of this towboat and towed barges for inland waters. It
section lists some of the older technical references gives the results of a multitude of model tests on

and most of the modern ones, omitting many of vessel forms for paddlewheel and screw-propeUer
drive and of comparative tests on models of radial
those containing general descriptions only:
and feathering paddlewheels.
(1) Thomycroft, Sir John, "Steamers for Shallow (13) "Experimental Towboats," House (of Representa-
Rivers," Cassier's Magazine, Marine Number, tives) 67th Congress, 1st Session, Document 108,

Jul-Aug 1897, Vol. XII
(2) The twin-screw river gunboat H.M.S. Sheikh is
described briefly in ASNE, Feb 1898, Vol. X, p. 230
(3) Notes concerning the "Ught^draught gunboats"
Heron and Jackdaw, built for the British Navy,
1922, Vol. 9. This report, of 194 pages, describes
the full-scale trials made as a result of the recom-
mendations in House Document 857. Since so many
different experiments were tried by modifying at
least three different existing craft, the results were

are to be found in ASNE, Feb 1898, Vol. X, pp. inconclusive, as could have been expected before
227-228 and May 1898, pp. 556-559. These they were begun.
vessels are 100 ft long by 20 ft wide by 2 ft draft. (14) McEntee, W., "Model Experiments with River
674 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 72.17

Towboats —Stern-Wheel and Tunnel Propeller (21) "Standardized River Towboats," AM, Oct 1948,
Tj^pes Compared," SNAME, 1925, pp. 63-66 and pp. 36-39. This article shows stern and bow
Pis. 44 through 60; also pp. 83-90 photographs and an outboard profile on a vessel
(15) Foerster, E., and Stapcl, G., "Der Dreischrauben- carrying 4 flanking rudders, 2 steering rudders, a
schlepper Direktor Schiiiter (The Triple-Screw Tug and a single propeller inside a
single-tunnel stern,
Direclor Schluler)," WRH, 22 Feb 1929, pp. 59-61. Kort nozzle.
Shows a tug for inland waters with three screws (22) Dawson, A. J., "The Development and Economic
abreast in three tunnels. Potential of Inland Waterways Transportation,"
(16) Hinz, M., and Lang, H., "Der Dreischrauben-Motor- First Pan-Amer. Eng. Conf., Rio de Janeiro, 15-24
schlepper Amsterdam (The Triple-Screw Motor Tug Jul 1949, esp. pp. 5-21
Amslerdam)," WRH, 7 Feb 1930, pp. 43-48. Shows (23) Alaskan river boat. Rudder, Aug 1951, p. 41. This
body plan and stern lines of a shallow-water tug vessel has a length of 64.5 ft, a beam of 17.33 ft,
having three screws abreast in three tunnels. and a draft of only 1.0 ft, with a tunnel stern.
(17) Brodie, J. S., "Modern River Towboats," SNAME, With a brake power of 165 horses it is designed to
1936, pp. 350-388 make 11 kt.

(18) Dawson, A. J., "Power of Shallow-Draft River (24) Mitchell, A. R., "Shallow Draught Ships," INA,
Towboats," SNAME, 1937, pp. 145-159 Jul 1952, pp. 142-153
(19) Tunnel-stern towboat St. Louis Socony, MESR, Apr (25) Mitchell, A. R., "Tunnel Type Vessels," lESS,
1939, p. 172. A profile of this craft shows a 10-deg 1952-1953, Vol. 96, pp. 125-188. This is a compre-
slope to the tunnel roof forward of the propeller hensive, instructive, and informative paper, well
and an I1.2-deg slope in the after portion. The supplied with and ship-test data and
model-
tunnel roof embodies sharp transverse knuckles generously illustrated with drawings and photo-
with no rounding.
(20) Edwards, V. B., and Cole, F. C, "Water Transporta- (26) Jastram, H., "Ein Neuer Schiffstyp mit Grossraum-
tion on Inland Rivers," SNAME, HT, 1943, pp. tunnel (A New Ship Type with an Enlarged
400-422, esp. p. 412 Tunnel)," STG, 1954, Vol. 48, pp. 154-164.
 CHAPTER 73

The Design of the Fixed Appendages

73.1 General Rules for Design of Fixed Objects 73.15
ina Stream 675
73.2 The Design of Leading and Trailing Edges . 675 73
73.3 The Stem Cutwater 676
73.4 Selection of Struts or Bossings 677
73.5 Strut Design for E.\-posed Rotating Shafts . 678
73.6 Strut- Arm Section Shapes for Ultra-High
Speeds 680
73.7 Appendages for the Arch-Stern ABC Design 681
73.8 Layout of Contra-Struts Abaft Propellers . 682
73.9 The Design of Bossings Around Propeller
Shafts 682
73 10
. Design Rules for Defiection-Type or Contra-
Guide Bossings 686
73.11 Vertical Bossings as Docking Keels .... 686
73 12
. Design Notes on Fixed Screw-Propeller
Shrouding; The Kort Nozzle 687
73 13
. Shaping and Positioning of Contra- Vanes
Abaft Paddlewheels 688
73.14 Design Features of Supporting Horns for
Rudders; Partial Skegs 690
676 HYDRODYNyVMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.3

it is so constant in service that cavitation or

separation does not occur on one side or the
other of the nose
(b) Lengthening the long nose or entrance in-
creases the wetted area and the friction drag
(c) Thinning the entrance or nose renders it
vulnerable to damage and susceptible to corrosion.
There is also the possibility of cavitation if

the body runs at an appreciable yaw angle.

(d) A Umber entrance is easily set in vibration by
periodic external disturbances.

At a free-water surface, a leading edge can

rarely be too thin to reduce resistance, spray, and
feather, provided it is strong enough to resist
random side loads and has enough lateral stiffness
to hold itself firm against lateral vibration. A thin
leading edge projecting through the surface is

vulnerable to damage by floating debris.

As the depth below the free surface increases,
the leading edge can be thickened, if there are
advantages to be gained thereby. However, this
is to be done with caution, having in mind the

following:

(1) There is ample hydrostatic or pumping

pressure available to make the liquid close in
around the body abaft the nose
(2) A semi-circular leading edge joined to the

Section Proposed by P Mandel, 5NAME, 1953 o

NACA Symmetricol Section, t/c-l/e / TMB EPH o
EM^^^NovySt'd. Strut Section / / /Section "^ip

Ip
Abscissa >! in
ip
per cent of
5
Chord c
W^
,^'V__
Nose Radius 0.015 c.

ID'S fi
Sec. 73.4 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN 677

Waterline slope at the stem nearly to zero and

I

smooths out local discontinuities at the same time. Ur 4;o

Q545->]]-
In fact, shell plating may be applied to the outside FP Plan Saction at 26 Designed
of a stem without a rabbet if faired by such a Waterline
device. The slope of a cutwater, in a horizontal
plane, need rarely average less than 5 deg, or
about 1 in 12. Usually, a slope of 6 or 7 deg, or
about 1 in 10 or 1 in 8, is small enough. The
radius at the extreme leading end may be 0.04 ft

or less. The waterline section at the extreme

nose is elliptic rather than circular.
A design lending itself to modern fabricating
methods, and adaptable to a bulb bow, is sketched
for the ABC ship in Fig. 73. B. The space inside
the false stem or cutwater is filled with a light-
weight, water-excluding, and rust-resisting mate-
rial such as a foamed-in-place resin. This prevents

the nearly flat sides from panting under the Fig. 73. B Design of Cutwater fob the ABC Ship
pressure variations they are likely to encounter
at high speed and takes care of maintenance for fore added to the latter as an appendage and its

an indefinite period. surface taken into account when calculating

The sharp, "soft" cutwater is obviously not friction drag. Since it lies directly behind the

adaptable to a vessel which must, during a leading edge, where the local specific friction

turn-around, have its nose pushed up against a resistance coefficient Clf has its highest value,
pier or quay. For a ship with bower anchors in the cutwater surface should be exceptionally
side hawsepipes, the cutwater is made sturdy smooth.
enough to withstand the pull of a chain crossing 73.4 Selection of Struts or Bossings. The
the bow. designer may find useful a summary of the ad-

The wetted surface of a stem cutwater is a vantages and disadvantages of both struts and
continuation of that of the main hull. It is there- bossings, so that all phases of the selection problem

TABLE 73. a Comparison of Design, Construction, and Operation Features of SuArr Struts and
Bossings

ADVANTAGES
Struts Bossings

Lighter overall weight Access to more shafting and shaft bearings without docking
Less volume and weight displacement Protection of shafting and bearings (except propeller
More precise alignment with flow bearing) from foreign matter, wear, corrosion, incidental
Smaller shadowing effect of appendages projecting from damage, and major damage from striking piles, buoys,
hull and chains
Less overall first cost Some degree of pitch damping and steadying effect in
Less liability of vibration due to periodic forces exerted a following sea
on hull by propeller Appreciable reduction in shaft power due to deflection or
contra-guide features, if employed
Greater average wake fraction at propeller positions

DISADVANTAGES
Struts

Inadequate protection of exposed shafting from corrosion Greater overall weight

or from damage to corrosion-resisting coating or Probably greater overall first cost
covering Greater hability of irregular flow abaft bossing termi-
Less protection of shaft and propeller bearings from nations
foreign matter, wear, and striking large objects such Greater periodic vibratory forces exerted on hull by
as buoys and their mooring chains propeller
Greater liability of cavitation ahead of propeller, with Reduction of maneuverabihty and turning characteristics
erosion and corrosion of strut arms
G78 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.5

may be studied and the merits of each may be and to other causes, indicate the wisdom of
assessed for every new design as it arises. avoiding them unless the arms are shorter than
Whatever the advantages of bossings for any the limit given.
particular application, there is a low limit to a
The proper or best shape of the strut-arm
bossing size unless the latter is to be closed up
section has been the subject of long and careful
completely from the outside. The workmen who
study, based upon structural as well as hydro-
have to get inside of these bossings for fabrication,
dynamic considerations. The differences in drag
erection, riveting, or welding are of more-or-less
between the various shapes of long-established
fixed size, as are those who must take care of
usage are small, even in proportion to the total
repairs and maintenance for the life of the vessel.
appendage resistance. It is probably more
For these reasons bossings are little used on small
important that the strut arm as installed conform
vessels.
closely to some specified shape, worked out by a
Table 73. a summarizes the advantages and
long development process, than that the shape be
disadvantages inherent in the great majority of
of a particular kind or have special characteristics.
strut and bossing installations. The comments
The section delineated by D. W. Taylor, used in
apply to single-screw and triple-screw ships as
U. S. Naval vessels for many decades past, could
well as to the arrangements customary on twin-
have been shorter for the same thickness, with a
and quadruple-screw vessels.
c/tx ratio of 6.0 instead of 7.5. This would have
It is difficult to make any general statements
involved cutting off only the tail; in fact, this
concerning power to be
reductions in shaft
portion often disappeared anyway as a result of
achieved by the use of either shaft struts or
erosion, pitting, or rusting in service.
bossings in any particular case, assuming that
Excellent replacements are the:
alternative designs benefit from the same amount
of study, experimentation, and development (a) EPH or Ellipse-Parabola-Hyperbola section

[Mandel, P., SNAME, 1953, pp. 466-468]. The developed by the David Taylor Model Basin
designer of a large or important vessel, or one during World War II. This has a trailing edge
which is to serve as the lead ship for quantity sufficiently blunt to get rid of the previous

production, is believed justified in carrying alter- difficulties with fabrication and corrosion of the

native strut and bossing designs through to the slim Navy Standard strut. It is not so blunt as
model stage at least. to cause objectionable separation and eddy
73.5 Strut Design for Exposed Rotating buffeting of the trailing portion in the absolute
Shafts. If the weight displacement of large sizes normally used for shaft struts.

bulky bossings is undesirable, propeller shafts are (b) Section proposed by P. Mandel [SNAME,
left exposed, carried by water-lubricated bearings 1953, pp. 468-469], with a c/tx ratio of 4.3.
supported from the hull by double arms set in
The comparative proportions and shapes of the
the form of a Vee. For certain applications, single
three sections mentioned, plus an sym- NACA
arms have been employed, especially when they metrical section, are shown graphically in Fig.
are short and can be given adequate rigidity.
73. C. The abscissas and ordinates for constructing
Parsons used a number of them successfully on
the section outlines accurately are tabulated by
the three shafts of the Turbinia in the 1890's
Mandel [SNAME, 1953, Fig. 3, p. 468]. Many
[SNAME, 1947, Fig. 10, p. 105]. However, more
other characteristics are described by him,
modern experience, \vith larger sizes and higher
together with design considerations involving
shaft powers, indicates that when the single
both structural and hydrodynamic features.
arms are longer than the maximum strut-hub Of far more importance than the shape of the
diameter they suffer from:
strut-arm section is the placing of this sectiori in
(a) Lack of lateral stiffness the local direction of flow so that in service it runs
(b) PossibiUty of resonant lateral vibration as a with no yaw angle or angle of attack. It is true
cantilever weighted at the outboard end that the local direction of flow changes with yaw
(c) Excessive lateral loading by Magnus Effect during steering, with rate of swing during turning,
on the shaft, or hydrodynamic lift due to cross and with ship position during wavegoing. It may
flow when turning, or both. Fractures of modern also change with displacement, draft, and trim.
single-arm struts in service, due to transverse lift Nevertheless, it probably remains constant within

produced by cross flow when turning, to vibration, a degree or so at all normal operating speeds in
Sec. 73 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN 679
"15 5cQ e
l of Ordin ates
Chord C

x-Distonce from Leodinq Edqe in Per Cent of Chord c

Fig. 73.C Half-Sections of Five Strut Shapes

straight-ahead motion on a given course. It

seems reasonable to assume that the ship is

running in this fashion for about 98 per cent of its

operating time.
The proper angle can be estimated after a
fashion, using data for flow around the stern as
given in various chapters. Nevertheless, good
design requires an experimental determination on
a model with special apparatus. It is preferred,
because of the influence of induced velocity in
the water passing into a propeller disc, that the
strut-arm section angles be determined while the
adjacent propeller is delivering normal thrust.
This can be done, along the lengths of the two
struts of a pair, by apparatus described and
illustrated by H. F. Nordstrom [SSPA Rep. 32,
1954, Figs. 22 and 23, pp. 30-31].
Twisting the strut arms to suit the angle of
flow is usually an inconvenience when the struts
are built, but failure to align the strut sections
with the flow, especially ahead of a propeller
disc, only invites trouble by setting up disturb-
ances in the inflow jet.

Whether a two or more arms lies

strut with
ahead of or abaft a screw propeller, it is well to
avoid a strut-vee angle (see Fig. 36. B) which is
nearly or exactly the same as the angle between
two blades which may be passing the arms simul-
taneously. A convenient example in this respect
is the four-arm strut abaft the 4-bladed propeller
of the arch-stern ABC ship, described in Sees.
73.7 and 73.8 and illustrated in Fig. 73.F of
Sec. 73.8. When looking forward on this vessel,
consider the radial position of the lower port
strut arm as zero angle. With spacings of 75, 60,
and 75 deg between the three pairs of arms,
reckoned in a clockwise direction, the angular
positions are tabulated as follows:

Lit Arms
680 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.6

A hole in the water is certain to form at the free

Both Dioqrams are Circle Tbni^ent to the surface abaft the strut, because of the low hydro-
Projected Forward on Inner Sides of Both static pressure there. The minutest degree of
Transverse Plane Strut Arms and to
the. Strut Hub
separation abaft the tail of the section is almost
Should Hove a certain to provide a reduced-pressure passage for
Radius Not Less air, extending from the hole at the surface all
Than That of the Outside
of the Hub
the way down to the propeller hub. Here the air
passes into the propeller disc in the manner
illustrated by Fig. 2.3. D, reduces the thrust, and
creates noise and vibration.
If it ever becomes necessary to carry or to rig
a strut section which must come to the surface,
a flat subsurface plate resembling those in Figs.
7.E and 36.0 is attached to it just below the
surface and in the line of flow. This plate prevents
air from leaking down through the bottom of the
Strut VeeAn(5le Should Be hole in the water, just abaft the strut. An extra-
Greater Than 50 dea for
long fairing is necessary above this plate if the
Good Flow and Ricjidit'y
strut is not to create excessively large waves at
the surface or to throw inordinate amounts of
Fig. 73. D Hydrodynamic Requirements for Strut-
AjiM Positions at the Strut Hub spray.
It is customary to place the strut-arm axes in
with the strut hub are lengthened with large- transverse planes, that is, square to the baseplane.
radius fillets forward and aft, principally to give It may often be better to rake or tilt them out

stability of position to the strut hub. of these planes if they can be shortened thereby,

At the hull ends of the strut arms, provided if can be placed more nearly normal to
their axes
these go through into the hull, no fairing is neces- the direction of water flow, or if better attach-
sary if they stand normal to the shell or nearly so. ments can be made to the hull structure. The angle
When the transverse reentrant angle at the shell of rake or sweep-back can be as large as 30 deg
becomes 70 deg or less, a fillet is introduced by with the transverse plane. If piercing the free
some convenient method. The fillet radius in- surface unavoidable it is best to rake the strut
is

creases as the reentrant angle becomes smaller. down and forward. This creates less separation
bend the strut arm and have
It is often possible to than when raked down and aft, as explained in
it enter the hull nearly normal to the shell. Sec. 36.17 and illustrated at 5 in Fig. 36.0.
Struts are attached to the hull by external Strut-Arm Section Shapes for Ultra-
73.6
palms only when no other method can be used. High Speeds. For planing craft which operate
The palm endings are sloped and faired so that a at high speeds and for ultra-high-speed racing
section through them, in the direction of flow, motorboats the exposed propeller shafts are in-
approximates that of one side of a standard (or variably carried by single-arm or V-type struts.
acceptable) strut section. The submergence of these struts is small because
Normally it is not necessary, for hydrodynamic of the relatively small draft, hence the cavitation
reasons only, to mcrease the length or the fineness index is correspondingly low. At the high speeds
of a strut-arm section where it attaches to the at which they travel it is impossible to make a
strut hub or to the shell. If fairing is required on strut section sufficiently long to be free of cavita-
the sides of the section, for structural or other tion over its after portion. It is the practice
reasons, a longer termination is automatically therefore to utilize only the forward portions of
necessary if the section fineness is to be main- these sections, making the entrances fine and
tained. narrow, and terminating them in square or boat-
Under no circumstances should an upper strut tail endings in the manner illustrated in Fig. 73. E.

arm join the hull at a point above the free-water They then resemble the transom stern on a fast
surface if propulsion performance at a displace- motorboat. Single struts having blunt ends may
ment and trim corresponding to the position of be placed forward of the propeller provided there
that surface is considered of major importance. is an exposed sloping shaft ahead of the strut.
Sec. 1^.1 FIXEID-APPENDAGE DESIGN 681

Not More Thon Direction of Motion built-up propeller more simple and sturdy, with
About a smaller hub diameter.
(e) As an alternative to (c) or (d), separate
blades of alloy or corrosion-resisting steel. These
may be solid or, as in an Italian proposal, may
be of hollow cellular construction, with welded
Fig. 73. E Boat-Tail Strut-Arm Section for High parts of steel plate [SBSR, 1 Oct 1953, p. 459].
Speed Each blade may have its own root palm or flange,
welded to the steel hub and to the adjacent palms,
The open ditch made by the shaft may be large
or the blades may be welded to short stubs, made
enough so that the water clears the strut arm
integral with the hub, illustrated for the quad-
altogether.
ruple-arm strut hub in Fig. 73. F.
It is often possible to place a fixed single-arm
strut abaft the propeller and to use it as the
(f) A propeller-bearing sleeve which is mounted
in its housing at an angle approximating that of
forward or fixed portion of a compound rudder.
the slope of the propeller journal when all parts
The forward edge of the rudder blade is close
are in place
behind or is mounted inside the after edge of the
strut arm.
(g) A propeller-bearing sleeve which is withdrawn
aft from its housing, to afford ample clearance for
73.7 Appendages for the Arch-Stem ABC
the propeller journal when installing the propeller
Design. Sec. 67.16 describes the general con-
assembly or removing from the ship
it
siderations governing the design of appendages at
(h) A propeller journal surface of heavy chrome
the after end of the ABC ship with the arch-type
plating with a ground finish, thus eliminating a
stern, as well as some of the details. A few addi-
bronze sleeve which might cause corrosion of the
tional notes are added here to cover certain
propeller journal and the hub
features illustrated subsequently in the following
drawings:
(i) A strut hub of cast steel with the usual internal
circumferential lands for carrying the shaft-
(1) Contra-struts abaft propellers, Fig. 73. F of bearing sleeve. To the outside of this hub are
Sec. 73.8 cast four short arms, curved in contra-fashion to
(2) Short bossings for propeller shafts. Fig. 73. permit the inner or shaft ends of the strut arms,
of Sec. 73.9 fabricated from heavy rolled plate, to be butt-
(3) Large propeller, built up by welding, with welded to them. The fillets at the forward and
flange connections to shaft, and twin rudders after ends of the strut-arm connections at the
abaft twin skegs. Fig. 74.L of Sec. 74.15. hub are incorporated entirely in the short arms,
cast integral with the hub.
The arrangement developed for the first pre-
liminary design and indicated schematically in
(j) A readily removable exposed rotating pro-
peller shaft, attached by bolted flanges to the
Figs. 73. F and 74.L embodies:
flanged propeller hub at its after end and to the
(a) An integral forward bolting flange, propeller flanged stern-tube shaft at its forward end
hub, and after shaft or propeller journal of steel, (k) A rotating shell forward of the propeller to
eliminating all taper fits, keys, threads, propeller cover the bolted flange and to serve as a fairing
nuts, and the like into the propeller hub
(b) An which is
after shaft or propeller journal (1) A fixed conical cap of suitable shape and pro-
short and of large diameter, with adequate stiff- portions abaft the propeller-bearing housing or
ness to prevent bending and to insure reasonably strut hub, forming the after end of the stream-
uniform loading of the bearing surface lined assembly comprising the rotating shell, the
(c) Separate propeller blades, bolted to the shaft- propeller hub, the strut hub, and the tail fairing

hub-journal combination with circular flanges, (m) A suitable means of inducing adequate water
studs, and nuts in the orthodox fashion for a flow through the propeller bearing for lubrication
built-up adjustable propeller and cooling. A
flared rope guard at the forward
(d) As an alternative to (c), separate propeller end of the strut-bearing hub and a large hole in
blades which are removable but not adjustable. the after end of the fixed fairing cap, opening into
Eliminating the pitch-changing feature and the what would be a separation zone or a swirl core
necessity for circular blade flanges may make the abaft the hole, should be sufficient for this purpose,
682 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 7B.S

73.8 Layout of Contra-Struts Abaft Pro- Even so, the median-line slope of the leading
pellers. If the propeller bearing and the barrel edge at 0.2Ru„^ is 32.5 deg, although this could
carrying it are both mounted abaft the propeller, be reduced somewhat by changing the shape of
as in the ABC arch-stern design, the procedure for the median line. The remaining offsets are deter-
laying out contra-struts to hold the bearing barrel mined by using the sin' relationship described
or strut hub follows in general that described in in Sec. 07.22. Details of the resulting design of
Sec. 74.16 for a contra-rudder. There is, however, contra-strut and hub assembly, with a heavy belt
a much smaller background of experience for plate in the shell abreast the propeller and strut
struts as to acceptable limits for median-line arms, are drawn in Fig. 73. F.
angles, twist offsets, and the like. A considerable number of references relating to
In the design of the ABC arch-stern struts, it contra-propellers and guide vanes, both forward
was evident at an early stage that, because of the of and abaft a screw propeller, are listed by
large barrel radius, 2.25 ft, a reference value of W. P. A. van Lammeren [RPSS, 1948, References
0.85 times this radius at O.liZMai of the propeller 136 and 137 on pp. 299-300].
was much too large, in that the median-line slopes 73.9 The Design of Bossings Around Pro-
at the leading edges of the struts became excessive. peller Shafts. The first step in the design of
Falling back upon the designer's judgment, as any bossing, whether long or short, or of the
must often be done, this ratio was halved. The straight (fairing) or deflection type, is to position
basic offset is therefore (0.85/2) 2.25 ft or 0.9562 the screw propellers to be carried by it. This
ft, listed at the bottom of the table on Fig. 73. F. matter is covered in Sees. 67.23 and 69.3. When
Arch Section at Midlength of Strut Arms, S'.'ib /^boft Propeller Ceni

Rodlol PositI

Double Extra-Heavy Shell Plate- tOR

in WQv of strut Arms ond
Pr opeller
Sec. 73.9 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN 683

the rate of propeller rotation is known and the tions have even revealed an extensive uncovering
propeller power is fixed within rather narrow of the upper surface of the bossing, exposing parts
limits, the size of shafting, bearings, and other of the upper blades of a propeller carried by it.
naechanical parts to be housed by the bossings That portion of a bossing of any type which
are determined within equally close limits. In encloses a propeller shaft is fixed at its after end
combination with the room needed for internal by the position of the propeller bearing. At its
access, these features fix the minimum size of forward end some latitude in position with respect
certain parts. to the emerging shaft is permissible. This depends
The second step is to settle upon the exact upon the size of the bossing at that end, the
nature and function of the bossing. Is it to be of position of the propelling machinery, and other
the short or the long type? Is it solely for fau'ing internal arrangements. If the bossing is for fairing
and for protection of the shafting and bearings? and shaft protection only the bossing termination
Is it to be of the deflection type, possibly mth slope /3(beta) and the traces of the bossing body
an auxihary support strut for the propeller bear- along the hull are established in such manner that
ing, as in diagram 3 of Fig. 36. H? It may be that, flow takes place around it with the least possible
under a broad, flat stern, the bossing is to be called interference. It is often difficult to estimate the
upon to serve as a docking keel as well as a bossing. local directions and traces
of this flow along the
The third step is to find the direction of flow hull. Lines of flow taken on a model, especially
at and near the hull surface in the region to be with a temporary rod in place to represent the
occupied by the bossing. If of the long type, the bare propeller shaft, are most helpful at this stage.
bossing is in reahty an extension of the water- Better still are flow directions, indicated by flags
tight hull. It is not an external appendage which or vanes at a distance from the hull equal to the
can be modified later, if and when desired. mean projection of the bossing at each station.
Because of the length and the appreciable customary first to sketch the bossing shape
It is
volume of a long-type bossing, the flow around it on the body plan by stations, sections, or frames.
when in place may be significantly different than These are supplemented by the traces of bossing
that indicated around the bare model when the flowplanes, flat or slightly curved, passed through
initial flow tests are made. For instance, suppose the bossing at varying distances from the adjacent
that the principal plane of the bossing has been main hull. The traces correspond generally to
placed over the trace of a flowline observed on intersections of the stream surfaces in the bound-
the model hull without the bossing. The water ary and adjacent layers, diagrammed in Figs.
which formerly flowed easily along the hull 36. D and 36. H. The transverse slope of a bossing,
surface is now displaced by the bossing volume. intended for only, is approximately
fairing
It has to flow somewhere else, and in so doing it normal to the slopes of the section lines in the
may take a route that is not conducive to good vicinity. This reduces the wetted area to a mini-
flow or good propulsion. A second flow check on mum and avoids reentrant angles less than 90 deg.
the model is therefore indicated, to be followed Proposals have been made in the past, requiring
by wake observations in the propeller-disc such rigid adherence to this rule that the bossing
position abaft the bossing, including records of plane is curved in transversely, so as to remain
the directions of the velocity vectors. A further normal to the section lines as the latter become
check is on the uniformity of flow as it
called for steeper with distance aft, toward the propeller
leaves the upper and lower surfaces of the bossing. [Volker, WRH, 1 Jun 1934, pp. 131-132].
If a long bossing is not properly shaped and When selecting the transverse slope it is well
positioned, the flow around it may contain large to make sure that no part of the bossing lies close

corkscrew vortexes. It may develop a combina- to the free surface of the water in any operating
tion of longitudinal and transverse eddies which condition, if efficient propulsion and freedom
cause the flow at a given point abaft the bossing from vibration is desired.
to fluctuate with time. An
unsteady flow of this Section shapes for the bossings of twin-screw
kind is detected on a model only with instruments vessels are to be found in the following:
which are sensitive to these variations.
(a) Sadler, H. C, "The Effect of Bossing Upon Re-
On high-speed vessels, especially those of light sistance," lESS, 1908-1909, Vol. LII, pp. 147-159
draft, where the head of water over the bossmg is and PI. IX. Discusses effect of large and small
necessarily small, model tests of proposed installa- termination angle /3.
684 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.9

(b) Simpson, G., "The Naval Constructor," New York surprising that the vessels to which these bossings
and London, 4th ed., 1919, p. 59
are fitted have given over two decades of successful
(c) Baker, G. S., SD, 1933, Vol. I, Fig. 7, p. 14
and satisfactory service. It is adequate proof that
(d) Hughes, G., "Model Experiments on Twin-Screw
Propulsion, Part I", INA, 1936, pp. 145-158 and large apertures, small slopes in the bossing flow-
Pis. XVI-XX. Four bossings with very small planes, and sharp trailing edges are compatible
termination angles are shown on PI. XVII. with strength, rigidity, and ease of fabrication.
(e) Eggert, E. F., SNAME, 1939, Fig. 52, p. 329, shows
The cantilever rigidity of the heavy frame
the bossing sections of EMB model 3383, stern S-Sj
carrying the propeller shaft bearing must certainly
(f) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,
J. G., RPSS, 1948, Fig. 54, p. 99 be adequate. Nevertheless, some ships have
(g) Baker, G. S., INA, 1952, Fig. 13, p. 109. This shows a carried excessively blunt terminations in the
bossing symmetrical about the bossing plane, with past which spoke only too eloquently of a struc-
a termination slope angle of 21 deg.
tural design that almost crowded out the hydro-
(h) De Rooij, G., "Practical Shipbuilding," 1953, Fig.
252b on p. 105; Fig. 561 on 562 and
dynamic design.
p. 241; Figs.
563 on p. 242. The designer must decide whether the cylin-
drical or conical barrel which houses the shaft and
When shaping the bossing termination, the the propeller bearing should attach to the bossing
propeller deserves all the edge clearance which can tangentially or radially. It is possible to favor
be afforded ahead of it, consistent with proper structural, mechanical, and other considerations
support of the propeller bearing and adequate provided the flow over the entire bossing surface
rigidity of the bossing structure. is free from eddies, crossovers, and abrupt
The actual termination, inboard of the barrel changes. For example, if the plane of the bossing
portion around the propeller bearing, deserves as termination is offset from the shaft axis, as in
much attention with respect to fining as the Figs. 36.D and 73. G, the reentrant angle at the
termination of a shaft strut. This is much more, bearing hub should be not less than 90 deg.
incidentally, than has often been accorded it in Further, the bossing surface on the "full" side
the past. The sections through the bossing term- need not project much beyond the bearing hub.
ination in Fig. 73. G, developed by the Newport The design rules set down in the foregoing for
News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company for long, straight bossings at the stern apply also to
the S.S. Talamanca and class, indicate what can those which might be fitted for twin bow pro-
and should be done in this respect. They afford pellers on an icebreaker, or for bow and stern
the propeller full opportunity for doing its best propellers on a ferryboat.
in the water trailing abaft the bossing. It is not Short bossings are used primarily to fair an

Shell PiQt

Fig. 73, G Twjn-Sorew Bossing Tisbmination Casting fob S. S, Talaimnca and CijAss
Sec. 73.9 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN 685

Fig. 73.H Shape of Short Bossing for ABC Arch-Stern Ship

exposed propeller shaft where it emerges from not necessarily parallel to those marked by flow
the hull, described in Sec. 75.10. The design rules indicators directly on the hull. This modification
are essentially the same as for long bossings, adds shghtly to the stabilizing-fin area but the
except that deflection or contra-guide endings are effect is small.
never incorporated in them because the endings An example of a fixed appendage producing
are too far from the propellers. A short bossing is somewhat similar effects a bar of pointed or
is

often required to provide a fairing around a arch shape, mounted in an inclined position under
coupling or flange which connects the section the exposed rotating shaft of a high-speed motor-
of an exposed propeller shaft to the stern-tube boat. It creates an air- or vapor-filled separation
shaft just ahead of it. Were it not for this, the zone in the form of an inclined ditch, within
fairing could wellbe limited to a projection from which the propeller shaft revolves with negligible
the main hull on the inboard side only, filling in liquid friction [H. B. Greening patent apphcation].
the space where eddies would otherwise form and On most short bossings the flow crosses the
leaving only mechanical clearance next to the bossing barrel around the shaft bearing at a
shaft. considerable angle. A fining of the trailing ends
On either long or short bossings some pressure of the bossing flowplane traces is achieved by
drag can be saved, for an insignificant increase in continuing the bossing termination along the
wetted surface, by "pointing" the outer or up- leeward or downstream side of the barrel. This
stream surface of the bossing upon which the modification, along with the pointed arch, is

flow impinges. To the customary circular trans- incorporated in the short bossing of the ABC arch
verse shape or section of the outer barrel of such stern, drawn in Fig. 73. H.
a bossing there added a triangular or Gothic-
is To save weight and displacement, exposed
arch portion, about as shown in the two end propeller shafts are sometimes run through the
views of Fig. 73. H, depicting the short-bossing shell plating simply by cutting a clearance opening
design for the arch-stern ABC ship. A moderate in the plating. The stern-tube bearing and the
amount of pointing results in marked fining of fittings pertaining to it are then installed entirely
the leading ends of the traces of the bossing within the fair lines of the hull. The recess thus
flowplanes lying generally parallel to the hull in presented, filled as it is with the shaft and with
that vicinity, indicated by Sections B-B, C-C, partly inert water, presents no sensible inter-
and D-D of the figure. The locus of the "points" ference to the flow. A small fairing may be fitted
of the added triangle or arch, when projected on inboard and astern of the protruding shaft,
the body plan, lies parallel to the flowlines in that mentioned in a preceding paragraph of this section
region. At a distance from the hull these lines are and illustrated in Fig. 75.1 of Sec. 75.10. Separa-
686 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.10

tion and eddying at this point are avoided at the side by the conversion ofsome kinetic energy into
expense of an insignificant increase in volume sufficient potential energy and pressure, with an
displacement, weight, and wetted surface. adequate pressure gradient, to accelerate it
73.10 Design Rules for Deflection-Type or inward toward the bossing surface, at right
Contra-Guide Bossings. Ship designers have angles to the latter.
been reluctant to use deflection-type or contra- In the present state of knowledge, it is perhaps
guide bossings on vessels with wing propellers well to hmit the angle between the convex side
because of the uncertainty as to just how much of a deflection-type bossing and the corresponding
twist can be used and just how it can be worked side of a fairing bossing for the same ship design
into them. They fear that this twist may cause to a maximum of about 8 or 10 deg. It is also
eddying, introduce vibration, and do more ulti- well to limit the reentrant angle at the after end
mate harm than good to the propulsion charac- of a deflection-type bossing to a minimum of some
teristicsand behavior of the vessel as a whole. 60 or 65 deg, reckoned from the adjacent hull
True, a deflection-type bossing, even though surface.
designed only to reduce the unfavorable compo- When the designer has done his best on paper
nent of flow as it enters the propeller disc, requires he may try his hand in modeling clay. The bossing
much greater care in shaping than the fairing type so developed is added to the model and run for
of long bossing. Further, it calls for more thorough flow directions. This may be in a model basin but,
checking by model tests. Separation of flow may if at all possible, the flow should be observed in a
well occur with careless or improper design, circulating-water channel. A flow test and a wake
leading to ensuing vibration and other troubles. survey, including measurements of velocity mag-
As wdth a contra-guide skeg ending the twist nitude and direction in the propeller disc, are
isimparted in a direction contrary to the rotation much more necessary for a deflection-type bossing
of the propeller blades when running ahead. If than for one of the fairing type.
the wing propellers are definitely to turn outward, The designer who is looking —and hoping—for
and the stern is of normal form, the bossing a real reduction in shaft power, of the order of 5
termination lies at a small slope fi with the or 10 per cent, such as that achieved on the
horizontal. With inward-turning propellers the U.S.S. Warden, should not be discouraged when
slope is larger than for a bossing of the fairing a first attempt at laying out a deflection-type
type. Indeed, the termination may approach a bossing produces erratic flow around the propeller
vertical position, with a slope of 70 or 80 deg or position. It may
produce no reduction in shaft
more. power at all. the design knowledge
Indeed,
The amount of twist which can be imparted is relating to this type of bossing is still so limited
a function of the fore-and-aft length of the bossing that only by accident could a designer expect
and of the smallness of the reentrant angle against to arrive at the proper shape and proportions on
the shell, on the reduced-pressure side of the the first trial. Modified bossings are rather easily
bossing, convex to the flow. Fig. 36. H illustrates applied to a model and more easily checked for
these features as applied successfully to the U. S. flow in a tuft test in a circulating-water channel.
destroyer Warden (DD 352), where the reentrant In fact, it can be stated as an inflexible rule that
angle on top of the bossing was much smaller no contra-guide bossing should be incorporated
than normal. It is true that separation generally in a ship design and in the construction drawings
occurs alongside a surface when the slope of that without the most complete flow investigation on
surface with the direction of motion exceeds a a model, both with and without the propeller
limiting angle. However, a twist imparted to the working. This involves measuring on the model,
water by a long bossing with easy curves may if it is practicable, the transient variations in
possibly act to diminish this critical slope by torque and thrust as each propeller blade passes
changing the general direction of flow at its after through a complete revolution. At some time in
end. the future it should involve measurements of the
When designing a contra-guide bossing it is periodic pressure fluctuations and force variations
kept constantly in mind that the water is being on the bossing and adjacent hull.

forcibly deflected on the straight or concave side 73.11 Vertical Bossings as Docking Keels.
and must follow the bossing-flowplane curvature For vessels which are wide aft in proportion to
there. It is only constrained to follow the convex their immersed depth, with rather flat stern
Sec. 7).12 FIXED-APPENnACE DESIGN 687

sections and cut-up profiles, the angle /? of the (Economic and Importance of Shrouded
Scientific
Ship Propellers)," STG, 1939, pp. 150-167
bossing termination often works out as close to
(5) Dickraann, H. E., "Grundlagen zur Theorie Ring-
90 deg. In other words, the bossing stands nearly formiger Tragfliigel (Fundamentals of the Theory
vertical. It is usually difficult to provide adequate of Ring-Shaped Airfoils)," Ing.-Archiv, 1940, p. 36
docking support for the sterns of these vessels. (6) Riddell, A. M., "The Theory and Practice of the

A logical procedure is to use the vertical bossing Kort Nozzle System of Propulsion," INA, 1942,
as a support keel, since a high degree of strength pp. 87-114
(7) Some design notes given by W. P. A. van Lammeren,
and rigidity is required in it to support the shaft
RPSS, 1948, p. 267
and propeller. Fig. 36. E of Sec. 36.7 indicates that (8) Amtsberg, H., "Entwurfs- und Berechnungsverfahren
little or nothing need be sacrificed in the way of fiir Kortdusen (Design and Calculation Methods

form to provide the necessary flat surface on the for Kort Nozzles)," Arbeitsblatt 5/1950/01 der

bottom of such an appendage. A bossing designed KdT, Berlin, 1950

to act also as a docking keel should have a slope
such that the line of action of the support force
from the docking blocks, at midwidth of the flat
under surface of the bossing, remains
(9) Horn, F., "Teil A (Part A)," "Thooretische Grund-
lagen und grundsatzlicher Aufbau des Entwurfsver-
fahrens (Basic Theory and Design Fundamentals),"
STG, 1950, Vol. 44, pp. 141-169, with a list of 8
ivithin the references on p. 169 (in German)

enters the main (10) Amtsberg, H., "Teil B (Part B)," "Praktisches
bossing until it hull.
Auswahlverfahren fiir Optimale Diisensysteme
The fact that the propeller blades project below
(Practical Selection Method to Determine
the docking support surface and that the blocks Optimum Nozzle Systems)," STG, 1950, Vol. 44,
under the bossing (s) have to be built up higher pp. 170-206 (in German)
than the remainder may be taken care of by (11) An summary of these two papers is given
excellent

modern (1955) drydocking procedures. (in German) and a most workable design pro-
cedure, with examples, is found in "Handbuch der
73.12 Design Notes on Fixed Screw-Propeller
Werften (Construction Handbook)," published by
Shrouding; The Kort Nozzle. Certain screw- Hansa in Hamburg, 1952, pp. 67-88. On page 88
propeller installations involving fixed shrouding there a bibliography of 14 items.
is

are described in Sec. 32.5 and illustrated in Figs. (12) An NACA 4415 section is recommended for a Kort
F. Horn and H. Amtsberg; it is shown
32.D and 32. E. Propeller nozzles in general and nozzle by
by W. Henschke, in "Schiffbau Technisches
Kort nozzles in particular are described in Sec.
Handbuch (Shipbuilding and Ship Design Hand-
36.19 and diagrammed in Fig. 36. P. book)," 1952, pp. 165-166. The nozzle section and
The detail design of Kort and other fixed the sketch of Fig. 73.1 is adapted from Fig. 44 on
nozzles is intricate and specialized, so much so p. 167 of the Henschke reference.
(13) "Triple-Screw Ohio River Tugboat John J. Rowe,"
that it can not be described adequately in the
SBSR, 17 Nov 1955, p. 641. The three propellers of
space available here. Instead, there are given
this craft, 7.67 ft in diameter, are each enclosed
a number of recent references which contain the in Kort nozzles, with a steering rudder abaft each
best description of this procedure available in
the Hterature:
(1) Gutsche, F., "Fortschritte in der Entwicklung des
Binnensohiffs mit Eigenem Antrieb (Progress in the
Development of Self-Propelled Ships for Inland
Waters)," Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 1935, p.
1155
(2) BiJohi, G., "Possibility di Reoupero Delia Scia ed
Esperienze sul Mantello d'Elica (Possibility of
Exploiting theWake and Experiments with
Propeller Shrouding)," Ann. Rep. Rome Model
Basin (in TMB library), 1936, Vol. VI, pp. 91-98
(3) Gutsche, F., "Einflusz der Gitterstellung auf die
Eigenschaften der in Schiffsschraubenentwurf
benutzten Blattsohnitte (Influence of the Cascade
Position on the Characteristics of the Blade
Sections Used in the Design of Ship Screws)," Direction of Inflow
Mitteilungen der Preuzisohen Versuchsanstalt fiir When Goinqj Ahead
Wasserbau und Schiffbau, Berlin, 1938, No. 34;
see also STG, 1938, p. 125 Plane of Propeller Disc
(4) Roscher, E. K., "WirtachaftUche und wissenschaft-
liche Bedeutung unmantelter Schiffaschrauben Fig. 73.1 Definition-Design Sketch for Kort Nozzle
688 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.13

propeller. The reference embodies a stern view of sterns. Here a reasonable amount of rigid struc-
the vessel on the ways, showing the propellers,
tural anchorage is available at or near the top
nozzles, and rudders. There are si.x flanking rudders
The of the shrouding. Although a distance equal to
in addition to the three steering rudders. craft
has a length of 164 ft, a beam of 44 ft, a depth of the fore-and-aft length of the shrouding is avail-
10 and a draft of 6.5 ft.
ft, able for this attachment, the real need is for
(14) Roscher, E. K., "Kort Nozzle Propulsion of Ships," width of anchorage, to hold the shrouding con-
Shipbuilding, 1955, Vol. I, p. 84 ff; abstracted in
centric with the propeller-tip circle.
IME, Apr 1956, Vol. LXVIII, pp. 105-106
Van Manen, J. D., "Recent Research on Propellers in
While a horizontal strut connection or tie to
(15)
Nozzles," SNAME, New York Sect., 30 Oct 1956. the bottom of a large ship skeg carrying a nozzle-
enclosed propeller is not mandatory, it is greatly
For design purposes the Horn and Amtsberg to be preferred. It can not be very deep, otherwise
references of 1950 are the most useful and valuable. it would extend below the baseplane. Likewise,
Although it does not contain design rules as it it would interfere with
can not be very wide or
such the marine architect who sets out to study the contraction of the inflow jet to the lower part
the advisability of using fixed shroudings with of the propeller disc. Nevertheless, it is a tie to a
screw propellers will require reference to the relatively rigid portion of the ship structure and
paper "Open-Water Test Series with Propellers as such should be utilized to the utmost.
it
in Nozzles," D. van Manen [Inter. Shipbldg.
by J. Shaping and Positioning of Contra-
73.13
Prog., 1954, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 83-108]. Vanes Abaft Paddlewheels. The action of
D. S. Simpson has the following to say concern- contra-vanes forward of and abaft paddlewheels
ing this type of installation: and sternwheels is described in Sec. 32.4 and
"The Kort nozzle, now almost universally used on the illustrated in Fig. 32. C. These vanes are fixed
river towboats, has (made) a definite contribution to all appendages applied solely to improve the efficiency
vessels used principally for towing, although it shows of propulsion.
little change in free route performance. Experiments
So far as known, the only model experiments on
indicate that the hull must be designed for it as nozzles
added to existing (hull) designs have not given the ex-
and full-scale trials of either leading or trailing
pected improvement in towing power" [SNAME, 1951, p. contra-vanes were those made under the super-
560]. vision of F. Siiberkriib ["Vergleichende Modell-
versuche mit Siiberkriib Leitflachen an einem
A
very real problem associated with the pro- freifahrenden Schaufelrad, Teil II (Comparative
vision of fixed shrouding is building the necessary Model Experiments with Siiberkrub Guide Plates
rigidity into it and attaching it firmly to the hull. On Free-Running Paddlewheel, Part 2),"
a
This appUes equally to the design of shrouding HSVA Rep. 321, 3 Mar 1936 (in German), copy
intended for mechanical protection only and to in TMB library; "Neue Verbesserungen in der
that installed for improving the efficiency of Hydromechanik des Radantriebs (New Improve-
propulsion. The shape of the shrouding is so ments in the Hydromechanics of Paddlewheel
foreign to that of a normal ship that when added Propulsion)," WRH, 15 Sep 1941, pp. 269-271].
as an appendage never appears to belong to
it The notes in this section are based partly on
the ship. To obtain an integrated design it may these data and partly on the general hydrodynamic
eventually be necessary to design a whole new knowledge set forth elsewhere in the book.
type of afterbody. first the forward or leading vane,
Considering
If the shrouding or nozzle is part of the initial pointed out in Sec. 71.6 that a side paddle-
it is
design, a stern with a shallow transverse arch wheel is best positioned so that a wave crest lies
and gently sloping buttocks over the propeller about opposite the point where the blades enter
is indicated. The under side of the arch then the water on the forward side of the wheel. If the
forms the top of the nozzle opening. The nozzle leading contra-vane is placed under this crest,
proper benefits by two hull attachments, each as the water flows to it in a direction nearly hori-
long as the nozzle, and spread laterally by the zontal. As a hydrofoil, cambered to deflect the
width of the arch. water sUghtly downward, its lift is exerted in a
The application of a nozzle-shaped fixed direction close to the vertical. There is very little
shrouding or enclosing duct to an existing ship or no thrust component of this lift force; as the
is best limited to propeller positions abaft large lift is otherwise not useful it should be kept to a
skegs or to those underneath wide, rather flat minimum. The entrance of the contra-vane is
Sec. 73.13 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN 689

therefore placed so that the meanhne at the nose mentioned earlier in the section. The contra-vane
is parallel to the streamlines of the incident flow. is best placed where the flow vector at the sub-
For a leading contra-vane ahead of a stern wheel, surface level of the vane has its steepest slope.
as in diagram 2 of Fig. 32. C, it is necessary to In the layout of the figure it is possible to keep
determine the flow direction at the nose position the vane above the at-rest waterline, although a
by some kind of ship or model test. position under other wave-slope conditions might
M. Hart has published two diagrams which be as low as the lowest trunnion level of the blades.
show the resultant-velocity vectors, with reference The lower surface of the run portion of the trailing
to a stream of undisturbed water flowing past contra-vane, just ahead of the trailing edge,
the side of the ship, of the upper and lower edges should conform generally to the flow within the
of the blades in a series of immersion positions wave crest at that position and level.
[ATMA, 1906, Vol. 17, p. 179 and Pis. II, III]. Since the lift of the after vane has a forward
These do not take account of the velocities in- thrust component, this curved-section hydrofoil
duced by the blades, for which no comprehensive, should have a high lift and a low drag. The mean-

reliable data can be found. It is considered,
therefore, that the run or after portion of the
leading vane can best be shaped with its upper
surface parallel to a tangent to the sweep circle
of the outer blade edges at that point. There
should be enough clearance between this upper
surface and the outer blade edges to pass any
floating debris that may be drawn down below
the surface.
The trailing edge of the forward contra-vane
should lie at about the level of the blade trunnions,
perhaps slightly below the midwidths of the blades
lines ofboth leading and trailing vanes will have
a rather large camber for their chord lengths.
The contra-vanes may be made reasonably thin
ifsupported at say two intermediate transverse
points as well as at the ends. Their curved section
shape gives them inherent stiffness, as for a blade
of the wheel itself.
Were a vessel fitted with contra-vanes to run
in waves these devices would be subject to impact
or slamming. They would have to be designed to
withstand an impact load much larger than the
lift load. The equivalent static load would prob-

in their lowest positions. As for chord length fore ably be of the order of 2,000 lb per sq ft or more.
and aft, can be of the order of 1.5 to 2.0
this This is about 4 times the uniform propelling load
times the blade width on the paddlewheel or applied to the blades of a paddlewheel.
sternwheel, for both leading and trailing vanes. Side paddlewheels are in themselves rather
For the after or trailing vane, the predominant effective roll-quenching devices. The contra-vanes
flow is that which forms the high, steep wave are much more effective for this purpose, but even
just abaft the wheel. This is indicated in Fig. without impact they may require support for
73. J, adapted from the Siiberkriib reference vertical forces far greater than those imposed

Outline of Section of Cbntro-Vone, Lyinq Abaft

Entire Lanqth of Paddle Blade

The Ahead Thrust Force Exerted by the Contra-Vane

Under the Conditions Pictured is T

The Incident- Velocity Vector is Generolly Porollel to the Wave Surface

site or Bock Of the HydrodynatrKc Center of the Foil

Fig. 73.J Proposed Contra-Vanb Aerangement of F. Suberkbub

690 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.14

upon them when acting ouly to change the direc- these bearings become excessively large. Such a
tion of flow. distorted design requires, as a rule, long (high)
Limited hydrostatic pressure on the upper bearings, having length/diameter ratios so large
surfaces of the guide vanes makes cavitation, that it is almost impossible to obtain uniform
separation, and air leakage a problem. The situa- pressure over the whole bearing length because
tion is aggravated because the considerable of bending or deformation of the parts. As a
transverse length of the contra-vanes requires consequence, the bearings wear unevenly and
for their support a series of vertical plates which excessively, leaving the rudder free to vibrate.
project up through the free-water surface. Since the rudder is already in a region of disturbed
Despite all that may be said to their advantage, flow the resulting slackness may cause pounding,
contra-vanes are in the category of the short with more wear and still more vibration.
vanes of the contra-propeller described in Sec. Partial skegs intended as restoring-moment
36.9, with most of the disadvantages enumerated stabilizers benefit from large aspect ratios and
there. relatively narrow tips. Those intended as damping-
If the friction drag of both sets of contra-vanes moment stabilizers have a moderate to large area
is considered too much a handicap, the forward in combination with the attached movable rudder.
set can be omitted, since it is probably the least Skegs intended to be self-clearing when encounter-
effective of the two. ing ropes, cables, and nets, such as those on sub-
The smaller the wheel diameter, the greater marines, require their leading edges to be set at
the dip, the greater the immersion arc of the rather small angles to the direction of ship motion.
trunnion circle, and the greater the angle (with These are not necessarily small with respect to
the horizontal) which the blades enter and leave the direction of local water flow. The outer or
the waves, the more useful should be the contra- lower ends of horns or partial skegs, especially
vane installation. if they are long in a fore-and-aft direction, should
73.14Design Features of Supporting Horns lie generally parallel to the adjacent flow except
for Rudders; Partial Skegs. Rudders of the for such appendages of this nature as are utilized
balanced, partly underhung, compound or flap for docking or resting purposes.
type require a fixed support in the form of a Structural skegs intended only for docking or
horn or partial skeg ahead of the hinge or stock resting can be integral parts of the hull or addi-
axis. This support may take a great variety of tionson the bottom. If the latter, it is simpler to
shapes, depending upon the single or multiple omit the fairings along the edges where the skeg
functions for which it is designed. It may be a sides join the hull; this is acceptable if the con-
structural support only, it may be intended to ditions mentioned in Sec. 75.5 are satisfied. It is
exert large lateral forces by pressures induced generally the case for a partial centerline skeg.
from a movable tail, it may have to serve as a If the skegs are built as integral parts of the hull
vertical stabilizing fin, and it may have contra- it is simpler and better to fair them easily into
features built in. Profiles of representative shapes the hull surfaces and to provide generous means
are sketched or illustrated in Figs. 21. B, 24. C, of access from the inside. Incidentally, it is

26.E, 28.A, 33.B, 37.A, 37.D and 37.J of Volume I, desirable although by no means necessary that
and and 75. E of this volume.
in Figs. 74.K, 74. N, skegs which have docking functions should
The horn or partial skeg is deter-
profile of a terminate with their lower surfaces on the base-
mined by the structural support it is intended to plane or at the level of the bottom of the keel.
give, the location of internal members to which it However, to save displacement, wetted surface,
can be anchored, and the amount of vertical and vertical fin area in the lateral plane, they can
projected area desired in it. Few rules can be be cut up from the keel plane by the heights of
given for laying out these profiles. It can only be one, two, or three tiers of docking blocks, gen-
pointed out that structural skegs or horns usually erally 14, 28, and 42 inches, respectively.
require a long base on the hull or a long extension The on any horn
fineness of the leading edge
into the hull. or projecting skeg determined by the range of
is

Hydrodynamic considerations should never be du'ections from which the local flow may impinge
permitted to squeeze the upper and the lower upon it under normal operating conditions. In
bearings of any rudder-and-horn assembly so other words, the horizontal section has sufficient
close together vertically that the lateral forces on thickness abaft the leading edge so that separation
Sec. 13.15 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN 691

and cavitation are not liable to occur alongside recess, directly forward of the stock axis. If the
itexcept for short periods. For example, the horn forward edge of the movable tail of the rudder is
supporting the rudder under a ship with a broad, finished to form a surface concentric with the
fiat stern runs normally at angles of attack varying axis, the mechanical clearance between this sur-
from zero to a few degrees on either side. However, faceand the fixed lug may be quite small. The
when the stern swings around and skids over the manner in which this may be accomplished is

water in a turn, the angle of attack on this fixed illustrated in Fig. 73. K.
appendage may rise initially to 15 or 20 deg. The 73.15 Selecting the Position, Type, and
angle of attack is, as explained in Sec. 36.10, Number of the Roll-Resisting Keels. The first

applied in the wrong direction to facilitate the step in the design of roll-resisting keels is to deter-
turn. mine whether or not they are actually needed. If
Separation is almost certain to occur on the required, what are the operating conditions, and
inside of the turn. Cavitation may occur as well, •
what are the keels called upon to do? It is pointed
if the top of the horn is sufficiently close to the out in Sec. 36.13 that the discontinuous or multi-
water surface. By making the leading edge of the fin t3Tpe of keel isadvantageous only when the
horn reasonably blunt this separation or cavitation vessel is moving through the water. A continuous
is at least confined to a limited region. It would or sohd type is indicated if roll-quenching charac-
otherwise, on a thin section with a sharp entrance, teristics are required at low or creeping speeds or
extend all the way forward to the leading edge. when at anchor.
The skeg section is usually combined with the Assuming that the continuous type of keel is

rudder section to make a streamlined whole. selected, the next step is to determine its general
Section shapes found satisfactory on high-speed proportions, dimensions, and location on the hull.
vessels are similar to the strut sections dia- The total area is to some extent governed by the
grammed in Fig. 73. C. Their coordinates are degree of roll damping expected or demanded and
given by P. Mandel [SNAME, 1953, Fig. 3, p. 468]. the inherent roll-quenching characteristics of the
Horns supporting rudder tails and forming underwater form. A hull shape approaching a
compound or flap-type combinations require circular form, as on some submarines, requires a
special shapmg and recessing for the tail. This is high degree of quenching from the keels, compared
to give the minimum clearance and pressure- to the rolling moments apphed by surface waves.
leakage area between the fixed and movable A hull with nearly square sections in the middle-
portions, for the reasons stated in Sec. 37.3. It body calls for a smaller degree of quenching
is easily and simply achieved by providing one moment. Practically all roll-resisting keels involve
or more fixed lugs on the inside of the rudder some increase in appendage resistance.
The best transverse location for the keels is

on the corners of the bulge between side and

bottom or at positions having the greatest radius
from the rolling axis. The position must insure
practically if not definitely continuous submer-
gence under all operating conditions. If the rolling
axis is not known from model or full-scale tests,
itmay be assumed at the intersection of the center-
plane and the waterplane, or at a parallel line
through the center of gravity CG for the particular
weight distribution assumed.
A. Caldwell ["Steam Tug Design," 1946, p. 42]
states that "the bilge keels will answer their
purpose most effectively if placed at that point
on the shell which is farthest from the meta-
center." He does not explain his reasoning in
Rudder Post or
Fixed Portion of 2. this matter.
Compound Rudder A first approximation to the midsection position
Fig. 73.K Hrr^GE-GAP Closures fob two Types of isobtained by drawing on the body plan a diagonal
Rudder from the rolling axis to the point where the
692 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.16

diagonal offset on the midsection is a maximum. longitudinally by the length of the taper on each
There is a further condition that the diagonal keel but no overlap is shown in the
preferred,
should make an angle with, the tangent to the lower profile of Fig. 73. L. There may, of course,
shell at the diagonal intersection which is at be a fore-and-aft gap of any desired length
least 80 dog. The angle that counts is the one at between them. In general, the girthwise offset
the shell, not with the horizontal. should be at least 1.5 times and preferably 2
For negligible pressure resistance and minimum times the full width of each keel near the gap,
friction resistance, the keel should lie along the shown by the middle diagram of Fig. 73. L.
lines of flow in its region. It forms in effect a For ships of such full sections that working
diagonal stream surface, parallel to the lines of clearance is not available for keels in way of the
flow at the ship hull and for the entire width of midship bulge, the roll-resisting keel may be
the keel away from the
hull. These lines of flow, omitted there. Separate shorter keels are then
especiallyon a fast or a high-speed ship, change laid out, forward and aft, where the clearance is
position and shape with speed because of the adequate. Such a design is illustrated in the upper
influence of the surface-wave profile. A trace profile of Fig. 73. L.
conforming to the flow at one particular speed is For a vessel with a large but exceptionally slack
therefore selected. This is generally the service midsection, and a limit to the width of the
speed or the highest speed at which the ship is excrescences that can be applied to it, such as a
to run for the greater part of its time in service. motor lifeboat, it is possible to fit two roll-resisting
For slow-speed vessels with nearly square keels abreast on each side of the hull. In such a
sections in the middlebody, it may be assumed layout the spread between the adjacent keels is

that the flow is approximately parallel to the made at least 6 times the maximum width of
bilge corner for the region where the bilge- each keel to insure its proper functioning. On
diagonal ofl^set is 0.9 or more of the maximum the Dutch liner Oranje of the late 1930's, which
bilge-diagonal intercept amidships. It is vastly was built with discontinuous bilge keels of the
preferable, however, to check a proposed trace picket-fence type, a second partial row of such
with surface lines of flow on a model. It is still keels was added below the main row [WRH, 15
better to double-check the position with tufts or Jan 1939, p. 21]. The
transverse spacing was, with
flags mounted on pins and extending for at least justification, than that prescribed in the
less

0.9 the maximum width of the bilge keel from
the hull.
Occasionally it happens that when laying out
a trace from the optimum position amidships,
the keel leads up too close to the free-water surface
or down too close to the floor line or the baseplane.
One portion of the keel may then be terminated
when it moves out of optimum position and
another portion started in an offset position,
reckoned girthwise, where it may be placed to
better advantage for performing its function. The
keel endings at this offset may,
foregoing for solid bUge keels abreast.
73.16 Bilge-Keel Extent, Area, and Other
Features. Because of its greater lever arm,
and possibly also because of its width with refer-
ence to the thickness of the boundary layer, a
keel on a sharp bulge, designed to give a certain
degree of roll-quenching, may be relatively
narrow. It must be wider, however, as the bulge
radius is increased.
Having determined the girthwise position of
the roll-resisting keel, a point is selected on the
in fact, overlap exterior portion of the diagonal, indicated at K

x^A\^^ "Offset Should Be- of the Order of 1.5 to 2,0 Times

the Bilge-Keel Width Near the Gap
I

k^After Section Offset Upward Here;

^^^ It Can Be Offset
I
Jownword

Fig. 73. L Bilge-Keel Arrangements With Gap and Offset Amidships

Sec. 73.16 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN cm
on Fig. 73. M, where the included angle between
the two adjacent tangents to the hull is 100 to /Assumed Position of Rolling Axis
120 degrees. The distance between the point K
and the hull gives an acceptable hydrodynamic as An(^le Between Rodiol Line OB^
and Tanqent to Shell
well as practical width for the keel. For a per-
^\ Qt Inner Edge of Bilge
fectly square-cornered bilge this gives, as it
Keel Should Lie ^^
"^X\\
should, a width of zero. The maximum width is \Betwean 80 ond IOO^eg\
for a semi-circular midsection, where it is 0.302
(B/2) for a 100-deg angle and 0.154(5/2) for a Distance KE Should Be Such
That the Angle Between the
120-deg angle.
Vertical MNE and the Tangent KN,
The length of the keel is determined partly by f> More Than 3 dea
the area required, assuming that the average
width has already been determined, and partly by
the length of that portion of the ship for which an
adequate lever arm for the keel can be obtained. -Lines
When the transverse sections have narrowed or Through K
Tangent to5hell-
contracted so that the lever arm, i^^ as meas- ,

ured by the distance OB on Fig. 73. M, be- FiG. 73. M Bilge-Keel Design Diagram at
comes less than a certain fraction of the lever Midsection
arm at the maximum bilge-diagonal offset, the
keel is terminated. Since the effectiveness of the bilge-block bearers slope slightly downward
keel varies about as Rk there is little to be
, toward the centerline of the dock. In some cases
gained by making the minimum Rk less than it may be necessary to provide this clearance

about 0.8 the maximum. At this point (0.8)^ = above the floor line rather than above the base-
0.512.For vessels of rather full midsection, say plane. In fact, this requirement may be expected
Cx > 0.90, this fraction may be kept larger than for all vessels which are to have bilge blocks
0.85. For vessels of slack section, where Cx < 0.90, hauled under them when drydocking. To obtain
a minimum value of 0.75 might be justified. the required clearance it is often necessary to
The midplane of the roll-resisting keel may shave off the bilge-keel width amidships.
change angle with the horizontal, at a gradual and The forward and after ends of the keels are
moderate rate from amidships to either end, as tapered gradually to practically zero width. A
may seem appropriate when considering the flow gradual taper occupies a length at least 3 times
of water in its vicinity, at a distance from the the keel width, with a maximum slope of about
shell. Use of the "tangent rule" set down at the 40 deg. For any leading edge lying forward of
beginning of this section produces a narrow keel about 0.5L from the FP, the taper should occupy
alongside the sharp-bulged sections of a form and at least 5 times the keel width, with a maximum
a very wide keel alongside the narrow or slack slope of 20 deg for medium-speed and 10 deg for
sections. For the same total area, however, a high-speed ships. This taper avoids fouling or
more efficiftnt keel is obtained by making it as catching ropes and cables on the ends and
wide as possible amidships and keeping it of ehminates sharp structural discontinuities where
approximately constant width. This is because the keels terminate.
the additional width amidships has a much It is possible that ships with sections projecting
greater lever arm than at the ends of the keel. beyond the limits of waterline beam, where
All too frequently the maximum width or the Cx > 1-0, hardly need roll-resisting keels at all'

amidships width of a roll-resisting keel is limited A flat, shallow raft with a deep fixed keel, having
by working clearances around the keel edges. a Cx approaching 0.0, likewise needs no additional
This prevents damage when lying alongside quay appendage because of the powerful roll-damping
walls and when entering graving docks. The effect of the keel. Yachts, with deep fixed keels,
clearances are expressed generally as (1) a distance no bilge keels, and values of Cx less than 0.5
inboard of the point of extreme beam at any behave much like the raft, except for the addi-
section and (2) a clearance above the baseplane tional steadying effect of their sails. Of all the
throughout the length. The latter is desirable intermediate forms, the craft which needs the
when hauling bilge blocks, especially when the maximum roll damping is one having a B/H
694 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.17

ratio of 2.0, a semi-circular maximum section, The roll-resisting keels are in effect principal
a Cx of 7r/4 or 0.785, and a rolling axis in the longitudinal members of the ship structure, re-
waterplane, at the center of the circular-arc sembhng As such they must diminish
stringers.
section. gradually in section so that the shell connection
A design curve or lane to give suitable values at any point may carry the increment of shear
of the roll-resisting keel area Ak with relation to load appUed at that point. In other words, the
some other suitable term should therefore have keel and the hull must stretch and compress
a maximum at a Cx value of about 0.785, cor- together. The securing angles attaching the keel
responding to a semi-circular midsection, and two to the shell should project well beyond the end
minimums at values of Cx approximating 1.0 of the keel proper, about as diagrammed in Fig.
and 0.0. P. Mandel has given such a design lane 7.3.N of Sec. 73.18.
for the range of Cx from 0.7 to 1.0 [SNAME, 1953, If the roll-resisting keels extend forward to the
Fig. 25, p. 492], based upon the ratio 10A^:/(LH), vicinity of the quarter point, and if they rise to
where Ak is the bilge-keel area on one side of the points above the baseline greater than about 0.3
vessel. The graph should in fact diminish toward the draft in any operating condition, the forward
zero at Cx values of 0.4 or less, corresponding to ends require strengthening against wave slap
those of deep-keel yachts. and water impact.
73.17 Structural Considerations in Bilge-Keel The transverse shape of a roll-resisting keel
Design. The pubhshed and reference
literature should remain relatively sharp and pointed at
books on the structural design and construction its outer edge. If it needs lateral stiffening, such
of ships overlook many of the important features as is by a half-round bar, this is
often afforded
of bilge-keel design. Some of these are closely best provided by an outer-edge flange such as
related to hydrodynamics and are accordingly that on an I-beam with the outer flange trimmed
discussed briefly here. down. This construction gives increased damping

I ! Roll- Resisting Keel

U-: is Coniinuous in [-e

This Interval |

Terminal Plate Forward

End of Toper Cul at Riveted to Shell Plating
Toes of Shell Angles
o'2_5^
hl.'O^J
,

— ^-^^ U-r
I f
0.75

Rivets as Close
to Heel of Anqle
QS Practicable Section B-B Section A-A

Fio. 73. N Structural Layout for Roll-Resisting Keels for the ABC Ship
Sec. 73.19 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN (i'J5

with some increase in friction resistance. It keel width of 3.5 ft, or about 0.0477i?.v , still

requires a rather careful preliminary flow study- leaves a clearance of about a foot above the floor
on a model, to insure that not only the keel line and a foot inside the side of the ship.
proper but the outer flange lie in the streamlines. The bilge-keel area was governed in this case
A flange on the free edge should not carry around only by the rules in the sections preceding and
the tapered portion at the ends but should itself by the endeavor to obtain as much bilge-keel area
be tapered to zero where the width-tapering of as without sacrificing other features.
possible
the keel begins. The keels were carried forward and aft, as
A triangular keel section affords immeasurably shown in Fig. 66. P, to points where they were
greater structural rigidity than a thick flat section. considered as no longer paying their way. The
It is preferred where weight and displacement effective length is some 7 stations (Sta. 7 to Sta.
considerations permit. The section can take the 14); this is equivalent to 178.5 ft or 0.35 times the
form of an acute-angled triangle with a peak waterline length.
angle of not more than 15 deg, without any The taper at the forward ends was made about
sacrifice of damping quahties. On large vessels 18 ft long, shown in Fig. 73. N, or over 5 times
expected to roll heavily the base of the triangular the depth, exclusive of the structural terminal
section of a roll-resisting keel may be as great as plate and fairing bar. That at the after end was
0.4 or more of the keel width. made some 10 ft long, or about 3 times the depth.
Bilge keels are heavily loaded in an alternating The width of the triangular keel at the base is
cycle. The extreme forward endis partly unsup- 1.5 ft, or 0.43 times its maximum depth. The
ported unless brought to a rather long, sharp
it is hydrodynamic loads imposed in quenching roll

point. All in all, the normal bilge keel requires a are transferred to the hull as a combination of
special structural attachment to render it secure shear loads and normal loads. The latter pull in
for long periods of hard service. Indeed, the and out on the shell in line with the side plates of
forward sections of roll-resisting keels on fast the triangular structure. Any offset members in
and high-speed vessels could well be built of this structure, such as side plates of the keel
heavier scantlings than the rest. riveted to shell angles, are almost certain to
The attachment of the base of the keel to the develop high bending moments and eventually
hull should be stronger than that of the sides or to become loose. It is for this reason that the
projecting portions of the keel to the base. This shell angle should be very heavy. The rivets
insures that if the keel is overloaded in any way, which hold this angle to the shell are placed as
the shell connections will remain intact. close as possible to the force-application lines in
73.18 Design of Roll-Resisting Keels for the the side plates. This means as close as they can
ABC Ship. The roll-resisting keel traces for the be driven to the bosom of the bar.
ABC ship, shown on Fig. 66.P, were determined 73.19 Design of Docking, Drift-Resisting,
by flow tests on the model, using pivoted flags and Resting Keels. The best design procedure
which projected from the hull for a distance cor- for docking keels, heavy ship where
on a large,
responding to some 3 ft on the ship. From the considerable off-center support is mandatory, is

straightness of the traces as projected on the to make them unnecessary by working the desired
midsection plane it might appear that they were flat supporting surface into the bottom of the
simply drawn as diagonals on the body plan. It ship itself. In regions where direct support is
so happens that the flow on either side of the bilge- required and the normal faired lines lie somewhat
keel positions straightens itself, as it were, in above the blocking level at the baseplane, the
these regions. This does not always occur, as bottom of the ship is brought down deliberately
evidenced by the wavy keel traces on the Mariner to the level of the tops of the docking blocks.
class, reported by V. L. Russo and E. K. Sullivan Figs. 67. L and 67.M for the arch-stern ABC
[SNAME, 1953, Fig. 18, p. 127]. Were the crests design indicate, in the regions near the baseplane
and troughs of the Velox waves more pronounced at Stas. 14 and 15, how this is done. Although in
along the side of the ABC ship, the bilge-keel this ship the hull terminates at the after quarter-
trace might well be affected by them. point in a flat surface coinciding with the floor
The slack bilge of this ship was laid out to line,the shape would be essentially the same if
permit the attachment of wide roll-resisting keels, brought down to the baseplane. In many ships
for the reasons given in Sec. 66.13. The maximum this modification involves only a surprisingly
696 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.19

small change in form, even when the docking circular pressure hull through their upper flanges
support is offset from the centerplane. The and a heavy horizontal closing plate was bolted
resulting discontinuities are moderate, distorting to their lower flanges. The bosoms of the two
the flow only slightly and involving little or no channels, on the outside, were filled with blocks of
added drag. Obviously, at the ends of a ship with lead bolted in place as more-or-less permanent
the usual deep forefoot and aftfoot the major ballast. These centerline box keels were rugged
support area is under the centerline keel. Such enough to serve as resting keels when the ship
a keel is kept down to baseplane level for as lay on the bottom or as support keels when it
great a proportion of the length as possible, was docked.
consistent with good flow and drag and with the There is no practicable limit to the depth of a
required maneuvering characteristics. In a normal drift-resisting keel provided it is sufficiently
design the flat keel should lie in the baseplane sturdy to take its share of the load when docking.
for at least 0.8 of the waterline length, although The keel is designed to be of watertight con-
in special cases this ratio may diminish to 0.7, struction, with one bottom plate and two side
0.6, or less [Clark, L., ATMA, 1900, p. 361]. plates, the latter attached to the flat keel plate.
For the transom-stern ABC hull this ratio is If the keel is long relative to the vessel it becomes
0.925, indicated in Figs. 66.Q and 66.T, even in effect one of the longitudinal strength members.
though the aftfoot is cut away. For the arch- As such the side plates are attached to the hull
stern ABC design, centerline support is provided in a manner to prevent transverse cracking of
for 0.75 times the length plus two rows of side both the side plates and the adjacent shell plates.
support, under the skegs, each for about 0.15L,rL A flanged plate or a channel is used for the bottom
If the hull proper can not be brought down to member so as to bring the fore-and-aft welds
the level of the baseplane for docking support, above the lower outboard corners and relieve
the next best procedure is to raise part of the them of concentrated loads during docking.
docking-keel level above the flat-keel level. In Not only the knuckles or lower corners of the
any one area this can be done by adding standard keel but the upper corners should be as sharp as
layers of material, say 4 in or 14 in thick, to the practicable, with reentrant angles not less than
tops of the regular docking blocks. A ship of 90 or 100 deg. The junction of the drift-resisting
moderate draft usually has ample clearance over keel and the hull should not be filleted as is the
the raised blocking in a dock, even when some case of the keep keel on a sailing yacht. The
compartments are damaged and flooded. The outside and inside corners mentioned are deliber-
designer may cut out the unwanted or undesirable ately introduced to offer the maximum of dynamic
portion of a deep keel or skeg without sacrificing resistance on the advancing side of the keel and
blocking support by raising the bottom or support the maximum of pressure resistance due to separa-
surface parallel to itself by a multiple of the block- tion on the retreating side of the keel when
ing thickness. Figs. 67. Mand 67.0 show that drifting or sidling.
under the two offset skegs of the ABC arch-stern The inside of the keel may be filled with (1)
design, the level is raised 28 in, or 2.33 ft. Support some lightweight water-excluding material blown
by keel and skegs is thus provided over 0.913 of into place, with (2) some inert ballast which will
the waterline length. not accelerate corrosion of the metal, or with
Blocking-support areas in a small ship should (3) an inert gas.
preferably be at least 6 in wide. In a large ship The deep sections of some fishing vessels,
fine,

2 ft is the minimum, but 3 or 4 ft is preferred. resembling those of a deep-keel yacht, have

An excellent drift-resisting keel for metal-hulled excellent inherent drift-resisting as well as roll-
vessels is a centerline box keel placed underneath damping characteristics. Body plans and lines
the main hull. An appendage of this kind was areshown in an article reporting NPL tests with
fitted to the single-hull type of submarines built models, entitled "Experiments with Herring
by the Boat Company during the period
Electric Drifters" [SBSR, 28 Jul 1938, pp. 103-106].
1900-1925. This keel was used as a duct for Whether any centerline drift-resisting keel
pumping out water tanks along the length of the provides sufficient quenching to permit elimi-
roll
hull, as well as a means of holding fixed ballast. nation of the roll-resisting keels is open toquestion.
It was made of two heavy channels with their This depends upon the shape of the transverse
flanges facing outward. They were riveted to the section and the length of the lever arm of the
Sec. 73.20 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN 697

centerline keel from the rolling axis. It appears to take vessels of large horizontal area which may
well established, however, that any downward have these keels. A ship with a rather large rise
projection on the centerplane, for a normal beam- of floor may have well-curved flowlines; the
draft ratio, has a beneficial effect in quenching roll. docking or resting keels preferably follow them.
For vessels of nearly rectangular section and The direction of flow toward and away from
large beam-draft ratio, say 4 or more,two drift- docking and resting keels is known rather accu-
resisting keels fitted at the lower corners of the rately from model and remains fixed for all
tests
hull serve also as roll-resisting and as docking steady-state straight-line travel. For this reason
keels. In this case, the lateral spread is made the ends are invariably fined on both sides of the
large, at least 8 times the keel depth, to avoid keel. The bottom surface is carried out to a
interference and to make both keels fully effective point, to give the maximum support surface,
when subjected to transverse flow. then may be cut up rather sharply, as .shown at 6
Resting keels on a submarine may or may not in Fig. 73.0.
project below the keel, depending upon the design Notches, deep and wide enough to permit
requirements. They need not even be flat on the making their boundaries securely watertight, may
bottom, if an advantage in a special shape.
there is be worked into the upper portions of deep keels.
The sides of docking and resting keels flare These help in the venting of air bubbles which
outward above the support surface, and they find their way under and inside the keels and
meet the hull so that the reentrant angle is greater which might work their way up into injection
than 90 deg. This feature is illustrated in Figs. openings. The venting openings are necessary in
36.N and 73.0. submarines which have main-ballast flood valves
Docking and resting keels offer the minimum or flooding openings below them. Excess air from
of resistance when they follow the flowlines under the blowing of these tanks can not be trapped
the bottom. This means that under a flat-bottomed below the keels.

ship they should diverge slightly from forward aft, 73.20 The Design of Fixed Stabilizing Skegs
indicated by the directions of the under-the- or Fins. The design of fixed skegs or fins intended
bottom flowlines of Fig. 52.V. This divergence is primarily to act as stabilizing surfaces, excluding
of no particular consequence in a dock equipped in this case stabilization against roll, is based upon:

(1) The damping forces and moments required to

l>=Heiqht of One (or Two) <^ tMo'y Be Vertical on Outsid;
be exerted by them in the angular motions of
pitch and yaw. Damping of the translatory
motions of heaving, surging, and sidling is seldom
necessary and is excluded here.
Shallow Dockintj (2) The hydrodynamic lift exerted by these
Keel to Reduce and the corresponding restoring moments
surfaces,
Resistance I Alternative Method of
developed by them, when the ship axis departs
Knucklina Hull and
Eliminating Docking from the normal straight-ahead motion axis and
Keel Altogether the surfaces run at a finite angle of attack. This
may be an angle of either yaw or pitch. Good
Cutup Equal to the Total Height of a design requires that the fins or skegs be placed in
Whole Number of Docking- Block
Upper Levels a region of relatively smooth flow, as distinguished
Heights, such as 14, 28, or42 inches,
of Dock.ing
in ,

to be Cribbed^ Up in This Region from a region of eddying in a separation zone. In

Blocks
locks LL
general, the lift force developed by them should be
Omitted m Wq>1 of
WqvJ ,

zero for the normal attitude and normal operating

NormaT^Level of Tops of Blocks
condition of the vessel.
4
In airplanes the disposable weights usually are
Side Elevotion o^ a Docking or Large- Scale Section too small to permit achieving equilibrium by
Resting Keel, Showing Venting
Notch or Passage. Bilge Keel
Hull moving them forward and aft. Stabihzer surfaces
Vent^
May Be Similar with adjustable angle of attack are often provided
in the tail to produce compensating moments for
maintaining trim balance. In submarines pro-
Fig. 73.0 Design Sketches for Docking Keels vision is made in the liquid trimming system for
698 HYDRODYNAMICS
changing quickly the longitudinal compensating
moments. It is not feasible in these vessels to
proAdde hydrodynamic moment compensation
because of the increased drag, weight, and
mechanical complication of an adjustable sta-
bilizer. There is the further important fact that
the submarine may be running slowly or be
stopped when trim compensation is required.
The trailing end of a ship hull, together with
such rudders or planes as may be attached to it,
possesses a definite but unknown stabilizing
property. Actually, damping in pitch and yaw
results both ends of the hull
from the swinging of
about the corresponding axis, but restoring
moments are expected only from the after part.
For angular damping the area of all movable
rudders, planes, and fins mounted normal to
the direction of local motion is added to the area
of the fixed portions. For the most effective
dynamic damping from these surfaces they are
mounted as close as possible to the hull, to prevent
unnecessary leakage from the +Ap to the
— Ap sides.
Just how much fixed and movable stabilizing
surface is demanded for stability of route is not
a matter for ready calculation or reUable pre-
diction, especially if the hull under design is of
essentially different shape from that of a hull
which has been satisfactorily stabilized in the
past. This matter is discussed further under
Maneuvering in Part 5 of Volume III.
To insure zero restoring force or moment on
fixed stabilizers when none is desired, they must
be placed exactly in the lines of flow. For a surface
vessel these fines are only by accident or coinci-
dence parallel to the axis of the ship or its direction
of motion. For a stabilizing fin or skeg placed in
the outflow jet of a screw propeller, the water
follows the hull-flow pattern when the vessel is
self-propelled rather than the direction of the
propeller axis. If the stabilizers are near the surface
the flow directions almost certainly change with
speed because of the change in profile of the Velox
wave system. This calls for the selection of a
given speed at which the lines of flow are to be
which must
paralleled. In the case of submersibles
perform well on the surface as well as below it
this procedure is further complicated by the
possible existence of different lines of flow for
the surface and submerged conditions. Usually,
however, the which fixed
critical conditions for
stabilizers are required occur during submerged
running. When well below the surface the flow
IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.20
pattern does not change materially for small
variations from the normal running attitude.
Considering only the restoring forces and mo-
ments produced by hydrofoil lift at an angle of
attack, stabilizing fins and skegs act more effi-
ciently as their aspect ratio is increased. However,
there are practical limits to the distances which
these appendages may project beyond the hull or
to which they may approach certain other
boundaries such as the baseplane or the planes
defining extreme half-beams. A reduction in the
aspect ratio must be accepted if the stabilizer
area is large. This is not a disadvantage because
a surface short in the direction of motion and
long in a direction normal to it has low dynamic
damping. Taking all factors into account, the
best fore-and-aft length for such a skeg or fin
appears to be approximately equal to its extension
from the hull. If the hull is relatively large in area
at the point of attachment, compared to the size
of the stabilizer, the effective aspect ratio is of
the order of 2.0, for the reasons given in Sec. 14.11.
It is difficult to formulate design rules for the
different but common form of stabilizing or
"fulcrum fin" required on any flat-bottomed boat
to provide a pivot point for the rudder moment.
On a small centerboard sailboat, the board is
raised or lowered to give the required area. For
the balsa rafts of the Incas, exemplified by the
Kon-Tiki of T. Heyerdahl, thin planks pushed
down vertically between the fore-and-aft logs
at selected positions served as multiple stabilizers.
This gave the "rafters" a great freedom for adjust-
ment and relieved the builder of the burden of
selecting a fixed — —
and proper set of positions
when the was put together.
raft
On a high-speed motorboat carrying a fulcrum
fin, a trial-and-error process of positioning is
indicated, at gradually increasing speeds, or else
a miniature centerboard may be used, mechan-
ically operated from the driver's seat. J. Baader
shows the shape, relative size, and position of
this forward or fulcrum fin for a number of
successful motorboats ["Cruceros y Lanchas
Veloces (Cruisers and Fast Launches)," Buenos
Aires, 1951, pp. 115, 119, 322-325, 341].
Fixed stabilizers and skegs, especially on sub-
marines, may often be called upon for comple-
mentary functions such as propeller guards and
docking supports for the stern. In this case their
outer edges may be reinforced with shallow
flanges simflar to those described for the roll-
resisting keels in Sec. 73.17. These flanges must
Sec. 73.22 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN 699

be placed in the lines of flow, but the proper as the propeller torque is a function of the
position is determined from a tuft test.
easily resultant velocity at an average blade element.
73.21 Design of Torque-Compensating Fins. The counterbalancing torque thus increases with
So far as known, there are no finished designs or ship speed and rate of rotation, to match the
working shipboard installations of devices in- increasing propeller torque throughout the ship
tended to counteract the effect of the unsym- speed range.
metrical propelling-plant torque, described in To provide the necessary compensating torque
Sec. 33.19. from one diametral fin, the contra-effect could be
The approximate heel angle resulting from somewhat larger than is customary for a contra-
unbalanced propeller torque is readily deter- rudder. Methods of developing the twisted shape
mined by entering the righting-moment curve of for the latter are described in Sec. 74.16.
the ship with the propeller torque Q. In this case A set of torque-compensating fins, each
having
it is assumed that the righting moments are not three or more radial symmetrical with
arms,
altered due to forward motion of the vessel. Any respect to the shaft axis, could be used if con-
such effect is usually of the second order of mag- venient in place of the single fin with two arms.
nitude. The problem here, as with the two-arm assembly,
As the first stage in such a study it is proposed is to support the contra-fins in their proper

that this be accomplished by fitting abaft the
screw propeller a fixed fin traversing some con-
venient diameter of the outflow jet. This fin,
like the well-known contra-rudder described in
Sec. 37.16, is twisted on opposite sides of the
shaft axis to develop thrust while extracting
rotational energy from the outflow jet. It thus
combines a torque-compensating device with a
means of improving the propulsive efficiency. The
counterbalancing torque produced by this device
is a function of the velocity of flow over it, just
positions without increasing the appendage resist-
ance by a disproportionate amount. Fig. 73. P is a
sketch of such a device, with a vertical fin worked
into a compoimd-type contra-rudder assembly.
A is supported at the center by the
horizontal fin
rudder post and at its outer ends by two vertical
struts. An upward component of flow abaft the
single propeller might require a tilting of the
horizontal arm, downward and forward.
Sec. 69.13 describes a method of using imsym-
metric spray strips on a high-speed planing craft
to achieve a measure of dynamic reaction to

Heelini^ Moment Due to Engine. unbalanced engine torque.

73.22 Fixed Guards and Fenders. Pro-
jections from the fair surface of the hull in the
form of fixed guards or fenders are of two types,
Lateral
Forces those primarily vertical and those which lie
Exerted on generally parallel to the direction of motion. Of
Contra- Fins
the first type are guards for external scupper
In Rotating
Water of
and drainage leads or, occasionally, for operating
Propeller gear which must be external to the shell. Of the
-Outflow Jet second type are fenders and projecting fender
strakes, extending over considerable portions of
the length but covering limited portions of a
transverse section.
The vertical projections are an abomination
from every point of view and are to be avoided
wherever practicable. They throw spray at all
except the lowest speeds and they cause pressure
resistance and separation drag, with holes in the
water behind them. They cover up shell surfaces
hable to heavy corrosion and they are vulnerable
to damage from other craft or heavy objects
PLAN VIEW FROM ABOVE
lying alongside.
Fig. 73. P Proposed Scheme for Counteracting Longitudinal fenders, regardless of type of
Unsymmetric Engine Torque section or construction, must often be placed at
 700 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.23

the positions of maximum waterline or extreme 1946, Fig. 14, p. 332]. Diagram 2 of Fig. 73.Q is a
beam. Tiiese positions may vary vertically, or schematic sketch of a similar fender strake.
girthwise, from station to station on a ship, so When placing propeller guards it is necessary
the fenders can seldom be led along the Unes of to take account of the wave profile aft, plus the
flow to insure minimum drag. Perhaps this is just the usual disturbed-surface layer covering it, in
as well, because most of them lie near the free- the deepest draft-aft condition, to insure that
water surface. Here the lines of flow under the these guards remain out of water and do not
waves of the Velox system change with speed and throw spray.
with position along the length. Moderate amounts A rather large-scale drawing of a bow rudder
of roUing and pitching also change the direction and its close-fitting guard, designed for a cross-
of the resultant flow accordingly. channel steamer, is published in The Shipbuilder
Considering structural, fabrication, first-cost, [(now SBMEB) Jan-Jun 1914, Vol. X, p. 36].
and maintenance factors, as well as hydro- Another one is given by G. de Rooij ["Practical
dynamics, nothing can equal or surpass the Shipbuilding," 1953, Fig. 495, p. 203]. Twin weed
heavy fender strake which forms an integral part skegs outboard of the twin propellers of a 63-ft
of the shell plating. It involves practically no motorboat are shown in (American) Motorship,
increase in drag. It eliminates all discontinuities April 1948, page 34.
in the fair form of the hull except the strake 73.23 Design to Avoid Vibration of Append-
edges. It takes
care of all problems of leaky ages. Means of predicting and avoiding the
connections, unseen corrosion, spray throwing, singing of screw propellers are outlined in Sees.
and the like. It serves best when acting as the 23.7 and 70.46. It is equally important that those
outer boundary of an irregular hull section, with
parts of the main ship hull and those appendages
some transverse curvature for stiffness, dia- in the vicinity of the propulsion device (s)
be
grammed at 1 in Fig. 73. Q. It is adequate, never- designed to have certain natural periods of vibra-
tion in water. These .should be different from the
exciting frequency of the blades or other principal
parts of the propulsion device (s). There are
techniques available, similar to those described
in TMB Report R-22 of April 1940, whereby the
natural frequencies of the parts of appendages in
Sinole- Thickness
Fender Stroke question may be determined on existing ships, or
on new ships -prior to the first sea trial. This involves
Transverse Curvature the local attachment of small vibration generators
Gives This Plate in watertight casings, or the excitation of the
Inherent Stiffness appendages in their natural modes, also in water,
by connecting the generators and the appendages
^ Fender 5tral<e with long struts.

Structure is Schematic Long, slender, and well-streamlined appendages

and ExQoaeroted for Emphasis Uke strut arms nevertheless require checking for
their susceptibility to resonant vibration. Under
operating conditions they may be followed by a
Fig. 73.Q Forms of Heavy Fender Steakes vortex street or trail. Existing data (1955) are far
from adequate as to the eddymaking charac-
theless, with possibly some slight increase in teristics of elongated sections, especially in the
weight, for vertical ship sides against vertical yawed attitudes to be found during turning and
walls, sketched at 2 in the figure. wavegoing.
A heavy fender strake of this type is always A few general rules may be laid down as a
made an outside strake. If the seams are riveted
help to the designer in this respect:
or if they are welded a strake is easily removed
from the outside for repair or replacement. A (1) A vortex street or trail may be shed from
fender strake of this kind, standing vertical at any section, yawed or otherwise, on which there
the maximum beam of an underwater bulge, is are opposite separation points, and on which
shown by J. L. Bates and I. J. Wanless [SNAME, these separation points may shift forward or aft
Sec. 73.24 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN 701

along the section outline without encountering exceeds 20 kt in service. In this case the deter-
abrupt discontinuities. One such section is a mining figure appears not to be the speed-length
thin ellipse; another is a strut section with an quotient or the Froude number but the absolute
elliptic trailing edge. speed of the ship.
(2) The probable angle of non-axial flow for any The main injection
longitudinal position of the
appendage section may be estimated from: is narrow limits by the position
fixed within rather
of the internal heat exchangers. There is some
(a) The nominal non-axiality of the flow, con-
latitude in transverse position to suit service
sidering the type of ship motion
conditions, with the proviso that the injection
(b) The position of the appendage on the ship
must always remain submerged under the most
(c) The flow-obstructing or flow-straightening
severe kinds of wavegoing. For an icebreaker the
features in the vicinity.
logical position for the injection is under the
For example, an appendage far removed from the bottom, clear of as much ice as possible. For a
estimated position of the pivoting point in a vessel to operate in shallow water it should not
tight turn has a nominal degree of non-axial flow be too near the bottom, otherwise it may be in
that is than the average drift angle
far greater the mud. For vessels which may be required to
of the ship, measured at the CG. On the other operate in waves in a relatively light condition,
hand, if the appendage is in a tunnel, or directly especially at light or shallow draft forward, there
abaft a long skeg, it is protected, in a way, from are problems other than that of picking up
this cross flow. water with the scoop. Air bubbles are entrained
An example of the method of estimating the by wave action or impacts under the forefoot,
vibratory characteristics of a typical streamlined but it is probable that they follow fairly definite
appendage in the form of a long strut arm is paths under the bottom.
given in Sec. 46.9. Water injections are to be kept clear of these
73.24 Design of Water Inlet and Discharge paths, using model tests to determine the air-
Openings Through the Shell. This section treats bubble routes. Particularly, injections should not
only of the design of inlet and discharge openings be instaUed close below roll-resisting keels,
for circulating water to the main propelling docking and resting keels, or other longitudinal
machinery or to pumping plants large in compari- appendages beneath which air is liable to be
son to that machinery, such as in a fireboat. trapped.
The design of secondary openings for taking When considering the use of a condenser-scoop
water into and discharging it from the hull of a installation, or when selecting the type, the price
ship represents no particular problem that does to be paid in resistance —and effective power
not occur with the major openings. The comments always involves a combination of the scoop inlet
and illustrations of Sees. 8.6, 8.7, and 36.20 apply and the discharge. Since it is the discharge which
to all these openings in a general way. For the often creates the hydraulic (suction) head neces-
discussion of the present section it is convenient sary to draw water through the condensers, this
to assume axes of reference fixed in the ship. The is the element of the pair which may be expected

surrounding Avater is then considered as a stream to develop the greater resistance.

flowing past a stationary opening in the hull. Regardless of the merits of any one hydrody-
The kinetic energy in the boundary layer may namic design of inlet scoop or discharge outlet
be utilized for forcing water through internal there is always the problem of finding room for
piping and heat exchangers of one kind or another these fittings in the bottom or the lower corners
whenever there is sufficient velocity head for of the ship under or alongside the machinery
conversion into the requisite pressure head. In spaces. When roomis assigned there is the matter

this case the available velocity head is that cor- of cutting into main structural members. Finally,
responding to flow in the boundary layer along the large piping has to be led to and from the
the shell. This may be taken as 0.5 the nominal condenser(s), and space must be made available
ship speed for prehminary estimates, less the head for a stand-by power-driven circulating pump for

corresponding to the desired velocity through the maneuvering.

internal system. In practice, it is found that there In Sir Charles Parsons' Turbinia of 1897 there
is no particular advantage in using the scoop type were two condensers with circulating water fed
of injection unless the speed of the ship equals or to them in series from two scoops, one on each
702 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.24

side of the vessel.Each scoop was fitted with a opening with a moderately projecting Hp. A set
flap so thatone could act as a discharge while the of sharply curved guide vanes, as used ui aU
other was acting as an inlet. By thromng over modern water tunnels and channels, changes the
both flaps, the water direction was reversed and direction of the water. The guide vanes serve
any foreign matter choking the tubes was drawn also as strainer bars to prevent the entry of large
overboard. At a later stage in the life of the vessel fish, blocks of ice, and other foreign objects.
an overboard discharge was fitted in the crossover Besides having an efficiency and a resistance
between the after ends of the condensers so that apparently comparable to scoops of the Schmidt
both scoops could take in water simultaneously design, the Italian arrangement of Lattanzi and
and pass it through the condensers in parallel Bellante [Italian patent 404,551 of 18 Jun 1943;
[INA, 1897, p. 233; ASNE, May 1897, p. 376]. Bureau of Ships, Navy Dept., Transl. 529. Also
In the flush-lip inlets of the Schmidt type, in Orlando, M., Ann. Rep Rome Model Basin, 1940,
which there is no scoop or external projection as Vol. X] has the advantage of superior flow,

such, it is no small matter to guard against the especially the absence of vortexes within the
entrance of large fish and foreign objects into the Although it has not, so far as known,
inlet diffuser.

heat exchangers. Longitudinal bars must be been tested as a discharge outlet there is no reason
fitted across the scoop entrance, spaced perhaps why it should not work equally well in either
0.3 ft apart. They need rigidity to serve as guards direction, as did the similar scoops and discharges
and to prevent lateral vibration. They must have in destroyers and other vessels of the World
bolted end connections for ready removal. The War I period.

flow must be maintained around them in the Despite the known workability of flush inlet
desired quantity. The bars and their end connec- scoops there is alsomuch to be said for a scoop
tions must make so Uttle disturbance that air is and a discharge —which project sufficiently from
not pulled out of solution in the water and passed the ship's side to take advantage of the greater
along to the heat exchanger. For all types of velocity m
the boundary layer at a small distance
inlet it seems best to mount the guard bars or from the shell. The right-hand upper diagram of
guide vanes in a single, integral streamlined Fig. 73.R is an attempt to sketch a device which
assembly which can be held in place by recessed may produce the desired result. In an orthodox
bolts and removed as a unit. form of flush scoop the slowly moving water
There is great merit in a type of inlet and entering on the forward side, combined with the
discharge, hydrodynamically efficient, which can faster moving water entering on the after side,
lead into and out of the machinery spaces in a often creates an eddy with backflow just abaft
transverse plane, making a rather sharp angle the forward surface of the diffuser. The guide-vane
with the shell, up to 90 deg. Such a design, devel- arrangement should be such as to pick up an
oped in Italy, employs a generally rectangular appreciable "belt" of water at the inside of the

Partial Afterbody; Plan of Tronsom- Stern ABC Ship, from Fig. 66. The Purpose of the Unequal Guide-Vane SpQcint]
is to Obtain the Moximum Uniform Velocity
in the Diffuser

^-'^^j I
Outlet is on Starboard Side

Fig. 73.11 Main-Injection and Discharge Layout for Transom-Stern ABC Ship
Sec. 73.25 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN 703

boundary layer and accelerate it inside the scoop. pended is a Hst of references giving partial
The vanes should pick up a smaller
after guide coverage for the reader who wishes to pursue
quantity of water in the more rapidly moving this subject further:
intermediate layers and slow it down inside the
Schmidt, H. F., "Theoretical and Experimental
(1)
scoop. The aim is that at the entrance to the Study of Condenser Scoops," ASNE, Feb. 1930,
diffuser the water shall be moving regularly at Vol. XLII, pp. 1-38. Comprises a basic treatment,
more-or-less uniform velocity, indicated by the beginning with hydrodynamic fundamentals.
(2) Hanzlik, H. J., "Condenser Scoops in Marine In-
four velocity vectors of Fig. 73. R.
stallations," ASNE, May 1931, pp. 250-264
On high-speed vessels, and probably on medium- (3) Schmidt, H. F., and Cox, O. L., "Test on a One-
speed craft as well, the roll-resisting keels along Quarter Scale Model Scoop on the U.S.S. Welborn
the bilge corners act to collect the air bubbles C. Wood and Preparatory Laboratory Experi-
passing under the ship and to shoot them out ments," ASNE, Aug 1931, Vol. XLIII, pp. 435-466.
Fig. 5 opposite p. 437 shows the inlet flow in the
in two streams from the after inboard sides of
plane of the shell. Fig. 13 on p. 445 gives variations
the bilge keels. Thisphenomenon is particularly in pressure and velocity, as measured on the
noticeable in a circulating-water channel when air U.S.S. Raleigh (CL 7), for the first 14 inches out
bubbles are with the water. The
circulating from the shell, in way of the inlet-scoop position.
regions in the vicinity of the flowlines emanating (4) Weske, J. R., "Investigation of the Action of Con-
denser Scoops Based upon Model Tests," ASNE,
from the trailing edges of the bilge keels should
May 1939, Vol. 51, pp. 191-213. Discusses dis-
therefore be kept clear of injection or inlet
charge as well as inlet performance.
openings through the shell, to prevent accumula-
tions of air in the water sides or cooling jackets of The arguments and explanations in the six
heat-exchanger systems. references which follow afford a useful insight into
The position shown in the left diagram of the practical features of the flow into inlet
Fig. 73.R for the circulating-water inlet to the scoops for internal heat exchangers:
main condenser of the ABC ship is well clear of
(5) Schmidt, H. F., "Some Notes on E.H.P. Calculations
this air-collecting region on the port side.
and Propeller Characteristics," ASNE, Nov 1933,
Openings in the hull for the discharge of water Vol. XLV,pp. 528-533. This brief paper discusses
from internal machinery may be located with the influence, on the effective power required to
relative freedom to suit the internal arrangements. drive the ship, of taking in cooling water for con-
densers through inlet scoops, utilizing the forward
In fact, they need not even be below the water
motion of the ship. The author points out that this
surface under all conditions of operation. It is
increment has to be added to the power pre-
logical to lead water out through the hull in the dicted by tests of a self-propelled model.
same manner as it was brought in, by inverting (6) Schade, H. A., "Discussion of Notes on E.H.P.
the scoop section and directing it into the bound- Calculations," ASNE, Nov 1933, Vol. XLV, pp.

ary layer at a small angle to the flow there. To be 534-535. This is a discussion of the preceding
reference (5).
sure, if structural, mechanical, or space considera-
(7) Schmidt, H. F., "Further Discussions on Notes on
tions demand water can be discharged into
it, EHP Calculations," ASNE, Feb 1934, Vol. XL VI,
the boundary layer at any angle up to 90 deg pp. 107-109. This is in turn a reply to reference (6).
with the flow, diagrammed in Figs. 8.G and 8.H. (8) Schade, H. A., "Discussion of Mr. Schmidt's Reply,"

Rarely, however, is there not sufficient room to
provide a short elbow with multiple turning
vanes for changing the flow direction mechanically
instead of producing a hydrodynamic disturb-
ance in the boundary layer. If the elbow is con-
ASNE, Feb 1934, Vol. XL VI, pp. 110-111
(9) Schmidt, H. F., "Reply to Discussion by Lt. H. A.
Schade," ASNE, May 1934, Vol. XL VI, pp. 251-
253. This article contains a photograph showing
flowlines into an inclined inlet without lip.
(10) Schmidt, H. F., "A Criterion for Scoop Cavitation,"

sidered too elaborate, and involves too large a

ASNE, Aug 1934, Vol. XLVI, pp. 352-356.
Facing p. 353 of this reference there is a photograph
hole in the shell, fairing pieces can always be
showing the lines of flow into the model of a lipless
fitted, corresponding to those in the referenced inlet scoop of the Schmidt type.
sketches. (11) "Comparative Tests of Condenser Scoops," EMB
73.25 Partial Bibliography on Condenser Rep. 384, Jul 1934. Describes tests run on EMB
Scoops. Research on inlets of the scoop type, model 3293, representing the DD 364-379 class of
destroyers of the U.S. Navy.
for taking water into condensers and other large
(12) Rabbeno, G., "Appunti Prelimineari sulle Variazioni
heat exchangers, has continued steadily if not per Reciprooa Influenza nelle Potenze Assorbita
rapidly for the past half-century or more. Ap- dalla Circolazione Refrigerante e dalla Propulsione
70-1 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 73.26

velle Turbonavi Veloci (Preliminary Notes on should a measure of design and construc-
call for
Variations, due to Reciprocal Influence, in the
tion effort comparable to that devoted to the
Power Absorbed by the Cooling (Condensing)
Water and by the Propulsion Plant in High-Speed bossing, strut, and propeller design. The use of
Turbine-Driven Ships), Ann. Rep. Rome Model partly recessed zinc plates, socket-head cap
Basin (in TMB library), 1936, Vol. VI, pp. 67-76 bolts, shoulder nuts,and similar devices is one
(13) Orlando, M., "La Circolazione ai Condensatori nel step toward improvement, indicated in Fig. 73. S.
Naviglio Veloce (The Circulation in the Con-
densers of High-Speed Ships)," Ann. Rep. Rome
Model Basin (in TMB library), 1936, Vol. VI,
pp. 76-90
(14) Reilly, J. R., and Hewins, E. F., "Condenser Scoop
Design," SNAME, 1940, pp. 277-293; 301-304.
This is an excellent, comprehensive, detailed dis-
cussion of the problem of designing inlet and dis-
charge scoops, with a great deal of e.\perimental
and design data and an example worked out for a Limit Line for Wastage Before (?eplacement
and outlet scoops. The text is supple-
pair of inlet
mented by numerous flow diagrams. Chamfer Outside Edaes All Around Reaordlcss of
(15) TMB Report R-43 of September 1941 entitled "The Elastic
Flow Direction

Effect of the Flow of Water Through Condenser Stop Nut y'inch Stud
Scoops on the Resistance of a Destroyer Model." Nf45dei]

(16) A theoretical discussion of the water flow into scoops

of various shapes, in which flow nets have been
prepared by conformal and Schwartz-Christoffel
transformations, is given by C. Igonet in ATMA,
1945, Vol. 44, pp. 447-466. So far as known no
translation is available.
MQ>y Be End-Welded Studs With Arc-Initiating Material 2
(17) BuShips Translation 529, of article entitled "Esper-
ienze Aerodinamiche su Modelli di Booohe di ^45 (^q All Dimensions ore in Inches
Presa per I'Acqua di Raffreddamento dei Con-
densatori Marini (Aerodynamic Tests on Models of
Intake Scoops for Cooling Water of Marine
Condensers)," by Dr. B. Lattanzi and Dr. E.
Bellante, Aerodynamic Laboratory of Guidonia,
26 Jul 1941
(18) Frick, C. W., Davis, W. F., Randall, L. M., and
Mossman, E. A., "Experimental Investigation of Fig. 73. S Proposed Fairing and Attachment of
NACA Submerged Duct Entrances," NACA Rep. Galvanic-Action Protectors
ACR A5I20, Oct 1945
(19) Breshn, J. P.,and Ellsworth, W. M., Jr., "Progress Certainly there appears little excuse, in an age
Report: Research on Main Injection Scoops and which prides itself on its technologic achieve-
Overboard Discharges," TMB
Rep. 793, Sep 1951
ments, for the addition of fully protruding
(20) Spannhake, W., "Comments and Calculations on the
Problem of the Condenser Scoop," Rep 790,TMB protectors on any ship which spends a reasonable
Oct 1951. proportion of its life underway.
In areas of the waters of the world where
Pertinent design notes on discharge openings corrosion of the steel hull plating is exceptionally
are given by E. P. Worthen, with a drawing of the severe, this corrosion is often reduced to small
device used on the Manner class of the 1950's proportions by bolting rows of plates or blocks of
[SNAME, 1953, Fig. 43, p. 201]. anodic materials directly to the shell plating
73.26 Design and Installation of Galvanic- [Kurr, G. W., "Check Costly Hull Corrosion,"
Action Protectors. It can not be expected that Mar. Eng'g., Nov 1954, pp. 57-60, also p. 12].
carefully shaped bossing and skeg terminations, The added drag of these excrescences is un-
strut arms and hubs, rudder posts, and other doubtedly large. However, it might well be less
fixed appendages will give creditable hydro- than the added friction drag of the loose bottom
dynamic performance if cluttered up with paint and the severely pitted plating surfaces
excrescences in the form of galvanic-action pro- which would be encountered without the anodic
tectors, studs, nuts, and what not. It appears protectors.
probable that these protectors will have to be Other methods involving external devices in
fitted for some time to come. Their installation the form of appendages, temporary or permanent,
Sec. 73.27 FIXED-APPENDAGE DESIGN 705

are described by H. F. Harvey Jr., and 0. J. vertical, streamlined 2-diml enclosure, with the
Streever [SNAME, 1953, pp. 431-403]; also by sound head rotating inside it, can rarely be made
D. P. Graham, F. E. Cook, and H. S. Preiser in long enough to be entirely free of separation, air
theirpaper "Cathodic Protection in the U. S. bubbles, and possible cavitation along its after
Navy; Research-Development-Design" [SNAME, or trailing portion.
Nov 1956]. A
fore-and-aft location of the sound gear at a
73.27 Design Notes for Locating Echo-Rang- distance abaft the stem of about 0.15F^, where V
ing and Sound Gear on Merchant Vessels. A is in kt and the .r-distance is in ft, appears to be
good underwater sound installation for trans- as satisfactory as any. More important, however,
mitting and receiving, whether of the fixed or than both shape and fore-and-aft position may
retractable type, involves a neat combination of be the sound-head distance below the hull. A
acoustic and mechanical engineering, hydro- deep projection keeps the sound head always
dynamics, and naval architecture. Aside from the under water when the vessel is pitching. Further,
purely acoustic features involved, the most it is below the boundary layer and beneath the

important single factor in an efficient design is streams of air bubbles entrained at the bow, near
to shape the sound head or sound dome so that it the free surface, and flowing aft under the hull.
is free from cavitation and separation. It must This usually requires that the head be extensible
also be placed under the ship in a position where and retractable.
it is clear of air entrained in the streams which For the ABC ship at say 20 kt, the distance
flow past it. abaft the stem would be 0.15(20)^ or 60 ft, cor-
A sound head may be in the form of a stream- responding to about Sta. 2.35. At a distance of
lined body of revolution, resembling the hull 4 ft below the keel the head should be well below
form of astubby true submarine vessel or an the most disturbed portion of the boundary
airship. Whencarried by a post or strut, it forms layer. For a fishing trawler traveling at say 10 kt,
an assembly which is usually retractable. Such the head could be at a distance of 0.15(10)'^ or
a form is reasonably free from flow noises but it 15 ft from the bow. If also placed 4 ft below the
does not lend itself to swinging bodily in azimuth keel it should be in a good listening position and
for horizontal search. Furthermore, when yawed should remain submerged unless the vessel is
slightly it is no longer a streamlined body. A pitching deeply.
 CHAPTER 74

The Design of the Movable Appendages and

Control Surfaces
74.1 General 706 74
74.2 Positioning Rudders and Planes 706
74 3
. Single or Multiple Rudders? 708
74.4 Shaping the Rudder and the Adjacent
Portion of the Ship 709
74.5 Design Procedure for Conflicting Steering
Requirements 713
74.6 First Approximation to Control-Surface
Area 713
74.7 Determining the Proper Areas of Various
Control Surfaces 715
74.8 Positioning the Stock Axis Relative to the
Blade; Degree of Balance 720
74.9 Selection and Proportioning of Chordwise
Sections 722
74.10 Structural Control-Surface Design as Af-
fected by Hydrodynamics ....... 723
74.11 Design Notes for Motorboat Rudders . . 724
74.12 Design of Close-Coupled and Compound
Rudders . 726
Sec. 74.2 MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 707

Twin I Rudders down to the lower corner, air may "jump" to the
reduced-pressure side of the rudder. This occurs
when the gap between the transom corner and
rudder is small enough or the pressure differential
large enough. The resulting air leakage greatly
reduces the rudder force on a turn. For the
V Schemotic Inflow"
"lifting" rudders described in Sec. 37.18, air
Jet Diometer '
leakage of this kind is necessary to the success
Less Thon D But Relotiv Velocity VftOt of the arrangement, but for a ship not carrying
Velocity Greater Thon VX Disc Position
them, air finding its way to a rudder is definitely
Fig. 74. a Diagram Illusteating Augment op detrimental. Testing techniques are now available
OtJTPLOW-jET Velocity at a Rudder Position in model basins whereby this air
the larger
leakage can be photographed and detected on a
matically an installation of this kind. This rule free-running model during a turn. The air leakage
also applies to the fore-and-aft positioning of a could be prevented in a transom-stern design by
single rudder between the outflow jets of two extending the bottom beyond the transom plane
screw propellers, provided the jets are close as a thin horizontal lip. However, this might
enough so that they impinge upon it at reasonable introduce difficulties when backing or when
rudder angles, say 20 deg or more. Indeed, for running in an overtaking sea.

single-screw ships, where rudder effect alone is Rudders and planes hung wholly or partly on
considered, it is well to keep the leading edge of the after ends of horns, skegs, fins, and keels are

the rudder well abaft the propeller if this can most effective as lateral-force-producing devices
conveniently be done. when coupled closely to those fixed members. This
Some useful information relative to flow at the does not necessarily mean that they give rapid
centerline rudder position on a model, as affected response when angled quickly, as discussed in
by the boundary layer, by the outflow jets from Sec. 74.18. Special devices to prevent leakage
adjacent screw propellers, and by the lateral of differential pressure through the hinge are
motion of the stern during a turn, is given by very much worth while; some of them are de-
W. G. Surber, Jr. ["An Investigation of the Flow scribed in Sees. 73.14 and 74.14 and illustrated
in the Region of the Rudder of a Free-Turning in Fig. 73.K.
Model of a Multiple-Screw Ship," TMB Rep. A rudder or plane should definitely be kept clear
998, Oct 1955]. It has not been possible to unearth of a swirl core or hub-vortex cavity, described in
corresponding data from tests of single- and Sec. 23.14 and illustrated in Figs. 23.K and 23.L.
twin-screw models. This usually forms abaft the hub or fairing cap
On where maneuverability and rudder
vessels of a screw propeller on a fast or high-speed ship
effect is an important requirement, the movable but there are evidences that it may appear at a
blades of rudders are placed well below the surface moderate speed. The cavity is likely to be so
or their upper portions are protected in some other large that the portion of a rudder against which
effective way from partial breakdown due to it strikes is totally ineffective. The rudder struc-
leakage of air from the surface. The blade lengths ture in its subject to pitting, erosion, and
wake is

at the top, near the surface, may be made shorter
than at the bottom. The upper after corner of a
rudder may be cut back, as was done for the
transom-stern ABC ship; see Fig. 74.
74.15. The effects of heel, wave
change of
trim, and other factors which obtain during
turning are not to be lost sight of in checking for
possible air leakage to the reduced-pressure side
of the rudder during that maneuver.
Thetrailing edge of a steering rudder should
not be placed too near the lower corner of an
immersed transom. When the speed is high enough
to expose the whole after surface of the transom,
hammering, which may result in fracture of the
parts and tearing off of the portion under attack.
A rudder on a fast but not high-speed ship,
K of Sec. subject to damage of this kind, is shown by
action, V. L. Russo and E. K. Sullivan [SNAME, 1953,
pp. 124-125]. Another such rudder, on a slower
ship, is illustrated in Marine Engineering, New
York, October 1954, page 44. It is known that in
some cases, such as following a sharp turn, the
swirl core or hub vortex shifts around on the
fairing cap. In other words, it does not always trail
from the exact point or tail of the cap. A good rule,
therefore, is to keep clear of a possible swirl core
708 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.3

having a diameter as large as that of the hub, and ofgood flow, where they can do what is e.xpected
following the direction of the streamlines for the of them, the design rule embodied by W. J. M.
ship flow in the \'icinity. Rankine on page 95 of his 1866 treatise on
Wherever practicable, it should be possible to "Shipbuilding: Theoretical and Practical" is as
remove propellers, dismantle propeller shafts, and applicable today as the day it was written:
examine propeller bearings without disturbing or
"It is also necessary that the rudder should be im-
removing rudders or diving planes mounted near mersed, not in a mass of eddies dragging behind the ship,
them. but amongst particles of water whose motion, relatively
It is not necessary that the axes of offset rudders to the ship, consists in a steady flow astern. Hence the
be exactly vertical or that those of multiple same fairness and fineness of the water-lines and buttock-
lines of the afterbody which are essential to speed and
rudders be parallel, if their hydrodynamic per-
economy of power are essential to good steering also."
formance can be improved thereby. Mechanical
simplicity in the steering gear need not be a 74.3 Single or Multiple Rudders? In a
determining factor in cases of this kind. normal form of twin-screw stern a single rudder
With regard to the placing of rudders in regions hung between two propellers usually angles far
enough so that a considerable portion of the
Projected Rudder Area at Full Anole DWL trailing area of its blade swings into the projected
disc area of one or the other of the propellers.
On a Stern of This is true even though account is taken of the
Normal Form the customary inward and upward shifts of the
Flow is Aft, Upward,
twin-screw propeller outflow jets, conforming to
ond Inward. The
Propeller Outflow the general direction of flow in the vicinity,
Jets,Marked b'y and to the contraction in those jets. Diagram 1
Propeller- Disc Positions
Broken Lines, Follow
\ of Fig. 74. B illustrates schematically the situa-
Propeller Outflow- Jet Section This Flow
Opposite the Tail of the Rudder tion described.
A single rudder is sometimes placed between
two screw propellers which lie so far apart trans-
versely that the rudder blade does not swing
Broken Lines appreciably into the outflow jet of either at its
Represent Sche- extreme range of angle. Although not always
moticQlly the Sec-
lacking in steering and turning action, such a
tions of the Pro-
peller Outflow Jets
rudder is liable not to function adequately, no
Opposite the matter what its area.
Rudder Positions It is possible that the single rudder, if lying in

Rudders May Be a "strong" flow having a small positive or a

Positive Cleorance from Hub 'as 5hown Inboard or Outboard slight negative wake velocity, produces the
Desiroble But Not Necessary of the Shafts o The same rudder, Ij'ing in a
desired lateral force.
"weak" flow, with a large positive wake velocity
and a small speed of advance, is inadequate to
Schematic Outlines of_-—
Propeller Jets, Neqiectinq
For on Original Instal- maneuver the ship. Smaller twin rudders, lying
lation of this kind,
Presence of Ship close to or within the outflow jets, are indicated
Propeller and Rudder
.Should
for situations of this kind. Here again, depicted
- Separated by diagram 2 of Fig. 74. B, account is taken of
b^ Greater whatever lateral or vertical displacement, or
both, results from the fact that the propeller
outflow jot contracts and that it follows the
direction of flow under the hull.
Rudder Ancjle
Efforts to achieve the same efi^ect with so-called
biplane or triplane rudders, when a single blade
is found inadequate, may be disappointing.
Multi-blade rudders, operated by a single stock
FiG.|^74.B Positions of Multiple Rudders
'
with and steering gear, are usually used. These repre-
Respect to Outflow Jets sent a simpler alteration than fitting twin rudders
Sec. 74 A MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 709

abaft the propellers. In the event multiple blades A shallow-draft pushboat, with limited rudder
are used, the wmg or offset blades should lie depth, and with need for steering and maneuvering
abaft the stock axis of the main blade, so that the entire puish as well as itself, requires multiple
when swung at an angle the wing blades move rudders to achieve the necessary lateral forces
farther from the centerplane, indicated in dia- and turning moments. For maneuvering in ex-
gram 3 of Fig. 74. B. Otherwise, as the Aving rudder tremely shallow water, when the bed clearance is
elements are swung to achieve large angles of measured in inches rather than in feet, and when
attack they move toward the centerline by traveling in swift, turbulent currents, the craft
(1 — cos 8) times their offset distance. In effect, requires multiple rudders for itself alone, to say
the wing blades back away from the outflow jets nothing of the need for maneuvering when other
they are supposed to utilize. craft are being pushed.
All modern ships, merchant or combatant, may In many river craft propelled by sternwheels,
be required to dodge aboveAvater and underwater the rudders are placed ahead of rather than abaft
missiles in a future emergency. For a ship requiring the propulsion devices. Here they do not work
a high degree of maneuverability every offset in an outflow jet of augmented velocity, so that
screw propeller whose axis lies within a reasonable the equivalent effect is achieved only by fitting
distance of the centerline, say not more than multiple rudders of larger total area. The limited
one-quarter of the beam, should have a rudder draft is Sometimes the multipli-
also a factor here.
behind it. Every propulsion device on a submarine cation of rudder area ahead of the sternwheels on
should have a diving plane in its outflow jet. these vessels is not sufficient. To make up for it,
A multiple-skeg stern logically embodies a one or two "monkey rudders" are hung on a
rudder behind every skeg carrying a screw pro- frame abaft the wheels, to take advantage of the
peller, whether a high degree of maneuverability increased velocity in the outflow jet.

is specifically called for or not. On the alternative 74.4 Shaping the Rudder and the Adjacent
arch stern of the ABC ship, Avith its single large Portion of the Ship. Fortunately, the designer
propeller between two skegs, it is logical to hang often has considerable freedom in shaping the
a rudder on the after end of each skeg. Fig. 74. stern profile of a ship, and in the contour and
of Sec. 74.15 shows how this is done. position of the rudder(s). Further, he is often
When shifting from a single rudder to twin permitted to work up alternative stern arrange-
rudders in a design, without other major changes ments; in these he can forget tradition and strive
in the hull, it is good practice to give each twin for maximum performance. For example, in a
rudder a blade area of about 0.6 to 0.7 the area single-screw stern departing somewhat from the
of the single rudder. This is justified by the normal form it may be found possible to work in
increase in turning effort achieved with the larger a sort of flat or shallow-V shelf, well submerged at
total area. It is realized that the total weight of load draft, over the top of a spade-type rudder.
twin rudders, supports, and steering gear, based If so, the vessel benefits from:
on only 0.5 the area of a single rudder, is almost
certainly greater than for a single rudder. In
(a) An increase in the rudder aspect ratio and
the lift coefficient for a limited range of rudder
other words, if the increased weight of double
angle. This is fit and the negligible
due to the close
rudders is accepted, it is good design to make it
differential-pressure leakagebetween the hull and
reallyworth while by increasing the rudder effect
the top of the rudder. To keep the horizontal gap
at the same time. However, this should not be
small, at the top of the rudder, bolted palms for
carried so far that the turns made by the vessel
connecting the blade to the stock may be placed
are excessively sharp and the ship speed in the
maneuvering
somewhat below the extreme top of the rudder.
turn is so greatly reduced that its
characteristics are impaired.
The recesses for assembling the bolts may be
The minimum transverse distance between the
closed by cover plates.

stock axes of the blades of multiple rudders is, if (b) Providing the equivalent of a surface plate
practicable, made equal to or greater than the to prevent undue air leakage from the surface and
maximum blade length of each rudder, measured breakdown of the rudder action when the — Ap's
fore and aft, so that the pressure field of one will are large

not interfere too much with that of the other, (c) Providing an excellent internal support for
when_^they are fully angled. the thrust bearing, tiller, and steering gear.
710 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.4

111 case the V-shape of the stern is only moder- gear, are thus decreased. Nevertheless, such a
ately shallow, and the sides rise at an appreciable design is logical only when the vessel is intended

angle from the edges of the flat over the rudder, almost exclusively for ahead operation, as in
there is an opportunity to derive some lateral saihng craft. It is an advantage if backing is
pressure on and some swingmg moment directly only incidental and if there are no specific require-
from the hull itself. This is because the hull is ments about handling the rudder during backing
near the top of the rudder and because of the or when moving astern.
close fit there. At the designed speed, the crest The horn or compound-type rudder, illustrated
of the stern wave is expected to cover a sizable at 5 in Fig. 37.D, is not in the foregoing category.
area of the hull above the rudder, as projected Actually, its effective aspect ratio is usually
on the centerplane, in addition to that which lies rather small.
below the at-rest waterline. This increases the For an isolated rudder, not attached to a deep
area over which Ap's are exerted. skeg or keel, or to a horn, too high an aspect ratio
A spade rudder may be tapered (reduced in is to be avoided because of the breakdown in

fore-and-aft length) toward the bottom to: hydrofoil flow —and in lift —which occurs at rela-
tively small rudder angles [van Lammeren, W. P.
(1) Increase the aspect ratio
A., RPSS, 1948, p. 323]. High nominal aspect
(2) Reduce the strength of the tip vortex at the
ratios in single rudders, say up to 3.5 or 4.0, can be
bottom when exertmg heavy lifts and lateral forces
accepted if the rudder lies partly or wholly within
(3) Thin the lower part and reduce its drag
the outflow jet of a propeller. The fact that the
(4) Diminish the bending moment at the head
rudder is benefiting from the augmented outflow
of the rudder.
velocity may make it unnecessary, in combination
Sometimes the possibility of air leakage to the with these high aspect ratios, to use rudder angles
top of a spade rudder can not be prevented. It is beyond the stalhng value of 20 or 25 deg.
then wise to reduce rudder area at the top, Long experience with spade and horn-type
shortening the rudder and moving its contour line rudders and horizontal diving planes, on bodies as
farther from the adjacent water surface. The area well as on ships, indicates that for maneuvering
thus removed from the top of the blade is shifted (rather than for steering only) a control surface
to the bottom, well below the surface, possibly which is approximately square is as serviceable
making the rudder longer at the bottom than at as any. This is because the breakdown or stalling

the top. A change like this was found successful point is deferred to larger angles. A greater total
two decades ago in the design of the U.S.S. lift or lateral force can be achieved, greater maxi-
Farragut, a destroyer of the DD348 class. mum control-sui'face angles can be used, and the
A centerline rudder on a twin- or multiple-screw bending and torque moments in the stock are
stern produces the greatest lateral forces more nearly balanced.
when it follows as closely as possible the contour Wherever practicable, a rudder deUberately
of the stern. There should be the minimum leakage placed in an outflow jet to take advaiitage of the
area between the rudder and the adjacent portions induced velocity should span the whole jet close
of the ship upon which the rudder pressure fields to a diameter. Excessive underhang in spade
act. The lower the horizontal joint between hull rudders, clearances to withdraw propeller shafts,
and rudder, the greater the hull areas above it, and the presence of swirl-core cavitation may
projected upon the centerplane, which are acted interfere. In this case spanning a portion of the
upon by these pressure fields. Whether this jet is of course much better than missing it
enables the use of a smaller rudder depends upon altogether.
many other factors. When one or more operative conditions of a
A rudder hung from a skeg along its entire vessel involve large changes in draft in the vicinity
leading and preferably fitting the huU
edge, of the rudder, the actual immersed rudder area
closely along its top, has the advantage that it is must be proved satisfactory for all conditions.
developing the maximum turning moment on As a rule, both hull and rudder come out of the
the hull. While it is completely unbalanced it can water simultaneously so that the smaller immersed
be made smaller (shorter or narrower) than a area of the rudder suffices to control what is left
rudder not so closely fitted. The torques upon its of the hull in the water. However, adequate
stock, and those to be exerted by the steering performance in such a situation can by no means
Sec. 74.4 MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 711

be taken for granted. A separate calculation or

model test is called for to cover tliis condition.
An L-shaped or J-shaped rudder hung behind
a thin hull or skeg should not have an excessively
long forward balance portion, indicated in dia-
grams 1 and 2 of Fig. 74. Ca. When such a rudder is
swung hard-over, say to the right, the forward
end of the balance portion savings to the left or
to port. The region of 4-Ap on the ahead or
starboard side of the balance then lies under the
port side of the skeg. In normal circumstances a
large — Ap is being developed here to augment
the transverse force to port. Although, so far as
known, no specific studies have been made on
this point it appears that the presence of the
-|-Ap and — Ap regions so near each other is

detrimental to maneuvering.
R. E. Barry reports a situation similar to this
on a French cruiser, as indicating a rudder shape
and position to be avoided in practice ["Random
Notes by an Old Seaman," Mar. Eng.'g., Feb
1921, p. 137 and Figs. 8, 9]. This vessel had a

Negative Differential Pressure -6p\ +Ap an Rudder,

on This 5idc of Leodino Edqe
of Balance Portion

in This Region, Especially

When 6alonce Portion is

Excessively Lono

Elevation of Toil of +Ap Field on For Side of Skcq,

When Swung
Blade, Opposing the Desired Turn
j^\.o Near Side

Situotio
712 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.4

mL _pwL/^"|gr~ rudders is by no means a necessity, provided fair

Aperture Wide Hinqe Slot flow is reasonably certain around the rudder at
Abreast Propeller Permits Excessive all rudder angles and under all operating condi-
Blode Tips Permits ^p Leakage from
tions.
Ap Leokoqe One Side of
From One Side Rudder to For practical reasons, such as to provide bottom
of Skeg to the the Other
clearance Avhen docking, it is often necessary to
Other
terminate the bottom of a rudder in a horizontal
plane parallel to and just above the baseplane.
When such a rudder is mounted under the stern
of a ship, it may Lie in a region of flow having an
appreciable upward component of velocity, indi-
cated in Fig. 25.K. The after ends of the lower
rudder sections then project into the flow lines, as
Large Aperture Forward of o Stern Ruddei does the af tfoot in that figure. If a reduction of area
•of Adequate Area Provides Room
at the bottom can be made up by an increase
For o Short Horiiontal
Circulation Path and Insures elsewhere on the blade, the after lower edge of
Rapid ffesponse to Angling the rudder may be cut up or the bottom of it may
Rudder
be sloped to conform to the flow hues in this
region. These changes should save some pressure
Fore-and-Aft Gap Length drag during the greater portion of the time, when
Should Be at Least the rudder is serviiig only to steer the vessel.
0.3 ond Preferobly
It is good design to shape a close-coupled rudder
0.4 of Greatest Fore-
(at either bow or stern) as a continuation of the
adjacent hull surface. Nevertheless, this procedure
can become detrimental if the adjacent hull is
full and the thickness ratio of the rudder becomes
large or if the sides of the rudder have much slope
[Denny, M. E., lESS, 1934-1935, Vol. 78, p. 411].
In any case, the free or swinging edge of the
rudder, the one that is do^vnstream when the
rudder is steering, should generally be tapered
to a reasonable thickness and not terminated
bluntly.
Wherever and whenever practicable the leading
edge of a rudder is recessed into a groove in the

trailingedge of the horn, the skeg, or the keel

Fig. 74.D Apertures and Gaps Ahead op Ship supporting it. This is partly for fairing but mostly
Rudders for closing the hinge gap against detrimental
leakage. Further steps to close the gap are de-
good circulation path for the water. It is too large scribed in Sec. 74.14 and illustrated in Fig. 73.
as a leakage gap. It probably does more harm in of Sec. 73.14.
steering than the benefit it affords in reducing The fact that positive clearance above the
propeller vibration. baseline for the foot of the rudder is often man-
Diagram 1 of Fig. 74. D illustrates a design, datory should never deter the naval architect
rather common in years gone by, in which the from extending it below the baseluie if the needs
provision of working clearances for removal of the of the situation require it. The rudders of many
pintles and their bearings, and for lifting out the Chinese junks slide along a diagonal axis, parallel
whole rudder, was apparently more important to that of the stock, so that they extend well
than ease of steering. The large leakage gap below the baseplane when at sea. The portable
detracts from the usefulness of the rudder and rudders of small sailboats almost invariably
diminishes the lateral force built up on the ad- project below the baseplane when they are
jacent hull by the angled rudder. shipped. The successful use of fixed rudders pro-
Rounding the outline or profile corners of jecting below the baseplane on many vessels,
Rec. It. 6 MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 7J3

operating in shallow as well as deep waters, adjacent not necessarily the same when
hull, is

proves that they do not suffer frequent or serious quick response at moderate power is required
damage, as might be supposed. Furthermore, as it is when the vessel is called upon to steer well,
provided these operations are planned in advance, with the propulsion device rotating very slowly
they do not represent serious inconveniences when or actually stopped. Since both requirements are
drydocking or hauhng out. often included, and understandably so, the solu-
A variety of types and shapes of rudder, hull, tion in such a case appears to embody two sepa-
and aperture are shown by K. E. Schoenherr rate features:
[PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 224-226]. Of these,
(1) A large tail section of the rudder blade lying
however, the single-plate rudder of his Fig. 15 is
directly abaft a sizable portion of the hull, or
practically obsolete, except for inexpensive instal-
abaft a horn or skeg of appreciable area compared
lations on small vessels. L. Troost, J. G. Konmg,
to that of the tail, with the smallest practicable
and W. P. A. van Lammeren show a larger
hinge gap
variety, including the screw-propeller position(s)
(2) A sizable foil portion having ample clearances
for each type and shape [RPSS, 1948, pp. 331-
ahead and abaft it, to provide room for the
of
338]. G. de Verdiere and V. Audren describe the
rapid settingup of the circulation needed to
results of model tests on still other rudder shapes
produce immediate steering response.
and arrangements [ATM A, 1951, Vol. 50, pp.
491-514]. The designs of the rudders for both the transom-
Design Procedure for Conflicting Steer-
74.5 stern and arch-stern hulls of the ABC ship were
ing Requirements. It is as necessary to know carried out with these features in mind. A better
the range of speeds for which optimum steering all-around solution probably to use one or more
is

is required as it is to know the speed for optimum spade rudders of generous area, provided these
performance of the hull or the propulsion device(s) can be accommodated in the design.
In this respect the saihng craft poses the most 74.6 First Approximation to Control-Surface
design problem. It must steer and maneu-
difficult Area. The discussion in this section is limited
ver well throughout the entire range, from the to rudders mounted in the vertical plane, or
greatest speed of which it is capable down to nearly Diving planes of submarines and other
so.

practically zero speed. control surfaces are omitted because of the widely
It is interesting to note the manner in which varying requirements for different types of service.
this is achieved, especially for vessels with flap- Although the rudders of mechanically driven
type rudders hung directly on the main hull. If vessels have developed through the years in
the vessel is relatively small, say less than 100 ft the almost complete absence of specific steering
in waterhne length, the underwater hull is cut or maneuvering requirements, the resulting rudder
away sharply at both ends and the remaining parameters and hull-rudder proportions lie within
portion is short compared to the overall size of not too wide a range.
the vessel. The horizontal circulation path around Based solely upon the ratio of the rudder area
it is short, so that the response to rudder angle is Ar to the lateral area ^l of the ship, or to the
good at any speed. The rudder is hung directly product of the length L and the draft B., the
on the skeg or deep keel, so that steering is relative size of steering rudders has increased
adequate and reliable even at slow speeds. gradually but steadily during the past half-
For the large sailing ship the slow-speed century. In fact many ships built in the 1900's
steering is equally good, but the underwater hull or 1910's had to have their rudders increased in
is much longer in comparison, and the response area, by as much as 20 or 30 per cent,
often
is slower. In this case, however, the response indicated by the listing in Table 74. a. A rudder of
should be more dehberate. It gives the crew the given area, working in a propeller-outflow jet,

extra time necessary to trim the sails and perform gives greater lateral forces as the propeller power
other duties connected with the sailing evolutions. is increased, and may even provide better man-

It would be dangerous, in many cases, to permit euverability at a higher speed. The shift to pro-

the vessel to swing too rapidly. portionately larger rudders appears to be a sign
The mechanically propelled vessel poses a of unconscious but actual stepping-up of maneu-
different problem. The shape and position of a verabUity requirements. It may be expected that
rudder, and its relation with respect to the this intensifying process will continue, and that
714 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.6

TABLE 74. a Original and Increased Rudder-Area Data on U. S. Naval Auxiliaries of

THE 1900-1920 Period
All the vessels listed had single rudders. So far as known, the areas apply to the movable rudder blades only.
Sec. 74.7 MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 715

of the turn are somewhat shielded from cross on "Steam Tug Design" [London, Jul 1946]. It is

flow by the ship ahead of them, those on the still used by aeronautical engineers in propor-
outside of the turn are exposed to a greater degree tioning the rudders of dirigibles.
of cross flow. One may say that, for a first approxi- Based upon the data in the references listed
mation, an average of these effects forms a good earlier in this sectionand upon the ratios given
estimate. in Tables 74. a and 74. b, a few general rules are
The total absence of diagrams showing the formulated for use in the preliminary design
rudder profiles, the ship or large-appendage pro- stage of a ship:
files, and the relative positions of the movable
, , , u-
rudder blades and the adjacent ship
,
J
1
11
render all
, ,, ,. J. w
, ,

.
A. ,
rudder, to be fully effective,
, r ^, r^
must lie
,•
a m
•

irujjj.
published data of the kind shown -iu f
the references fiuiju m region of flow which
, .
^ r,

,
,.
i

,
>

is
n
tree of greatly
, n
,.

reduced
., , ii-- 1 •
xu- i- 1 velocity, eddies, and reversed flow
cited previously in this section as something less ,, s t,t „ „ , • ,, , ,
,, f T f i • (b) JNo mechanically propelled vessel, regardless
In tact, it appears j-u 1 J. -J. J. 1 1 1
than useml. that only by taking /, ,,, ,. . ,, ^ , ,
'

P , n , .1 , , .
, 01 type, should have a ratio ot rudder area Ar to
account ot these features, which govern the , , ^.^rs „ V , ,

rectangular underwater area L(H) smaller than

jj
,.
proportion otc fi\
i ^o\ xu i
J.U

X r
r
(1) the transverse force on the
xi_
ii,

J i. 1
J.

,^ ,.,„
l.D per cent. A minimum of 1.7 per cent might
-, ,»..
rudder to (2) the total transverse torce on the end , ,, ,,„^„ ,, ^ -r.
, , ,; , , , ,
,,
J. ,, , .
r X, . . • , be better; the 1953 table of r. Mandel shows a
ot the ship, can the major inconsistencies of the .
, „ . ,.

t-T 1, J X ui u 1 J minimum ot 1.9 per cent,

published tables be cleared up. / s rr,, ,. i , , , ,

Tx Ml XI, X r xv, X- X 11 (c) I he percentage ot rudder-blade area over-

1 1 1
It is possible that further analytic study should , f ,, ,„
.
,, ,
lapping the propeller outflow let at the ruader
, ,

, . ,, J ,.,,,
be given to a method, little-used
J , 1
modern naval1
...
m •

., • , ; , , , ,- ,, rr^, • .

,.,, ,, .1111 ,^ is
position should be as large as practicable. I his
architecture, ot proportionmg the movable-blade
J.

•„,
especially true tor vessels operating at a i value
, , ,•
r XI- jj X -J f xi „

,. -^
xi.

HT Ti
X-
area ot the rudder to the midsection area of the ,,, ,„ „ ,,. ii,-,
less than 1.0 and lor flows past the rudder which
, ,.

ship.
X- r -vTr T
Quotmg from W. -innr^
J. M. Rankine 1 •

m 1866
are suspectcd ot being
, , r, •
,i
Weak,
, „ ,,
With large positive
^

u- u -u
[SIP: itrru
ran^Tii
Thatx eminentx shipbuilder, xi_ x A,r •
i
the late Mr. , , .,. , „ ^ ^,i
T u
John
, /oxu
ITT
Wood, J
madeJ XT- u jxi. xi
the breadth of the rudder
ji mi.-
11 J?
wake velocities
,,
vance. It is possible, as stated previously in
.
and small speeds
., , ,
ot rudder ad-
, ...
l/8th otr xi- X r XI. I.-
that ot the ship.
X xi -ii
1 his meant that, with
J

„ „.„,,, ,, „ n -,.
J xi. r JJ I. X 1 X XI ^ i-j J^ Sec. 74.3, that a strong flow, with a large
a depth ot rudder about equal to the draft, the i , , , „ ,. , , ,
,1 ,, u X r. inr X-
, xi_ -i spced ot ruddcr advancB aud a Small overlap, has
rudder length was about 0.125 times the mid- , ^ . . r^ ,, , , r ,
more benencial effect than large overlap of the
.

,- m, xu J f
,
X- xi .

section beam, i lus method of selecting the proper

1
«
J,
rudder area is given by A. Caldwell
..
his book
iA/~.iJii-i-ii
m . ,s
,,
same rudder m a weak flow,
n .
, ,,

rr^, ,, , ,. ,
,
(d) ihe percentage ot cutaway area and the

TABLE 74.b-RATios of Rudder-Blade Area Aj, to ^^^^^ ^f cutaway length to ship length he within
Length-Draft Product (LH) for Merchant-Type rather narrow limits for the average vessel. If
Vessels the cutaways are adequate, the exact ratios
The rudder area is considered to be that of the movable appear not to be major factors in its maneuver-
blade only. The proportions given are for ships with single ability.
rudders. fp^jj-^
^^-j rudfjgj-g fgr large ships may have a
~
combined blade area as great as 0.03L{H). A
baseplane clearance of 0.5 ft appears to be ade-
Liners, large, fast and high-speed 1.6-1.8 quate for any deep-water vessel, regardless of size.
Passenger and cargo ships, large, medium-speed 1.6-2.0 (f ) When adequate draft is available and multiple
Tankers, large, fast and medium-speed ... 1.7-2.1 rudders are used, the aspect ratio is made rather
Passenger and cargo ships, small, slow-speed 1.7-2.3
.
jarge, to give the greatest coverage across an
a g s ps, as "
River steamers, fast
/ 7-2 .0
outflow jet or the maximum pressure abaft a skeg.
1 .

Cargo ships, normal, medium-speed 1.7-2.5 74.7Determining the Proper Areas of Various
Auxiliary vessels for national defense
^ /. „ coasters
Cargo ships, small; ^

Cross-channel ships, required to maneuver in

1.9-2.4
„ „ „ o
2.0-2.3
/^
Control
o _i; x

.
t^u xi-
i j
Surfaces. There is outhned m this
section a new procedure for determimng, as a
xu-
..... • •

harbors 2.0-2.2 second or third approximation, the required area

Sailing ships, large 2.0-2.5 of the movable blade of a control surface. The
Ferryboats for harbors, fishing vessels .... 2.5-4.0 method as described here apphes to a steermg
rudder in a vertical plane but it is essentially the
w'^kh°^t''^^ 11
4. r\\ n
Inland waterways craft, for confined waters
'.
'.

4^0-8.0 ^^me for a control surface mounted on a surface

— ship or submarine in any other plane.
716 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.7

A suitable and adequate rudder-design method course in the shortest possible time and distance
should produce, to meet a given set of steering than for guiding it precisely around a steady turn
and maneuvering requirements, the proper type with a large change of course. The situation is
of rudder, the rudder-blade area, the proportions somewhat similar to that specified in item (32) of
and shape of the blade, and the maximum rudder Table 64. e where, to make a canal turn properly,
angle. To meet unusual operating conditions it the vessel must accomphsh an offset of 400 ft from
should also produce the rate of angUng or laying the approach path extended in a curved arc of
the rudder and other design features. Looking 2,100 ft, and rudder angle. It
at a specified speed
at the rudder-design problem in its larger aspects, is same as that faced by a diving
exactly the
itshould also be coordinated with what might be submarine. In an emergency, the submarine must
termed the maneuvering design of the hull as a get under the water surface and point its nose
whole. downward in the shortest possible time and dis-
Because the project is still incomplete, the tance from the dive or "execute" point.
description which follows is simply a statement To be sure, every ship must be able to change
some comments
of the various steps involved, \\ith its course at will, to reverse its direction of swing,

on each. The project has not been carried through
to the point where a numerical answer, acceptable
by engineering standards, can be obtained by it
for a given situation. Presenting an outline only
is considered justified because of the need for
thought and study on this design problem along
and to follow a tortuous path, but there is reason
to believe that the initial sheering maneuver is
the most demanding and the most important.
This means that, vnth the vessel proceeding at
steady speed on a straight approach path when
a sharp turnis ordered, the rudder must be angled

new and logical lines. to its full amount very rapidly and a certain
The a careful analysis of the
starting point is maximum swmging moment A'', to be discussed
steering and maneuvering requirements of the presently, must be applied by it to the ship.
vessel for which the rudder is to be designed. These The sheering maneuver at the beginning of a
are preferably expressed in numerical terms turn is a logical as well as a practical assumption
somewhat more specific than those for the ABC Avith which to guide the rudder design because:
ship in Table 64. e, items (27) through (41),
(a) The and moments exerted on a ship
forces
especially items (28), (30) to (32), and (34). If
in the first few seconds of this transient stage
requirements for maneuvering have not been
largely determine how rapidly, and in what ahead
laid down by the owner or operator they are pre-
distance, the vessel can clear its approach path
scribed for the ship under study by the designer
extended, change its heading, and sheer off to
himself, based upon his own experience in the
one side or the other
operation of similar types and sizes of ships.
(b) For an analytic solution, the velocity mag-
The rudder and other gear required for maneu-
nitude and direction of the water flowing toward
and the propelling machinery
vering, like the hull
necessary for propulsion, must as a rule be de-
the rudder when beginning a turn may be assumed
signed to meet the most severe operatmg con-
to be substantially the same as it was a few
instants before, when the ship was proceeding
dition. It is usually the case, although it may not
along the approach path with zero rudder angle,
be taken for granted, that the lesser requirements
are then satisfied as a matter of course.
in a steady-state condition. With this simplifica-
tion, only the effect of the angled rudder need
Just what constitutes the most severe maneu-
vering requirement for a ship —the one calling for be evaluated just after the
turn.
initial point of the

the largest rudder area at the opthnum or specified

rudder angle — can by no means be determined by (c) Once the ship is m the turn, the determination
inspection of the oAvner's and operator's specifica- of the swinging moment produced by the rudder
tions. For the average vessel, however, it is more and the moment produced by the ship itself,
important to change direction quickly and de- acting as a hydrofoil -with an angle of attack,
cisively in an emergency maneuver, to avoid becomes exceedingly complex. This is true for an
colhsion with obstructions or with another ship, experimental as well as an analytical attack on
than it is to make a subsequent turn at a given the design problem.
radius or speed. In other words, the rudder is (d) As an incidental argument, it is possible in
more valuable for sheering the vessel off its origmal many model basins to measure the transverse
 Sec. 7-f.7 MOVABLE APPENDAGE DESIGN 717

force exerted on a ship model rudder

aljreast a The designer then determines, by estimate from
position when the rudder is angled and the model empirical data and possibly ISiter by calculation,
is constrained to move in what amounts to a the proportion of this lateral force F^ which he
straight continuation of the approach path. This may reasonably expect to be exerted on the hull
serves as some sort of check for a particular pre- and the fixed appendages. This portion is indicated
liminary design of rudder rather than as an aid as Fu in the figure. The remainder of the transverse
in the course of the design. force is that to be exerted on the movable rudder
The sheermg maneuver must be defined in blade when fully angled. This is normal to the

specific terms if it is to form part of the maneu- ship axis, mdicated as F^

With an assumed
.

vering specifications of a ship or if it is to serve

maximum rudder angle 5 an effective angle
(delta),
of attack of the rudder equal to it, an assumed
as the controlling factor in a rudder design.
These terms should include the rate of change of aspect ratio, and an average value of lift coefficient

heading followmg an order to turn and the shift for hydrofoils suitable as rudders, the problem is

of position of the CG laterally from the approach worked backward and the hydrofoil or blade area
path, in the positive or negative direction of the is approximated. The calculation is repeated for
2/o-motion axis. All these should be on a basis as many different ship speeds, or as many different
of time and of advance in the .ro-direction.
initial assumptions, as may be desired.
The complete solution outlined in the first
Of the data listed under (1) through (5) pre-
sentence of the second paragraph of this section ceding, the determination of the maximum
involves too many answers to render itself work- swinging moment N poses by far the most difficult
able with present techniques (1955). It is neces- problem. The method of finding it for any
particular design situation is not yet worked out
sary at this stage to assume reasonable, tentative
values or conditions for some of the answers, but the following factors require consideration:
namely: (i) The maneuvering characteristics of the hull
(1) The general dimensions, size, and shape of the proper, without the rudder (s). Carried to the
ship hull, as well as certain of its maneuvering limit with respect to rapid change of heading, a
characteristics ship in the form of a circular tub would require
(2) The fore-and-aft position of the rudder and only enough tangential force at its surface to
rudder stock along the hull axis. The assumed overcome the polar inertia and the friction
swinging axis of the vessel may be taken at its CG. resistance. Carried to the opposite limit for rapid
The distance from the CG to the rudder-stock lateral change in position, a long slender craft
position is the moment arm of the lateral rudder requires rather extreme measures in the way of
force, although, strictly speaking, this distance applied forces and moments to accomplish the
should be measured to the instantaneous center of offset from the extended approach path which
pressure CP of the rudder blade. is required for a sheering maneuver,
(3) The type (or types) of rudder to be worked (ii) The polar moment of inertia of the ship about
into the design problem. Alternative preliminary the vertical swinging axis for the particular
designs may be required for alternative rudder loading condition specified
types (and shapes). (iii) The added inertia of the entrained water for

(4) Some idea of the shape of the rudder blade swmging mode of motion,
the superposition of the
and of its position with respect to the adjacent when the ship starts to turn
hull or the nearby fixed appendages (iv) The steady speed of the ship along the ap-

(5) The maximum swinging moment A'^ to be proach path

applied to the hull under the most severe man-
'
euvering requirement. This is a major feature, Lever Arm for Reauired Rudder Moment on 5hip ]

which should be derived rather than assumed, by

a process to be discussed shortly.

The situation is as sketched in Fig. 74. E.

Dividing the swinging moment A'^ by the moment
arm a of the rudder gives the transverse force
Fl required to be exerted on both the rudder blade Fig. 74. E Diagram of Rudder and Ship Forces and
and the ship at and near the rudder-stock position. Moments
718 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.7

(v) The possible effect of shallow or restricted If a dynamometer is available to carry a model
water, if operation in confined areas is involved. rudder and to measure the lateral force on its
stock, the rudder-force fraction F r/F ^ may be
The process of deriving the swinging moment
determined during the test of a constrained ship
may be largely empirical untU the method is
model, run straight ahead with angled rudder
further developed. Eventually it should be
under a towing carriage in a model basin. The
determined by a relation analytically derived.
model can and should be self-propelled during
On the basis that the sheering maneuver de-
this test.
scribed previously in this section calls for the
Following a determination or an estimate of
greatest swmgmg moment and rudder effect,
the analytic method appears to involve:
the transverse force componentF g, on the rudder,
the designer proceeds to apply the laws of the
1. Laying out a series of successive positions, at hydrofoil and to calculate how much area 4i/ is
equidifferent time intervals, with respect to the required to produce a lift equal to this force. As
point where the emergency turn order is given, previously mentioned, the problem is simplified
known as the "execute" point, and the approach for the case being described by assuming that
path extended. There is a considerable backlog the effective angle of attack «/ of the rudder
of this information, pubhshed and unpublished, as a hydrofoil is equal to the mechanical rudder
with which to approximate or to bracket the angle 5. However, it is still necessary to know
required data for a number of ship types. the relative water speed past the rudder, cor-
2. Finding the initial angular acceleration responding to the rudder's speed of advance,
a(alpha) required to make the ship occupy these especially as this speed enters the lift-force
positions while moving forward in the initial formula to the second power. The potential-,
portion of a turn. In fact, it is possible that the friction-, and wave-wake velocities must all be
necessary data may
be obtained on board ship taken into account, -plus the negative-wake
from simultaneous course and rudder-angle meas- velocity due to the augmented velocity in the
urements, made by recorders now available. outflow jet of any propulsion device lying ahead
By of the rudder.
calculating or estimating the polar moment
of inertia Js of the ship for
swuiging motion, A two-part rudder composed of a tail and an
including the added inertia of the water, the underhung foil is illustrated for the general case
required swinging moment is given by N in diagram 5 of Fig. 37. D and for the transom
stern of the ABC ship in Fig. 74.K of Sec. 74.15.
N = Jscc (74.i)
For such a rudder it is undoubtedly not valid to
The value of N may well be found to vary with assume that each part (tail and foil) generates its
approach speed so that the designer is called own lift independently, by its own set of rules or
upon to work out a series of solutions if the speed by its physical action alone. Nevertheless, this
range is large. approximate procedure must be used until
On
the basis that the total lateral force Fl of something better is developed.
Fig. 74. E is determined, and that the sheering In addition to the assumed kinds and nominal
maneuver occupies the predominant role, the aspect ratios of the various hydrofoil elements of
next step is to determine, in terms of numbers, the rudder blade, the effective angle of attack,
the fractional part of this force that is exerted on and the speed of advance, mentioned earlier in
the hull. In the present state of the art the fraction the section, the designer now knows or has esti-
Fh/Fl alluded to previously and called here the
, mated the total lift force F r required of the rudder.
hull-force fraction,can at best only be estimated. Assuming a sort of standard type of hydrofoil or
A correct estimate must be based upon knowledge flap section for each part, it is possible for him to
of the pressure field exerted by the angled rudder estimate the lift coefficients and to determine with
in its vicinity. Available data on this feature are reasonable accuracy the area necessary to exert
rare; they are neither analyzed nor published. the required hft force on each part. Graphs giving
It might be more realistic, therefore, to say that some of the necessary data are found in Figs.
for the present the hull-force fraction is only 44.A through 44.D. Other data are to be found
guessed. It may be of the order of 1/4, 1/3, or 1/2, in the references listed in Sees. 44.3, 44.4, and
leaving 3/4, 2/3, or 1/2 of the total lateral force 44.5.
Fl to be developed by the rudder blade. The sum of the areas thus derived may be equal
Sec. 74.7 MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 719
to, but from the total movable
will usually differ The model was run with the usual fixed rudd('r
area tentatively assumed when the blade was post of rectangular section ahead of the rudder,
first sketched. Adjustments are made to the area then with four fixed fins of uniform thickness
or shape or aspect ratio, one or all, and a second added abaft the post (and ahead of the rudder),
hydrofoil calculation is made, similar to the first. representing full-scale lengths of 0, 2.08, 4.16,
For the case of the compound or flap-type and 6.25 ft. The combined full-scale fin-and-
rudder the exact value of the ratio of the movable- rudder area was always 144 ft^ indicated in
blade lateral force F^ to the hull lateral force F,f Fig. 1 of the reference. The area of a fairing of
and the exact value of the lift coefficients used to varied width added ahead of the rudder post, as
calculate the movable-blade force, depend upon well as the area of the post itself, was not included
the tightness assumed for the hinge closure. Un- in the nominal fin-and-rudder area.
fortunately the effect of actual hinge gaps and On
the basis of these test data Bottomley then
hinge leakage is not yet assessed in the full scale. calculated the fore-and-aft length of four hy-
Data from aeronautical tests require some analysis pothetical rudders which,when placed behind the
before they are applicable to the ship problem. four fins mentioned, would give the same initial
Similar comment applies to the assessment of ship-turning moment at small rudder angles
the effects of horizontal gaps between parts of the (5 deg) as the original rudder (called R4) when
rudder and the hull, and a determination of the mounted abaft the rectangular-section rudder
proper effective aspect ratio for each part of the post. If four rudders of these lengths had been
rudder. Certain useful data derived from tests of mounted abaft the four fins mentioned, horizontal
low-aspect-ratio hydrofoils are included in Sec. sections through the assemblies would have
44.3. appeared as sketched in Fig. 74. F. Assuming that
In the event that the maximum turning moment
is required in a steady turn, to meet certain
R Behind Rudder
^^ ^
\rn
operational needs, the physical action on both Post Only

rudder and ship is no longer simple or well known.

The design procedure is not yet outlined and may
not be for some time to come.
As an indication of the absolute magnitude of
the moments required to maneuver a ship there
are available the results of model tests in which
the rudder was angled by various amounts while
the model was constrained to travel in steady,
straight-ahead motion. This corresponds, as pre-
viously described, to the few moments after a
signal to turn is given but before a ship has time
Fig. 74.F Ruddeb-Fin Assemblies of G. H.
to change direction from its straight approach
Bottomley
path. Among these tests are some conducted by By calculation, all five of these assemblies give the same
G. H. Bottomley at the NPL, Teddington initial ship-turning moment for small rudder angles
["Maneuvering of Single-Screw Ships: The Effect of the order of 5 deg.
of Rudder Proportions on Maneuvering and Pro-
pulsive Efficiency," Inst. Civ. Engrs., London, Bottomley's calculations were correct, and that
1935, No. 175]. The model represented a ship the scale effects in the model tests were insig-
having the following characteristics: nificant, each of the five assemblies appearing in
the figure would give an initial turning moment
Lpp , 400 ft Cp , 0.70 of 2,400 ft-tons on the ship used as the basis of
B, 52 ft CG assumed at midlength the tests, reckoned about the CG.
H, 23 ft between perpendiculars The values of this moment at rudder angles of
A, 9,400 t CG to rudder stock, about 15 and 35 deg are given in Table 74. c, copied from
V, 14 kt 200 ft the Bottomley reference, together with the torques
Pe , 2,200 horses Area A « of standard rudder, that would have been required to hold the rudders
Ps , 3,160 horses 144 ft^ in those positions. Considered as a design refer-
An/[L{H)] = 0.016. ence, the tabulated ship-turning moments are
720 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.8

TABLE 74.C, Ship-Turning Moments and Rudder Torques for a 400-ft Ship
Adapted from G. H. Bottomley, "Maneuvering of Single-Screw Ships," ICE, London, 1935, No. 175, Appx. I, p. 19.
The rudders and fins listed in the two left-hand columns are illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 74.F.
Sec. 7-f.S MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 721

non-overhauling the effort or the time required to (a) Designed to run for long periods with
take off rudder angle in an emergency may be small rudder angle, with a premium on steering
too great to justify letting the CP move ahead effort and power, and wear and tear on the steering
of the stock axis under any condition. If the rudder mechanism
torque becomes excessively large, the fore-and-aft (b) Where a reduced rudder-angle rate may be
—
length of the blade and the actuathig moment accepted for astern operation
—
required to turn it must be decreased and the (c) Which may have to maintain speed ahead
aspect ratio increased, as was done on the large in the event of a casualty to the power steering
hand-steered sailing ships. This can, of course, gear which leaves the rudder free to swing.
also be done on ships which are mechanically
steered. (3) The rudder may be slightly overbalanced at

With certain types of hydraulic steering gears small angles for ahead operation at service speed:
it is possible for an overbalanced rudder to take
(a) When the friction in the mechanical or
charge in an emergency and swing rapidly to its emergency gear is enough to prevent the rudder
hard-over position, causing the ship to circle out from taking charge if power is lost and from
of control as long as it is moving ahead. swinging to the hard-over position.
The necessity for going astern on mechanically
propelled vessels,and for much backing and (4) The rudder may be overbalanced for angles

maneuvering on special-service vessels, often calls not more than one-third of the maximum and
for the least practicable steering rudder torque, appreciably overbalanced for the small angles used
whether the craft are steered by power or by hand. for steering:

This generally requires that the center of pressure

(a) On special-service vessels called upon for
CP when going ahead be forward of the stock much backing and maneuvering, or for hard-over
axis so that the CP when going astern mil not
rudder shifts at the maximum rate, when it is an
be too far from that axis. Shifting the stock axis advantage to have the ahead and astern rudder
aft on the blade takes care of this situation but torques equahzed as far as practicable, with
involves the additional disadvantage of possible neither of them very large
rudder instability and chatter at zero angle,
(b) On vessels provided with reasonably reli-
especially with slackness in the gear, and a
able power-operated auxiliary or emergency steer-
tiresome job of steering Lf the gear is of the over-
ing gears.
hauling type. The relative position of the two
CP's and the axis, for all service conditions, is Non-uniform flow over the control-surface
thereforedetermined by the most important blade,whose general effects are described in Sec.
service operating requirements. 37.7, may influence the balance situation; at least
The following design rules govern the degree of the possibility or probability of this flow requires
balance on rudders for steering and turning. They consideration in the design stage. The nature of
are predicatedupon reasonably uniform flow over the flow may control the distribution of balance
the whole rudder blade: area along the stock axis, generally normal to
the adjacent hull, and the position of this area
(1) The rudder definitely should trail at all angles
relative to the retarded water m boundary layers
on any craft:
or to the accelerated water in propeller-outflow
jets.
(a) Designed for hand steering, and for pleasure
For example, a spade rudder blade is often
only
(b) Designed for hand steering, and where, for made shorter (in the direction of flow) at the
bottom, well below the hull, than close to the
efficiency and safety, the rudder effort must be
hull, in order to reduce the stock bending moment.
"felt." Examples are racing sailboats and motor-
This means that the balance portion is longer
boats.
(fore and aft) near the hull than below it. In fact,
(c) Steered by one man who must also attend
the length of the balance portion compared to
to other duties, such as a lone fisherman.
the blade length, defined as the length-balance
(2) The rudder is best made slightly under- ratio in Sec. 37.2,may be greater near the hull
balanced at small angles for ahead operation at than the area-balance ratio. At the bottom of the
service speed on any vessel: rudder it may be less. With the long portion of
722 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.9

the blade working in the boundary layer and the (e) Hagen, G. R., "Effects of Variations in Thickness-

short portion in a propeller outflow jet, the

Chord Ratio of Rudders in a Slipstream," TMB
Rep. C-487, Jan 1952.
balance ratios mthin the jet largely determine the
actual rudder balance and are the ones to be Additional design data are given in Part 5 of
given primary consideration in the design. Volume III.
a partly underhung rudder is laid out with
If 74.9 Selection and Proportion of Chordwise
a balance portion so long that, at or near the Sections. Considering solely development
the
hard-over position, the forward end of this of lift or lateral force, there are situations un-—
portion swings into a propeller-outflow jet, the fortunately not yet fully —
predictable for which
negative torque thus created appreciably affects a thick, flat-plate blade attached at the ship or
the balance situation as determined on a uniform- hull end to a cylindrical stock is the best rudder
flow basis. section to use. Certainly nothing much more
In some cases a balance portion hes only in elaborate than such a plate, rounded at the leading
one-half of a scrcAV-propeller outflow jet, or edge and fined at the trailing edge, is justified for
mostly in that jet. It is then acted upon by water many small boats.
having a tangential component of velocity due A rudder on a large ship, however, gets a free
to rotation imparted by the propeller, primarily ride, as it were, for a good part of the time that
in one direction. A balance performance predicted the ship is in operation, since steering rarely in-
for uniform or for axial flow may require appre-
volves a contmuous rudder motion. In this case
ciable modification because of this tangential or high lift is only one of several factors; easy flow
rotary flow, quite apart from any consideration and low resistance carry considerable weight
of the neutral angle of the rudder. Special studies when a rudder-blade section is chosen. As a
or model tests are required to insure proper
consequence, the overall advantages of fitting
design. The same may apply to the design of
streamlined rudders are so outstanding that
offset rudders encountering inward-and-aft flow then- use is taken for granted wherever this type
at the stern. of construction is at all feasible. The exact section
Numerical balance ratios, either of area or of shape not too important provided certain basic
is
length, have meaning only when apphed to control principles are borne in mind:
surfaces of given section and shape in a given
type of flow. They can be distinctly misleading (a) The leading edge is to be neither too sharp,
when comparisons are made between dissimilar so that produces discontinuous flow when the
it

rudders. It is the position of the CP with respect angle of attack is large, nor too blunt, so as to
to the axis for each condition which counts. develop excessively high dynamic pressures at
In other words, the degree of balance is deter- the nose
mined by the actual rudder torque and not by the (b) The section at the leading edge is made

balance ratio. The CP position requires careful elliptical in shape, not semicircular, for the
determination when the torques are large or when reasons given in Sees. 36.3 and 67.5. If cavitation
definite over- or underbalance is being sought. is not expected at zero or neutral angle, it should
foregoing general design procedure apphes
The be deferred, at least for the small angles en-
also to the positioning of the stock axes for diving countered when steering.
planes, active fins, and other control surfaces. (c) The curvature in the entrance or leading

Data for estimating control-surface torques for portion is easy, diminishing gradually from the
a degree of balance and for a blade shape tenta- nose to the region of maximum thickness, comply-
tively selected are given by: ing with instructions in the last paragraph of Sec.
49.8
(a) Darnell, R. C, "Hydrodynamic Characteristics of
EMB (d) The section outhne or contour along any
Twelve Symmetrical Hydrofoils," Rep. 341,
Nov 1932 streamline is fair, without jogs, buckles, welding
(b) Schoenherr, K. E., PNA, 1939, Vol. II, pp. 204-210. creases and upset Unes, or other discontinuities
Chap. 44 of the present volume gives adaptations across the streamlines
of some of Schoenherr's diagrams.
(e) The extreme trailing portion is no thicker
(c) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., RPSS, 1948, pp. 319-332
than need be for structural purposes. It is well
it
(d) Hagen, G. R., "Rudder Design Data . . . Obtained
from Tests on Five Model Rudders," TMB^Rep. tapered, terminating in an edge that is only
C-125, Jun 1948 thick enough to withstand nicking and corrosion.
Sec. 74.10 MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 723

For a ship on which the rudder is required to A nose shape is selected for which the lift coefficient
produce good steering and maneuvering but CL is still increasing at this attack angle.
behmd which the rudder region is filled with The maximum thickness of a rudder section,
slowly moving water, the usual symmetrical occurring almost invariably abreast the stock
hydrofoil section, tapering in the run, is not axis,and the variation of this thickness along the
adequate to give prompt rudder response. The depth of the rudder, is generally a matter of
rudder section may then be carried aft from the structural design. As such it is not covered here.
stock axis at full thickness, with a square ending, When the blades of rudders and planes are made
or the sides may even be splayed outward toward removable from the stock it may be necessary
the trailing edge. This section shape gives the to increase the thickness ratio tx/c at the support
necessary lift forces at small rudder angles for ends of spade rudders and cantilevered diving
adequate steering in the manner described in planes to a maximum of 0.25. However, this

Sec. 37.17 and illustrated in Fig. 37.L. large thickness should not be carried too far
There appear to be no design rules, or even along the blade. Normally, the thickness ratio
rules of thumb, to use for guidance in the selection tx/c does not exceed 0.20 or 0.167 at the stock
or delineation of splayed or fish-tail rudder end Toward the free, unsupported
of the rudder.
most cases these sections are employed
sections. In end a cantilevered rudder or plane, where the
of
to compensate for extreme eddying or backflow. required section modulus is diminishing rapidly,
As the poor flow conditions should not exist in the the thickness ratio can be reduced considerably.
first place there is little point in conducting The value of tx/c is usually only about 1/6 of
systematic research to find out how to correct that at the stock end.
them by using unusual rudder sections rather than The sections of a close-coupled simple rudder,
by reshaping the run of the hull. or of the close-coupled portion of a compound
Whatever the shape of the trailing edge of a rudder, form a continuation of the hull, skeg, or
rudder (or diving plane) section, whether inside fin to which it is attached. There should be no

a propulsion-device outflow jet or not, it should
be such that there is never any doubt in the mind
of the water as to just where it is going to separate
from the section. If the trailing edge can not be
fine, narrow enough so that the eddies abaft it
are insignificant, it should be cut off square, or
even splayed like the split tail of a weathervane.
It is never to be rounded enough to permit the
enlargement and no more discontinuity at the
hinged joint than is required to give the rudder
clearance to swing from one side to the other.
Tests of various rudder sections at the David
Taylor Model Basin indicate that a simple section
shape composed of a semi-circular nose and per-
fectly straight sides, tapering to zero thickness at
the trailing edge, possesses hit-drag ratios

separation points on either side to shift backward superior to those of the NACA sections suitable
and forward, with consequent eddy buffeting, for rudders. The thickness ratios tx/c were 0.15
rattling, vibration, and perhaps even more serious and less. Further, the breakdown or stalling point
consequences. This one reason for not using a
is is delayed to a greater angle and the maximum
TMB EPH rounded section at
section, vnth. its hft is increased. So far as known, no confirmation

the trailing edge. This section can, if desired, be of these features in full scale is available at the
terminated in a double-chisel shape, depicted in time of writing (1955). It is possible that the use
diagram 2 of Fig. 70. P. of a short elliptic nose to prevent cavitation there
It is doubtful whether any rudder section would not detract from the advantages of the
suitable for practical use can be kept free of section.
separation and cavitation at extremely large The straight-sided shape of these sections, or of
effective angles of attack, of the order of 30 to sections smiilar to them, may be found valuable
35 deg. These are always encountered when a in a study of dynamic stabihty of route, dis-
rudder is swung rapidly to a hard-over position cussed in detail in Part 5 of Volume III. The
while the ship is moving on a straight course or convex side of a rudder, exposed to the angled
perhaps is swinging in the opposite direction. flow on the "outside" of a ship in a yaw, may set
The probable maximum effective angle of attack up undesirable — Ap's acting to increase the yaw.
after the ship has started swinging, at a rate Straight rudder sides of the proper shape would
approximately half of that in a steady turn, has develop +Ap's, acting to reduce the yaw angle.
to be estimated, using the best known procedure. 74.10 Structural Control-Surface Design as
724 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.11

effect, illustrated schematically in the lowest

diagram of Fig. 74. G. The boundary plates of a
rudder or a diving plane should be attached
primarily to internal structural members which
run fore and aft, parallel to the streamlines of the
liquid flowing over it, as in the topmost diagram
of Fig. 74. G. This is especially true if the conti'ol
surface lies within the outflow jet of a screw
propeller or other propulsion device.
If practicable, there should be no joints,
welding beads, or the like, transverse to the floAV,

anywhere in the entrance of the control surface.

Transverse Members Should Not Be
Welded to Side Plotinq
This is achieved by wrapping a single plate
around the nose and both sides of the entrance,
and attaching it to the frame only by fastenings
parallel to the flow. These fastenings are spaced
as closely as practicable, normal to the flow, so
as to make the plating relatively rigid, with little
likelihood of panting or bending between supports
and of failure through fatigue.
^°^^ Wrapper Plate 74.11 Design Notes for Motorboat Rudders.
I
'^'l
'" °"^ ^'^^^ The general principles for the design of the rudders

TABLE 74.d Ratio op Rudder Area to Lateral-

Plane Abba for Motorboats and Similar Craft
The data listed here are translated from the book of J.
Baader entitled "Cruoeros y Lanchas Veloces (Cruisers
Fig. 74.G Rudder Structure with One System of and Fast Launches)," Buenos Aires, 1951, pages 333 and
Welds Parallel to the Flow 335. The percentages of Group III include, for each case,
the total projected area of the two rudders.
Affected by Hydrodynamics. Any control sur- On pages 334 and 337 of the reference Baader gives
face, especially on a high-speed vessel, requires a profiles of thirteen launches, motorboats, and motor
yachts, showing the relative positions and comparative
structural design and a fabrication procedure
sizes of screw propellers and rudders for these craft.
which Avill insure that the selected control-surface
section, along the Ime of flow, is achieved m the I. Boats with One Screw Propeller and
One Rudder {W')Ar/L{H)
building of the ship and is maintained in service.
Minimum surface for good steering . 2
The finished boundary plating on a structure Normal surface for steering and
that is hollow, as are most control surfaces, must maneuvering 2.5
be fair and smooth, Avithout wrmkles or bulges. Ideal surface for steering and man-
euvering 3
Further, it must be so stiffened that it maintains
Best surface for going astern ... 4 to 5
its fairness and shape while subjected to many
Maximum surface for special cases 10
different kinds of loading, —steady, intermittent, II. Boats with Two Screw Propellers and
.

and alternating. This one reason why the thin

is One Rudder (between them)
coverings of airplane wings and control surfaces Minimum surface for steering ... 2,5
Normal surface for steering and
are attached to ribs or stiffeners which lie in the
maneuvering 3
direction of flow.
Best surface for maneuvering con-
Indeed, the process of welding a rudder assembly ditions 4 to 5
may introduce discontinuities in the surface before III. Boats with Two Screw Propellers and
the ship is completed. Internal stiffening members Two Rudders
attached to the boundary plates by inside welds Minimum surface for steering ... 2
Minimum surface for steering and
produce ridges in those plates because of shrinkage
maneuvering 2.5
of the weld metal when cooling. If the internal Advisable surface for steering and
stiffeners are placed generally normal to the flow, maneuvering 3
welding gives the boundary plates a washboard Best surface for going astern .... 4 to 5
 Sec. 74.11 MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 725

of mechanically powered small boats embody

those of Sec. 74.8 relative to balance and trailing,
plus the increased relative rudder area indicated
for small craft in Tables 74. b and 74. d. Whereas
formerly many were operated
of these rudders
by hand, some of them now have power gear, and
a few of them automatic steering.
For craft which run at speed-length or Taylor
quotients T^ of 3 or more, F„ > 0.89, the rudder
forces and moments are large compared to other
forces and moments. This applies to heeling as
well as swinging moments, so that whether or
not a boat banks properly (inward) on a turn may
depend as much on the rudder as on the hull.
As the Tj and the absolute speeds reach higher
values it is increasmgly important that the rudder

be of the proper size and shape.

Moximuir Rudder Fig. 74.1 Blunt-Ended Parallel-Sided Motorboat

Rudder
The numerals may represent any units of measurement
or serve as relative proportions.

or tail portion and a wide, square trailing edge.

It is cut away at the after upper corner because:

(a) The +Ap built up on the ahead side of the

upper after corner ofan angled rudder with a
horizontal top, indicated in Fig. 74. H, exerts a
lift force under the stern and depresses the bow.
While this is an advantage in straight-away
running, it is liable to cause the bow to trip in
a turn [Grenfell, T., "Some Notes on Steering of
High Speed Planing Hulls," SNAME, Pac.
Northwest 27 Sep 1952; abstracted in
Sect.,
SNAME Jan 1953, p. 35].
Bull.,
(b) The portion removed permits a more-or-less
solid stream of water to pass over the angled
rudder, close under the hull. This acts as a shield
Fig. 74.H Motoeboat Rudder with Streamlined — Ap
to prevent air leakage to the astern or side
Sections
of the rudder. Whether cut away or not, it is
preferable to place the rudder so that it lies
Fig. 74.H indicates the outline and prmcipal
completely under the hull at any angle, to obtain
dimensions of a type of streamlined rudder
the maximum shielding effect from air leakage.
developed by Elliott Gardner for a 45.5-ft air
rescue boat, based upon systematic full-scale The nominal aspect ratio of the horizontal-top
tests and experience extending back to 1925. It rudder of Fig. 74.H is 1.247 whereas that of the
is reported to be suitable for all speeds from 5 to more modern design in Fig. 74.1 is 1.224.
50 mph, or 4.3 to 43.4 kt. The design of rudders for high-speed motorboats
Fig. 74.1 is a more modern rudder of somewhat of the planing type, especially those which travel
similar design, intended for use on a 52-ft air at values of the Taylor quotient T, = V/'vL
rescue boat, but having parallel sides in the run in excess of 5, is based largely upon experiment
726 HYDRODYNAMICS
and experience. A generous portion of both is
made available to the profession in a paper
entitled"Some Notes on Steeling on High-Speed
Planing Hulls," by T. Grenfell, previously
referenced in this section. Grenfell recommends
that the aspect ratio of rudders for these ultra-
high-speed craft be of the order of 2, making
them twice as deep as they are long.
74.12 Design of Close-Coupled and Com-
pound Rudders. Any close-coupled simple
rudder is in reality a compound rudder, but its
effect is not easy to predict because the greater
part of the quantitative data in existence are for
flap-type hydrofoils of rather different proportions.
However, sufficient information has been obtained
from special model tests [Abell, T. B., INA, 1936,
pp. 137-144 and PI. XV; van Lammeren, W. P. A.,
RPSS, 1948, pp. 327-328] to enable a fairly
reliable estunate to be made of the part of the
total transverse force exerted by the movable
rudder and the part exerted on the fixed or ship
structure adjacent to the rudder. Part 5 of Volume
III contains a series of diagrams from which these
fractional parts can be estimated for any probable
rudder arrangement. From that point on the
design follows the procedure described in the
sections preceding.
The indications from a series of rudder
stern profiles and corresponding graphs of ship
turning moment given by W. P. A. van Lammeren
[RPSS, 1948, Fig. 221, p. 331] are that none of
the fixed fins or posts shown there contribute
much additional force to that exerted by the
movable rudder blade.
When designing a compound-type control
surface, or one with a movable blade carrying a
flap, it is well to limit the angle of the movable
portion, or the flap, to the order of 20 deg either
way, especially if the length of the movable portion
or flap is less than 0.4 of the chord length of the
whole section [NACA Rep. WRL-419, Jan 1944].
This eliminates any possibility of stall. However,
if the whole control surface is of low aspect ratio,
or if the movable portion is very large compared
to the whole, it is possible that the movable
portion or flap may remain effective up to angles
of 35 deg either way.
74.13 Conditions Calling for Tubular Rudders.
When steering in shallow, fast flowing rivers,
prompt rudder action at just the right moment
may mean the difTerence between a safe passage
and disaster. For this type of service no
blade or multi-blade rudder is adequate.
IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.12
s\vinging or steering propellers can not be used,
one or more tubular or box rudders or swinging
Kort nozzles may be employed, arranged so as to
change the direction of the whole propeller-outflow
jet.Fig. 74. J illu.strates an experimental rudder
of this type.
Fig. 74.J A Pair op Tubular, Swiveling Rudders
and
For proper mechanical clearance the stock axis
must pass close to or through the plane of the
propeller disc. Even then a constant small tip
clearance is not possible unless the tubular rudder
has a shape abreast the propeller that is approxi-
mately spherical. Against the efficacy of a proper
design of tubular rudder must be balanced the
liability of bending the tube on rocks or debris in
the stream bed and jamming the propeller inside it.
74.14 Closures for Rudder Hinge Gaps.
Sec. 37.3 and diagram 9 of Fig. 37. D illustrate
the manner in which differential-pressure leakage
can take place between the +Ap and — Ap sides
of a rudder-and-support assembly, even when the
clearances are reasonably small. On old sailing
ships it was customary to keep this gap as small
as easy movement of the wooden parts would
permit. Clearance spaces left for lifting the rudders
far enough to get the pintles out of the gudgeons
were covered by filhng plates [Barry, R. E., Mar.
Eng'g., Sep 1921, p. 689]. In general, plates or
other closures should be fitted on the fixed portion
of the post-and-blade assembly. This is the reason
single- for the fixed lugs on the sternpost shown by Fig.
If 73. K of Sec. 73.14.
Sec. 74.15 MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 727

For an excellent discussion of the hydrodynamic transom submergence of 2 ft and a baseplane

and other problems associated with the closing clearance of 0.5 ft for the foot of the rudder, the
(or narrowing) of vertical and horizontal gaps the portion of the blade abaft the stock axis could
reader is referred to P. Mandel [SNAME, 1953, be at least 22 ft high by 10 ft long, with a pro-
p. 489, under —
"Rudders Gap and Horizontal jected area of about 220 Adding say 25 per
ft'.

Break"]. S. F. Hoerner gives useful information cent for the balance portion of the foil ahead of
concerning the relative drag of various across-the- the stock gave a tentative total area of 220 -|- 55 =
flow gap configurations between a symmetrical- 275 ft', which appeared ample. With the balance
section airfoil and its trailing-edge flap, together portion extending from 0.5 ft above the baseplane
with notes on the effect of the airfoil thickness to about 1.5 ft below the shaft axis (at the 10.5-ft
and flap thickness at the hinge [AD, 1951, pp. WL), its height was 8.5 ft, giving a tentative
57-58]. These data apply directly, for straight- fore-and-aft length of 55/8.5 = 6.5 ft. The length
ahead running, to ship rudders hung abaft thin balance was then 6.5/(10 -|- 6.5) = 0.394. This
skegs or rudder horns. value seemed rather large but not too large for a
74.15 Rudder Designs for Alternative Stems rudder which must be angled without requiring
of ABC Ship. The estimates of area for the an excessive torque when going astern.
rudder designs of the ABC ship, described in this With a clear-water skeg ending and a baseplane
section, are based only on the first approximation clearance of 0.5 ft for the propeller, the baseplane
of Sec. 74.6, and not upon the more logical pro- clearance of 0.5 the rudder appeared some-
ft for

cedure outlined in Sec. 74.7. Furthermore, the what small to the owner and operator. It was
designs of the rudders themselves are carried therefore increased to 1.0 ft. The upper after
only far enough in this section to produce control corner of the tail of the blade was also cut away to
devices which would have about the same re- provide a greater gap and more protection against
sistance (certainly no less) than could be expected air leakage below the edge of the transom. The

of the final refined rudder designs for the two three lower corners were left square. The shape
alternative ABC ship sterns. and dimensions of the blade when sketched at
When roughing in the stern profile of the ABC the conclusion of the preliminary design of the
ship with transom, described in the first part of transom-stern huU appear in Fig. 74.K. It has a
Sec. 66.25, a first approximation for the area of total area of 273 ft', or 0.0206 of the product
the movable blade of a single centerline rudder was L{H) = 510(26) at the designed draft.
0.02(L)F, or 265.2 ft'. From Table 74.b this is a The lateral area of the fixed horn as sketched
high-hmit value for large, medium-speed passenger in the figure is about 89 ft', or roughly 24 per
and cargo ships. The selection of the maximum cent of the combined area of blade and horn.
value in the table was based upon the need for Because of its closeness to the blade it appears
excellent steering and turning qualities in the that the differential pressures set up on the fixed
Port Amalo canal and when maneuvering out of horn wUl add materially to the lateral force
the harbor at Port Bacine, indicated in Figs. exerted by the blade when the latter is angled.
64.A and 64.B. For the arch-stern ABC hull described in Sec.
Based upon the use of a clear-water aftfoot and 67.16 and illustrated in Figs. 67.L and 67.M,
no rudder shoe, the rudder had to be partly or there was little in the way of design data for
completely underhung. To avoid placing the guidance, by which to select a ratio of rudder-
single rudder in the paths of the hub vortexes blade area to the product of the waterhne length
from the single propeller ahead, it was decided to and draft. The stern was laid out so that, at a
embody a partly underhung rudder and to carry reasonably small rudder angle, either the port
it by a horn which extended far enough below or the starboard blade would swing into the
the hull to include a fixed fairing abaft the pro- projection of the propeller disc. Fig. 67. P indicates
peller hub. A foil of generous area placed below that the traihng edges of both rudders, at zero
the horn, with a short circulation path and plenty angle, lie close to this projection. The contraction
of clearance for the circulatory flow, would in the outflow jet is assumed small because the
provide the quick response necessary for steering stock axes lie only about 0.33D abaft the disc
the ship in the Port Amalo canal and in the river position.
below Port Correo. It was estimated that an increase of at least 25
Small-scale sketches indicated that, with a per cent over the blade area of a rudder lying
 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.15

-ae.'O Designed Woterhne

2:0- Fbrward Edqe of Horn, if a ,,' '

^
oubmerqence
,

Centerline Bultock- c u/ ij 5.5 Trp

or Weldment
».
Forging 1
"^ =

Fig. 74.K Details of Aftfoot, Propeller Aperture, Rudder Support, and Rudder for ABC
Transom-Stern Ship

abaft a single propeller would be required to
give the arch-stern ship as good maneuvering
characteristics as the alternative transom-stern
ship. The adverse effect of the increased lateral
area of the twin skegs would, it was
offset by the increased which the
lateral force
twin rudders would, acting as flaps, generate on
the portions of the fixed skegs just ahead of them.
Further, the addition of an underhung foil on
each rudder would provide the quick steering
and turnmg response needed for running in the
confined waters at each end of the ship route.
When finally sketched, as in Fig. 74. L, the total
movable-blade area of both rudders was 346.74 ft^.
This was 346.74/13,260 or 0.0261 of the product
L{H), an increase of 26 per cent over the same
ratio for the single, centerline-rudder design of
the transom-stern ship.
These twin rudders are in effect only the
trailing edges of the two arch-stern skegs. Each
is arranged to swing about a vertical axis 8 ft
fonvard of what would be the skeg ending and
each carries an underhung foil extending below
the bottom of the skeg termination. The rather
of the inside skeg waterUnes close to the antici-
pated flowlines in the tunnel. The convergence of
the outside waterUnes is such as to terminate the
skegs and rudders in trailing edges that he as
believed, be close as possible to the outflow jet of the propeller.
The and unsymmetrical sections
resulting thick
leave some uncertainty as to the hydrodynamic
behavior of the hinged tail portions, when acting
as flaps hinged to the main skegs. In view of the
lack of information about them, a series of maneu-
vering tests with a model is definitely indicated
before the arch-stern design is carried beyond this
preUminary stage.
The selection of the proper thickness ratios and
the horizontalshapes for the single,
section
streamhned rudder of the transom-stern ship
involves no .such hmitations as those just de-
scribed for the arch-stern design. To be sure, the
thickness ratio for the single rudder is to some
extent governed by the thickness of the fixed
horn which is necessary to afford adequate
rigidity to the lower rudder bearing. This is a
matter of structural analysis and calculation and
as such it is outside the scope of the book. The

unusual horizontal sections of the tail portions of thicknesses indicated on Fig. 74. N of Sec. 74.17
these rudders arise from a deliberate continuation are estimates only, based upon similar installa-
Sec. 74.16 MOVABLE APPENDAGE DESIGN 729

26' Designed Woterlii

Fig. 74.L Vertical Centerplane Section Through Shaft, Propeller, and Strut-Bearing
Support of ABC Arch-Stern Design

tions with fixed horns of somewhat less relative
depth.
Before the tinie came to sketch the streamlined
rudder for the transom-stern ABC ship it was
decided to use a form of contra-rudder. A fair-
form rudder with a flat meanline plane, even when
designed as a unit with the fixed horn, involves
thrust-producmg device. In fact, it need not be
movable, as is the rudder. Typical horizontal
sections for a compound rudder with contra-
features in the fixed portion only, and in both the
fixed and movable portions, are shown by W. P. A.
van Lammeren [RPSS, 1948, Fig. 55, diagrams
e and f respectively, p. 100]. However, as a rudder
,

design problems which are adequately covered is required with normal screw propulsion, the
by P. Mandel [SNAME, 1953, pp. 474-490] and friction drag of a separate fixed surface is elimin-

by others listed at the end of Sec. 74.8. They are ated by incorporating the contra-flow feature in
not further discussed here. The layouts of the the rudder. For the design of this feature, the
contra-rudder and the contra-guide horn, as rudder is considered to remain at its zero or

applying to the ABC transom-stern design, are neutral angle.

described in Sees. 74.16 and 74.17 which follow. The design problem consists of:

74.16 Design Notes for a Centra-Rudder.

Strictly speaking, the contra-flow feature on a (a) Establishing a series of horizontal planes
rudder is not a functional part of the rudder as a above and below the propeller axis, described for
control surface but is an energy-recovering and a the contra-guide skeg ending in Sec. 67.22, for
730 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.16

1<2U[ 0060
AUi-»^h-

^ t Q n"' r'<2UiSini;(-UASin9s1

Ec^.(74.l)

Fig. 74. M Vector Diagram for Design of Contra-Rudder

which separate velocity diagrams and rudder transverse plane. The offsets of these edges are
sections are to be drawn then laid off at each level. This matter is discussed
(b) Estimating the magnitude of the mduced in detail in a paragraph following.
velocity Uj at each propeller radius, as well as (f) Calculating (or estimating) a minimum
the factors fci k^ and fcj in Fig. 74.M. These
, , thickness for the contra-rudder. This involves the
data are required to determine the resultant calculated diameter of the stock or main vertical
velocity vector Urs for the given radius at the structural member
necessary to carry the side
fore-and-aft location selected for the leading loads expected. These in turn have to be estimated
edge of the contra-rudder. The latter position is rather roughly until more of the rudder is laid out.
usually determined by the aperture clearance If the contra-rudder is to be of the compound

provided abaft the wheel. type, with a fixed forward portion, a certain
(c) Drawing velocity diagrams smiUar to those stiffness is required for this latter member.
in Fig. 74.M, assuming that a contra-guide skeg (g) Selecting a hydrofoil section thick enough to
ending, if one is to be used, is already designed meet the needs of (f), combmed with proper
(d) Estimating the magnitude of the induced fore-and-aft position of the maximum thickness tx
velocity to be set up by the contra-rudder hydro- (h) Calculating the lift on the selected section
foil section itself, of which half may be expected at the nominal angle of attack indicated by the
to develop ahead of the leading edge of the contra- velocity diagram for the propeller radius in
rudder. It is of interest to note that the flow due to question. From these data a second approximation
cii'culation through the aperture between a to the loading curve on the stock is found, by
propeller blade and a contra-rudder blade is in which the stock scantlmgs are checked. Although
the same direction for both, namely forward in the lateral thrust loads are m opposite directions
the direction of motion of the propeller blade. In above and below the shaft axis the bending
many cases the velocities induced by the rudder moments and shear loads are heavy in the vicinity
are small and may be neglected in the design. of that axis.
(e) Selecting a curve for the leading edges of the (i) Adjusting the several hydrofoil shapes and
hydrofoil sections of the rudder blade at the positions so that a S-dunl body based upon them
various levels or propeller radii, as projected on a is fair with respect to its traces in a series of
Sec. 74.16 MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 731

vertical transverse planes between the leading blade angles marked in the diagram. The
and the trailing edges of the rudder. nominal value of the obliquity 6r of the velocity
vector U R3 incident on the rudder section, may
,

The steps listed in the foregoing require some be calculated by Eq. (74.i), set down in the upper
explanation, given here in the same order as
RH corner of the figure.
(a) through (i).
For a contra-guide skeg ending designed as
The velocity diagrams of Fig. 37. K, for a contra- in Sec. 67.22, the angle ds is known for any blade
rudder installation only, are supplemented by radius or level. If the skeg ending is symmetrical,
those of Fig. 74. M, for an installation of both as in Fig. 37. K, the expression for Br reduces to
contra-guide skeg ending and contra-rudder. In that of Eq. (74. ii), alongside the large-scale
the latter diagrams the incident flows on the pro- diagram 3 of Fig. 74.M. The value of Ui is always
peller are shown two adjacent blade sections,
for
small with respect to U a and /cj is always less
,

unrolled into the flat. This is an aid in visualizing than 1.00, because the full value of Ui is developed
the flow leaving the skeg endmg, represented by only far astern. Eq. (74.ii) therefore reduces to
the vector U a and that forming one of the
,
Br = tan~^ (C sin 0). Here C, representing
components of incident flow on a blade section at kiUi/U A is a small fraction, say 0.15. For any
,

the same level. normal propeller the geometric blade angle 4>
It is customary to show the flow meeting a seldom exceeds 65 deg at the hub surface, hence
moving-blade element with reference to axes in C sin has a maxunum value of about 0.135.
The vector Ua is therefore combined
that element. The angle 9r then has a maximum value of about
with the rotational vector 2irrii2 and with the 8 deg, where Br = sin Br = tan Br approximately. ,

induced-velocity vector fcj Uj to give the incident- Actually, it is possible to derive the average
velocity vector Uri . When the flow leaves the value and direction of Ua only from model tests
moving blade along Ur2 it is again referred back or very special ship tests. Further, U a is almost
to axes fixed in the ship by combining it with the never constant along the upper or the lower
rotational vector 2imR, but in a reverse direction. blade radii, either in magnitude or direction, nor
This is equivalent to combining the inflow vector does the mean upper value of U a equal the mean
U A with the induced-velocity vector at the trailing lower one. As a consequence, and because of the
edge of the blade element, the latter equal to varying circulation at different blade radii, the
k^Uj The flow meeting the hydrofoil section of
.
maximum induced velocity Uj is almost never
the rudder is then represented nominally by the the same for all radii, nor is it known precisely
vector ?7jj3 at any radius. To cap all the foregoing, the factors
It is now required to select a section shape for /ci and ^2 are not well known. While values reason-
the contra-rudder, and a nominal angle of in- ably close to the actual ones could undoubtedly
cidence with respect to the ship centerplane, be substituted in the expressions for Br in Fig.
which smooth flow around the rudder
will insure 74. M, there are practical factors which require a
with a reasonable lift force and forward-thrust more realistic approach to this design problem.
component. What is wanted first is the value of It is recalled that for the design of a contra-
the angle Br which the vector U r^ makes with guide skeg ending discussed in Sec. 67.22 the
the ship axis. Second, the amount of offset of the value of Br derived analytically for points opposite
leading edge of the contra-rudder section is to be the outer propeller radii are small but they are
determined. still too large for practical use. Employed here,
If the fraction fej is estimated (or determined in they would produce a rudder which had no straight
some manner) it is possible to derive Br by a or symmetrical sections whatever. Whether this
graphic construction such as that in diagram 2 much of a departure from the orthodox stream-
of Fig. 74. M. The velocity induced by the hydro- Imed rudder would be the best device for steering
foil section of the rudder, shown as /cjC// in the a straight course for long periods could only be
small-scale diagram 1 of the figure, is omitted determined by successive full-scale installations
from the large-scale diagram 1 to avoid confusion. on the same vessel. The doubt expressed in the
It is also assumed, for the sake of simplicity but foregoing is heightened by the fact that it is also
without appreciable error, that the induced- rarely possible to use hydrofoil sections which
velocity vectorsfci Ui and fca Uj he normal to the deliver the water directly astern mth the rudder
base chord of the blade section, at the geometric at zero angle. The large camber necessary to
732 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.16

accomplish this imposes lift loads which increase of each of the rudder sections at an appreciable
the thickness ratio and make it more difficult to angle to the mean plane of the rudder blade. All
lay out hydrofoil sections of suitable shape. this may require that, not only must the leading
With these considerations m mind a compromise edge be directed and offset one way from this
solution employing a leading-edge offset on the plane, but the trailing edge must be offset the
rudder -v'aryiug as sin^ <^, utUized previously for other way. The transition takes the form of a
the design of the contra-guide skeg ending dis- crossover from one side to the other, abaft the
cussed in Sec. 67.22, is employed here for the propeller hub, in both the leading and trailing
contra-rudder as well. The offset taken as a edges, but in opposite directions. As a means of
reference may
be based, as before, on a value of avoiding sharp corners and coves along which
about 0.85 times the propeller hub radius d/2 the water must flow, and of structural discon-
opposite the 0.1 propeller radius. A graph for tinuities in the rudder as well, an easy transition
selecting the angle which the median luie at the is also when the trailing edges
called for are
leadmg edge a fixed contra-propeUer blade is to
of offset from the mean plane of the blade.
make with the fore-and-aft plane is given by In one of the earliest descriptions of the contra-
R. Wagner [STG, 1929, Fig. 44, p. 224]. This propeller, for installation abaft a screw, R. Wagner
graph could be used as well for the leading edge mentions that: "A particularly good result is
of a contra-rudder, whether this edge were the obtained by shaping the trailing edges of the
fixed portion of a compound rudder or the leading blades eccentrically to the hub center" [transl.
edge of a balanced rudder. It calls for an angle of Schiifbau, 14 Feb 1912, pp. 365-366]. He does
of 45 deg at O.lSfi (of the propeller), 19 deg at not, unfortunately, give specific reasons for this
0.48fi,and 9 deg at O.SOi?. statement. The diagram accompanying the refer-
Whatever rule is used, some asymmetry in ence has the trailing-edge offset marked by a
the form of leading-edge angle does and should symbol, not mentioned in the text. Incorporating
remain abaft the propeller-blade tips, as for the this offset gives the designer somewhat more
contra-guide skeg endmg, at vertical distances freedom in shaping the vane or blade which is to
above and below the shaft axis equal to the pro- convert some of the rotational energy into thrust,
peller radius R^^^ . and places the base chord at a greater angle to
A transition is necessary from the maximum the ship axis. If other conditions are right, a
twist toward the trailing edge of the propeller somewhat greater forward-thrust component is

blades at the 12 o'clock position to the maximum derived from a given lift force.
twist in the opposite direction (but also toward For the single rudder of the ABC transom-
the trailing edges) at the 6 o'clock position. This stern ship decided not to incorporate any
it is

should be made gradually, not abruptly, across offset in that part of the blade lying abaft the
the "shadow" of the propeller hub. In fact, one rudder stock or in its trailing edge. When, as
good way to make it is to use a cylindrical pro- described in Sec. 74.17, a contra-shape is incor-
peller hub and to Avork a large hub fairmg into porated in the fixed horn ahead of the rudder
the contra-rudder in this region. By this means stock, there will be an appreciable lift force
abrupt and harmful discontinuities m the rudder acting to starboard on the unsymmetrical hydro-
structure abaft the hub are avoided. A variation foil assembly composed of this horn and the tail
of this method is to work a bulb into the rudder of Combined with the Hovgaard
the rudder.
at the transition pomt, extending well aft on the Effect, described in Sec. 33.17, there wA\ be a
rudder [Maritime Reporter, 1 Feb 1954, p. 23]. continual lateral force acting to push the stern
If all the rotation is to be taken out of the to starboard when the ship is going ahead. This
propeller-outflow jet, the median lines of the swinging effect can be counteracted only by giving
trailing edges of the contra-rudder sections should a contra-shape to the underhung foil and exerting
be parallel to the mean plane of the rudder in its a hydrofoil lift force to port. The preponderance
zero or neutral position. It may possibly be better of force to starboard may still require carrying
to make the face, on the -|-Ap side of the trailing more than the usual amount rudder toof right
edge, parallel to this mean plane. Also, if an maintain a straight course. This is another reason
appreciable forward component of the lift or for not working a contra-guide ending into the
lateral force on the rudder is to be realized as upper portion only of the centerline skeg ending.
thrust, it is advantageous to place the base chord It too would exert a lateral force to starboard and
 Sec. 74.11 MOVABLE-APPENDy\GE DESIGN 733

augment the right rudder to be carried to inaintaiii speed ship in bending the leading edge of a rudder,
a straight course. contra-fashion, instead of using a simple stream-
The design of the contra-shaped movable foil lined affair, with the base chords of all sections
follows the design of the contra-shaped fixed horn parallel to each other. In the rotary cross flow
or skeg above it, described in Sec. 74.17. Normally, of the outflow jet the contra-flow shape acts to
the thickness ratio of the foil sections in a partly reduce cavitation, pitting, erosion, buffeting,
underhung rudder diminish rather rapidly from vibration, and noise. An example- of a severely
the lower bearing to the bottom of the rudder, pitted Mariner class rudder, not so shaped, is
until at the lower edge this ratio may be of the given by W. G. Allen and E. K. Sullivan [SNAME,
order of 0.03. The high value of about 0.115 for 1954, Fig. 25, p. 541]. T. W. Bunyan illustrates
the section at the 2-ft WL for the foil shown in the pitting which occurred on a combination of
Fig. 74.N of Sec. 7-4.17 is due to: thin rudder post and a rudder hung directly
abaft it, lying in the outflow jet of a single,
(1) The short vertical height of the foil, because
centerline propeller. Both were streamlined but
the fixed horn is extended below the propeller
were entirely symmetrical about the vertical
shaft axis
plane through the propeller axis [IME, Apr
(2) The uncertainty involved in drastic thinning
1955, Vol. LXVII, No. 4, p. 105].
of a contra-section, expecially in a rudder of this
74.17 Design of a Contra-Horn for the ABC
type.
Transom-Stem Ship. For the transom-stern
Thinning the lower-edge sections represents no ABC ship whose stern profile is shown in Fig.
problems, provided it is determined that the 74. K, the rudder horn or small skeg abaft the
contra-performance can be maintamed. If the propeller extends below the shaft axis so that a
lower sections are left thick, a flow test might fixed dummy fairing for the propeller hub may
indicate the advisability of sloping the lower edge be carried by it. For ease in removing the shaft
of the foil down and forward, with a baseplane nut and the propeller on the actual ship, this
clearance of say 0.5 ft at the forward end and fairing is made removable.
1.5 ft at the after end. In view of the appreciable fore-and-aft length
The compensating force exerted to port by the of the fixed rudder horn it found possible to
is

contra-shaped probably augmented by

foil is incorporate all of the twist and camber of a
holding the trailmg edge of the foil on the center- contra-guide device in the portion above the
plane; that is, by not offsetting it to port, as is propeller axis. As explained in Sec. 74.16, this
customary in contra-rudders. The foil then works leaves the tail sections of the movable blade
at a greater effective angle of attack m the out- entirely symmetrical. Below the propeller axis,
flow-jet water which, below the shaft axis, is all the twist and camber is incorporated in the
directed aft and to port behind a right-hand balance portion of the rudder foil, forward of the
wheel. Rather than to offset only the trailing edge rudder-stock axis, also described in that section.
of the tail, above the shaft axis, and to introduce In the original layout of the propeller-hub
a discontinuity in the rudder structure, the entire fairing at the lower end of the rudder horn it
portion of the blade abaft the stock axis is made appeared that the diameter of this fairing at its
symmetrical. juncture with the horn would be 3.0 ft, with a
Finally, when is designed, and a
the rudder radius of 1.5 ft. As a basis for calculating the
model is built, checked in a circulating-
the flow is offsets for the twist at the leading edge of this
water channel with tufts attached to various horn, the offset at O.lflMas above the propeller
parts of the rudder. One test should be made axis was taken as 0.85 times 1.5 ft or 1.275 ft.
with the propeller working, and another with The remaming offsets, calculated by the sin^ <^

the rudder at an angle. Unfortunately, it was
not possible to do this with the model of the
transom-stern ABC design.
Entirely aside from the increase in propulsive
coefficient which may be achieved by a contra-
rudder on any ship, which should be from 4 to
6 per cent under average conditions, there is a
decided advantage on a high-powered, moderate-
rule described in Sec. 67.22, are tabulated on
Fig. 74. N. The offsets below the shaft axis, to be
embodied in the leading edge of the foil, are the
same as those above that axis, for the same radii.
When TMB model propeller 2294 was selected
from stock to drive the transom-stern model, it
was necessary to reduce the hub-fairing diameter
at its junction with the horn from 3.0 ft to 2.67
734 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 74.17

Elevotion, Looking Aft

£6' DWb^

Stations 20 19.5 19.33

:.N Arrangement and Details of a Contha-Hokn and Rudder for ABC Transom-Stern Ship

ft.However, the leading-edge offsets of the horn
above the shaft axis and the balance portion of
the rudder foil below it were left unchanged. This
necessitated a short length of reverse curvature
(inward) just above the hub fairing, shown in the
end elevation at the left of Fig. 74. N.
The maximum median-lme slope at the leading
edge of the contra-fairing on the horn, just above
the hub fairing, is 22.5 deg. This is considered
acceptable because of the large angle djt Avith
because there are a considerable number of good
ones from which the designer may choose [Mandel,
P., SNAME, 1953, pp. 486-488].
An important feature of section outlines for
compound rudders, similar to the one shown in
Fig. 74.N, is the shape of the extreme nose. This
statement holds even though contra-guide sec-
tions are worked into the forward or fixed portion.
A shape too nearly circular leads to cavitation or
separation along the sides of the section, a little

which the water leaves the propeller-blade abaft the nose, especially if the radius is large.

elements in this region. Separation is not a problem A nose that is too pointed may also be subject to
here provided the mcident flow from the blade cavitation or separation on the "lee" side, when
elements at the root strikes the leading edge of there no contra-shape and when the angled
is

the horn at about this angle. flow from a propeller ahead strikes the leading
The fixed horn and the tail of the rudder (when edge of the rudder at a large angle with the
at zero angle) are considered as a smgle assembly meanline plane through the rudder. A practical
when laying out the section outlines for the example of this is described in the last paragraph
horn. The thickness ratio at each level is governed of Sec. 74.16.
by (1) the profiles of the rudder and horn, which M. Kinoshita and S. Okada show the results of
establish the chord length c, and (2) by the measurements on models made by M. Yamagata,
necessary thickness for the horn, to give it in which the flow just below the propeller hub
structural stiffness. The latter determines the makes an angle of over 50 deg with the meanline
value of tx No section designations or sets of
. plane of the rudder [Int. Shipbldg. Prog., 1955,
coordinates are specified or recommended here Vol. 2, No. 9, Fig. 8, p. 238]. It is clear that, as
 Sec. 74.20 MOVABLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 735

these Japanese authors pomt out, much more angle as the main control surface is angled.
knowledge needed concernmg the details of
is Both the control-surface angle and the flap or
flow abaft an actual screw propeller before the tab angle are in the same direction, whether the
designer is able to shape properly the leading rudder is right or
or the plane is at rise or
left,

edge of a rudder horn or a balanced rudder. dive. The always increases the lift of,
flap action
74.18 Design for Rapid Response to Rudder and the lateral force on the control surface.
Action. The development of a given lift or This device has been utihzed successfully for
normal force when angled is only one of the things a number of years on the active fins of the Denny-
which a rudder or other control surface is called Brown roll-stabilization gear, referenced in Sec.
upon to do. It must also do this rapidly, so as to The linkage for applying flap angle auto-
37.9.
provide quick response on the part of the ship. matically is outside the watertight hull of the
An excellent example is the control surface in vessel but in view of its extreme simplicity it has
the form of an active roll-resisting fin. This has operated well in service.
only 10 sec at the most in which to shift its Although no designs have been prepared, or
position from hard over one way to hard over installations made, so far as known, it should be
the other and to produce a useful force and rolUng possible to substitute this device for almost any
moment before it has to shift position back again. rudder or diving-plane installation which fits
Another example is the rudder of a ship traversing closely against a fixed portion of the hull. The
a canal, for which rapid response is much more simple Denny-Brown linkage or its equivalent
important than the simple ability to steer or to may be used for operating the flap.
turn one way or the other. For a control surface subject to severe pounding
The shorter the circulation path around a or slamming when in waves, the flap may have
rudder the smaller is the mass of water to be set to be restricted to only a portion of the rudder
in motion and the sooner are the circulation and height or the diving-plane width. The total
lift estabhshed. A hydrofoil which is called upon impact forces on the flap may then be small
to exert a normal force rapidly should be short in enough to be withstood by the automatic angling
the direction of motion and have reasonably large mechanism.
clearances or apertures both ahead and astern. 74.20 Design Notes for Bow Rudders;
A short, high spade rudder is the best answer to Rudders for Maneuvering Astern. It is pointed
this design problem. A balanced rudder hung on out in Sec. 37.11, supplemented by Fig. 37. G,
a small horn, short in the fore-and-aft direction, that a bow rudder produces decidedly inferior
is the next best. steering action with the ship going ahead. Bow
For a simple, balanced rudder or a flap-type, rudders are fitted, therefore, primarily on vessels
unbalanced rudder at the stern of a twin- or required to back for appreciable distances. Under
multiple-screw ship (or at the stern of a ship these conditions, the bow rudder becomes a stern
driven by side paddlewheels), the clearance for steermg rudder, in the normal sense of the term.
circulation in a horizontal plane around the rudder If it were suflBciently important to pay for the
isprovided by an aperture forward of the rudder. additional complication and the added steersman,
This resembles the aperture in which a propeller a bow rudder might on a long, fast,
justify itself
would be fitted if the ship had only a single screw. slender craft, operating m shallow and restricted
Two such apertures are sketched in diagrams 3 waters. With such a rudder it might be possible
and 4 of Fig. 74. D. An equivalent aperture of to move the ship sideways, or to hold it against
large area hes ahead of the underhung foil portion wmd and other would act in this case
effects. It
of the rudder in diagram 5 of Fig. 37. D. much as the bow planes on a submarine; in other
74.19 Utilization of Automatic Flap-Type words, not as a turning mechanism but as a
Rudders and Diving Planes. There appears transverse-force-producing device.
to be a definite application in the field of control The bow rudder, as a rule, has no induced
surfaces for the hinged hydrofoil with automatic velocity to augment its effect, but neither does it
flap, depicted in diagram 2 of Fig. 14. U. This suffer from a reduced speed of advance because
device is called here, for want of a better name, of friction wake.
the automatic flap-type rudder or divmg plane. The fitting of a bow rudder requires a forefoot
There is incorporated in it some simple leverage that is rather and thin in section.
full in profile
or equivalent mechanism to apply positive flap There is little to be gamed by mounting the stock
 736 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 14.21

in the forwaid portion of the rudder. Usually requirement could be imposed on rudder mstalla-
there is not adequate room for the stock and its tions in Avhich any part of the rudder rises above
bearings if this is done. The hull is so thick at the water surface during wavegoing.
the after end of the aperture that it is not possible 74.22 Centra-Features for Diving Planes.
to take advantage of a balance portion abaft the Whether placed in the outflow jets of propellers
stock, where the flow would be ver}' disturbed. or not the diving planes of submarines rarely
The customary solution is to mount the stock at work in flows that are symmetrical about the
the extreme after end, with or without a pintle mean plane of the blades. First, the flow in any
and bearing at the keel level. A rudder of this vertical plane is rarely symmetrical ^\dth respect
type is sho^\^l by G. de Rooij ["Practical Ship- to the submarine axis. Second, it is rarely possible
building," 1953, Fig. 495, p. 203]. to locate the diving planes in symmetrical posi-
74.21 General Design Rules for Bow and tions relative to that axis. The
any plane
flow at
Stem Diving Planes. Bow and stern diving position usually has somecomponent of
vertical
planes on submarines suffer from certain design velocity. The neutral plane angle must be ad-
limitations which should be but are not yet over- justed accordingly or the leading edge of the
come: plane must be bent or twisted to point into the
direction of flow. This bending, similar to that at
(a) The bow planes, almost invariably required
the leading edge of a contra-rudder, prevents the
to rig in or house within the fair hull lines, are not
center of pressure from lying too far forward of
easily supported when given great span and a
the plane axis.
large aspect ratio. Furthermore, their inner ends
can rarely lie close against the hull, mth a small
A pair of diving planes, placed in a symmetrical
gap throughout the complete range of rise and position abaft the propeller of a single-screw
dive angles. submarine and twisted, contra-fashion, serves to:

(b) The port and starboard stern planes, placed

(1) Recover rotational energy in the outflow jet
across the propeller-outflow jet(s), can almost
and convert it to useful thrust
never he with their inner ends close against the
(2) Compensate partly for the unbalanced re-
hull, or close to each other, principally because
action exerted by the submarine propelling plant,
of the triangular gap necessary to s\ving the
in the manner described by Sec. 73.21.
steering rudder between them. It, too, must lie

withm or close to the outflow jet(s).

74.23 Setting Neutral Control-Surface Angles.
(c) To produce the maximum possible vertical
When rudders are offset from the vertical plane
forces for a given weight and size of installation
of symmetry, either as parts of single-rudder or
the planes are often worked far beyond the normal
multiple-rudder installations, the water almost
breakdo"wn range of a symmetrical hydrofoil.
never flows past them in a direction parallel to
An compromise to meet all these
effective that plane, with the ship moving straight ahead
conditions calls for an aspect ratio of approxi- at a steady speed. To achieve equal turnmg effects,
mately 1.0, with no cantilever or image effect. right and left, with equal amounts of right and
In other words, the diving planes are made left rudder angle, each rudder must be placed
roughly square in planform. It is assumed that carefully at zero angle in its neutral position.
they do not benefit in lift by being close to the This adjustment is made for the condition when
hull or to some large vertical surface. the propulsion de\'ices are working; all other
The non-housing diving planes of a submarine conditions are assumed to be normal.
are so near the surface, when the vessel is not The determined with relative
neutral position is

awash or submerged, that in a heavy sea they ease in a self-propelled model test by any one of
are subject to severe impact in the form of wave several methods. However, if there is a possibility
slap. This applies to both bow and stern planes. either of laminar flow or of separation on the
A good design requirement, admittedly formu- rudder, due to its form or to the shape of the hull
lated on a not-too-scientific basis, is that these m the vicinity, there may be some scale effect,
planes shall withstand as a working load an because of unexpected shifts in the transition or
impact pressure of 1,000 lb per ft" over their separation points. If so, the model predictions
entire horizontal area. are uncertain when applied to the ship.
A somewhat similar but possibly less drastic It is diflScult if not impossible to determine
Sec. 74.24 MOVy\BLE-APPENDAGE DESIGN 737

neutral rudder positions on a full-scale vessel. the propeller when steering or turning is not
The friction forces in the steering gear and rudder desired.
stock are large in proportion to the hydrodynamic Efficient propulsion, combined with the swing-
torque on the stock at small rudder angles. The ing motion of the horizontal shaft and the pro-
torques due to friction may even exceed those peller, reciuire that the inflow jet of water to the
due to water flow around the rudder. Furthermore, angled propeller does not encounter undue inter-
unless it is known definitely that the rudder -will ference from parts of the hull ahead of it. Unless
one is reluctant to disconnect
trail if left to itself, the speed of advance is small the axis of the inflow
the tiller or bypass the steering gear with the jet follows the predominant flow in the vicinity
vessel traveling at the speed for which the correct instead of the angled propeller axis.
neutral position is required. If the vertical drive shaft and its housing do

It oftens happens that a neutral position which not project from underneath a portion of the
gives zero torque on the stock of an offset rudder stern which is continually submerged, a horizontal
is not the one which results in minimum resistance subsurface plate is required on the housing at
or shaft power. Either the ship designer or the some point below the water surface to prevent
owner and operator must then decide whether leakage of air from the atmosphere to the pro-
the neutral setting is to be for minimum rudder peller. A so-called "anti-cavitation" plate of this
torque or minimum overall resistance. kind, although usually much too small, is em-
For multiple rudders operated by a single bodied in the vertical-shaft housings of all out-
steering gear, with tillers connected by drag hnks, board-motor installations.
it is sometimes possible to fit a temporary link If the propeller disc lies entirely below the keel,

for the early sea trials and to replace it by a a steering propeller lends itself to use as a tractor
permanent link having the proper length. propeller at the bow. It may operate either singly
74.24 Selection of Swinging Propellers for or in combination with one or more other steering
Steering and Maneuvering. Swinging propellers, propellers at the stern. A bow steering propeller,
described in Sec. 37.22, form perhaps the simplest however, is rarely able to take advantage of any
and most efficient of steering and maneuvering wake velocity due either to viscous or potential
devices. In fact, any propeller, large or small, flow. Instead of swinging aft and upward, like
driven through the medium of a shaft that is an outboard motor installation when shallow
approximately vertical, lends itself admirably water is suddenly encountered, it must usually
to this means of steermg. The complete propeller swing outward and upward.
thrust, albeit somewhat modified by a large For auxiliary propulsion as well as steering
degree of non-axial flow when the propeller is there is available the so-called "active" or
first swung to a large angle, remains available as Pleuger rudder developed in the early 1950's in
an oblique force. A large force component normal Germany [Hansa, 16 Jul 1952, Vol. 89, p. 918;
to the ship axis serves as the equivalent of the also p. 921]. This device, comprising a submer-
transverse force which would otherwise be exerted sible electricmotor driving an auxiliary propeller
by a rudder. The mechanical mechanism
steering and swinging about a vertical axis like a rudder,
for a large or high-powered installation must be is described at some length in Sec. 37.22. At the

non-overhauling, otherwise the torque reaction time of writing (1955) it is available in limited
from the vertical shaft takes charge and swings powers only, not exceeding several hundred horses.
 CHAPTER 75

The Problem of Hull Smoothness arid Fairing

75.1 General Considerations; Definitions .... 738 Propeller Shafts 744
75. 2 The Importance of Smoothness and Fairing . 738 75.9 The Fairing of Propeller Hubs in Front of
75.3 Specific Smoothness Problems on the Shell Simple or Compound Rudders 745
Plating 739 75 10. The Fairing of Exposed Shafts at Emergence
75.4 The Utilization of Casting or Welding Points 746
Fillets 742 75 . 11 The Termination and Bossings
of Skegs . . 747
75 5
. Inside Comers Requiring Negligible Fillets . 742 75.12 Precautions Against Air Entrainment . . . 747
75.6 The Fairing of Appendages in General . . 742 75.13 Design Notes for Shallow Recesses .... 748
75.7 Recessed Lifting and Mooring Fittings . . 743 75 14. Practical Problems in Achieving Under-
75 8
. Fairing the Enlargements Around Exposed water Smoothness and Fairness on a Ship 749

75.1 General Considerations; Definitions. due to excess friction resistance. Its possible
Smoothness as related to hydrodynamics is a phys- effect in reducing underwater noise is not dis-
ical characteristic of the underwater surfaces cussed here, although that may become a factor
of a vessel, regardless of the size, configuration, in fishing and other operations of the future.
or location of those surfaces. It applies to the hull, Fairings, fillets, and fillers are applied primarily
the propulsion devices, the control surfaces, and to avoid high dynamic pressures, cavitation, or
all appendages, hence is properly considered as a separation. In some cases these discontinuities
general item applicable to all the external ship in the flow create undesirable disturbances ahead
elements. Fairing, fillets, transition pieces, fillers, of propulsion devices and control surfaces. In
and their equivalents likewise apply to all the almost every case the occurrence of high Ap's,
external ship elements, hence it is appropriate to separation, or cavitation increases the drag of
consider them here as a class. the appendage. It is pointed out elsewhere that
Smoothness, as used in this chapter, denotes the the added drag at each appendage may be
absence of small irregularities of the kind asso- insignificant compared to the total drag of the
ciated with rough or fiaked paint coatings, rust, ship. Nevertheless, the cumulative effect may be
pits, rivet points, and welding beads. It indicates considerable, sufficient to neutraUze the improve-
also that a surface has the proper curvature and ment gained from some special design of hull or
that it is free of waviness such as is often en- propulsion device.
countered at and between internal frames or The dynamic pressure,
increased drags due to
stiffening members. It takes for granted the cavitation, and separation are pressure effects and
structural discontinuities inherent in the use of as such vary as the square of the relative velocity
lapped seams and butts, raised strakes, doublers, of water flow. The effects of inadequate fairing
and other irregularities involved in applying the and filleting therefore increase rapidly with the
shell plating in relatively small pieces. Fairing, speed of the vessel. What may be accepted as a
aside from its frequent use as a general term, negUgible increment of pressure drag on a slow
applies principally to portions of generous radius, or medium-speed cargo vessel for the sake of
expressed in multiples of the shell-plating thick- economy of construction becomes a matter of
ness, worked into or apphed to various parts to inefficient propulsion on a high-speed finer,
insure easy water fiow around them. Fillets are where an increment of first cost is easily justified
defined as the roundings worked into coves or by a saving in fuel over many years of operation.
internal corners or castings, weldments, and other 75.2 The Importance of Smoothness and
structural members, as well as the transition Fairing. Nature goes to considerable pains to
pieces added to bridge gaps and discontinuities in work fairings into many of her creatures. Man
the hull and its appendages. can hardly do less if he is far-sighted and looking
In general, smoothness is sought and required for improvements. A close study of many natural
in an effort to avoid unnecessary power losses structures reveals the hitherto little-recognized

738
Sec. 75.3 HULL SMOOTHNESS AND FAIRING 739

fact that many fairings are indeed not excrescences the relative liquid velocities in the inner portions
but parts of the structure and important parts of the boundary layers will be high. This applies
at that. A tree is so shaped above its point of
just to a belt about 2 or 3 times the inlet width and
attachment to the ground that the stresses in the perhaps 10 times its length.
wood of its trunk are very nearly constant with (3) The afterbody, say from about 0.6 to 0.7L to
height when the tree bends with the wind as a the extreme stern. Fig. 7.5. A is an adaptation of
cantilever beam. This is almost identical with
the most modern type of fairing at the roots of Rouqhness Consisted of V- Grooves
screw-propeller blades, employing a constant- Runninq Tronsverselij Around Model cr-

stress transition shape where the blades join the •^ Rouqhened Surfoce of Model, from FP a)

to Fore-ond-Aft Position Indicated,

hub. The fairing of the afterbody of a whale or a I
"
fe

in Per Cent of Totol Wetted Surfoce _

porpoise into its horizontal flukes is an admirable
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
combination of hydrodynamic streamlining, rapid
and effective change of cross-section area and
shape, arrangement of muscles for manipulating
the flukes as propulsion devices, and muscular IZO^
flexing of the flukes as control surfaces.
Plates bounding the ship hull are intended to
be flat or gently curved, as the case may be,
20 18
when they are incorporated in the design and ^
AP FP
delineated on the drawings. Only rarely is any
unfairness allowed for when calculating the Fig. 75. a Variation of Friction Drag Due to
Roughness Along the Ship Length
strength or the rigidity of a ship structure. Why,
then, does the ship not deserve equally honest
treatment when it is built? Even the uninitiated model-test data pubhshed by G. Kempf [HSPA,
realize instinctively that the underwater hull of a 1932, Fig. 7, p. 81], indicating the variation of
vessel must be fair to insure efficient propulsion. friction-resistance augment, up to 140 per cent
Why then should the vessel be penalized through- when a model was
of the smooth, flat-plate total,
out because of unfairness resulting from
its life roughened by cutting V-grooves around it for
a few days of improper work during its construc- various percentages of its length.
tion? Increases in friction resistance due to rough- (4) The region immediately ahead (within 1 or 2
ness, of the order of 30, 40, 50, and up to 100 diameters) of a propulsion device, when the water
per cent of the smooth, flat-plate Rp are being , leaving this surface flows directly into the device
encountered on large, fast, modern vessels. This (5) The examples of Sec. 45.15 indicate that the
fact should be adequate proof that something greater the absolute speed of the ship, the smaller
drastic needs to be done. Fairness and smooth- isthe permissible roughness to achieve a hydro-
ness are essential parts of a ship. An attitude on dynamically smooth surface.
the part of all concerned which recognizes that The foregoing states, in effect, that the only
these are not something to be applied, like a part of the hull which need not be smooth is that
coat of paint, just prior to launching will go far around amidships. However, if any favoring is
toward solving thisproblem for the designer. know where
possible, or practicable, it is well to
75.3 Specific Smoothness Problems on the attention smoothing is most worth while.
to
Shell Plating. In the matter of the greatest These comments apply equally, if not primarily,
practicable smoothness of the shell in the finished to structural roughnesses, many of which can be
ship, at least four areas deserve attention: prevented or eliminated in the design and drafting
stage.
(1) The extreme bow, and a belt abaft it, up to The rounded or peaked points of countersunk
say 0.2 or 0.31/ from the FP. This because theis rivets should project from the fair outer surface
local specific friction resistance Clf is very high of the shell by not more than the amounts indi-
for the small ^-distance and the low R^, in this cated in diagrams 1 and 2 of Fig. 75.B. This is

region, indicated by Fig. 45.E. sufficient to insure tight rivets and to allow for

(2) The region directly in front of inlet scoops for reasonable corrosion of the point in service.

condensers and other heat exchangers, so that Welding beads, regardless of their orientation
740 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 75.3

CASE 1. WORKING LIMITS ON STRUCTURAL ROUGHNESS If riveted butts normal to the flow are to be
FOR FLOW IN ANY DIRECTION PARALLEL TO THE
SURFACE, FOR CRAFT TRAVELING AT Tq<I.O, Fn<0.5
lapped, the exposed
plate edges should face
forward on slow-speed ships. Here the separation
In d or less
JlO to or le»s
.'^J drag abaft plate edges facing aft is greater than
n Lorqe Rivets/
the dynamic-pressure drag against edges facing
forward. When faced forward the exposed plate
I I I Mediom i

(«-U*( Rivets |<-|dH edges are to be chamfered as indicated at 1 in

Fig. 75.C.
InGenerol, Finished Rivet Points Are To Be Rounded, and
Not Pointed CASE 2. WORKING LIMITS ON STRUCTURAL ROUGHNESS
APPLYING TO EDGES GENERALLY NORMAL TO THE
DIRECTION OF FLOW, FOR SHIP SPEED RANGES OF Tq<I.O
-* « Direction of Water Flow

'i Inch Mox. for Plate ^ •»

5 Thicknesst=|-lnch 4 Q
^"'^*'

or More

This Slope Preferred

TrQilino-Edqe Lap
in Reqion of
Direction of Water Flow * '

Designed Waterline

I Maximum Abrupt Joo When tj)>t2^, Minimum

' '*
To ^1 Transition Slope is I in 4

.Up to -^ But Not More Than jg- Inch in Any Cose

^ ^ ^- . —T'^// /V
Wooden^
z:j:pian>i^Nll|vlMT[
-(Outer LQ<^er)\
Diacjrams and
I

rZWhen Are to Apply

Edges
Are Within,
Fig. 75.B Working Limits on Structural Roughness,
Flow Parallel to the Surface, Case 1

with respect to the prevailing flow, should not

project from the fair surface by more than the
limits indicated in diagrams 3, 4, and 5 of Fig.
Fig. 75. C Working Limits on Structural Roughness,
75.B.
Case 2
When prefabricated sections of a ship are
welded together, they are found sometimes not For ships of higher speed, with Hmits as yet
to fit properly. The alignment at the shell, con- lurdetermined, the pressure drag on forward
sidering smoothness only and not structural edges exceeds the separation drag on after surfaces.
continuity, should conform to the limits indicated In this case, the exposed edges are best faced
in diagram 7 of the figure. When the abutting aft. If a reasonable degree of smoothness is also
plates are of unequal thickness, and the excess required, a cement filler or a rivet cement is

is on the outside, the length of the transition applied in the region abaft the exposed trailing
taper is to be not less than 4 and preferably 6 edge, diagrammed at 2 in Fig. 75. C.
times the difference in thickness; see diagram 6 of An exposed plate edge is considered "trans-
Fig. 75. B. Corresponding smoothness and offset verse" if it lies within 30 deg of a line normal to
hmits for the adjacent planks and the calking of the adjacent water flow, indicated at 3 in the
wooden boats are depicted in diagrams 8 and 9. figure. In some quarters, however, chamfering
See. T53 HULL SMOOrriNESS AND FAIRING 711

and filling of exposed edges is called for if they be a more important factor than easy water
lie within 70 deg of the normal to the flow. flow,and where expense is usually not an item
In fact, it is good design, and probably worth to be considered, the outer surfaces of metal
while from the point of view of fuel saving during hulls are often freed of their projections by
the life chamfer exposed corners
of a vessel, to hand grinding. The depressions are then leveled
or to add filler along exposed edges, indicated in and the whole surface given a high degree of
Fig. 75. D, even though these edges lie generally fairnessby troweling on a cement or filler which
adheres firmly to the metal for long periods
CASE 3. WORKING LIMITS ON STRUCTURAL ROUGHNESS
without repair or attention. On certain large
FOR EDGES GENERALLY PARALLEL TO THE FLOW
APPLYING TO SHIP SPEED RANGES OF Tq <I.O ships the coves associated with riveted lapped
Direction of Flow is Normal —s-Q seams and butts have been filled by applying the
to Paae, Within 30 deg Each Wo^ 1 same type of cement. The filler is tapered off to
zero thickness at a distance from the cove equal
to 4 or 5 plate thicknesses, somewhat as shown in
Figs. 75. C and 75. D. This filler is heavier than
water so that the additional displacement volume
of the filled coves is less than the corresponding
weight. In other words, the filler does not carry
its own weight. The extra displacement weight,
Fig. 75.D Working Limits on Structural Roughness,
Case 3 coupled with the extra expense, possibly may be
justified only in a ship running at a T„ greater
The exact flow directions all
parallel to the flow. than about LO or LI, F„ > 0.3 or 0.33, or in
over a ship surface are not known too well, case there is only a small margin of power for a
despite the advances of recent years in the tech- specified minimum speed.
niques of observing and recording flow around a Unfortunately, the smoothest metal shell
model. The and heaving motions
pitching, rolUng, surface can be well-nigh ruined by the application
of a ship in waves, even though not violent, add of poor anticorrosive or antif ouling coatings. When
motion components which change the flow the antifouling coating contains a self-leveling
directions relative to the ship surface. agent like varnish or enamel, and when this dries
This not the place to discuss the matter of
is hard, the minor projections are minimized by
applying shell plates on a metal ship to produce the self-smoothing action of the coating around
a hull surface that is fair and without waviness, them. This thins the freely flowing material over
as contemplated by the lines drawing. It is a the projections and thickens it over the hollows.
proper design procedure, however, to emphasize For the reasons explained in Sec. 5.21, the rough-
the necessity for accomplishing this if the con- nesses which project through the laminar sub-
struction phases of shipbuilding are to keep pace layer are primarily responsible for the roughness
with the design phases. drag. The laminar sublayer thickness 6i (delta) is,

Riveted flush seams and butts, with a single as indicated by the formulas of Fig. 5.R and those
strap inside, lack the rigidity and the reliability of Sec. 45.10 on pages 104-105 of the present
of lapped riveted joints, despite the lack of volume, a function of the kinematic viscosity
symmetry of both, because of the stretchable butt j'(nu) of the water, of the .-r-distance from the
strap in between. Sad experiences with oil leakage bow of the ship, and of the speed V of the ship.
in the single-strapped butts of the bottoms of This speed, or the relative velocity [/„ of the un-
numerous vessels proves that this method of disturbed water, is by far the most important
achieving external smoothness is structurally factor. It is the reason why rough or gravelly
unsound. The remedy for it in riveted construc- surfaces on large, fast ships generate large
tion, namely double butt straps, is structurally friction resistances,even when the roughness
good but hydrodynamically "unsmooth." Welded heights are minute with respect to the ship size.
butts are the real answer, especially for large, The ABC ship under design in this part of the
high-powered, or important vessels which run book is in what may be called the fast-speed class,
at Tj values in excess of LO, and of which a high with a Taylor quotient r„ of 0.908 and an F^ of
propulsive performance is demanded. about 0.27. It is worth while, therefore, to elimi-
On yachts, where glistening appearance may nate all irregularities in the plating which come into
742 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 75.4

contact with the water during normal running. ing surfaces with a reentrant angle not less than
This calls for all underwater butts to be flush. about 80 deg, and the flow is generally parallel
All seams, if lapped and riveted, are to be as to the intersection of these surfaces, no fillet is

nearly as practicable parallel to the lines of flow required, for hydrodynamic reasons at least, along
in their respective regions. Tliis is especially the the cove thus formed. The water in this case
case in the leading 0.2 or 0.3 of the length and does its own fairing, explained in Sec. 6.7 and
in the after half or two-thirds of the run. If this illustrated in diagram B of Fig. 6.D. Common
can not be accomplished the seams in these examples of intersections of this type are to be
regions, lying at angles greater thanabout 30 deg found where shaft struts enter the hull, dia-
to the flow, should be faired with a suitable filler grammed in Fig. 36. B for a pair of V-struts and
compound as described earher in this section. in Fig. 73. F for the ABC arch-stern ship. Similar
In fact, for the leading 0.2 of the length, flush intersections occurwhere small skegs, horns, and
welded plating throughout promises the best the like project below the main hull. A not-so-
possible service performance. comnion example, but one of much greater size,
75.4 The Utilization of Casting or Welding is the long right-angled cove formed where a

Fillets. The working of generous fillets
the coves or inside corners of castings for hull
components is almost mandatory as a matter of
good foundry practice. Furthermore, many inside
corners occur where thin sections meet heavy
sections. Proper gradation in the distribution of
material calls for transition regions that
improved by the use of large-radius corners.
Four pairs of corners filleted in this manner are
shown around the strut hub in Fig. 73. F.
When large appendages and structural parts
which form a portion of the outer hull are made
up as weldments, good design precludes the use
of masses of welding beads in inside corners.
Certainly not enough beads can be added to
produce the equivalent of the generous-radius
fillets in a large casting. If fillets in weldments
are really necessary, for hydrodynamic reasons,
they should be worked into the adjacent structural
parts, more or less independent of the welding.
It may be necessary either to machine the fillets
into the weldment or to modify the design so that
excessive weld metal need not be deposited. An
example of this design is illustrated in Fig. 73. F,
into large deck erection, such as a conning-tower
fairwater, rises from the flat superstructure or
upper deck of a submarine. The longest and the
most common pair of coves are those to be found
alongside a single-plate type of roll-resisting keel.
Both reentrant angles are of the order of 90 deg,
are yet the sharp cove at the intersection with the
hull appears not to develop excess resistance or
to interfere with the keel performance.
For reentrant angles of less than 80 deg, good
design is a matter partly of judgment and partly
of circumstances. There is a blocking effect at the
inside corner, and this effect increases rapidly as
the acute angle becomes smaller. On the one hand,
the water can do its own blocking and slowing
down. On the other, a fairing can be added to
the inside corner, provided the leading and trailing
ends of the fairing can themselves be faired.
In the case of movable appendages attached
to or projecting from a hull, such as rudders
fitting closeunder the stern, or diving planes
with small hull clearances, it is not practicable,
nor is it necessary, to fit fairings. A similar case
is that of the retractable sound dome which,

where stubs for attaching the strut arms are when in use, is lowered bodily below the keel of
incorporated in the strut-hub casting. The fillets a ship through a hole only slightly larger than
are cast integral with the stub arms and the hub. the planform of the dome. If no separation or
75.5 Inside Comers Requiring Negligible eddying is to be expected abreast or behind the
Fillets. As background information for the dome, there is no particular need for fairing the
design features discussed in this section, the 90-deg inside corner where the dome meets the
principal characteristics of flow about longitudinal hull. Taking account of the variation in trans-
discontinuities are described in Sees. 8.2, 27.8, lational velocity under the keel, due to the bound-
and 28.2, particularly that encountered around ary layer, does not change the situation or
long chines and coves. It is not possible to assess require any means of improving the flow along the
quantitatively the effect of these longitudinal inside corners.
discontinuities by any method yet developed, or to 75.6 The Fairing of Appendages in General.
give design rules with numbers. Supplementing the foregoing, there are given
When flow takes place past two fixed intersect- here a few design notes applicable to the fairing
Sec. 7'y.7 HULL SMOOTHNESS AND FAIRING 743

There appears to be no more excuse for leaving

exposed the heads and nuts of bolts connecting
the palms of rudder stocks and rudders, consider-
ing the infrequency with which they are disturbed
or removed. Certainly it is incongruous to smooth
and fair everything else in the vicinity but to
leave a half-dozen or dozen of these sharp-
cornered fastenings projecting into the flow
ISBSR, 27 May 1954, p. 10 of Advt]. In the same
fashion it is inconsistent to shape a strut or a

rudder section to some very special streamUned

form and then to plaster it with thick plates of
zinc which must make the water wonder what the
naval architect or shipbuilder expects of it. Fig.
75. E is a good illustration of what not to do in the
way of roughening the surface of a horn and a
rudder lying in the outflow jet of a propeller.
75.7 Recessed Lifting and Mooring Fittings.
It is frequently the practice to apply a veritable
multitude of external padeyes, clips with lifting
eyes, and eyebolts to the shell plating in the run.
These permit the easy and quick attachment of
lifting devices and tackle for the handhng of

Fig. 75. E Roughnesses and Discontinuities ox a propeller blades, rudders, exposed shafts, and
RuDDEB Horn and Ruddeb other demountable underwater parts when in
dock. The practice is by no means limited to small
of appendages in general. Specific problems are vessels, or to those of slow and medium speed.
discussed in the sections following. Many, if not most of the fittings are under water
There is no excuse, from the point of view of at the designed-load draft, particularly when the
hydrodynamics and propulsion, and little reason stern-wave crest taken into account. Individ-
is

from the structural standpoint, for fitting external ually, the pressure drag resulting from each of
strut-arm pads with their bases projecting beyond these fittings is small, but collectively they
the fair surface of the ship. This is especially true present a formidable impediment to the motion
in an age which is blessed with welding and other of the ship. Furthermore, many of them throw
improved methods of attaching structural parts spray when underway. They give anything but a
to each other. At times the pads must be mounted neat, trim appearance to a run which is supposed
external to the shell, as on some wooden vessels. to embody everything that the naval architect
The projecting edges are then reheved with a and the shipbuilder have learned about stream-
large radius on the forward edge and along the lining in the past several decades.
sides, supplemented by a long taper on the after The handling of aircraft on flight decks that
side of the pad. must remain smooth, and the tight fits of air-

Floor Plate Takes

Lifting Load

Alternative Recessed Liftinij Fitting

3
Fig. 75.F
Shell Plotinq
|

-
|

-J

Recessed Lifting Fittings

'2
1
I
~
744 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 75.S

Elevation from
— jtl — --. Outside
of the propeller hub. This requirement
the assembly drawn at 1 in Fig. 75. H.
ismet in
Not the
least important part of this continuous fair form
isthe easy curve at the forward end, Avhere the
diameter of the assembly has to increase from the
diameter of the shaft to one nearly three times
as large. The shght decrease in diameter from
the forward end of the assembly back through
the propeller hub conforms to the pattern of the
Vertical Section flow lines in the inflow jet and contributes a
Normol U> 5liell
slightinward component of velocity which partly
Fig. 75. G Recessed Mooring Bitt compensates for the centrifugal force due to
induced rotation in the jet at the propeller. When
craft-carrier hulls in canal locks have led to the a propeller is located abaft a large skeg or long
development of a number of recessed fittings for bossing this reduction
of radius through the
lashing, lifting, and mooring. Two types of simple, propeller hub
a natural consequence of the
is

welded, recessed lifting fittings are diagrammed in tapering form of the skeg or bossing. It is natural
Fig. 75. F, adaptable to any position or slope of kind to give the propeller blades
in cases of this
shell plating. A single recessed bitt or Dutch a reasonable amount of rake but the designer of
dolphin is depicted in Fig. 75. G. A strap is easily the Prinz Eugen propellers did not see fit to do so.
passed through the lifting fittings and an eye is Good design for minimum resistance and easy
quickly thrown over or lifted off the bitt. While water flow calls for the use of curved profiles from
designed as an abovewater installation this leading to traihng edge of this or an equivalent
dolphin may be used in positions which are under assembly. There should be no sharp disconti-
water at some load conditions. nuities such as are sometimes encountered when
75.8 Fairing the Enlargements Around Ex- the leading fairing in front of a cyhndrical strut
posed Propeller Shafts. The hubs of shaft struts, hub is made of straight conical form. If such an

the external or exposed couplings of the propeller assembly can be expected to remain completely
shafts passing through them, and the hubs of the submerged under all except the most severe
propellers carried by these shafts require fairings pitching conditions in waves, the maximum
as units. In other words, the leading fairing, the diameter may be at the propeller hub. If a large
enlarged strut-hub body, the propeller hub, and diameter is not required there for other reasons
the trailing fairing are treated as parts of a single it may be in the strut hub, as in the German
body. They should, theoretically, form a contin- design illustrated. Manifestly, the farther aft
uous streamlined surface for a considerable length
along the shaft axis. One solution for the fairing Direction of Flow Moximum Diameter of Foirinij i5

2.77^mes Shoft
of such an assembly is represented by the design I

\J)iometer
of these parts on the wing shafts of the World
War II German cruiser Prinz Eugcn, illustrated
in Fig. 75. H. The fact that the maximum diameter
of the integrated fairing combination is consider- Tonqent
'Lie5 0t32de(j
ably larger than that of the strut hub is not to be
1 Foinnq on Outboard Shafts, Germon Cruiser PRINZ. EUGEN *'"^ S'^""'
taken as an indication of good or recommended '
Center

design. This shape was adopted for many German

men-of-war of the 1930's and 1940's. Its use can
be justified, at least partly, by the following line
of reasoning.
The best flow to the root sections of the blades
of a screw propeller, where the interference
effects are large and uniform flow is a useful
factor, is obtained when the structure surrounding
the propeller shaft bearing and the strut hub is
absolutely fair for a rather long distance ahead Fig. 75.H Fairings for Strut and Propeller Hubs
Sec. 7''.P HULL SMOOTHNESS AND FAIRING 745

that this maximum diameter occurs in the assem- rotating shafts need not be large and these dis-
bly the greater must be the slope of the fairing continuities need have no detrimental effects.
abaft it, unless a blunt-ended cap is used. The ends of non-ferrous journal sleeves shrunk
For high-speed ships, a propeller hub fairing onto steel shafts generally lie within other fair-
long enough to eliminate entirely the^'swirl core ings. If not, they may
abut rubber or other
described in Sec. 23.14 and illustrated in Fig. protective coverings around the portion of the
23. K would probably have to extend for one or shaft which would otherwise be exposed to sea
more propeller diameters abaft the hub. This is water. In any case they are relatively thin and
on the basis that the core is generated entirely need little or no fairing of their own.
by the water set in rotation by friction around The fairing of intermediate strut hubs follows
the hub. In practice, such an appendage is out the general lines suggested in other paragraphs of
of the question, especially as the propeller hub this section, as does the fairing of propeller hubs
fairing must also clear any rudder placed in the abaft skegs or bossings.
outflow jet. There are two compromises available Water-lubricated shaft bearings require a
here. One is to give the profile of the propeller continual longitudinal circulation of liquid through
hub fairing a range of slope angles from about the bearing when the ship is underway. An
15 deg to a maximum of about 22 deg, terminating opening around a rotating shaft and just inside
the fairing in an ogival form having a radius of a fixed leading-edge fairing of oval or ogival shape
about 0.1 the radius of its larger end. Variations is in a region of -fAp, sufficient to force the water
of such a form are drawn in full and broken lines through. Any — Ap occurring abaft a trailing
at 2 in Fig. 75. H. The other compromise, on the fairwater helps to draw water aft through the
basis that the swirl core is in reality the combined bearing. The fairing ahead of a shaft-bearing hub
vortex of the several blade-root vortexes, is to may rotate with the shaft, as does the propeller
terminate the fairing in a square end at about hub of the arch-stern ABC ship in Fig. 74. L. A
0.7 to 0.5 the propeller hub diameter d. This is beU-mouthed strip around the bearing hub, shown
also shown on Fig. 75. H. in that figure, then serves as a scoop for the lubri-
Further comments on propeller-hub fairings cating and cooling water. A hole in the center of
and caps are given in Sec. 70.14. the fixed fairing abaft the bearinghub serves to
Exposed sleeve-type couphngs on a propeller draw the water out of the after end.
shaft are partly faired by trimming off the ends 75.9 The Fairing of Propeller Hubs in Front
of the sleeves themselves. This has the added of Simple or Compound Rudders. For a propeller
advantage of a gradual transition in the combined placed immediately ahead of a simple or com-
rigidity of the sleeve and the shaft. The result is pound-type rudder, or ahead of a rudder hung on
a stress concentration in the shaft of diminished a fixed rudder post, the propeller hub is faired
magnitude at the ends of the sleeve. neatly by a swelling of the fixed portion, by a
A flange-type shaft coupling exposed to the projection extending forward from the post, or
water all around may be enclosed in a substantial by both. A rudder of the balanced type, with its

casing of fair form, about as illustrated in Figs. stock axis intersecting or lying close to the pro-
73. H and 74. L. If the fairing rotates with the peller shaft axis, canbe notched moderately on
shaft as in the latter figure, it may be filled with itsforward edge, cutting into the balance portion,
wax or other preservative to protect the mechan- to provide clearance for a conical or ogival
ical parts of the coupling. If it is stationary, as in propeller fairing cap of reasonable length.
Fig. 73. H, it can be "pointed" slightly on the One form of fixed fairing for a propeller hub,
upstream side and given a streamlined tail of easilyworked into a deep horn or into the fixed
sorts on the downstream side, following the portion of a compound-type rudder, is embodied
general shape of the short bossing diagrammed in in the transom-stern design of the ABC ship,
that figure. So far as known, it makes little illustrated in Figs. 66. Q, 67.U, 74.K, and 74.N.
hydrodynamic difference whether the transition Rope and cable guards to protect the opening
from the stationary to the rotating parts, and between the rotating propeller hub and the fixed
vice versa, occurs in a parallel or cylindrical fairing, as well as removable sections of the latter
portion of the enlargement, or at its beginning or to facihtate taking off the propeller shaft nut and
ending, next to the shaft surface. Gaps required the propeller, are readily incorporated in a fixed
for working clearances between fixed fairings and fairing of this type.
746 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 75.10

When the propeller shaft bearing is placed Emergence Points. Exposed shafts which
abaft the propeller, as is done on many high-speed emerge, as do most of them, at small angles with
motorboats and on the arch-stern design of the the adjacent hull surface represent a problem in
ABC ship, this bearing may be carried by a fairing. The simplest and the cheapest method is

partial skeg, a deep horn, or a fixed rudder post, to omit the fairing altogether, build a watertight
extending down abaft the wheel. The rudder is recess within the hull, up to the after stern-tube
usually mounted as a hinged flap along its after bearing, and pass the rotating shaft out through
edge. The fairing assembly is then composed of a clearance hole in the shell plating.
the following parts, reckoned from forward: A reasonable amount of fairing, with no increase
in displacement volume and little added cost and
(1) Leading fairing, rotating with the shaft and
weight, achieved by adding a pair of removable
is
the propeller hub
shaped plates to enclose a free-flooding space
(2) Propeller hub
between the hull and the shaft. These extend for
(3) Propeller shaft bearing housing with rope
a short distance abaft the hull opening, indicated
guard and water scoop on leading end
at 1 no enlargement or
in Fig. 75.1. If there is
(4) Fairing for bearing housing, which may
flange on the shaftwhich must be drawn past the
extend aft into the flap or moving portion of the
fairing, the complication of bolting on a non-
rudder.
watertight fairing which must be removed fre-
On the ABC ship, with twin rudders, a fixed quently for examination of the hull underneath
fairing is mounted abaft the strut barrel or hub is obviated by extending the framing locally and

supporting the propeller bearing, indicated in incorporating the fairing plate into the shell
Fig. 74.L. proper, in the manner shown at 2 in Fig. 75.1. On
75.10 The Fairing of Exposed Shafts at a large or medium-size vessel the free-flooding

Mechanical Clearance
Around Shaft

Not Less Thon 4 and Preferoblu^

5 Shaft Diameters — Section at A-A
^ with Near Side FairinQ
Plate Removed J-

Section ot B-B
with Near Side
Plate. f?emoved c.

Fia. 75.1 Two Types of Hull Fairing Around Exposed Propeller Shafts
Sec. 75.12 HULL SMOOTHNESS AND FAU^ING 747

space is inspected by entering the hole through deflection or vibration of a large skeg or bossing.
which the shaft is withdrawn. Since the adjacent shell plating and the framing
The best method of fairing at this point, and contribute a large portion of the actual rigidity
one which may eliminate an intermediate strut there is no reason why their scantlings can not

otherwise required, is to build a short bossing out be increased to permit fining of the skeg or bossing
from the hull, terminating in a single-arm strut ending as required for easy flow into the propeller
member carrying a shaft bearing. An excellent position. Actually, the optimum solution of this
fairing of this type was incorporated
Bath- in the particular design problem is not necessarily to
designed World War I destroyers of the U. S. unduly but to shape it in
stiffen the structure
Navy. Despite the small clearances around the such a manner that the periodic and transient
shaft tube within the ship, it is preferable that a forces acting upon it are diminished.
short bossing of this type be made completely The matter of shaping the endings of skegs and
watertight and an integral part of the hull. bossings in profile to provide the necessary aper-
Design notes and rules covering these short ture clearances is discussed in Sees. 67.23 and
bossings are given in Sec. 73.9. 67.24.
75. 1 1 The Termination of Skegs and Bossings. 75.12 Precautions Against Air Entrainment.
The endings of short skegs and short bossings are The phenomenon of air entrainment and its
subject to separation drag if the slopes of the detrimental effects are discussed in Sec. 20.10.
surfaces of these appendages exceed certain This section mentions methods of eliminating the
angles with the flowlines. So far as known, the formation and the trapping of air bubbles around
critical values of these angles depend primarily the underwater hull, as well as they are known in
upon the hydrostatic pressure. They are of the the present state of the art.
order of 13 to 14 deg at the surface and perhaps The most direct cause of trouble on a merchant
20 deg at a submergence depth of 20 ft or more; ship is the multitude of air bubbles which pass
see also Sec. 46.2. over the shell diaphragm of a fathometer or
The terminations deep skegs on single-screw
of echo-sounder, usually installed in a horizontal
vessels, of large skegs on multiple-screw vessels, position under the bottom. The bubbles interfere
and of long bossings usually lie immediately ahead with the sonic pressure waves emanating from
of the propellers. Their terminations must be and impinging upon such a diaphragm so that
fine else the eddying and other disturbances depth readings are not satisfactory. For smooth-
created behind them are carried directly into the water operation at deep or load draft the best
propeller discs without an opportunity for smooth- position for such a diaphragm is well forward, say
ing out the flow. The square, blunt sternposts of in the first 0.1 or 0.15 of the length. This is ahead
cheaply built cargo vessels are particular offenders of the point where the flowlines from the stem, in
in this respect, despite the slow speed of both the the vicinity of the bow-wave crest, pass down
ship and the propeller. Indeed, it is only because under the ship. The flow diagrams of Chap. 52
of this slow speed that unfair surfaces of this illustrate this feature for a great variety of hull
kind can be tolerated. shapes. For operation in waves, especially when
The flexibility afforded by modern knowledge the forefoot emerges, or for operation in ballast
and techniques in the casting of structural or light-load condition,there is practically no
members or in the assembly of these members as diaphragm position on the sides or under the
weldments makes available to the ship designer bottom which is entirely free of air interference
a ready means of fining the terminations of skegs or air blanketing.
and bossings. Indeed, a shining example of Design rules for guarding against problems of
excellent bossing terminations, even by modern
airentrainment are limited by present knowledge
standards, was designed and built into the S.S.
to the following:
Talamanca class by the Newport News shipyard
in about 1930. Fig. 73. G is traced from some of the (a) Avoid projections on the hull which face
Newport News drawings, with the permission of downward and which can trap air when the bow
the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock drops during pitching. A
downward-facing ledge
Company. as narrow as the thickness of a projecting shell
Sufficient rigidity can rarely be incorporated in plate is sufficient to take some air bubbles down
a heavy terminal member to prevent lateral with it. Projecting edges of fenders are worse in
748 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 75.13

this respect because they extend farther from q = 0.5pUl This +Ap . would undoubtedly have
the sliip's side. been larger for an opening longer in the direction
(b) Avoid an.v semblance of a flat bottom forward of flow. In any case it would be sufficient to start

beneath which air may be caught and buried a flow into the opening if a circuit for the liquid
under the hull when the forefoot emerges and were provided.
then plunges heavily during wavegoing. The air is In the design of closed-bottom recesses to
carried aft from this region, along the bottom of create minimum drag, one obvious solution is to

the ship, by the relative motion of the water. offset the downstream edge inward, away from

(c) Wherever practicable, the water-injection the water flow, depicted at 3 in Fig. 75.J. S. F.
openings on the under side of a ship are to be Hoerner indicates that a setback at this edge
kept free of streams of air bubbles. Usually, these equal to 8 per cent of the depth of the downstream
are trapped by the ship waves in smooth-water face, when combined with a square, flush corner

operation and carried along under the ship in at the upstream edge of the recess, reduces the
more-or-less well-traveled routes. The routes can overall drag by an appreciable amount [AD, 1951,
be determined reasonably well in a circulating- Fig. 4.22, p. 56]. Reheving the downstream edge
water channel by injecting a small stream of air in manner, for a hull opening, involves
this

at any point around the bow where water appears and possibly
special shaping of the shell plating

to be falUng on itself (as in a breaking bow-wave local trimming of framing members. This is an

crest) and tracing the route of the bubbles expensive item on any kind of metal hull. If the
visually or photographically. recesses are few, and the openings large, as for

the hopper-door recesses under a dredge, it may

Venting holes in keels, for the escape of air be worth while to incorporate this setback in the
trapped below them, are described in Sec. 73.19 downstream edge of each of them. It is not recom-
and illustrated in Fig. 73.0.
Direction of Flow Over Surfoce as a Whole.
Air leakage to rudders, propellers, and the like
is prevented by overhanging portions of the stern,

by Jenney fins, and by similar devices, described

elsewhere in the book. -*-J)epth - Vi I _
75.13 Design Notes for Shallow Recesses. T^L"Ie"^qThT~~
'
Breodjh b^r Wdth
I

[""^i^Cj the Flow * ^<^

A shallow recess, illustrated at 1 in Fig. 75.J, is [>^ '^'^'"°" **^*

defined here as one which has a depth —h below For the Lo'^OLft Shown;

the fair solid surface less than either its breadth b Recess or Gap Area is Thot of Reciancjle ABCD
Frontal Area of Downstream Face is AD&F
across the flow or its length e in the direction of
Aspect Ratio of Openinq is -§-
flow. It has a closed bottom, so there is no
For Low Broq, Keep e Short and Ratio -g- Lorqe
auxiUary licjuid flow into or out of it.
1
Judging principally by results of flow tests for
V iscous /Mixing and Retardation
inlet openings in the shell, such as condenser
scoops, any shallow recess of appreciable length
in the direction of flow may be expected to have
a stagnation point on its downstream face,
illustrated at Q in diagram C of Fig. 7.J and at
Q diagram 2 of Fig. 75.J. The presence of
in
+Ap Reqion ot and Near Stoqnation Point Q.
ram pressure on such a surface, facing forward,
means large -|-Ap's and added drag. Other
features of the flow are discussed in Sec. 8.3.
W. Froude found in the early 1870's, when
Schematic Streamlines
experimenting with a pressure speed log for ships
[Brit. Assn. Rep., 1874, p. 256], that if a circular
pipe as small as 0.04 ft in diameter was fitted
square to and terminated flush with a flat surface
parallel to the direction of liquid flow, there was
developed a small +Ap within the mouth of the Fig. 75.J Definition and Flow Sketches fob
pipe, amounting to about 0.04 of the ram pressure Shallow Recesses
Sec. 15.14 HULL SMOOTHNESS AND FAIRING 749

mended that the shell at the leading edge of the or fairing procedures. An excellent guide in this
opening or recess be bulged outward solely to respect is the group of data on the drag of surface
move the stagnation point and the +Ap's out- irregularities assembled by S. F. Hoerner [AD,
ward from the forward-facing surface at the 1951, pp. 49-54].
trailing edge. In any case, do not chamfer, relieve, By and large, it is not difficult to achieve the
or set back the leading edge of the recess. According smoothness called for by specification require-
to Hoerner, this approximately doubles the drag ments or to design proper fairings. Indeed, it is
of a recess withupstream and downstream edges often easier, if the job is planned properly from
both flush and square. the start, to make a ship or its parts fair, well
The effect of depth-width or length-depth adapted to easy water flow around them, than to
ratios of shallow recesses, and of setback as well, make them abrupt or irregular. The difficulty
is rather intricately bound up with boundary- arises, first, 'in making good engineering compro-
layer thickness and velocity profile in way of the mises between initial cost and maintenance on
recess; possibly also with the position of the the one hand and improved service performance
recess on the hull. The best design rule here is the on the other hand. The second difficulty is con-
common-sense one, which is to make the recess vincing all those concerned with the design and
as shallow as operating and service conditions building of the ship that the refinements appar-
permit. If the recess is large and the trailing ently justified by improved service performance
edge can be set back to reduce the area exposed are really worth while. All too often, it is feared,
to 4-Ap's, by all means do it. the designer and the shipbuilder look upon efforts
As for the effects of what might be termed to provide smoothness and to incorporate fairings
aspect ratio for the openings of recesses, Hoerner as either outright compromises or trivial details
states that the "flow jumps easily" across a wide, not worthy of their attention. In too many cases
short gap, lying across the stream. It "penetrates the shipbuilder looks upon these efforts as nuis-
deeply into the longitudinal groove" formed by ances and the ship owner as additional means of
a gap lying with its long dimension parallel to draining his pocketbook.
the stream, or within 10 deg of the parallel direc- In yachts, sleek appearance above water is

tion [AD, 1951, p. 56]. Because of the "much almost more important than smoothness under
higher drag" in the latter case, the designer water. Several centuries of experience with them
should, if practicable, place a recess with its prove that when the designer and builder and the
shortest dimension parallel to the flow. artisans realize the importance of smoothness, it
75.14 Practical Problems in Achieving Under- is achieved at no great increase in cost and time.
water Smoothness and Fairness on a Ship. In New tools are designed, new techniques are
the matter of hull smoothness and fairing, the developed, and new procedures utiUzed which
problem of the conscientious ship designer re- make it relatively easy to smooth up the yacht
sembles closely that of the executive who must hull when it is known in advance that it must be
carefully apportion his time and energy. The smooth. What has been done with yachts can
executive's solution is not to pass over all the be accomplished with merchant and other vessels.
detailsbut to know which details are of sufficient The designers and builders take pride in the in-
importance to justify his attention. Similarly, the creased speeds of modern ships. They will take
ship designer must know which roughnesses pride in their smoothness as soon as they and all
require smoothing, how much time and trouble to others concerned are convinced that the necessity
devote to fairing, and what will be the effect of for smoothness increases as the square of that
neglect to incorporate the necessary smoothing increased speed.
 CHAPTER 76

The Design of Special Hull Forms and

Special-Purpose Craft
76.
Sec. 16.1 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 751

the moment not be interested in special-service and types now in general use throughout the
craft, it may be useful for him and give him world are classified in Table 76.a, as an aid in
valuable ideas to read through the various re- orienting the reader's mind to the discussions
quirements and the design comments and rules which follow.
in this chapter. Design features applicable to shallow and
With these thoughts in mind, the unusual forms restricted waters, without regard to vessel type.

TABLE 76.a Classification op Special Hull Forms and Special-Puhpose Craft

To make this table complete and comprehensive, special types of vessels are included whose design is not discussed
in this chapter.

Hull Proportions
and Features
752 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.2

as well as certain important features of self- noise when hunting. For the craft paddled by
propelled craft intended to operate in confined one or two persons, a reduction of resistance and —
waters, are discussed in Chap. 72. —
thrust is far more personal and important than
Special features in the design of tugs, towboats, if is an engine available to drive it.
there
pushboats, and self-propelled lighters, as well as Dixon Kemp, in his book "A Manual of Yacht
non-self-propelled barges, scows, and floats, are and Boat Saihng" [Cox, London, 3rd ed., 1882],
covered in Part 5 of Volume III, under the general devotes Chap. XXVI, on pages 374-381, to
subject of Towing. "Canoeing." It contains drawings and rather
76.2 The Design of Fine, Slender Hulls; detailed descriptions of a considerable number of

Canoes, Racing Shells, and Fast Launches. As British and American canoes. A storj-- and excellent
long as watercraft are required to be propelled photographs of canoes and kayaks built by the
by manpower and as long as men have to handle natives of northwestern North America are found
or carry them thereremain a demand for a
will on pages 77-79 of the February 1917 issue of the
craft of small resistanceand small weight com- Pacific Marine Review.
pared to its speed and carrying capacity. Such a Some historical and technical data on the canoes
demand is met by the birchbark canoe of the of America are given by H. I. Chapelle ["American
American Indian and the kayak of the Eskimo. Small Sailing Craft," Norton, New York, 1951,
Canoes of greater fineness but also of greater pp. 36-38]. Design features of the modern light-
weight, dug out up of large
of single logs or built weight canoe, the small-boat version of the long,
parts, are still and still used by many
in existence slender ship, and still popular as a pleasure craft,
peoples of the world. These are driven by as are discussed and presented by R. P. Beebe
many as a hundred paddlers each [111. London [Rudder, Jan 1954, pp. 49-53, 82]. This article
News, 9 Jul 1955, p. 81]. It is entirely probable illustrates five typical canoe midsections.

that many of these fine-ended designs evolved The ultimate in fineness and reduction of both
from a desire to minimize water disturbance and friction and pressure resistance is achieved by

TABLE 76.b Comparative Form and Performance Data for Two Types of Manually Propelled Ckaft and
One Mechanically Propelled Vessel
These data are taken from published information by F. H. Alexander (see the reference quoted in the text) and by
K. C. Barnaby [INA, 1950, p. J13].
The circular-constant parameters are those of R. E. Froude; see Appendix 1.
For comparison with the 8-oared shell, a single-oared shell is about 1 ft wide, and weighs about 28.5 lb, without crew.

Item 8-oared Whaleboat, Cross-channel

Racing Shell 10 oars Steamer

Length on LWL, ft 62.0 28.0 320.0

Beam, extreme, ft 2.0 6.85 40,0
Draft, ft (estimated) 0.5
Displacement, tons, with crew 0.81 1.70 1,850
V (estimated), ft' 28.4 59.5 64,750
Wetted surface, ft^ 109.5 133 12,510
Speed, kt 10.0 6.7 22.75
Speed, ft per sec 17.0 11.33 38.4
Value of® 20.2 7.17 7.97
Value of (S) 11.78 8.73 7.76
Value of (g) 6.025 3.58 3.78
Value of© 1.34 1.34 1.34
Value of V/Vl 1.27 1.27 1.27

Value of A/f j», tons for 100-ft length 3.5 77.5 56.5

Resistance, lb 77 81 87,300
Resistance, plus still-air Z).5a , lb . . . . 90.0
Resistance per ton of displacement, lb . . 95.0 47.6 47.2
Resistance ratio. Friction /Total . . . . 0.95 0.51 0.40
Value of (C) 1.162 1.662 1.469
Sec. 76.2 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 753
TABLE 76.C Data on Fast Launches and Torpedoboats Prior to 1905
754 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76 J

are of interest to a designer. These craft did not make its maximum speed. The lengths and pro-
plane in a strict sense, despite the T^ values of portions which were developed through the years
4.0 or more. Midsections of some of them are when this was the predominant type for small,
shown in Plate 190 of the reference. Deck plans high-speed craft are given by C. H. Crane
and waterUne planforms are drawn on Plates [SNAME, 1904, pp. 321-326; 1905, p. 369]. Some
191 and 192, while photographs of some of the of them are listed in Table 76. c. The B/H ratio
boats underway are reproduced on Plates 193-197. is frequently amenable to some variation but it is

Other successful yachts and launches of this only rarely, if at all, that the propulsion perform-
tj'pe were designed and built by N. G. Herreshoff. ance can be improved by departing from the
A few of them are described and illustrated by proportions listed in the table.
L. F. Herreshoff [Yachting, Sep 1950, pp. 26-27]. With the length-beam and beam-draft propor-
While these vessels had shapes no longer con- tions likely to be found the optimum, the draft
sidered stylish or efficient, they represented, and may become a small proportion of the length; so
still represent the furthest point reached in the small, in fact, that it is difficult provide
to
development of fine-ended displacement-type rudder area in an
sufficient efficient shape of
craft. Their shapes are almost necessary for hulls blade except by projecting it well below the
which are not permitted to create large surface baseplane.
disturbances when moving rapidly ["Speed With- With the large L/B ratios mentioned here it is

out Fuss," The Motor Boat and Yachting, Sep easy to keep the waterline run slopes below 11 or
1956, p. 423]. These shapes may very well become 12 deg and thus to eliminate all possibiUty of
useful for certain requirements not yet presented separation at the stern. Attempts to save resist-
to the naval architect. Speaking of the future, the ance by cutting off the stern and its wetted surface
requirements of the early years of mechanical are rarely successful unless the transom so formed
propulsion for a craft which could be driven iskept out of water at all speeds. Working reverse
swiftly yet easily and smoothly, such as a pleasure curvature into the buttocks and terminating them
launch or yacht, may be expected to continue as tangent to the at-rest WL is good design provided
long as mechanical propulsion is utilized. When the occasional wave slap under the stern can be
another cycle of human behavior rolls around, the accepted. However, any curvature of the stern
former demand for a quiet craft, gliding grace- buttocks, convex downward, develops — Ap's
fully yet rapidly, may well be repeated. under them and drags the stern down, with all the
Jet and rocket propulsion may, in the years disadvantages of excessive trim by the stern.
ahead, be appUed to slender displacement forms Special problems are involved in the design of
for certain particular duties rather than to the high-speed craft running at so-called "inter-
skimming and planing forms now associated with ference" speeds in the range of T^ = 1.3 to
high speeds over the water. Pounding and slam- 1.8, F„ = 0.39 to 0.54, where a practically con-
ming on planing craft, even in small waves, may tinuous resistance hump is shown by Fig. 66. B.
well set a limit on the ultimate speed at which The design problems involved are discussed at
their hulls will hold together. some length by E. Rolland, on the basis of
Except for the additional wetted surface un- designs of former years by N. G. Herreshoff and
avoidable with large L/B or L/H ratios, and the E. W. Graef [ATMA, 1951, Vol. 50, pp. 443^62;
extra friction resistance involved, the optimum an English translation of this paper is available
shape for a reduce the pressure resistance
hull, to at the David Taylor Model Basin].
due to wavemaking and separation to a minimum, 76.3 Ultra-High-Speed Displacement Types.
is one which is definitely fine and slender. The Despite the insistent modern demand for ultra-
L/B ratio may then exceed 10 and even approach high-speed ships to carry cargoes or other useful
15. This is not easy to accomplish in a small loads, reckoned by the hundreds or the thousands
craft,which needs space for the crew, passengers, of tons, relatively Httle thorough and systematic
propelling machinery, and some useful load but investigation has been devoted to the displace-
must have metacentric stabihty as well. ment type of hull driven at speed-length or Taylor
A satisfactory compromise between length- quotients T^ exceeding 2.0 or 2.2, F„ greater than
beam ratio and absolute length is determined by about 0.60 or 0.66.
the speed-length quotient T^ or the Froude The 100-ft Turhinia of C. A. Parsons made 34
number F„ at which the craft is expected to kt in the 1890's, and the 100-ft steam yacht
Sec. 7r,.4 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 75b

Arrow, designed by C. D. Moshei', reached the
unprecedented speed of 45 kt a few years later.
For displacement-type vessels to reach T, values
of 3.4 and 4.5 was remarkable, and still is, but
the useful loads carried by each were extremely
small.
An early form of the German schnellboote (fast
boat), a displacement- type craft intended to
maintain high speed on the high seas in heavy
weather, is described and illustrated in Schiffbau
view of the low speeds at which these vessels
formerly traveled, that the emphasis has been on
capacity and cargo handling rather than on hydro-
dynamics. R. Curr gives the lines of a Great Lakes
bulk ore carrier of a half-century ago [SNAME,
1908, PI. 87]. Fig. 76.A shows the fines of a
World
War II design of some 40 years later, similar
to the design covered by SNAME Resistance
Data sheet 90.
J. J. Henry gives a considerable amount of

[26 Oct-2 Nov 1921, pp. 112-116]. A set of small-
scale lines of this round-bottom craft is included
in the article. During World War II the Germans
built and operated a considerable number
so-called S-boats of a later version [Rupp, L. A.,
NavTechMisEu Rep. 338-45 of 23 Aug 1945;
Biiller,K., Handbuch der Werften, 1952, pp.
37-42]. The David Taylor Model Basin made
numerous tests following World War II of TMB
model 3993 representing some of these craft
[TMB Rep. 628 of Jan 1948 and other reports].
Although by no means cargo carriers in the
accepted sense of the term these craft did carry
statistical and other data on Great Lakes bulk
ore vessels in his paper "Modern Ore Carriers"
[SNAME, 1955, pp. 92-95], but here again the
of these emphasis is on features other than hydrodynamics.
Table 76. d lists five more vessel types and supplies
supplementary information on hull proportions
and features and form coefficients. Discrepancies
between the two tables are due generally to lack
of precise definition of the terms listed.
The bibliography of 24 items at the end of the
Henry paper, a number of which apply to ocean-
going vessels with few draft and beam limitations,
is supplemented by the references which follow:

an appreciable useful load, and they performed

admirably in such rough-water areas as the English (1) Babcock, W. I., "Longitudinal Bending Moments of
Certain Lake Steamers," SNAME, 1905, pp. 187-
Channel and the North Sea. They may well
207 and Pis. 119-133. This paper, although
serve as the starting point for the development of primarily structural, gives principal dimensions of
larger and faster versions, carrying larger pro- the Victory and the Elbert H. Gary.
portions of useful weight. (2) Sadler,H. C, and Lindblad, A., "Stresses on Vessels
of the Great Lakes Due to Waves of Varying
76.4 Long, Narrow, Blunt-Ended Vessels;
Lengths and Heights," SNAME, 1922, pp. 77-82.
Great Lakes Cargo Carriers. Limitations on
The text and PI. 13 contain some data relating to
beam and draft imposed by canal locks, drydocks, hydrodj'namio design.
pier facilities at loading and unloading ports, and (3) Lindblad, A. F., "Some Features Affecting the
shallow water along the route produce a ship form Economy of the Lake Freighters," SNAME, 1923,

that is abnormally elongated, especially if the pp. 37-49 and PI. 9

(4) Cross, A. W., SNAME, 1928, pp. 51-62 and Pis.
carrying capacity is The result is a series of
high.
41-51. The paper around a description of
is built
widely varying types, among which may be hsted the steamer Harry Coulby, having an Lb^l oi
the American (freight) car float, the self-propelled 615.2 ft, a S of 65 ft, a displacement of 19,092 long
cargo-carrier of the Erie and other American tons and a speed of 11.3 kt.
(5) Fisher, C. R., and Kennedy, A., Jr., "Turbine
canals, the river steamer and its towed barges of
Electric Drive as Applied on the Great Lakes
the large European rivers, and the bulk-cargo Cargo Ships," SNAME, 1928, pp. 235-248 and
carrier of the American Great Lakes. Only the Pis. 135-138. This paper on propelling machinery
self-propelled craft are considered here; the others gives a considerable amount of hull design and ship

are discussed in Part 5 of Volume III. performance data on the steamer Carl D. Bradley.
(6) Workman, J. C, "Shipping on the Great Lakes,"
In the past, these limitations have produced
SNAME, HT, 1943, pp. 363-376
box-like or block-shaped vessels, with the ends
(7) Baier, L. A., "The Great Lakes Bulk Cargo Carrier;
whittled enough to make them manageable
off just Design and Power," SNAME, Great Lakes Sect.,
in the confined waters in which they operated or 1947, Vol. 55, pp. 385-390. On p. 390 of this paper

to enable them to be self-propelled with some the author gives a list of 25 references pertaining
to the Great Lakes bulk cargo carrier.
reasonable degree of efficiency. The Great Lakes
(8) Mathews, S. T., "Resistance and Propulsion Tests on
freighter has benefited from a great deal of
a Model of a Lake Freighter," Div. Mech. Eng.,
attention, devoted both to its construction as Nat. Res. Council, Ottawa, Rep. MB-137, 3 Jul
well as its design. It is perhaps not strange, in 1951
756 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.4

24-ft
Buttock
Bilqe t?adiu3-3.75 ft, * 0.0625 Bx Rise of Floor- 025 ft, -o- 0.0042 Bx
Tumble Home- 0.75
-o- 0.0125 Bv
ft, Lenqth of. Parallel Middlebody = 330 ft.-o 0542 L^^
Maximum- Area -Section ot Midlenqth of Middlebody, - 478 L^Lfrom FP
Position of
Lenqth of Entrance- 126 ft,=0 0.207 L^l Lenqth of Run - 139 ft, -o- 0228 L^l i-E °^ Entrance- 45.7 deq, Ir=374 dec^
Lenqth Overall- 620.0 ft Lenqth Between Perpendiculars - 605.0 ft Lenqth on Keel- 595.0 ft Lenqth on 24-ft I)WL= 609.0 ft
Beam, Molded - 600 ft Depth, Molded- 35.0 ff

Fig. 76. a Body Pian, U. S. Maeitimb Commission Design L6-S-A1 of Great Lakes Freighter

(9) Schaeffner, C. R., "C4 Conversion to Great Lakes Naut. Gaz., Nov 1952, pp. 16-19, 30. This article
Ore Carrier Tom M. Girdler," SNAME, Gulf Sect., describes the conversion of the C4-S-B2 vessel
19 Oct 1951; abstracted in SNAME Member's Marine Robin, utilizing only the after portion.
Bull., Jan 1952, p. 20 (14)"600-Foot Lakes Ore Carriers Built in East Coast
(10) Cowles, W. C, "New Ore Carrier Philip R. Clarke," Shipyard," Mar. Eng'g., Jan 1953, pp. 36-47;
MESR, Jul 1952, pp. 62-81; also MESR, Dec describes the first vessel of the Johnstown class
19.52, p. 72 (15) "The 690-Foot Ernest T. Weir," Mar. Eng.'g., Apr
(11) Zuehlke, A. J., and Rankin, G. F., "Largest Lakes 1954, pp. 36-46; also Mar. Eng'g., Dec 1954, p. 60
Self-Unloader, the John G. Munson, Goes into (16) Downer, H. C, "Ore Carrier Richard M. Marshall,"
Service," MESR, Oct 1952, pp. 50-63; also MESR, Mar. Eng'g., Jun 1954, pp. 44-60
Dec 1952 (17) "Largest on the Lakes (steamer George M.
(12) "Steamer Edward B. Greene Becomes the New Humphrey)," Maritime Reporter, 15 Nov 1954,
Cleveland-Cliffs Flagship," MESR, Nov 1952, p. 27
pp. 38-50 (18) De Rooij, G., "Practical Shipl)uilding," 1953, Figs.
(13) "Conversion Job, King Size (Joseph H. Thompson)," 799 and 800 on p. 373.
Sec. T6.4 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 757

The following SNAME RD sheets apply to

vessels of the Great Lakes bulk ore-carrier type,
and refer to the loaded condition:

Sheet Length, Beam, Draft, Displ., Speed,

amber
 1 . J. 1

:i3
^^ o)
.S
Sec. 16.4
760
Sec. 76.4 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 761

%.

Fig. 76.B Gkeat Lakes Ore Carrier George M. Humyhrey in Building Dock
Photograph by Denny C. Harris, Cleveland, Ohio. The 5-bladed propeller is of built-up construction. Note the fine
skeg ending up under the stern. The aperture on the centerline at the stern is the hawsepipe for the stern anchor.

Summarizing the hull-design problem resolves the owners and operators for the highest possible
itself into: ratio of useful load to total displacement, in the
full-load condition, is generally such that the
(a) Achieving the required carrying capacity with
stern can not be fined sufficiently to eliminate
the minimum length and wetted surface
all separation, even at depths as low as the
(b) Holding the sinkage down to the minimum
axis of a single propeller. Not only is the
practicable value
separation drag kept large by this limitation but
(c) Shaping the ends to keep down the pressure
the possibihties of air leakage to the propeller,
resistance due to wavemaking, separation, and
with its consequent loss of power, vibration, and
the Uke.
noise are aggravated.
The wavemaking pressure resistance, a
at It appears that a not-too-wide transom stern,
Hmiting T„ of, say 0.7, can never be a large part with an immersion in the load condition of only
of the whole unless the bow is deliberately made a foot or so, might be a partial answer to this
too blunt. On the other hand, the separation problem. The transom sheK can be mde enough
drag can be excessive. These hulls are therefore to guard against air leakage to the propellers
in the class where the major part of the fining and it can be used to make up the displacement
needs to be done at the stern. The demands of volume lost by fining the skeg forward of the
762 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.5

single propeller. On ships of the maximum length cargo. No design rules are available for develop-
permitted by turning basins and pier facilities, ing an acceptable underwater form under these
all this length could be put into the waterline. conditions except the general principles of achiev-
76.5 The Design of Dry-Cargo Vessels with ing reasonably good flow around all parts of the
Box-Shaped Holds. Somewhat similar to the hull and a reasonably uniform pressure distribu-
long, narrow, blunt-ended vessel, and to the canal tion. The comments in Chaps. 8, 27, and 28
boat, and not unlike the box-shaped watercraft relative to the flow around and the behavior of
of Sec. 76.15, is the vessel which is required to straight-element and discontinuous-section forms
house rectangular, box-shaped, dry-cargo spaces are of value here.
within the boundary of a ship-shaped hull. In Achieving practically a rectangular maximum
some respects the design problem resembles that transverse section presents no problem because
of a newsprint carrier in which the storage space successful ships are now built with Cx values of
is required, almost literally, to be larger than the 0.99 or more. By using a flat inner bottom and
dimensions of the outer shell! placing a vertical wing-tank bulkhead inboard of
Vessels of the rectangular- or box-hold type the shell on each side, the transverse section of the
include: hold is completely rectangular.
To obtain the greatest length of this full rec-
(a) Seatrains, in which railway cars are stowed
tangular section^ the cargo holds must occupy
on tracks at levels from the bottom of the holds
all of the fullest portions of the length, leaving
to and including the upper deck [Burrill, L. C,
the tapered portions at the ends to accommodate
"The Design and Construction of the Rail-Car
the propelling and auxiliary machinery and mis-
Carrying Steamship Seatrain," NECI, 1929-1930,
cellaneous equipment.
Vol. XL VI, pp. 179-204 and Pis. VI, VII; MESR,
It is by no means necessary to break up or
Aug 1952, front cover]
interfere with the best hold space by the installa-
(b) Cargo-container craft, in which the cargo
tion of a midship deckhouse, as has been the
consists almost exclusively of metal shipping
practice on tankers and ocean-going ore ships for
containers in the form of cubes and parallele-
many decades. The whole central portion of the
pipeds. For these vessels the cargo, when loaded
vessel may be kept clear for hatches, cargo-
and unloaded, as well as when transported, may
handhng gear, and deck loads, if desired, by
be stowed instead on pallet boards suitable for
moving the machinery and accommodations all
handling by fork-lift trucks. The combination of
the way aft. This was done on the large Swedish
pallet and material carried by it is usually of box
tanker Oceanus [SBSR, 16 Dec 1954, p. 20 of
shape.
advt.; Motor Ship, London, Jan 1955, p. 460]
(c) So-called trailer ships, in which the cargo
and is shown by J. J. Henry in his "Artist's (and
consists of the box or body portions of trailer
presumably Naval Architect's) Conception of a
trucks,minus the tractor portions [Mar. Eng'g.,
Modern Ore Carrier" [SNAME, 1955, p. 57].
Apr 1954, pp. 48-49, 60; Jan 1955, pp. 57-58, 74].
76.6 The Design of Straight-Element Hulls.
These ships are designed on the principle that Other than to obtain the special V-bottom
all holds are to be truly rectangular, with flat shapes for high-speed motorboats and other
floors or decks and vertical sides and bulkheads. planing craft, the straight-element form defined
The boundaries are all to be flush on the hold in Sec. 27.1 is used to facihtate hull construction.
side and to stand at right angles to each other. This involves not only reductions in cost, time,
Actually, instead of designing a ship hull of normal and effort but in the amount and kind of fabri-
form and arranging cargo holds inside it, the cating equipment required. Depending upon the
holds are laid out first and the ship envelope is structure of the boat or ship the transverse frame
drawn around them. members may be made up of straight segments
The hydrodynamic design problem becomes one around the periphery, the planking or shell
of fashioning such an envelope so that it has the plating may be made developable, embod3ang
greatest practicable fullness coefficient but is not single curvature only, or there may be a combina-
too difficult to drive. The box-shaped holds can tion of both. If ease of construction is a pre-
not be raised appreciably to help with the hull dominating factor, the shape of the underwater
shape because of the consequent loss of volume hull, and perhaps also that of the abovewater
and the raising of the center of gravity of the hull, must conform to the limitations of the
Sen. 76.r> DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 763

amateur or inexperienced builder, to the lack of the chine angle approaches 90 deg but as the
equipment in small plants, or to the necessity relative speeds are low the chine line can depart
for rapid and economical fabrication and erection. from the hues of flow to facilitate construction.
It is often convenient to replace the sharp For a sailing yacht which is almost never
corners of polygonal sections with rounded corners upright when moving through the water, the
but in this case the corners lying along any diag- shape of the underwater hull varies with the angle
onal must generally be of fixed radius if rapid of heel, as do the lines of flow for that particular
production methods are employed. heel. The flow may also vary for the speed or
The principal design requirement for straight- range of speed corresponding to that heel,
element hulls is that the chines (and coves) shall because of the considerable wavemaking. Never-
lie in the adjacent lines of flow in such a manner theless, it is to be expected that, by simple flow
that water does not cross these external dis- tests or other means, a chine line may be found
continuities. which fits all these flow positions rather well.
The principles set forth in Chaps. 4, 27, and The maximum number of chines (or coves)
52, concerning the manner in which water flows which can be worked longitudinally into a hull is
around a ship, are employed to estimate the Umited only by the number of strakes desired to
direction which the water may be expected to meet construction requirements. As many as five
take. It is well to remember that, if the beam- chines on each side have been employed success-
draft ratio is large, most of the flow goes under the fully in some hulls, illustrated by the body plans
bottom. of Figs. 27. B and 68. J. As the projecting corners
In the present state of the art it is not always in multiple-chine sections approach 180 deg
easy to predict the flow around hulls of unusual there is less need for placing them exactly in the
shape. Fortunately, it is possible, even with small lines of flow. The chine positions therefore can
models, to check the flow directions experiment- favor the lines of plating or the type of framing
ally on a straight-element form, so that the to be used.
designer can obtain an idea of the flow pattern Frame sections which are nominally straight
while the hull form is still sufficiently "plastic" may be given a slight outward bow or camber,
to be changed readily. corresponding to the camber in a weather deck.
For the best performance a cove line is not This is not enough to involve forming or furnacing.
placed where the water flowing around the ship Metal plating applied to slightly bowed frames
is required to cross it. Fortunately, this is con- lies flatter, or perhaps one should say with less
siderably less important than for a similar crossing waviness, than if held to perfectly straight frame
of a projecting chine, because of the sensibly lines [Baier, L. A., unpubl. Itr. to HES of 4 Aug
inert water carried along in the cove and the 1950].
usually shallow depth of the reentrant portion. The degree to which a hull surface may vary
If a chine extends above the designed waterline from one which is exactly of single curvature
in the entrance, it is generally necessary that the depends upon the size of the surface in question
slope of the chine,when projected on the center- compared to the size or the area or the shape of
plane with the craft at rest and reckoned with the sheet or plate of which that surface is to be
respect to the at-rest WL, be reasonably large, made. A wooden plank may be bent, twisted,
to insure upward dynamic lift when pitching and sprung out of its natural shape, fastened to
and encountering waves and to throw spray clear the frame of a boat, and left in its sprung shape
of the hull. A suitable range of angles of slope for years provided it is not too wide or too thick
for exposed forward chines of planing craft, for the shape to be impressed upon it. A wide
apphcable to all straight-element forms, has not sheet or plate of metal may often be pulled and
as yet been laid down. However, a series of chine stretched to make it conform slightly to a second
shapes and positions, based partly on the intended degree of curvature. A wide sheet of plywood,
service and partly upon the maximum T^ and assembled in the flat, may not respond to such
F„ at which the craft is to run, is shown in Fig. treatment without definite and detrimental crack-
77.1. ing.
The minimum number one at each
of chines is If the straight-element form facilitates con-
diagonal bulge, as in the hull of the well-known struction in any particular case, it is equally
flat-bottomed skiff, punt, or dory. In this case advantageous to incorporate it into the above-
764 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.7

Fig. 76.C Body Plan of World War II Concrete-

Hull Steamer, U. S. Maritime CoiMmission
Design Cl-S-Dl

water body. Indeed, the use of straight sides,

eitherplumb or sloping slightly, is standard on
many ships in which straight elements are not
otherwise employed.
The elements of greatest practical benefit are
the straight and level sheer line, utilizing a section
of constant depth, and the straight or ridge-type
deck-beam lines described in Chap. 68.
Examples of straight-element ship forms which
have been designed and constructed in the past
are described and illustrated in the following:

(1) U.S. Navy landing craft LCI (L). The original body
plan is shown by E. A. Wright, SNAME, 1946,
Fig. 14, p. 384.
(2) World War II concrete steamer, U.S. Maritime Com-
mission, Cl-S-Dl design, TMB model 3745M. A

TABLE 76.e Hull-Form Parameters and Propor-

tions FOR World War II Concrete Steamer
This craft, of the U. S. Maritime Commission Cl-S-Dl
design, had transverse sections made up of straight lines
joined by short arcs.

Length between perps.

Sec. 76.R DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 765
(14) Johnson, Eads, "Ferryboats," SNAME, HT, 1943,
pp. 172, 174, 179
(15) Stephens, E. O., "Thames (Dumb) Barges," INA,
1945, pp. 170-184
(16) Holt, W. J., "Admiralty Type Motor Fishing
Vessels," INA, 1946, pp. 295-307
(17) Wright, E. A., "A Pattern for Research in Naval
Architecture," SNAME, 1946, p. 374, particularly
LCI body plan in Fig. 14 on p. 384
(L) original
(IS) Aitlcen, R. L., Wartime Prefabrioation
"Special
Methods Employed hi the Construction of Small
Vessels," lESS, 1947, Vol. 90, pp. 246-288, 322-344.
Gives many diagrams of small vessels with straight
frame segments.
(19) Emerson, A., "Experiment Work on Merchant Ship
Models During the War," NECI, 1947-1948,
Vol. 64, pp. 289-332, esp. p. 320
(20) Van Lammeren, W. P. A., Troost, L., and Koning,
J. G., RPSS, 1948, p. 110
(21) Thiel, P., Jr., Johnson, R. W., and Ward, L. W.,
"The Resistance and Waive of Nine Double-Chine
Simplified Hull Forms," Univ. Michigan Thesis,
May 1948. The introduction gives a list of straight-
element-form vessels built and in service.
(22) During World War II a considerable number of small
cargo vessels, 173 to 176 ft long, were built with
straight-element sections and double chines along
One such vessel is shown in the National
the bilges.
Geographic Magazine, Jul 1948, p. 88.
(23) Bayard, N., "Stock Sloop," The Rudder, Feb 1950,
p. 44. This craft has 4-sided polygonal frames, from
keel to gunwale. It is not known whether the hull
surfaces are developable.
(24) Simpson, D. S., "Small Craft, Construction and
Design," SNAME, 1951, pp. 554-611, esp. Fig. 21
on p. 580. On page 558 the author comments that:

"As the size increases (above 50 or 60 ft) there

would appear to be an excellent field for the double-
chine hull form, especially for vessels that operate
under varying displacement and trim conditions and
in rough waters. There is little difference from the
molded (rounded) form in hull characteristics but
the double chine with its straight frames and warped
(developable) shell surfaces can be built with much
less equipment and at a considerable saving in cost."

(25) Williamson, B., SNAME, 1950, Fig. 19, p. 21 shows

double-chine corner endings on barges. The
developability of these surfaces is not known.
(26) Examples of straight-element barge and lighter hulls,
with resistance data, are to be found on SNAME
RD sheets listed hereunder:

Sheet number
766 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.8

BODY PLAN

PROFILE

Chine Lencjth Lq
Fig. 76.D Diagram Illustbating Layout of Developable Surfaces for a Small V-Bottom Boat

(3) First establish arbitrarily the deck edge at (6) To get the proper rounding and fullness of
side or sheer profile, the chine profile, the baseline the forward deck, the apex U in the profile, for
and the chine planform by drawing
in the profile, the forward portion of the side, is to be lower

them in the customary manner for orthogonal and farther aft than the apex S in the profile.
projection. It is necessary to draw the sheer Its position is fixed presently.
profile of the deck in approximately its proper (7) Apex A in the profile, for the conical bottom
relation with respect to the chine profile. In the surface, is located about 0.2 or 0.25 Lc ahead of
example given by Hartman and utilized here, the the chine beginning C. Its vertical position below
baseline in the profile happens to coincide with the chine beginning determines the depth of the
the centerline in the plan view. It is required to forefoot and the rise of floor in the forward sections.
find the deck edge in plan, the keel profile, and (8) Apex B in the plan is located opposite apex A
the stem profile, and to make the orthodox lines and across the centerline from that side of the
drawing with section lines and buttocks. bottom to be drawn. It is positioned laterally at
(4) For laying out the side, place the apex S in about the distance 0.5 Be from the centerhne.
the profile at a height of about 0.5 to 0.75 times (9) Divide the chine length Lc into a convenient
the chine (or overall) length Lc above the chine number of equidifferent station lengths; there
beginning C at the stem, and slightly forward of are four such lengths in Fig. 76.
that beginning (0.1 Lc in the figure) (10) Draw a side generatrix from the point F
(5) Place apex T in the plan (opposite apex S and along the chine profile at Sta. 1 by laying down a
in the plane of the projection of that apex in the straight line from F to the apex S. This intersects
plan view) at a distance from the centerhne, on the sheer line already drawn at D in the profile.
the same side as the plan view to be drawn, (11) Lay down the plan view of this generatrix
approximately equal to the length of the half- by drawing a straight hne from F in the plan

chine beam IZ at the transom view to apex T

Sec. 76.8 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 767

(12) Project the point D in the profile downward (23) Draw a line from H on the chine in the
to the latter generatrix FT, intersecting it at D. profile to apex A. Project the point M in the plan
This is one point in the plan view of the deck upward until it intersects the generatrix HA at
edge at the side. FD in the profile and FD in the M in the profile. This is another point on the
plan view are two projections of the same straight keel profile. Continue in this manner until all
line in the side of the boat at the forward quarter. points along the keel profile are determined.
(13) Starting similarly with points P, N, and Z in (24) To assist in delineating the after portion of
the chine profile, find the plan contour of the the bottom and to help in preparing the lines
deck edge at the side abaft the point D in the plan. drawing draw a buttock Bj at about 0.4
later,

(14) To get the fullness of side required at the times the half-chinebeam Bc/2 (or draw several
bow a shorter and fuller cone is used. This tran- of them). Then draw the generatrix QB and
sition is made by having the element of the
first proceed as before.
new cone coincide with the last element of the
old cone; for example, FDU and FDS in the
To draw the buttock B, in the profile:

profile. This means that the apex U in the profile

(25) The generatrix PYB in the plan view inter-
must on the generatrix FDS. Apex V is laid
lie
sects the buttock Bi at the point W. Project this
down on the generatrix FDT opposite apex U. point upward, intersecting the (same) generatrix
(15) From a selected point H in the chine profile
PYA in the profile at W. This is one point on the
forward, draw HJ
on a straight generatrix desired buttock. The remaining points are drawn
toward the bow-profile apex U. This straight line in the same manner.
intersects the sheer Une at J in the profile.
(26) To draw the waterline WLi in the plan
(16) From the point H on the chine in the plan view, the generatrix FDS in the profile intersects
view, opposite H in the profile, draw a straight this waterfine at the point R. Project R downward
line to apex V
until it intersects the (same) generatrix FDT in
(17) Project J in the profile downward to the the point R of the plan view.
This is one point on
generatrix HV, which it intersects at J in the Continue in the same
the desired waterline.
plan view. This is another point along the deck manner to find remaining points.
edge in the plan.
(27) To draw the customary body plan, it is
(18) Continue in this manner until sufficient possible to lay down the projections of the deck
points in the forward deck edge are available to edge, the chine, and the keel on a transverse
permit drawing this line for the entire length plane, using the station offsets of the other two
(19) As an aid in dehneating the deck edge aft views
in the plan view a waterline WLi is drawn Draw apex on the body plan, using the
(28)
through the hull in the profile, parallel to the B in the plan and the
transverse offset of apex
baseline. By estabUshing the approximate outline
vertical height of apex A in the profile. The
of the transom, half of which is indicated in the
transverse projections of the two apexes for the
body plan, it is possible to lay down the point E side aredrawn in the same manner but they are
on the plan view and to determine another point not shown in Fig. 76.D.
along the deck edge aft, lying on the generatrix
(29) From the known point F on the body plan,
ET. Another way to do this is to extend the
where the chine crosses Sta. 1, draw a generatrix
chine for a station or two abaft the transom and The point G where this generatrix
to the apex 0.
follow the regular procedure.
FGO crosses the section line for Sta. 0.5 is then
(20) To determine the keel profile, first draw a found by stepping off (1) the offset from G in the
line in the plan view from F on the chine to apex plan view to the centerline or (2) the height from
B in the plan, intersecting the centerHne at K the basehne to G in the profile, along the fine
(21) In the profile, draw a line from F on the
FGO. Sufficient points for drawing this and all
chine to apex A. Project K in the plan upward the other section lines are found by continuing
to its intersection K in the profile with the
this operation. The section fines, when drawn,
generatrix FA. Point K is one point on the keel
are found to have the usual shape for a develop-
profile.
able surface, slightly convex outward.
(22) Draw a line from another point on the H
chine in the plan view to apex B; it intersects When the process is finished the boat may not
the centerline at the point M have the shape that the designer intended. He
768 HYDRODYNAMICS
may then shift the various apex positions and
go through the dehneation process all over again.
Even the most experienced designers of small
craft with developable surfaces find this necessary,
but with practice it is possible to perceive when
the developed shape is departing from that
visuaUzed, and to correct it before too much work
is put into an undesired delineation.
In the example described, the chine is used as a
directrix for both the bottom and the side. Only
two cones were used for the side but three, four,
or more could have been used to give the side a
greater tumble home aft or for other reasons.
Five cones, four above the side and one below it,
are employed for the 23-ft high-speed boat drawn
in Fig. I on page 30 of the Werback reference
cited. In fact, the apex can continue to shift from
one generatrix to the next, following a continuous
curve in space, provided that the apex always
remains clear of (outside of) the portion of devel-
oped surface that is to be worked into the boat.
Reduced to their utmost simplicity, portions
of developable surfaces can be flat or cyUndrical.
In these, cases, the traces of given generatrixes
are parallel to each other in all three views of an
orthogonal projection.
Considering the importance of the bottom
shape in a V-section craft with chines, both the
keel line and the chine may be established at
the outset and used as a pair of directrixes. The
procedure in this case, somewhat more involved
than that described, is covered in an unpublished
paper by L. K. Losee, reference (e) listed at the
beginning of this section. Mr. Losee is, at the
time of writing (1955), on the staff of the Bureau
of Ships of the U. S. Navy Department.
76.9 Design of Discontinuous-Section Forms
Blisters and Bulges. Chap. 28 explains that it
is frequently convenient to incorporate discon-
tinuities in the transverse sections ofan vmder-
water hull, either to simplify construction or to
Re-entrant />nqle 100 deq
Midsection of World War II German
Fig. 76.E
Cruiser Prinz Eugen with Busters
IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.9
take care of some special situation which arises
after the vessel is built. The ship which has a
blister added to the outside of its hull, as in
Fig. 76. E, whether it is a vessel M'hich needs
torpedo protection or more beam and displace-
ment, or a submarine which needs external
ballast tanks attached to its pressure hull [USNI,
Feb 1955, p. 159], calls for the use of design
principles that are essentially the same.
Actually, if certain basic principles are fol-
lowed, rather amazing discontinuities of this type,
in the way of saddle tanks, thick fender strakes,
and the like, can be worked into underwater
sections without incurring too much friction or
pressure resistance. These principles may be
stated as follows:
(a) The chine lines are to be so placed that the
water, when flowing around the ship at the speed
and under the conditions considered most im-
portant, follows but does not have to cross them
(b) When there are "offset" surfaces between
chines and coves, illustrated in diagram 3 of
Fig. 76. F, which are of appreciable area when
projected on a vertical transverse plane, it appears
wise to make the projected areas facing aft about
equal to those facing forward, even though the
actual offset surfaces do parallel the lines of flow.
For example, in the body plans of the German
submarine U-111 in Figs. 28.B and 28.C, the
projected area of the offset surfaces between the
chines and the coves in the forebody is of the
same order of magnitude as the area of those in
the afterbody. There is no known hydrodynamic
justification for this rule; only the engineering
intuition of the author.
(c) The lower offset surfaces of discontinuous sec-
tions, near the water surface, are shaped to
if
parallel the general surface-wave profile at the
selected speed. Otherwise they will lie at angles
to the streamlines and may produce areas of
separation.
(d) It is desirable to limit the sides or offset
surfaces of a cove, at least those lying perpen-
dicular or nearly so to each other, to the minimum
practicable widths. This can frequently be ac-
complished by sloping or cutting away the edge
of the projecting portion beyond the region
where a right-angled connection is required for
structural reasons, indicated in diagrams 1 and 2
of Fig. 76.F.
(e) The reentrant angle at the bottom of a cove
should be as large as practicable; in no case
Sec. 76.9 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 769

should this angle, measured on the water side,

be less than 90 deg. If the reentrant angle of a

cove is much larger than 120 deg and approaches

180 deg, the position and direction of the cove,
with reference to the adjacent streamlines, is
not too important.
(f) The discontinuities should fade out at the
ends and merge gently into the fair form of the hull
(g) Shell openings on ducts or pipes leading into
the hull proper are best kept clear from the region
close underneath the offsets in discontinuous
sections. This is particularly true where both
sides of the cove slope upward, forming a possible
trap for air. Such a cove in the entrance may
easily collect air coming down from the region
of the bow-wave crest. The length of the dis-
continuity may be so great that this air is not
readily carried along and released in the run,
where the cove slopes upward.

Although they represent longitudinal discon-

tinuities of relatively small transverse section,
bulged fender sirakes may be classed with small
bulges and blisters. Discussing structural matters
for a moment, the combination of simplicity of
construction, ease of upkeep, and greater efficiency
dictates the use of heavy, single-thickness fender
strakes, conforming to the adjacent hull shape or
bulge, instead of built-up external fenders.
They may below the surface waterline on
lie
Fig. 76.F Design Details for Discontinuous
submarines, as at 3 in Fig. 36. N and at 1 in Fig. Sections
73. Q, or at or near the waterline on tugs, sketched
in Fig. 68. J. Diagrams 4 and 5 of Fig. 76. F illus-
When designing a blister to be added to an
trate several types of bulged fender strakes, not for which the Hues of flow are
existing ship,
including one of circular-arc section. These may available, these may be used for guidance in
be worked in as part of the hull plating, either laying out the coves, chines, knuckles, and other
above or below water, and in a fiat or curved side. longitudinal discontinuities. It must be expected,
Bhstered fender strakes should involve not- however, that the addition of a blister of relatively
too-small reentrant angles where they join the large volume may change the flow pattern around
main hull plating. As far as practicable they the combination. A check test is called for at an
should follow the actual lines of flow as modified early design stage to insure that the flow around
by surface waves, especially at that speed for a the ship-and-blister assembly is satisfactory.
given ship at which low resistance is considered A special case arises when external bhsters are
important. If bulged fender strakes must of —
added locally and usually temporarily in the —
necessity be placed at the waterline the dis- form of boxes, pontoons, and the like to give
turbance to surface wave action must be accepted. added buoyancy, or transverse metacentric sta-
It should be possible, when blister sections are bihty, or both, to a hull which must be floated
sketched in, to lay down suitable cove traces which through a region of exceptionally shallow water,
will, when the blister is in place, lievery nearly or which must be held upright when lifted to a
along the resultant lines of flow. This is partic- draft corresponding to that acceptable for the
ularly true if the blister, as it should, fairs reason- shallow-water area [MESR, Jun 1952, p. 53;
ably well into the original hull and does not make Oct 1954, p. 58].
an awkward bump upon it. It is sometimes necessary to tow a vessel thus
770 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 7r,.10

supported, either before or after entering the coast or, like whale catchers, they travel from
shallow water, through a region of deep water. Norway to the Antarctic and back again for
The towhne tension for such an operation must every whaUng season.
be approximated and the protuberances, with pointed out by Ambrose Hunter ["The Art
It is
their connections to the main hull, must be able of Trawler Planning," Ship and Boat Builder
to withstand the forces and moments due to and Naval Architect, London, Feb 1953, pp.
waves and to the motion of the buoyed-up hull in 259-260] that fishing vessels in general:
waves. No systematic design data are available
for use in .situations of this kind but the problem
(I) Are similar to tugs in that they have to tow
is one readily and simply handled by a model
fishing gear, nets, and trawls, yet have to possess
basin which possesses a model of the ship to
a high free-running speed
(II) Are akin to lightships in that they spend
which the protuberances are to be attached.
76.10 Vessels with Fat Hull Forms. Length more time stopped at sea than any other type
(III) Are hke sailing yachts in their resistance to
of hull, which is an asset when striving for speed
drifting, ease of handling, and extreme maneuver-
and propulsive efficiency, becomes somewhat of a
ability.
Uabihty when first cost, compactness, hull stiffness,
maneuverability, and habitability are important
Specific hydrodynamic requirements adapted
factors. This is especially true for craft which are
from D. S. Simpson [SNAME, 1951, p. 561] and
small compared to the minimum sizes for berths,
R. F. Symonds [SNAME, 1947, pp. 381, 384] in-
lockers, passageways, and access for the crew.
clude the following, together with appropriate
Sailing yachts, tugs, small fishing craft, work comments concerning design:
boats, and similar vessels are, more often than
not, fat and chubby. Icebreakers are larger (1) Adequate metacentric stability, both static
vessels in this category. Their displacement- and dynamic, for all conditions of loading, includ-
length quotients run up to 500 or more, with ing the top weight of a coating of ice over every-
0-diml fatness ratios of 17.5 and above. Their thing above water. This coating may amount to
length-beam ratios are invariably small, generally 20 tons or more. Metacentric stability is outside
less than 5 and sometimes as small as 3. the scope of this book; see PNA, 1939, Vol. 1,
Figs. 66. D and 66.1 indicate that separate Chap. Ill, pp. 99-137, and other standard
design lanes, or branches of regular lanes, are references.
needed for these craft. The two lanes of Fig. (2) Moderate change of trim between extreme
66. A each have branches of this kind. They are operating conditions, such as when entering and
omitted from the latter figure partly to avoid leaving the fishing grounds
compUcation and partly because insufficient data (3) More than adequate or above-average wave-
have been collected to locate them properly. In going ability, at all speeds which can be main-
general, data for existing craft in the fat and tained in the heaviest weather. These design
chubby category are widely scattered. features are covered in Part 6 of Volume III.
It unfortunate that the Taylor Standard
is (4) Easy motion to provide a good working plat-
Series was not extended to embody fat forms form in reasonably rough water, over a range of
having displacement-length quotients A/(0.010L)^ speeds where fishing gear can be handled. The
in excess of 250, corresponding to a fatness ratio design comments of (3) preceding apply here as
V/(0.mLY of 8.77. Partly to fill this gap there well.
are given in Sec. 56.6 the results of an analysis (5) Reasonably dry decks, accepting spray but
of miscellaneous model-test data on fat forms no breaking seas or solid water, over the range of
made by R. F. P. Desel and J. T. Collins. speeds mentioned in (4), so that fishing can
76.11 Requirements and Design Notes for proceed even in bad weather. The design com-
Fishing Vessels. all types and
Fishing vessels of ments of item (3) apply.
sizes are characterized by the requirement that (6) Extra-large freeing ports or freeing slots in
they must "keep the sea and work on it, all the the bulwarks, screened to hold men, gear, and
year around, and in all weathers" [Simpson, D. S., fish but not water
SNAME, 1951, p. 561]. Large or small, they are (7) Ability to slow down or to heave to while
essentially robust, ocean-going whether
craft, retaining steering control, so that the vessel can
they work five miles off a wintry, rock-bound be held in any desired position in wind and waves
Sec. 76.12 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFf 771

(8) submergence of the propeller and

Sufficient J.O.Trauncj Model 540 q IV
Ship Lcnqlh - 19.51 m -o- 6401 ft
rudder, under wavegoing conditions, to give them beam-bZ7m-o 2057_ft
a hold on the water and to render the vessel fully Meon Drofl- 2.354rTr*T72 ft

manageable
(9) Minimum of when broadside or
drifting
nearly so to the wind and sea, as when hauling in
gear and nets from abeam. The effect of drift-
resisting keels is discussed in Sec. 36.15; some
design rules for them are included in Sec. 73.19.
The drift-resisting effect of a deep hull, like that
of the pilot boat New York illustrated in Fig.
36.K, is appreciable.
(10) Positive stability of route under all load
conditions; this is discussed in detail in Part 5 of
Volume III 3.11 -H-'2.56
(11) Ample speed for running to and from the Ax" 10.347 m^ o IN. 32 ft

Cx = O.TOI
fishing grounds. This feature is rather closely
related to the provision of a reasonably high Body Plan, European Fishing Boat,
Fig 76.G
free-running speed for tugs. It is one reason why J.-O. Traung's Model 340a
fishing vessels, like tugs, are invariably over-
powered for their size. Data from the Japanese fishing-vessel standard
and summarized in Sec. 56.4.
series are referenced
While nothing is said in the foregoing about
The multiplicity of longitudinal fender bars
minimum and shaft power to meet the
resistance
fitted on some steel trawlers to prevent damage
several requirements, there is no more excuse for
to the shell plating by heavy
banging fishing gear
unnecessary resistance and Uttle more excuse for
along the side probably more objectionable
is
unneeded power in a fishing vessel than in a
from a maintenance standpoint than for the added
craft of any other type.
resistance which they cause. A construction much
With respect to fishing vessels as a class,
to be preferred from all points of view is described
Jan-Olof Traung has come to the following con-
and illustrated in Sec. 73.22 and Figs. 73.Q and
clusions concerning the effect of form parameters
76.r. It embodies heavier shell plating and a
on resistance, based upon analyses of tests on a
complete absence of all applied appendages in the
considerable number of models [Int. Fishing Boat
form of fender bars, fender shapes, and fender
Congr., Paris and Miami, Oct-Nov, 1953, "Outline
strips.
to a Catalog of Fishing Boat Tank Tests"]:
A combination of controllable propeller and
(a) The displacement-length ratio is of little swinging tubular rudder or Kort nozzle, designed
importance. In other words, it can be as high as for astern as well as ahead propulsion, isan
required for other reasons. excellent combination for a fishing craft. Such
(b) Enlarging the beam does not increase resist- a combination, designed by the Swedish naval
ance architect Jan-Olof Traung, is illustrated and
(c) The center of buoyancy should be well aft. described in Motorship, New York, Jun 1950,
It is possible that the position of the maximum- pages 42 through 44.
area section should also be abaft midlength. 76.12 Partial Modem Bibliography
on Fishing
(d) Differences in the block coefficient Cb , below Vessels. The modern on the design literature

0.55, have little or no influence and construction of fishing vessels, say for the
(e) The prismatic coefficient Cp is of great im- period following the year 1930, is very extensive.
portance, with an optimum value of about 0.575 This is not surprising because, although the aver-
(f Transom sterns act to reduce resistance age fishing vessel is less than 100 or 125 ft in
(g) The half-angle of entrance, or the waterline length, the number of t3T)es and kinds is incredibly
.slope is in this region, should be low large.
(h) Parallel middlebody and sharp shoulders are An insight into the great breadth of this field
to be avoided. Fig. 76. G illustrates the lines of one and the variety in it is afforded by a reading of

of Traung's models. the excellent recent book entitled "Illustrations

772 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.12

of Japanese Fishing Boats." Although pubUshed Tuna Clippers

by the Fisheries Agency of Japan, in 1952, the Trawlers and Sealers
man primarily responsible for it is Atsushi Whale Catchers
Takagi, Chief of the Fishing Boat Section of the Fisheries Research and Exploration Vessels.
Fisheries Agency. Among other information the
Historical and General
book contains the following:
(1) Owen, G., "Outstanding New England Types of
(a)Simimary tables of the Japanese fishing Fishing Boats, Whalers, and Yachts," SNAME,
by types of vessels and kinds of engines,
fleets HT, 1943, pp. 145-151, 163-164

made up of some 23 or 24 categories (2) "Ships and Sailing Albums," Book 4, Kalmbach
Publishing Co., 1027 No. Seventh St., Milwaukee
(b) Tabulated characteristics of 42 typical vessels,
3, Wis. Describes New England fishing schooners.
from whale factory ships to fisheries training (3) Cunningham, D. B., "Notes on Trawl Fishing,"
boats, giving general information, principal di- lESS, 1948-1949, Vol. 92, pp. 260-330
mensions, capacities, form coefficients, and related (4) Hardy, A. C, "Seafood Ships," Crosby, Lockwood &
data for light- and full-load condition, as well as Son, Ltd., 20 Tudor St., London, E.C.4., 1947
(5) Symonds, R. F., and Trowbridge, H. O., "The
37 entries for each vessel
full-scale trial data;
Development of Beam TrawHng in the North
(c) Forty photographs of typical fishing vessels, SNAME,
Atlantic," 1947, pp. 359-384
both large and small (6) "A Review of the British Fishing Industry," Con-
(d) Technical data on 50 typical fishing vessels, tinental Daily Mail, London, Apr 1952
comprising general arrangement plans, lines (7) D. S. Simpson gives 8 references to papers and
articles on fishing and fishing-boat design in
drawings, displacement and other curves, machin-
SNAME, 1951, p. 582
ery and piping arrangements, fishing gear arrange- There are many references to be found under the
(8)
ments, refrigeration installations, and the like. heading "Fishing Vessels" in the Engineering
The data presented are not the same for all Index Summaries of the SNAME Member's
vessels. The largest vessel has 15 plates of data; Bulletins, dating from 1946 to the present

the least important vessels 3 and 4 plates. (9) Many journals publish news on current trends in
fishing-boat design and construction. General-
(e) All dimensions are in the metric system.
arrangement drawings of new fishing boats can
normally be found in every issue of the following
A more recent informative book, of international journals:
scope,is "Fishing Boats of the World," edited by Yachting Magazine, 205 East 42nd Street, New
Jan-Olof Traung and published by Fishing News, York 17, N.Y.
London, 1955, through A. J. Heighway Pubhca- The Rudder, 9 Murray Street, New York 7, N.Y.
"Fishing Gazette," Fishing Gazette Publishing
tions, Ltd., Ludgate House, 107 Fleet St.,
Corporation, 461 Eight Ave., New York, N.Y.
London, E.G. 4. The following explanatory para-
"Pacific Motor Boat," Miller Freeman Publications,
graph is copied from the letter forwarding the Inc., 71 Columbia Washington.
St., Seattle 4,
first of these books from the Food and Agriculture (10) Articles about fishing boats, but with fewer drawings,

Organization of the United Nations: are published in:

"Atlantic Fisherman," Atlantic Fisherman, Inc.,
"It important to emphasise that 'Fishing Boats of
is
Goffstown, New Hampshire
the World' is not meant to be a book on naval architecture. "Pacific Fisherman," Miller Freeman Publications,
It is a book dealing with that part of fishing boat design Inc., 71 Columbia St., Seattle Washington.
4,
which is missing from all textbooks on naval architecture, (11) The U.S. Government Fish and Wildlife Service
and it is so written and presented that everyone con- publishes the monthly "Commercial Fisheries
cerned with building fishing boats can find its illustrations Review." This is obtainable by writing to the
and information of practical value. It is not suggested that Service at the U.S. Department of the Interior,
the book contains information about every type of fishing Washington 25, D.C.
boat, but it does provide a comprehensive survey of a great
number of boats, from beach landing craft to modern Model Tests
trawlers and factory ships."
(12) Nordstrom, H. F., "Forsok med Fiskcbiitsmodcllcr
(Tests with Fisliing Boat Models)," SSPA Rep. 2,
The specific references which follow are listed
1943; English summary on pp. 30-32 and 5 refer-
for convenience under the headings:
ences on p. 29

Historical and General (13) Traung, Jan-Olof, "N^gra Erfarenheter FrSn Tank-
forsokmed FiskebS,ter (Some Ex-periences of Tank
Model Tests
Unda Maris, Goteborg
Tests with Fishing Boats),"
Design and Construction Yearbook of the Nautical Museum, 1947-1948.
Small Vessels The paper carries a summary in English on pp.
Sec. 76.12 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 773
65-68 but there a complete English version in
is Small Vessels
BSRA Transl. 58. A very comprehensive paper,
with a list of 40 references on pp. 62-63.
(26 "Modern Development of the Herring Drifter,"
"Skarpning av FiskebS.tars
SBSR, 30 Apr 1942, pp. 468-470. Gives outlines
(14) Traung, Jan-Olof,
of profiles, with freeboard and sheer, as well as
Fijrskepp (Finer Entrances for Fishing Boat
body plan.
Hulls)," Goteborg Yearbook, 1948; translated by
(27 "4rcterMs-Shrimp Trawler with New Idea," Motor-
the BSRA
ship, New York, Jul 1947, pp. 26-28, 30. Length
(15) Traung, Jan-Olof, "Svenska Tankforsok med Fiske-
108 ft, beam 25 ft, and designed draft 7 ft.
b&tsmodeller (Swedish Tank Tests with Fishing
(28: Dyer, J. M., "The Development of the Columbia
Boat Models)," Norwegian Shipping News, 1949,
River Gill-Net Boat," SNAME, Pac. Northwest
No. 9; translated by the BSRA
Sect., Oct 1947
(16) There are SNAME RD
sheets for fishing vessels
(29 "Presenting a Group of Fishing Vessels Powered by
available as indicated hereunder. Some form
GM-Diesels," Diesel Times, Mar 1948, pp. 7-8.
coefRoients and proportions are listed under
Shows several 60- and 65-ft vessels with large
"TRL" on page 35 of SNAME Tech. and Res.
transom sterns.
Bull. 1-14, Jul 1953:
(30; Nickum, G. C, "Pacific Coast Fish Processing
Sheet Type Length, Beam, Draft, Speed, Vessels," SNAME, Pac. Northwest Sect., 9 Dec
number ft ft ft kt 1949
HI Trawler 130 28.5 12.5 13 (3i: Robison, D., "Diesel Draggers," Diesel Prog., Apr
123 Trawler 110.5 22.48 10.69 11 1950, pp. 56-57
125 Trawler 144.4 27.1 12.8 11 (32 Mann, C. F. A., "Twin Steel Diesel Shrimpers,"

126 Trawler 227.5 38.55 17.18 12 Diesel Prog., Jan 1951, p. 47. These vessels are 54
127 Trawler 59.2 16.96 5.12 10 ft long by 16 ft beam by 6 ft depth, with wide

142 Trawler 119.8 25.67 11.0 12 transom sterns.

157 Trawler 124.7 24.6 11.48 11 (33 Goodrich, J. F., "The Fishing, Processing Vessel
Deep Sea," SNAME, Pac. Northwest Sect., 27
Apr 1951
Design and Construction
(34; Granberg, W. J., "Northwest Yards Launch Fishing
(17) Taylor, A. R., "Fishing Vessel Design," INA, 1943, Craft," Diesel Prog., May 1951, pp. 44-45.
pp. 95-103
(18) Spanner, E. F., "Seaworthiness and Stability of
Tuna Clippers
Trawlers and Drifters," Joint mtg. INA and
lESS, 24 Sep 1946. Abstracted in SBSR, 26 Sep (35: Snyder, G., "Stability of Tuna Clippers," SNAME,
1946, pp. 354-356; 3 Oct 1946, pp. 381-382. Pao. Northwest Sect., 3 May 1946
(19) Holt, W. J., "Admu-alty Type Motor Fishing (36 Mann, C. F. A., "Sun Traveler— A 121-Foot Tuna
Vessels," INA, 12 Apr 1946, pp. 295-307 Clipper for San Diego," Diesel Prog., Mar 1948,
(20) "New Type Motor Fishing Vessels for the Herring
of p. 52
Industry Board," SBSR, 5 Jun 1947, pp. 566-567. (37: "Tuna purse seiner Santa Helena," Diesel Prog.,
Lines drawings are given of two 65-ft experimental Jun 1948, pp. 41-42
herring drifters, based on previous model e.xperi- (38: Mann, C. F. A., "New Baby Tuna-CUpper
ments. Conqueror," Diesel Prog., Feb 1949, pp. 30-31
(21) Smith, R. "ScantUngs for Small Wooden Vessels,"
A., (39: Petrich, J. F., "The Tuna Clipper," SNAME,
SNAME, Aug 1950
Pao. Northwest Sect., 26 North. Calif. Sect., 31 Mar 1949
(22) Simpson, D. S., "Small Craft, Construction and (4o: Pugh, M. D., "The Tuna Clipper Carol Virginia,"
Design," SNAME, 1951, pp. 554-611, esp. pp. Motorship, New York, May 1949, pp. 18-19
561-564 on the trawler, and drawings on pp. 564- (41 Mann, C. F. A., "Tuna Clipper Mermaid," Diesel
569, 571, 574-579, 581 Prog., Sep 1949, pp. 42-45
(23) Traung, Jan-Olof, "Improvement of Fishing Vessels," (42: Mann, C. F. A., "Mary E, Petrich World's Largest,"
FAO Fishing Bulletin, Jan/Feb and Mar/ Apr Diesel Prog., Oct 1949, pp. 40-41. Describes and
1951, Food and Agricultural Organization of the illustrates tuna clipper with an overall length of
U.N., International Documents Service,
2960 150 ft, a beam of 34 ft, a depth of 16 ft, and a
Broadway, New York, N.Y. maximum speed of 13.75 kt.
(24) Henschke, W., "Schiffbautechnisches Handbuch (43: Mann, C. F. A., "Tuna Clipper Hortensia-Bertin,"
(Shipbuilding and Ship Design Handbook)," Diesel Prog., May 1950, pp. 54-55
1952, Section on "Fishing-Vessel Design," pp. (44: Barbour, H. J., "Marilyn Rose, Pacific's Newest
592-613 Tuna Clipper," Diesel Prog., Sep 1950, pp. 46-47
(25a) Traung, Jan-Olof, "Fisheries and Naval Archi- (45: Mann, C. F. A., "A Temporary Lull in Tuna Clippers
tecture," FAO Fisheries Bulletin, 1955, Vol. VIII, Ends with Diesel Powered Modego," Diesel Prog.,
No. 4 (in English), FAO, United Nations, Rome. Jan 1951, p. 53
(25b) A good review of current literature on fishing-vessel (46: Hanson, H. C, "The Tuna Clipper of the Pacific,"
design and construction throughout the world is SNAME, 1954 Spring Meeting. This is a well-
given in the FAO World Fisheries Abstracts, illustrated and informative paper; see also SNAME
published by the FAO Headquarters in Rome. 1954, pp. 30-42. For the 130-ft vessel whose
774 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.13

curves of form arc given in Fig. 11, the following Exploration Vessel," SNAME, Pan. Northwest
data have been worked out for a 17-ft draft: Sect., Oct 1947
(60) Mann, C. F. A., "Diesel Ship John N. Cobb," Diesel
L = 130 ft S/// ratio = 1.76 A/(0.010L)3 = 494
Prog., Apr 1950, pp. 40-41.
S = 30 ft A = 1,085 long tons F/(0.10L)3 = 17.32
£) = 17 ft Cb = 0.648 V = 11.7 mi per 76.13 Fireboats or Firefloats. Fireboats as
hr =0= 10.16 kt
a class are among the earliest of mobile special-
L/B ratio Cp = 0.732 Cw = 0.88
= service vessels, dating in the Americas from the
4.33 Cx = 0.88.
1870's. In Europe these vessels are normally
Trawlers and Sealers called firefloats. It is probable that neither the
(47) Symonds, R. F., and Trowbridge, H. O., "The vessels themselves nor the class will ever be large,
Development of Beam Trawling in the North type
yet the is interesting for the complex
Atlantic," SNAME, 1947, pp. 359-384, esp. pp.
problems it poses in naval architecture and marine
371-384 on Trawler Design
(48) Shearing, Douglas, "152-foot Ti-awlers for French
engineering.
Fishing Industry," Diesel Prog., Feb 1948, p. 56, The service requirements involving hydro-
with photograph of trawler Clair de Lune. Single dynamics, listed hereunder, are adapted from a
propeller is variable pitch, with D of 8.83 ft, P paper by A. D. Stevens [SNAME, 1922, pp.
of 6.175 ft, and 4 blades. Speed is 11 kt with n
137-141 and Pis. 44-52], from a group of excellent
of 200/60 = 3.33 rps.
(49) Diesel-engined Sealer (Terra Nove) on Maiden articles in Motorship [New York, May 1950,
Voyage, Diesel Prog., Feb 1948. Lqa is 140 ft, B pages 17-57], and from a more recent paper by
is 28 ft, and D is 14 ft. Speed is 9 kt. D. S. Simpson [SNAME, 1951, pp. 564-568].
(50) French fishing trawler Saint Joan, Proc. Am. Merch. They are setdown more or less in the order of
Mar. Conf., 1949, p. 292. A photograph shows
their importance:
rather well the form of the hull amidships and the
form of the run, with the single propeller and (a) Instant availability and prompt arrival at
rudder.
the fire. This involves free-running speeds of 11
(51) Diesel trawler Giidrun, Diesel Times, Oct 1949, pp.
to 14 kt, in the present stage of development,
1-2. Length is 115 ft and beam 23 ft.

(52) "A Powerful Motor Trawler," SBSR, 31 Jan 1952, p. depending upon how far the craft has to travel
139. This vessel has a length of 185 ft, a beam of from its station.
30.5 ft, a depth of 16 ft, and a speed of 13.63 kt. (b) Extreme maneuverability, involving a high
(53) Jaeger, H. E., "Large Trawlers," INA, Apr 1954; degree of handiness, rapid response, and ability
abstracted in the May
1954 issue of The Motor
Ship, London, pp. 62-63.
to move in almost any direction. In particular,
the boat must be able to steer and maneuver
Whale Catchers when backing.
(54) Matthews, L. H., "South Georgia: The British (c) Ability to stay put in the position and at the
Empire's Subantarctic Outpost," 1931, pp. 123,
heading desired, under the reaction forces exerted
125-126
at the discharge nozzles
(55) Granberg, W. J., "Diesels go Whahng," Diesel Prog.,
Dec 1949, pp. 34-35. Describes wooden vessels, (d) Stiffness sufficient to give only a moderate
115 to 140 North Pacific whaling.
ft long, for list, say not in excess of 6 deg, when all fire-
(56) Norway's New Whale-Catcher Ships, Nautical fighting nozzles are directed horizontally and
Gazette, Jan 1951. Mentions a 16-kt speed with a
abeam, and discharging at full capacity
brake power Pb of 2,400 horses.
Whale catcher Setter II, SBSR, Feb 1952, p. 55.
(e) Flexibility of drive for propulsion and for
(57)
This vessel has an Lqa of 177.5 ft, an Lpp of 160 pumping. The greater part of the power should
ft, a depth D of 17.5 ft, and a mean draft, fully be available for taking the vessel to the fire; an
loaded, of about 15.6 ft, including a bar keel equally large portion should then be available
about 0.62 ft The displacement correspond-
deep.
for pumping water.
ing is 1,080 long tons. The trial speed is 15.3 kt,
and the vessel has a single screw.
(f) Freedom from clogging of the fire-pump
(58) Shearing, Douglas, "The Whaler Enern," Diesel suctions if the boat has to operate in water depths
Prog., Sep 1953, pp. 36-37. This vessel has an only slightly exceeding its draft. These suctions
LoA of 210 ft, an Lpp of 186.5 ft, a B of 33 ft, and must also remain clear of ice and debris floating
a D of 18.33 ft. The brake power of the single at or near the surface.
engine is 2,700 horses; n is 225 rpm or 3.75 rps,
and the speed V is 16-17 kt. (g) Ability to push or pull on vessels in an
emergency, like a tug. This involves propulsion
Fisheries Research and Exploration Vessels devices with large disc areas or equivalent-disc
(59) Hanson, H. C, "The Conversion of Pacific Fisheries areas Aa In terms of screw propellers this means
Sec. 7r,.J5 DESIGN OF SPECIAL PURPOSE CRAFT 775

that they are neither too small nor too heavily to prevent the craft from jamming itself between
loaded when running free. piles and the hke.
(h) Too much attention need not be paid to a (4) draft should be a minimum consistent
The
hull of minimum free-running resistance, if other with other characteristics
more important features are thereby improved. (5) There should be no excessive keel drag or
As a rule, the pumping requirements call for filling out of the lateral plane at either end
plenty of power so that a not-too-high hull drag (6) The rudders should always be so placed as
may be accepted if it leads to a better all-around to lie in the propeller outflow jets.
firefighting craft.
The reaction forces at the discharge nozzles or
(i) Harbor icebreaking features, if called for; see
Sec. 76.26 following.
H and
monitors, illustrated pictorially in Fig. 76.
indicated numericallyby the example given later
To achieve maneuverability and handiness in in this section, can be very large. They are
and around scenes of possible fires: counteracted by one or more of the following
procedures or devices:
(1) The craft should not be too large. Depending
upon the pumping capacity required, lengths of (7) Constantly moving the fireboat or holding it
70 to 80 to 90 ft are adequate. Lengths of 110 on a certain heading with its propulsion device (s)
and 120 ft are approaching the extreme; 125 ft turning over. This may involve a corresponding
is possibly the maximum [Parsons, H. de B., shift of the water streams to keep them playing
SNAME, 1896, p. 49]. on a desired spot of the fire.
(2) The length-beam ratio should not exceed 5.0. (8) Passive drift-resisting keels, described in
Preferably it between 4.0 and 4.5.
should lie Sec. 36.15, or the equivalent. These are a help
(3) The sides should have continuous curvature, at times but they are not adequate for all possible
as for a tug, to enable the heading to be changed situations.
readily when the vessel is alongside a pier or (9) The provision of one or more swinging or
another ship. The ends should be well rounded. rotating-blade propellers. This method, however,

Fig. 7b. H Honolulu Fireboat Abner T. Lunyley With Jeis in Action

Photograph by Lawrence Barber, Portland, Oregon
776 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.13

necessitates either an accepted projection of the
swinging propellers and rotating blades below
the hull or cutups in the hull forward and aft to
accommodate these devices. There is generally
not room within the vessel, nor would there
Low turbulence, a more "solid" jet, and projection
of more water to a greater distance is achieved
by slowing down, straightening out, and quieting
the water immediately ahead of the nozzle. There
is insufficient information available in connection

always be room under it, for retractable pro- with Fig. 76. H to indicate how far the five jets

pellers of any kind. The cutups involve an in- are carrying in that case. Nevertheless, the
crease in thrust deduction and a loss of efficiency photograph clearly reveals that a considerable
but there are several successful apphcations of amount of water is dissipated in the form of
this kind. A ferryboat installation, equally appli- spray and would probably never reach a fire into
cable to a fireboat, is that on the Virginia ferry which the jets were directed. The reader who is
Northampton, where a Voith-Schneider rotating- interested in this aspect of fireboat design may
blade propeller under the bow supplements the consult a paper by H. Rouse, J. W. Howe, and
twin propellers at the stern [Motorship, New York, D. E. Metzler, entitled "Experimental Investi-
New York, Aug 1950, pp. 26-27, 43]. gation of Fii'e Monitors and Nozzles" [ASCE,

may at times be possible to turn a few 1952, Vol. 117, pp. 1147-1188]. Improved designs
(10) It
of the jets in the opposite direction, to balance
recommended for nozzles and monitors are shown
some of the reactions from the firefighting jets in Fig. 3(c), Table 1, and Fig. 21 on pages 1152,
1172, and 1174, respectively, of the reference
(11) Concentrating the monitors near midlength
cited, and in Fig. 76.1 of the present section.
of the vessel avoids the turning or swinging
moments set up when monitors near the ends
Jet Diameter Dj
are playing.

An arrangement of underwater reaction jets Nozzle

might be thought more efficient for holding the
fireboat in position because these would impart
momentum to some of the surrounding water in
the same direction as the jet. It is to be remem-
bered, however, that neither force nor pressure is

communicated backward through a fiquid jet, at

least not for distances more than a few times the
jet diameter. The reaction force is all developed
when accelerating the water in the nozzle, so the
force is made no greater by playing the jet
against some fixed obstacle nearby or by directing
it into the water. When the nozzle reactions are
used to augment the propulsive thrust to get For Further Details See Rq,2I
Referenced in the Text
the fireboat free of a hot spot in an emergency,
playing the jets horizontally into the air gives
Fig. 76.1 Improved Design of Fixed Fire-Fighting
the greatest reaction. Monitor Recommended by the Iowa Institute
One important feature of fireboat design in- OP Hydraulic Research
volving hydrodynamics has to do with the
efficiency of the monitor nozzles. This is measured In the design recommended by the IIHR and
by the percentage of the total quantity flow of illustrated here, there are two honeycombs for
water that can be delivered per unit time at the removing turbulence, one in the stand and
greatest possible distance from the nozzle, reckoned another in the barrel. Flow in the 90-deg corners
on the basis of the quantity rate passing through is facilitated by the guide vanes shown. The
the nozzle. A jet which disintegrates on its nozzle is simpler than, and superior in perform-
way to the fire or which has a short trajectory is ance to orthodox designs.
inefficient. Breaking up of the jet in the air, as To obtain an idea of the reaction exerted by
well as failure of the water to "carry," is a func- the vertical swiveling part of a monitor, compris-
tion of the turbulence existing in the water upon ing a nozzle fed from a horizontal 90-deg branch
its entrance into the large end of the nozzle. on each side, assume that the barrel fed by these
 Scr. 76.11 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 777

branches is of 6-in diameter, and that the nozzle the leading edges of both sets of planes point
orifice, slightly larger than 2 in, produces a 2-in upward and both are exerting positive Uft. By
diameter jet. As the same water passes through adjusting the angles, the moment of these lift

both, Fjet = (672')FB.rrei = 97^ From the . forces balances the moment of the negative
energy equation [Rouse, H., EH, 1950, pp. 65-66] buoyancy.

2g
J^TPB ^ n
29
{9Vnf
2g
(76.i)
Tipping the submarine over on its side, in
imagination, produces the fireboat equipped with
both bow rudder and stern rudder. Swinging the
Assume further that the acceleration of gravity leading edges of both rudders toward the fire
g is 32.174 ft per sec", that the salt water being produces a lateral force to counteract the nozzle
pumped has a specific weight w of 64 lb per ft^, reaction force. It is to be remembered, however,
and that the pumping pressure in the barrel is that the hft produced by the bow rudder, without
150 psi. Then the benefit of a propeller outflow jet, varies
directly as the first power of the rudder angle
2gps 64.35(150)144
/

-
fQ4 = 16.5 and as the square of the water velocity past it.
\w(9' 1) V 64(80) A 4-kt current might easily give the required
lateral force forward, with not too great a rudder
whence Vj = 9(16.5) = 148.5 fps. As the feeding
angle, whereas this might be difficult to obtain,
branches come into the barrel at right angles,
AV is also 148.5 fps, reckoned in the jet direction.
with a large rudder angle, in a 1-kt current.
Then F„ , the force on the vertical-swiveling Appended is a brief list of references relating to

nozzle assembly, is
fireboats, supplementing those mentioned at the
beginning of this section:
F„ = pQAV
(i) Parsons, H. de B., "Fire-Boats," Cassier's Mag.,
r i48.57r(l)^ May 1896, pp. 28-45. This article carries a con-
= 1.9905 1 148.5 = 958 lb.
siderable amount of historical data and many
L 144 J
illustrations.

The horizontal reaction on the fireboat is, (ii) Parsons, H. de B., "American Fii'e-Boats," SNAME,
roughly, the nozzle-assembly reaction times the 1896, pp. 49-64. Tables and III give detailed
I, II,
data on 24 fireboats dating from 1875 through
cosine of the angle of elevation of the nozzle
1895.
above the horizontal. The transverse reaction on (iii) West, C. C, "Centrifugal-Pump Fire-Boats,"
the boat is the horizontal reaction times the sine SNAME, 1908, pp. 211-228 and Pis. 116-121
of the angle which the nozzle makes with the (iv) Seattle Fireboat Alki, Diesel Prog., Mar 1949, p.
43
boat centerline.
(v) Robison, D., "Milwaukee's New Fire Boat Deluge,"
It is sometimes necessary to hold a fireboat
Diesel Prog., Oct 1949, pp. 24-25. The overaU
reasonably stationary in space in a tidal current length is 96.58 ft, the waterhne length is 93 ft,
or flowing river. The propulsion devices turning and the molded beam is 23 ft, with a draft of 6.75
over slowly furnish the necessary force to breast ft.

the current but there remains the problem of (vi) Houston Fireboat Captain Crotty, MESR, Dec 1952,
pp. 86, 112
holding the craft transversely against the water-
(vii) New Fireboat John D. McKean for New York City,
jet reaction forces if the monitors are playing at Mar. Eng'g., Feb 1953, pp. 79-80; Sep 1954, pp.
right angles to the current direction. 54-58; SBSR, Int. Des. and Equip. No., 1955,
An expert boat handler can possible yaw the pp. 68-69. The Lqa is 128.75 ft, the L^l 125 ft,
the B 30 ft, the D 14.25 ft, and the H^^^ is 9.25
fireboat toward the direction of the
slightly
ft; there are 2 screws.
fire and balance the transverse yawing force
(viii) "The World's Fire-Fighting Boats," SBSR, Int.
against the combined nozzle reaction forces. Des. Equip. No., 1956, pp. 61-65.
However, the design situation here is exactly
comparable to one frequently met with in sub- 76.14 Distinguishing Design Features of Self-
marines, where it is necessary to hold the vessel Propelled Dredges. A self-propelled suction
at about zero trim and at a given depth against dredge, while digging, an example of a ship
is

relatively large amounts of positive or negative acted upon by other than hydrodynamic (and
buoyancy. For negative buoyancy this is done aerodynamic) forces. This is because practically
by giving the bow planes a slight rise angle and all of them draw up the bed material through one

the stern planes a slight dive angle; in this position or more drag pipes, inchned aft and downward.
778 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.14

Each of these pipes has a scraper of some sort by the form

at its lower end and a large mouth adjacent to
it through which the bed material is carried by
suction, suspended in a powerful stream of water.
At upper end, possibly also at other points
its
along length, the drag pipe is hinged or swiveled
its
about a horizontal, transverse axis. The scraper
and the pipe may thus be lowered to the desired
depth when digging or drawn up above the
baseplane (and the waterplane) when the dredge
is running free.
Self-propelleddredges may have two drag
pipes, one outboard on either side, or a single
pipe, lowered through a long center well. A
diesel-electric twin-screw hopper dredge of the
latter type, having a length of 290 ft and a beam
of 58 ft, is illustrated in the technical hterature
[SBSR, 8 May 1952, p. 48; also 9 Apr 1953, p. 42].
Most large model-basin estabUshments have
tested models of self-propelled dredges (for ex-
ample, TMB
models 3132, 3175, 3597, 3633, and
3779), and some of them have made resistance
tests of drag-pipe assemblies at various attitudes
and speeds. Unfortunately, however, much
this information is so speciahzed that it has not
found its way into the technical and reference
hterature. The drag encountered by the scraper
units depends upon the nature of the bottom,
the depth of cut being made, and other factors.
The ahead resistance and the lateral forces
occasioned by the mouth of the drag pipe when
scraping on the bottom, and the hydrodynamic
resistance of the inchned drag pipe(s) moving
ahead through the water, are not exactly com-
parable to the towhne tension on a tug or to the
wind force on a sailboat. Nevertheless, the drag-
pipe resistances and scraper forces caU for
increased propeller thrust and they may interfere
with steering.
A self-propelled dredge usually scrapes
dredges in shallow water, with a small bed clear-
ance. Furthermore, it necessarily scrapes at slow
speed, so that more than the usual rudder effect
is required to keep
it under control and moving in
the desired lanes. This means that the rudder(s)
must be of greater-than-normal blade area and
that they must be placed in the outflow jets of
propellers, to provide the necessary lateral forces
at low speeds.
Aside from ground and hydrodynamic
the
resistances of the drag pipesand their gear, the
principal resistance components pecuUar to self-
propelled dredges are the pressure drags developed
discontinuities in the bottom, in the
of large recessesunder the hopper doors. If the
doors, opening downward, are not to swing below
the baseplane the recesses are unavoidably deep.
The greater the hopper capacity of the dredge the
more recesses there are.
Hopper-door recesses in the bottoms of self-
propelled dredges of a half-century ago are illus-
trated by T. M. Cornbrooks [SNAME, 1908, PI.
140], where one port and one starboard row is
indicated. Each recess is 4.42 ft wide and about
3 ft deep vertically. There are 6-in by 6-in by
5/8-in angles all around the lower edge of each
recess, projecting both into the recess and below
the bottom of the ship. The two rows of recesses
are shghtly over 6 ft apart, measured to their
inboard edges. Recesses in later designs of dredges
are similar, indicated by the hnes drawings of
SNAME RD sheet 103 and of ETT Stevens
Technical Memorandum 100.
The whole subject of hopper-door recesses in
the bottom is discussed in Chap. VIII, pages
213-250, of the Scheffauer reference hsted near
of the end of this section. Several conical dump
valves of a new type are illustrated in this refer-
ence. They practically ehminate the large hopper-
door recesses and the hydrodynamic resistance
generated by them.
Most self-propelled suction dredges, with their
limited draft and large underwater volume, have
large B/H ratios. That of the 247-ft hopper dredge
described in SNAME RD sheet 103 is 3.08, at
load draft. For other vessels of this type it is
4.5 or more. At reduced draft, as when returning
from the dumping ground to the dredging area,
the B/H ratios are considerably larger.
This type of hull definitely calls for a twin- or
multiple-skeg stern [SNAME, 1947, pp. 97-169].
It is much easier to shape a twin-screw stern of
or large beam and small draft with double skegs than
with a normal form. Further, there is every
reason to anticipate a better flow around the
twin skegs, although the resistance may suffer
because of the increased wetted area. Certainly it
is far simpler to hang twin rudders abaft twin
skegs carrying propellers than to mount them
under a normal-form stern of generally V-shape.
As an indication of the percentage of time during
which a self-propelled seagoing suction dredge is
running to and from the dumping grounds, T. M.
Cornbrooks shows that for a working period
of about 7.5 days, during which time the dredge
made 44 complete round trips, it was outward
Sec. 76.16 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 779

bound to the dumping ground and inward bound There are two 27.5-inch diameter suction pipes, one
on each side, with swivel joints below the waterline.
to the dredging area, traveUng like a normal
The pipes are 72 ft long and the vessel can dredge in
vessel, for about 31 per cent of the total time water up to 50 ft deep. There are twin spade rudders
[SNAME, 1908, p. 249]. and 9 hopper doors under the bottom.
Since the dumping ground must of necessity (12) Scheffauer, F. C. "The Hopper
(editor-in-chief),

be some deepwater area where the refuse will not Dredge; Its History, Development and Operation,"
Off. of Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, Washington,
interfere with navigation in the future, and since
Gov't. Print. Off., 1954. An extensive bibliography
it may
be rather well out to sea, self-propelled is given on pages 375-376 of this reference. The
dredges must possess a reasonable amount of following is taken from the Preface on page ix, as
freeboard, sheer, and reserve buoyancy. applying to this book:
A brief list of references, limited almost exclu- "It is not a manual by the use of which a novice
sively to seagoing, self-propelled dredges of the may design a dredge, but rather a guide for the use of

hopper type, follows: those who may be engaged in the construction and
operation of plant of this character."
(1) Robinson, A. W., "Hydraulic Dredging," Cassier's
Mag., Nov 1896, pp. 37-47 76.15 Self-Propelled Box-Shaped Vessels.
(2) Cornbrooks, T. M., "Sea-Going Suction Dredges," There is a constant demand which has
for a craft
SNAME, 1908, pp. 247-249 and Pis. 140-146 the carrying capacity of the customary barge,
(3) "The United States Suction Dredge New Orleans,"
American, Jun and p.
1912, front cover
hghter, or scow but which is able to move itself
Scientific 1

494. This vessel had a single centerline drag pipe, from place to place without the services of a tug.
with water jets on the scoop to help break up the Very often an equally important requirement is
mud in the river bed. that the craft be simple, cheaply or rapidly built,
(4) Styer, W. D., "Hydraulic Seagoing Hopper Dredges,"
or both, with hull boundaries having easy curva-
SNAME, 1924, pp. 28-48
"Seagoing Hydraulic Hopper
ture or else none at all. The ultimate in this respect
(5) Vaughn, H. B., Jr.,
Dredges," SNAME, 1941, pp. 262-299 was probably reached by the so-called "rhino
(6) Barakovsky, V., "The Dredgers," Schip en Werf, ferries" of World War II, built up in the field
10 and 24 Jan 1947 by bolting together standard steel boxes having
(7) Freeh, F. F., "Design and Construction of Seagoing
the form of rectangular parallelepipeds.
Hopper Dredges with Special Reference to
Essayms," SNAME, Phila. Sect., 27 Apr 1949.
The requirements for this group treat the
Abstracted in the publication Motorship, New propulsion being definitely
characteristics as
York, issue of Sep 1949, beginning on p. 38. See secondary to the load-carrying characteristics, yet
also MESR, Dec. 1952, pp. 74-75, and Mar. they are of httle practical use unless they can be
Eng'g., Mar 1954, pp. 48-57. seK-propelled. The answer to this problem is to
(8) McCarthy, E. W., "Hopper Dredge (Ciudad de
accept the square corners and the flat sides and
Barranquilla) for Government of Colombia,"
Naut. Gaz., Mar 1950, pp. 14-15, 37. This is a to push or pull them, or both, by outboard drives
twin-screw dredge having a hopper capacity of with propellers whose discs he below the bottom
1,000 cu yd, an overall length of 240.5 ft and a plane of the box. Swinging these propellers about
speed of 11 kt.
a vertical axis solves the problem of steering,
(9) The general features of six shallow-water self-
backing, sidUng, and maneuvering, all at once.
propelled twin-screw hopper-type dredges are
described and illustrated in Diesel Times, Apr Lifting them up about a horizontal axis solves the
1951. This article also describes the seagoing, self- shallow-water, repair, and maintenance problem.
propelled, twin-screw hopper dredge Pacific, built The complete power plants, in packaged units
in 1937, as well as the self-propelled hopper dredge
that float, are inserted in niches or slots provided
Sandpiper, built in Montreal and used on the
for them in the box assemblies, or are attached
Lake Maracaibo Bar in Venezuela.
(ID) Low, D. W., "Considering Dredgmg Craft," lESS, temporarily in any convenient manner.
1951-1952, Vol. 95, Part 6, pp. 438-484, esp. pp. A power unit with a rotating-blade propeller
463-474; also Part 7, pp. 485-491. Paper is con- might be used to propel a box-shaped craft,
cerned only with self-propelled dredges. There are
except that the vertical blades projecting below
no diagrams of hopper recesses or doors but there
the plane of the bottom of the box would be
are discussions of them on pp. 472, 483.
(11) French suction dredger Charles Belleville, MENA, vulnerable in shallow water.
May 1952, p. 221 76.16 Self-Propelled Floating Drydocks. A

D floatingdrydock which can propel itself in the

LoA 309 ft 19.75 ft
Lbp 291 ft H 13.83 ft in fresh water open sea at a reasonable speed when nominally
Be 49.25 ft Hopper capacity is 35,310 ft^ unloaded, which can maneuver after a fashion,
780 HVDRODVNAAriCS TN SHIP DESIGN

Fig. 76.J Aerial View of U. S. Navy ARD Type Floating Drydock

Official U. S. Navy photograph. The gate which closes the stern is hinged horizontally along its lower edge. Screw
propellers, if fitted for self-propulsion, would be close to the extreme stern and just inboard of the outside of the dock.

and which can control itself when hove to in cargo, with the disadvantage that the "cargo" is

heavy weather, has all the principal attributes of generally all one package, extending below
in
a ship, and is so classified here. Basically, it the water as well as above it. The self-propelled
resembles a single-ended car ferry or a "seatrain" floating drydock also may be considered as a
in its ability to accommodate a bulky, heavy partly submersible ship with a large, U-shaped,
Sec. 76.17 DESIGN OF SPliCIAL PURPOSE CRAFT 781

open docking recess and a tail gate, or as a single- reproduced in Fig. 76..I. The positions originally
section floating drydock with a ship bow and the intended for the propellers of ARD 1 were under
same tail gate. the after outer corners of the stern, slightly
The question whether any floating drydock
of forward of the tail gate.

should be self-propelled is not at issue here.
These notes are included for the benefit of a
designer who may be called upon to lay out a
self-propelled craft of this type, whatever its
service or purpose may be. As a rule, he will be
called upon to work on a craft which is not
suitable for self-propulsion but must be made so
by his resourcefulness or ingenuity.
An early form of self-propelled floating drydock
with Ruthven hydraulic propulsion was illus-
trated by Vice-Admiral Sir E. Belcher many
years ago [INA, 1870, pp. 197-211 and Fig. 2,
PI. I]. It seemed logical at that time to use
hydraulic jet propulsion since the dock had to be
equipped with pumps in any case to handle the
water in its various compartments. A similar
type of drydock, proposed by G. B. Rennie [INA,
1883, Vol. XXIV, p. 225ff] was intended to be
propelled by six hydrauhc jets on each side,
indicated on Plate XV of the reference.
A dock with one screw propeller out-
similar
board at each after corner was proposed by L.
Clark in a somewhat later paper, supplemented by
some comments of W. Froude [INA, 1877, Vol.
XVIII, PL XIV, Figs. 2 and 3; also discussion
on p. 196]. Froude reminded the author (Clark)
that:
"If you put a screw any
close to a ship, cut off without
run at all, the propulsive effect of the screw becomes
absolutely nil."
A ship-shaped, floating drydock (ARD 1),
able of handUng a destroyer of the middle 1930's,
was designed by the Bureau of Yards and Docks
of the Navy Department and built for the U. S.
Navy in 1934. This dock was designed to accom-
modate propelling machinery and propellers for
self-propulsion but was never so fitted. It had an
overall length of 393 ft, a beam of 60 ft, and a
depth of 33 ft, with a maximum draft when
flooded of 30 ft. Bow and stern views of this dock
were published at that time and later [SBSR, 23
Aug 1934, p. 200; Motorship, New York, Apr
1950, p. 27; Mar. Eng'g., Apr 1954, p. 110, shows
a stern view of the larger ARD 8, Lqa = 486
B = 72 ft].
A bow aerial view of an ARD floating dock
appears on the front cover of Bureau of Ships
A not-too-blunt bow, illustrated in the Bureau
of Ships Journal photograph, is a necessity if a
drydock or any craft of this general shape is to
be self-propelled at a reasonable speed without
an inordinately large propelling power. Assuming
a 420-ft waterline length a nd a n upper limit of
speed of 10 kt, T, is 10/V420 = 0.488, F„ =
about 0.145. From Fig. 66.1 the optimum water-
line entrance slope is 32 deg but since the graph
is relatively steep in this region the slope could
be raised to 40 deg or more if other more important
requirements forced this change.
A floating drydock requires considerably more
bed clearance, or water under it, than the ships
being docked. Since the dock is often moored close
inshore, generally in areas not useful for operating
ships, the overall draft must be kept to a minimum.
This complicates the problem of where to put the
propulsion devices while retaining a reasonable
degree of efficiency in their operation.
A multiple-arch type of stern, similar to the
single-arch stern described in Sec. 67.16, appears
to offer the best promise of good propulsive
efficiency while maintaining the stiffness necessary
in the floor structure ofany floating drydock.
Such a stern would have a profile corresponding
approximately to that for the single-arch ABC
stern shown in Figs. 67. M
and 67.0. The pro-
pellers could be large compared to the fight draft,
as their upper tips could extend above the WL.
They would be protected excellently all around,
cap- and they could even be made accessible for in-
spection and repairs by flooding the forward
dock tanks. The multiple skegs should give
excellent stability of route, and the multiple
rudders abaft them equally good maneuvering
characteristics.
The design of a ship-shaped floating drydock
for towing only, embodying skegs or rudders or
both at the stern, is discussed in Part 5 of Volume
III, under the design of towed craft.
76.17 Design of Temporary Bows for
Emergency Running and Towing. A design
problem akin to that of shaping a bow for a
ft, self-propelled floating drydock is laying out a
temporary bow on a ship which has lost its own
bow. Towing or pushing a vessel terminated at
its forward end only by a flat watertight bulkhead

Journal for April 1953. A stern aerial view is is an extremely precarious operation. A danger-
782 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.18

ously heavy load can be built up on the immersed
area of such a bulkhead by dynamic action of the
water, even at low speeds. Indeed, a vessel with
only a portion of its bow caved in, but with a
hole by which the dynamic pressure at that point
is transmitted to the boundaries of the flooded
portion, can develop high dynamic loads on those
boundaries, indicated by diagram 1 of Fig. 76. K.
A vessel damaged in this manner can and should
be towed with the undamaged end foremost,
even to the extent of towing stern first, without
benefit of the steering effect of a rudder at the
trailing end. A photograph of a large tanker
without a bow, being towed in this manner, is
reproduced in Shipbuilding and Shipping Record
[5 Jun 1947, p. 559]. Under these conditions the
propeller is permitted to free-wheel, if
A combination of square leading and trailing
ends, such as might be encountered on a transom-
stern destroyer with its bow broken off, may
result in some yawing or weaving during a towing
operation. However, if the damaged vessel is
towed with its good end foremost, the holding
bulkhead should remain intact and the ship
should stay afloat.
If the bow is damaged or missing,
desired to bring the vessel home under its own
power, a rather blunt false bow is found adequate.
Straight sides and an entrance slope of 45 deg.
sketched at 4 in Fig. 76. K, should suffice for
reasonably rapid travel. If head seas are likely
to be encountered, a rake to the false bow sides
any amount that is found practicable up to 15
—
deg or so pays for itself in easing the impact
loads on the flat surfaces. Because of the flat
sides on the temporary bow, it can be expected
that the wavegoing loads on the hull, at reduced
speed, will be at least as large as on the undamaged
vessel at normal speed.
With a well-constructed false bow of the type
illustrated in diagrams 3 and 4 of Fig. 76. K and
in reasonably smooth water, it should be possible
to make at least one-third the speed to be expected
with the undamaged vessel. In fact, vessels have
made ocean crossings under their own power
practicable. with false bows very much blunter than the one
depicted in diagrams 3 and 4 of the figure.
One such ship was the U.S.S. Selfridge (DD 357),
which had its bow blown off in the South Pacific
during World War II. Fig. 76. L shows the vessel
in a floating dry dock with the false bow com-
pleted. A photograph of the vessel under way in
this condition is reproduced in the Bureau of
Ships (U. S. Navy Department) Journal for
and it is May 1953, page 12.
76.18 Floats for Pontoon Bridges. A varia-
tion of the box-shaped, load-carrjdng barge or
fighter is the moored float intended to support

Hydrostatic Pressure
on Bulkhead is
IrrtQct

Auqmented b-; B'ynomic Pressure

+Ap Developed at Blunt Bow
Biacjrame 1,2, and 4 Represent Plan Views
at About the Surfoce Waterline

Any Rake up to
15 deo IS Probably
of Benefit in
RouQh Woter

Fig. 76. K Schematic Design for Tempor-vry Bows of Damaged Vessels

Sec. 16.19 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 783

of the mooring gear. In the case of rivers at flood

stage, the pontoon may lie at an angle to the
current even though when moored at a normal
stage it may have been in line with the current.
For floats or pontoons which are open and
undecked, adapted for nesting inside each other
in transit, adequate freeboard possesses an im-
portance only slightly less than that of low drag.
If the floats are moored in relatively shallow
water, the bow-wave crests are augmented.
Furthermore, when floats are placed close to each
other along the bridge, the water flows at aug-
mented speed between them, with a consequent
dropping of the water level there. Even though
the wave crests at bow and stern may be high,
each float drops bodily in the water, as does the
simple ship in diagram 1 of Fig. 29. B.
76.19Yacht-Design Requirements; Some
Aspects Sailing- Yacht Design.
of Yachts, de-
fined as craft intended for pleasure, recreational,
competitive, or ceremonial purposes only, may
Fig. 76.L Temporary Bow Fitted to U. S. S. Selfridge be classified first by size:
(DD 357)
Official U. S. photograph. The waterhne slopes of
Navy (1) Large, exceeding 100 or 125 ft in overall
bow are very large, much larger than
this particular length. For hydrodynamic design purposes these
are recommended for a craft required to make a are essentially displacement-type ships.
transocean crossing under its own power.
(2) Medium, over 50 ft in overall length of hull
proper but not exceeding 125 ft
large fixed weights over water, in the manner of
pontoons for temporary bridges. In general these
(3) Small, under 50 ft m overall length of huh.

pontoons must carry their loads in swift streams By type and method of propulsion they may
or rivers, on the surface of which wind waves of be classified as:
considerable height and magnitude are often
(a) Displacement-type, mechanical propulsion
formed. The problem here is not exactly com-
only, mcluding water jets. These are usually de-
parable to that of a towed craft carrying the same
signed by the rules applying to larger vessels.
weight at the same speed, equal to the velocity
(b) Semi-planing type, mechanical propulsion
of the river current, because the pontoon may
only, including airscrews and water jets
not be entirely free to trim. Furthermore, the
(c) Planing type, mechanical propulsion only,
pontoon is usually anchored by a cable or chain
including airscrews, water jets, gas jets, rockets,
which leads downward at a considerable angle
and the hke
and exerts an appreciable downward component
(d) Sailing yachts with auxiliary mechanical
of force at the bow.
propulsion
For almost any river, the current velocity at
(e) Sailing yachts without mechanical power.
the center exceeds the mean current speed,
because of the retarded flow in the boundary The design notes in Chaps. 66 through 75 of
layers along the sides and over the bed. In a this part should suffice for the hull and propdev
swift river the wavemaking drag may exceed the design of the large and medium yachts with
friction drag. Since the downstream pull on each mechanical propulsion. The semi-planing and
pontoon varies as the second power at least of planing craft of groups (b) and (c) preceding are
the current velocity, and possibly as some higher classed as motorboats, for which design procedures
power, the increase of current velocity from any and rules are set down in Chap. 77. Some features
source whatever not to be regarded hghtly.
is of sailing-yacht design are discussed subsequently
The overall drag an important factor because
is in this section.
it affects the type, strength, and arrangement Leaving aside for the moment the sailing yacht
784 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.19

which is intended purely for racing, certain general (x) As is customary for all other sets of require-

and detail requirements apply to all yachts: ments in the book, items not related to hydro-
djmamics are omitted.
(i) Appearance is usually a major item,if not the

principal one. To be a true yacht, a craft must The renowned yacht designer and builder
look like a pleasure rather than a utihty craft. Nat G. Herreshoff laid great emphasis on quiet
Styles, tastes, and fashions vary with individuals smooth running in all his craft, and devoted much
and change with time. No one but the owner can time and attention to achieving this end. WhUe
say whether he wants a 3-kt houseboat to look most of the noise made by mechanically propelled
like a Roman chariot, or whether he wants a craft comes from the main and auxiliary machin-
40-kt speedboat to look Uke an airplane, ery, much of the vibration and rough running
(ii) Accommodations for engaging in manifold may well have a hydrodynamic origin. No specific
activities, even on a small craft. At first sight, design rules are given here for insuring quiet
this and the preceding item appear far removed smooth operation in a yacht. It is pointed out
from hydrodynamics but they involve freeboard, only that these features are by no means negUgible
sheer, air and wind resistance of the hull and in a craft intended for pleasure, rest, and relaxa-
upper works, and other features having to do tion.
with maneuveiing and wavegoing. A sailing yacht usually receives its greatest
(iii) Speed in smooth water, coupled with endur- driving force and makes its highest speed when
ance and fuel capacity at some specified speed running at a large angle of heel. It is the aim of
(iv) Abihty to travel safely, and not too uncom- the designer, and it is often possible, so to shape
fortably in waves, to ride out storms when hove the hull as greatly to increase its effective length
to, and to negotiate passages through inlets and in the heeled position. This in turn, acts to decrease
rivers with currents, tide rips, and choppy water the speed-length or Taylor quotient or the Froude
(v) Useful load-carrying capacity, generally on a number and to make the vessel drive more easily
usable-volume rather than a weight-carrying as the propelling thrust is increased. Most sailing
basis.This item is closely related to that of ac- yachts, when driven hard, reach Taylor quotients
commodations. of 1.2 to 1.3, correspondmg to a Velox wave
(vi) Maneuverability, like other items to follow, length (from bow-wave crest to first crest follow-

is by the prospective owner

usually not specified ing) somewhat greater than the waterline length
but can never be overlooked by the naval archi- at rest, mth zero heel.

tect. This includes the ability to handle the To illustrate some of these features. Fig. 76. M
craft, usually with a very large part of its volume
is a body plan of a one-design saihng yacht,

out of water, in high winds blowing from un- having a waterline length of 32.0 ft, kindly fur-

favorable directions. nished by Olin J. Stephens, II, of the firm of

(vii) Practically any yacht which expects to run

in open water should have adequate metacentric
height for a large range of stabihty. For the sailing
yacht there should be a positive righting moment
at 80 deg angle of heel. This means a reasonable
width of deck on the lee side, high watertight
coamings, self-baihng cockpits, and no internal
ballast which can shift when rolling or when
heeled to the extreme angle,
(viii) A distribution of weights as nearly amid- Actually, when He Inclined Woterlii

ships as possible, to keep down the polar moment ot 30 de(), the Yocht is for Heel of
Trovelinq So Post that 30 deg.
of inertia of the whole craft about the pitching axis the Wo»e Profile Alters ot which the DisplQ
the Surface Woterplone Volume Equals That
For the saihng yacht, the maximum practic-
1

(ix)
Apprecioblij Upriijht Conditic

able performance as to speed, freedom from lee-

way, and steering with the craft running at an Constructic

angle of heel, when the underwater body is Sections

definitely and drastically asymmetric about any Fig. 76.M Body Plan op Sailing Yacht with Inclined
longitudinal axis Waterline
 Sec. 76.19 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 785

Spai'kman and Stephens, Inc. On this body

"plan there is drawn an inclined waterUne for a
heel of 30 deg, when the main deck edge touches
the water on the low side, for the condition in
which the inclined volume V equals the upright
volume V.
Diagram 2 of Fig. 76. N gives a half-waterline
shape with the yacht upright; diagram 1 shows
the whole waterline shape in the inclined position
Waterline Offsets Are Measured from Intersection of Plane of
just described. This shape, corresponding to the
Undisturbed Woter Surface and Plane of Symmetry of Yocht
intersection of the hull with the level of the
undisturbed water at rest, is definitely unsym-
401
metric, even about a diagonal line drawn from S>
Shape of Desiqne
3j
the stem to the extreme after end of the inclined Waterline with
2.0
Yocht Upriqht
waterline. For this particular yacht, the inchned 1.0 -13
WL has very nearly the same length as the upright Station^

WL, when measured parallel to the ship axis. If

The Waterline Lenqth is the Station Lenqth m
the Upriqht Position.
measured along the diagonal broken line in For the 30-de<j Heel Position the Reference Lenqth L3 is olso theL^L

diagram 1 of Fig. 76.N it is about 1.012 times

the upright WL length. 1.0

The foregomg analysis apphes to the static

case only, with the water surface undisturbed
by any waves whatever. The dynamic situation
when sailing is far different, even in smooth water.
At their top speeds these craft generate a very
pronounced Velox-wave system, with high crests
at bow and stern and a deep trough amidships.
The immersed length of the inclined waterline is
then considerably longer than that shown in
diagram 1 of Fig. 76.N, and its shape is probably
much different. There is a similar difference
between the at-rest inchned section-area curve
and the corresponding yl-curve when underway.
This difference may be greater than between the
upright and inclined A-curves of diagrams 4
and 3, respectively, of Fig. 76.N.
While considerable research has been and is
being carried on relative to the overall resistance
and propulsion aspects of saUing-yacht design
and performance, this should be extended to
cover the wave profiles and lines of floAV at various
angles of heel. Put in another way, attention
should be focused as much on the flow patterns
around the hull when underway as on its form
coefficients, section-area curves, and other param-
eters. All too often the latter apply only to the
upright condition, with the vessel at rest. In the
few modern books on saUing-yacht design there
is little discussion of the hull characteristics in
the inclined condition [Skene, N. L., "Elements
of Yacht Design," 5th ed., 1944, Fig. 45, p. 75].

Sec. 29.8 mentions a much older paper by R. C.

Allen covering some phases of this subject
786 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.20

to the center of resistance of the underwater hull. and displacement. Upright resistances of the full size boat
for a few selected fixed speed-length ratios are divided by
Manj^ saUing yachts have transom sterns. On
the displacement in tons. The resulting ratios are of the
these craft, where the propulsive power is limited
same order of magnitude for all lengths of boats, tending
to that which can be derived from the wind, the to be smaller as the boat length is increased. Plots of the
shape and position of the transom may be of ratios against load water fine make a convenient chart
greater relative importance than on a high-speed for comparison of hull resistance. Similar coefficients are
worked up for other performance characteristics. For
motor yacht or a destroyer. At slow speeds the
instance, an excellent basis on which to compare per-
transom must definitely be kept out of water, to formance to windward is obtained if close-hauled speed-
avoid the separation drag abaft it. At higher made-good is divided by \/Z for a few fixed values of
speeds it may be possible to accept the added true wind speed. By similar methods, stability, leeway
drag, especially if some of the deflection drag angles, and balance may be compared. Charts of all these
characteristics have been prepared for a large number of
behind the bow-wave crest can thereby be elim-
Tank tested boats. These charts give immediately a means
inated.
for evaluating a new design, besides indicating performance
Several new appear in the design of sailing
ratios trends.
yachts. Among them may be mentioned the "Another step was taken when a method was set up to
ballast ratio and the sail-area to wetted-surface compare three important characteristics on the basis of
hull alone without effect of sails or center of gravity
ratio. In its simplest terms, the ballast ratio is the .

position. This compares hull resistance, leeway angles and

ratio of the total weight of ballast, both inside and
longitudinal center of lateral resistance for three heel
outside (portable and fixed in the keel), to the angles at a standard speed and stability which are func-
total scale weight of the yacht. It ranges from tions of boat length. By separating hull characteristics
0.25 to 0.35 or more, depending upon the beam from the sail power, a more critical analysis may bo made
of the problem."
and other factors. There are rather elaborate
ways of defining ballast, by modern racmg rules, 76.20 Brief Bibliography on Sailing-Yacht
but the scheme remains the same. Design. While no attempt has been made to
The saU-area to wetted-surface ratio appUes collect all the published and unpublished refer-
primarily to smallwhich run fast
sailboats ences relating to the design of sailing yachts the
enough to generate large dynamic lifts and which reader may find the following brief bibliography
approach planing speeds, although it is also a useful and interesting from a historical and general
factor in the design of purely displacement types. information standpoint:
It has probably been assumed by some yacht
(1) Harvey, J., "On the Construction and Building of
designers that the hull resistance of a sailboat Yachts," INA, 1878, Vol. 19, pp. 150-158
in the semi-planing range due largely to friction,
is (2) Kemp, Dixon, "A Manual of Yacht and Boat Sail-
so that speed and actual wetted area are the ing," Cox, London, 3rd ed., 1882

major factors. They are indeed factors but it is
doubtful that they are the major ones. They are
certainly not the only factors.
D. Philhps-Birt presents a discussion which,
though appUed to a sail-and-power craft called a
(3) Kemp, Dixon, "Fifty Years of Yacht Building,"
INA, 1887, Vol. 28, pp. 232-246
(4) Nixon, L., "Yachts in America and England,"
SNAME, 1894, pp. 261-277
(5) Kemp, Dixon, "Yacht Architecture: A Treatise on
the Laws which Govern the Resistance of Bodies

motor sailer, embodies a number of useful
comments on saihng-yacht design in general
[Rudder, May 1955, pp. 12-15, 46-55].
As an indication of the type of unpublished
data available on saihng-yacht design, and of
those to be expected in the not distant future, the
followmg is quoted from an article by A. B.
Murray of the Experimental Towing Tank,
Stevens Institute of Technology [Yachting, Dec
1946, pp. 62, 110]:
Moving in Water; Propulsion bj' Steam and Sail;
Yacht Designing; and Yacht Building," Horace
Cox, London, 3rd ed., 1897. This is a veritable
treatise on naval architecture in most of its phases.
(6) Crane, C. H., "Some Thoughts on the Design of
Modern Steam Yachts," SNAME, 1903, pp.
57-65
(7) Erismann, M. C, "The Effect of the Universal Rule
in Recent Yachts," SNAME, 1906, pp. 223-241
(8) Warner, E. P., and Ober, S., "The Aerodynamics of
Yacht Sails," SNAME, 1925, pp. 207-232 and
Pis. 133-146

(9) Fox, Uffa, "Sailing, Seamanship, and Yacht Con-

"However, a system of correlation has been worked up
which provides a useful yardstick of performance for sailing
yachts of all sizes. Upright resistance, speed-made-good,
leeway angle, stability, and balance are put into coefficient
forms which eliminate the effect of differences in length
struction," 1934
(10) Baier, L. A., INA, 1934, pp. 107-108. Gives a brief
discussion of form variations for sailing yachts.
(11) Stephens, W. P., "Yacht Measurement," SNAME,
1935, pp. 7-42
Sec. 76.21 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 787
(12) Burgess, C. P., "The America's Cup Defenders," Yachting, pp. 58-61, 94-98. Part II appears in the
SNAME, 1935, pp. 43-70 Mar 1955 issue, pp. 71-75, and Part III in the Apr
(13) Nevins, B., "On the Building of a Yacht,"
H. 1955 issue, pp. 66-70, 112, 114.
Yachting, Mar, Apr, May 1935 (33) Davidson, K. S. M., "The Mechanics of Sailing
(14) Davidson, K. S. M., "Some Experimental Studies Ships and Yachts," Surveys in Mechanics, edited
of 'the Sailing Yacht," SNAME, 1936, Vol. 44, by G. K. Batchelor and R. M. Davies, Cambridge
pp. 288-344. There is a bibliography on pp. 303- University Press, 1956, pp. 431-475. There is a
304, 312. 17 references on p. 475.
list of

(15) Davidson, K. S. M., "Model Tests of Sailing Yachts," (34) Allan, J. F., Doust, D. J., and Ware, B. E., "Yacht
The Rudder, Aug 1937, pp. 14-15, 56, 58 Testing," INA, 11 Oct 1956
(16) Fo.x, Uffa, "Thoughts on Yachts and Yachting," (35) Scheel, H., "It's Beam That Makes
the Boat Go,"
1939 Yachting, Jan 1957, pp. 146-147, 285
(17) Stephens, W. P., "Traditions and Memories of (36) Crane, C. H., "What Limits Speed Under Sail?"
American Yachting," 1942 Yachting, Mar 1957, pp. 53-56, 100, 102.
(18) Owen, G., "Outstanding New England Types of
Fishing Boats, Whalers, and Yachts," SNAME, 76.21 Asymmetric Hull Forms. Although
HT, 1943, pp. 151-164 practical applications of the asymmetric hull are
(19) Skene, N."Elements of Yacht Design," Dodd-
L.,
rare, for ships which are buUt to travel upright,
Mead, New
York, 1944
(20) Herreshoff, L. F., "The Common Sense of Yacht
they do exist. When
a marine architect sets out
Design," The Rudder Publishing Co., New York, to design a vessel which has an underwater hull
1945. In two volumes. of different breadth and shape on the port and
(21) Aupetit, A., "Essais de Yachts (Tests on Yachts)," starboard sides of the construction centerplane,
ATMA, Jun 1946, Vol. 45, pp. 433-452 he wants to be sure that his unusual creation will
(22) Murray, A. B., "Towing Tank Developments,"
Yachting, Dec 1946, pp. 60-62, 110, 112. Ab-
be acceptable and serviceable.
stracted in SBSR, 9 Jan 1947, p. 37. Devotes a Among the asymmetric-hull craft which have
considerable amount of discussion to sailing yacht performed exceedingly well, not only for years
design problems which have been or should be but for centuries, there may be mentioned:
investigated by tests of models.
(23) "Symposium on Sailing Yacht Design," SNAME, (a) The saUuig yacht and the sailing vessel.
isfew Engl. Sect., 18 May 1948; see SNAME, Although almost invariably designed to have
1948, p. 90
symmetry about the centerplane when at rest,
(24) Barnaby, K. C, BNA, 1954, 2nd ed., pp. 244-256,
Arts. 165-169 as follows:
they always present an asymmetric form to the
(165) Sail Propulsion water when heeled and propelled at any apprecia-
(166) The Gimcrack Sail Coefficients able speed by the wind.
(167) Sail Plans (b) The These employ
sailing canoes of Oceania.
(168) Centre of Effort and "Lead"
asymmetric hulls to eliminate centerboards, lee-
(169) Sail Area and Power to Carry Sail
boards, and similar devices, as described in Sec.
(25) Barnaby, K. C, "Progress in Marine Propulsion,
1910-1950," INA, 1950, pp. J14-J15 24.21 ,and illustrated in Fig. 24. M. They make use
(26) Chapelle, H. I., "American Small Saihng Craft; of outriggers to give them the required degree of
Their Design, Development and Construction," metacentric stability under sail.
Norton, New
York, 1951
(c) The gondolas of the canals and lagoons of
(27) Barkla, H. M., "High-Speed Saihng," INA, 1951,
Venice, described briefly in Sec. 24.21
Vol. 93, pp. 235-257. This is one of the few papers
in the technical literature which tackles the (d) The individual hulls of catamarans are
problem of yacht design on a fundamental, analytic usually asymmetric about their own construction
basis. centerlines.
(28) Douty, J. F., "History of Chesapeake Bay Saihng
Vessels," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 29 Nov 1951 Several other cases present themselves in
(29) Morwood, John, "Saihng Aerodynamics," Morwood, practice:
123, Cheriton Rd., Folkestone, Kent, 1953
(30) Denes, Gabor, "Yacht Research," The Motor Boat (e) The long, slender ship which becomes shghtly
and Yachting, Dec 1954, pp. 524-525 bent due to collision or other major damage.
(31) Yacht Research Council of Great Britain. Photo- When the expense of straightenmg it appears
graphs of work shown in The
experimental
exorbitant, the marine architect may be called
Illustrated London News, 4 Dec 1954, p. 1009.
upon for an opinion as to whether it really needs
(32) Chapelle, H. I., "The Search for Speed under Sail:
An Outhne of the Development of Yacht Design straightening or not.
in America Until the 20th Century," a series of (f) Ships to ferry, to tend, or to house operating
several articles beginning in the Feb 1955 issue of aircraft, such as airplane tenders and aircraft
 HYDRODYNAMICS
carriers, in which the various mstallations and
the weights can not be balanced transversely
(g) Ships for special operations which have
elaborate and expensive apparatus installed on
one side only.
The degree asymmetry designed into a
of
is measured conveniently by the follo^ving:
(i) The port and starboard partial beams, meas-
ured in the same way as for the half-beam on a
normal symmetrical vessel
(ii) The percentage of the maximum beam by
which the center of buoyancy CB is shifted from
its normal centerplane position. This is measured
by the transverse distance between the CB and a
vertical longitudinal plane through the construc-
tion centerhne, as compared to the maximum
beam.
(ni) The percentage of the total displacement
volume which is shifted from one side of the hull
to the other, relative to the vertical longitudinal
plane through the construction centerline. For
example, if 53.7 per cent of the underwater volume
lies on one side of that plane and 46.3 per cent
on the other side, the percentage of asymmetry
in volume is (53.7 — 46.3)/2 or 3.7 per cent.
The numerous form coefficients based upon
ratios of various areas and volumes to the areas
or volumes of the circumscribing rectangles or
same manner
parallelepipeds are calculated in the
for theasymmetric as for the symmetric ship.
A few notes may be set down for the design of
asjrmmetric hulls which are to be built that way,
based upon the usual demand for reasonable if
not minimum power, maximum speed, and
acceptable maneuverability of the asymmetric
vessel, correspondmg to those for one that is
symmetrical:
(1) The CG is to be found in the same
plane as the CB, offset from the construction
centerplane toward the wide side, with the vessel
upright and carrying the designed load
(2) The CB and the CG should, whenever prac-
ticable, have essentially the same offset for load
conditions fighter than the designed, to insure
that the ship remains upright at all drafts and
trims
(3) Based upon a construction centerplane that
passes through the hull terminations at the bow
and stern, the propulsion devices are usually, but
not necessarily mounted symmetrical to that plane
(4) On the assumption that both the friction and
IN SHIP DESfGN Sec. 76.22
the pressure resistance are exerted in a vertical
longitudinal plane through the center of buoyancy,
which appears reasonable, but that the resultant
propelling thrust is exerted along the construction
centerhne, there is a constant moment due to
these forces alone which acts to swing the ship
hull
toward the wide side. Unless the length-beam
ratio is less than 5 or 6, this constant turning
moment is fikely to be of small consequence
although it will always be of the same sign. It is
wise to augment the steering control for a ship
of this type over that provided for a normal
design. The augment may equal but need not
exceed the percentage by which the center of
buoyancy is offset, described in (u) preceding.
76.22Design Problems in Multiple-Hulled
Craft. It sometimes happens that a large beam
can be accepted for the purpose of carrying objects
which are bulky and awkward to handle but
relatively light in weight. It may be possible to
improve the metacentric stabfiity or load distri-
bution in a craft by utilizing two or more widely
spaced but narrow hulls instead of one wide hull.
The term catamaran is in this book restricted to
craft which have two hulls of approximately
equal size. An outrigger canoe is considered to
have one main hull only; the outrigger is a form
of auxfiiary-displacement device corresponding
somewhat to the wing-tip float of a flying boat or
seaplane. A having one main hull and one
craft
supplementary hull abreast on either side is known
as a trimaran. The side hulls may be of approxi-
mately the same .size or they may be smaller
than the main hull.
In view of the many possible uses for towed or
self-propelled craft mth multiple hulls no attempt
is made to set down their requirements here.
The crux of a suitable design of water craft in
which two separate hulls must move along
vertical easily, sideby side, is the shaping of the region
between the two hulls. Only rarely can the hulls be
made sufficiently short and narrow, compared to
theii' spread, that they may be considered as
independent bodies, hydrodynamically speaking.
If they are slim enough to produce relatively
narrow velocity and pressure fields, they may
still be long enough to cause interferences between
the surface-wave patterns between the hulls, as
shown in Fig. 76.0. The diverging crests of the
inside Velox wave systems will meet each other
and be on or about the construction
reflected
centerplane, just as if there were a thin plate
mounted vertically between the hulls in that plane.
 Sec. 76.22 DESIGN OF SPECTAL-PURPOSF. CRAFT 789
Huli Beom-. p-Extreme Beam Outside Phrtiol Beam sail. If poorly handled it may
even capsize. This
means that the burden of preventing leeway falls
on the leeward hull. Like the flying proa or the
sailing canoe of Oceania, described and illustrated
in Sec. 24.21 and Fig. 24.M, the leeward hull
should therefore be flat (or nearly so) on the
outside and cambered in planform on the inside.

starboard Hull Construction Centerplane'"

This means that whatever speeding up of water
occurs in the venturi section between the two
Direction of Motion for Both DioQrQms»-
hulls is an advantage. It increases the magnitude
/\pproximate Direction of Motion of the —Ap's on the windward side of the lee
/of Ends of Crests of
hull, which rides deeper in the water than the
Reflected Waves
windward hull. On the other hand, the clear

^— Crests
-Diverqinq Waves
of
space between hulls must not be too small, else a
blocking effect takes place there. With a cata-
maran assembly of the type shown in Fig. 76.0,
the clear space between them should be not less
^..^a^rr7777777//////\'k////^77777Z7^;;^i:^ than 3 or 3.5 times the maximum waterline beam
\ Starboard Hull | Approximate. "xDirection of each hull.
'"
Rudder of Motion of End^\of If the catamaran is mechanically propelled the
Crests of DiveroinQ ^-^ Waves
planforms of the hulls are apparently not too
Fig. 76.0 Definition ajjd Design Sketches
important provided the speed-length quotient T,
fob
Catamarans is not too large. Each hull may be symmetrical

about its own centerplane, or each may be flat

Thus instead of the inside crests of the Velo.x
system from the port hull traveling across toward
the stern of the starboard hull they are reflected
on the construction centerplane of the catamaran
and travel back toward the stern of the port hull,
whose bow genei'ated them.
Considering the small projected area of each
hull against which a stern-wave crest could push
on the inside, as best suits other features.
Because of the ever-present difficulty of obtain-
ing sufficient usable and protected volume within
the hulls of a catamaran, these huUs may be
flared rather sharply above the waterline, especial-
ly on their insides.
Bracing the two hulls against twisting in waves
is a structural problem but determining the loads

it is perhaps wise, if possible, to have this re- and forces involved is one of hydrodynamics.
flected crest just clear the stern. Assuming that, Unfortunately no method has yet been devised
as illustrated in Fig. lO.B, the crest Unes diverge for calculating their values.
at an angle about 20 deg to the construction
of Catamaran hulls with flat bottoms, if properly
centerplane of each hull, Fig. 76.0 indicates shaped, can be reUed upon to produce some dy-
that the spread between the hulls should be at namic lift, as in a planing craft. However, the
least the waterline length times the natural aspect ratio is usually too small to permit the
tangent of 20 deg, or about ^.Z^ALwl bottom of such a hull to act as an efficient planing
The waterline beam of each hull, port plus surface.
starboard, depends greatly upon the amount of It is sometimes reported that the "tunnel"
weight that must be carried on a given length, formed by the inboard surfaces of two catamaran
and upon the permissible draft. It may vary huUs and the under surface of a large, horizontal
from about O-OGLrt^ on a sailing catamaran de- deck structure joining them has a special shape.
signed to reach a Taylor quotient T, of 3 or 3.5, It is intended that the blocking effect of the air
to 0.12LjfrL , 0.l5LwL , or more on a craft for more trapped in this tunnel will provide a -f-Ap under
utiUtarian purposes. the deck and lift the assembly partly out of the
catamaran is sail-propelled, the lee hull
If the water. Something of this kind might take place
is immersed more deeply when underway than at values of T^ = 5 or more, but even then it is
when at rest, and the weather hull less deeply. most uncertain.
Despite the seemingly large spread between the G. H. Duggan designed and built an unusual
hulls, the craft heels somewhat to leeward under form of saihng yacht, the Dominion of 1898, in
790 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.23

which two canoe-shaped hulls were combined most cases have to back for relatively long
with a shallow scow type of hull. A small body distances out of or into their slips. The latter are
plan of this craft, accompanied by a photograph definitely special-service vessels.
of it under sail, is published in Yachting [Dec Because they are intended to fill such a great
1946, p. 72]. In this case, however, the designer variety of needs it is difficult to formulate general
did not have to concern hmiself too much with requirements for the hydrodynamic design of
air flow between the hulls because at its higher ferryboats. A few of these, covering their special
speeds the craft sailed at a large angle of heel, features, follow.
with only the leeward "canoe" in the water. For double-ended vessels:
Sec. 25.23 contains a number of references to
catamarans and trimarans in the modern (1955) (1) Limiting length, maximum beam, and draft,
technical hterature. Older Uterature goes back at
for existing or contemplated shps
Dixon Kemp's "A Manual of Yacht
least as far as (2) Abihty to start and stop promptly, at large
values of acceleration and deceleration, for cutting
and Boat Sailing" of 1882 [Cox, London, 3rd ed.].
In Chap. XXVI of this book, pages 348-356,
down the running time, for maneuvering, and for
emergency stopping
entitled "Double Boats," Kemp describes and
(3) Excellent steering and maneuvering charac-
illustrates a number of catamarans, including
several built by N. G. Herreshoff in 1876 and the teristics. Most ferries are required to cross tidal

Grasemann and G. W.
years following. C. P.
currents at large angles. Furthermore, most of

McLachlan mention two ships designed for

them cross the normal routes of water traffic

nearly at right angles.

English Channel service, each having twin hulls.
The Castalia, built by the Thames Ironworks (4) Great metacentric stability because all the
is above the main deck and it is well
Company m 1874, had two half hulls with the useful load

inboard sides vertical. The Express, a more suc- to hmit the fist when the vehicle loads are not

cessful venture, buUt by Messrs. Andrew Leshe

symmetric or when the passengers all rush to
and Company at Hebburn-on-Tyne in 1878, had one side. This happens usually when the vessel is
two complete hulls ["Enghsh Channel Packet carrying only part of its full load [SNAME, 1926,

Boats," Syren and Shipping Ltd., London, 1939]. pp. 228-229].

(5) Large flare in the abovewater body for in-
C. J. Wickwire describes the 35-ft catamaran
creasing the metacentric stabiUty as the load
designed and built by D. and A. Locke of Detroit,
based upon careful design studies supplemented
displacement and the draft increase [MESR,
by model tests [Lakeland Yachting, Jul 1953, pp. Mar 1939, p. 109]
(6) An unnecessarily large transverse metacentric
28, 40-41]. The extreme beam is 12 ft; the indi-
height is to be avoided because it does not permit
vidual hulls, flat on their outboard sides and
cambered on their inboard sides, each have a
the vessel to yield and to roll readily when it

beam of 4.5 Certain notes relating to modern

strikes the "racks" on either side when entering
ft.

practice which may

be found useful in the design
its slip [Stevens, E. A., SNAME, 1896, p. 100]

of catamarans are embodied in a paper by R. F. (7) Large longitudinal metacentric stabihty, to

prevent the ends from being depressed unduly
Turner entitled "Catamarans, Past, Present and
Future" [SNAME, Pearl Harbor Sect., 13 Sep when the weights are concentrated there, in load-
ing or unloading [DuBosque, F. L., SNAME,
1955; abstracted in SNAME Bull., Oct 1955, pp.
31-32]. 1896, pp. 95-96]
(8) Large deck overhangs, sponsons, and the
76.23 Requirements for and References on
like, because the useful load is one of volume
Ferryboats. While most double-ended vessels,
rather than of weight. At the same time the
whether self-propeUed or not, are intended for
overhangs must be kept clear of wind waves and
the short-haul transportation of people, creatures,
the ship's own waves.
and objects as ferryboats, their use is not neces-
type of service. They are
sarily restricted to this
For single-ended vessels:
therefore considered here primarily as vessels
which must operate equally well in either direc- (9) No excessive flare under the car-deck or
tion. There are, to be sure, many one-direction vehicle-deck level, to cause pounding and slam-
car and train ferries, running on longer routes, ming when wavegoing
which load over the bow or stern and which in (10) If required to back into, or out of long
Sec. 76.23 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 791

slips, adequate steering ability when running in 1908-1909, Vol. LII, pp. 180-193 and Pis. X-XIV.
This paper describes and illustrates the ferries
either direction
Helsingborg, Storebaell, and Prins Christian. Table
(11) If intended to run in the open sea, enough
I on p. 191 hsts the principal dimensions and
freeboard at the open end(s) of the car or vehicle particulars of 22 Danish ferries; there are 12
deck, or enough protection for that deck, at entries per vessel.

both ends, to keep menacing quantities of water (h) Wyckoff, C. D. S., MESA, Oct 1921, pp. 750-751.
This article describes and illustrates the diesel-
off of it.
electric ferryboat Poughkeepsie, which has its bow
M. E. Denny, in a paper "A Diesel-Electric and stern propellers carried at the ends of a fin

Paddle Ferry-boat" [lESS, 1934-1935, Vol. 78,

keel e.xtending below the hull; see also SNAME,
HT, 1943, Fig. 6, p. 170.
pp. 381-412], went to some pains to Ust the specific The Boston Harbor ferryboats
(i) Lieid. Flaherty and
design requirements which may be expected for Ralph J. Columbo are described and illustrated in
such a craft. Supplementary requirements are MESA, Nov 1921, pp. 826-830. The vessels are
given by F. L. DuBosque and E. A. Stevens in 174 ft long overall and 57 ft wide over the guards,
with a hull beam of 40 ft. The hull depth is 15.33
two papers describing screw-propelled ferryboats
ft and the service draft 9 ft. The two propellers,
for New York harbor [SNAME, 1896, pp. 93-104
attached to two shafts bolted together amidships,
and Pis. 32-35; SNAME, 1893, p. 192]. have a diameter of 7.5 ft and a pitch of 10.5 ft.
Other useful references on this subject are: (j) Kennedy, A., Jr., and Smith F. V., "Electric Propul-
sion for Double-Ended Ferryboats," Amer. Inst.
(a) Stevens, E. A., "Some Thoughts on the Design of
Elect. Engr., Pac. Coast Conv., Sep 1925. The
New York Ferryboats," SNAME, 1893, pp. 192-
general conclusions arrived at in this paper are
209 and Pis. 46, 57
reprinted in SNAME, 1926, pp. 225-226].
(b) DuBosque, F. L., "Speed Trials of a Screw-Propelled
(k) Gross, C. F., and Green, C, "Some Considerations in
Ferryboat," SNAME, 1896, pp. 93-104 and Pis.
Design of Ferryboats," SNAME, 1926, pp. 217-
32-35
248 and Pis. 119-130. PI. 128 is a midship section
(c) Stevens, E. A., and Paulding, C. P., "Progressive
San Francisco Bay ferryboat Hayward.
of the
Trails of Screw Ferryboat Edgewater," SNAME, Mitchell, E. H., "The Design and Propulsion of Fast
(1)
1902, pp. 15-21 and Pis. 1-3. The following quo-
Double-Ended Screw Vessels," INA, 1928, pp.
tations are taken in full from this reference, p. 15:
88-102 and PI. X
"The following is the approximate performance of (m) Ferry Lymtngton with Voith-Schneider propulsion,
several vessels of this class at about that speed:
SBSR, 14 Apr 1938, p. 495; also 5 May 1938, pp.

W. L. DispL, Block Slip, Admty. 590-591

Name Length, tons Coeff. per cent Coeff. (n) Johnson, Eads, "Ferryboats," SNAME, HT, 1943,

ft pp. 165-196, 378-380, 386-387

(o) Nordstrom, H. F., and Freimanis, E., "Modeli-
Bremen 217 900 0.34 16 154
200 952 0.42 18.5 133
forsok med en Farja (Model Experiments with
Cincinnati
a Ferry)," SSPA, Rep. 7, 1947. Summary in Enghsh.
Netherlands 203 825 0.36 18.5 144
Edgewater 173 687 0.42 14.5 173 (p) Motorship, New York, Aug 1950, pp. 15-29, 36-43
(q) S. S. Vacationland, Diesel Prog., Aug 1950, pp. 33-35;
"The above data are close appro-ximations only." also Apr 1952, pp. 42-45

P. 17.
(r) SNAME RD sheets 27, 84, 100, and 150
(s) Ferryboat Pvt. Joseph F. Merrell, MESR, Feb 1952,
"Dimensions of Edgewater:
p. 61, showing wave profile; also Dec 1952, p. 85.
Length on water-line 173 ft This vessel is 290 ft overall by 277.5 ft on the
Beam on water-line 34 ft 14.25-ft WL, by 69 ft over guards by 49 ft beam of
Draught to base on trial 9 ft, 6 5/8 in hull at 14.25-ft draft. Propeller Z) = 20 ft and draft
Displacement to base on trial 687 tons is 13.17 ft in normal operating condition.
Wetted surface to base on trial 5,764 square ft (t) Great Lakes carferries Spartan and Badger, Mar.
Propellers —diameter 8 ft Eng'g., Mar 1953, pp. 42-57
Pitch, bow 10.03 ft
LoA = 410.5 ft Cb = 0.656
stern 10.19 ft
B = 59.5 ft Ps = 7,000 horses, normal
Projected area, each 26.4 square ft."
D = 24.0 ft V = ISmphor 15.66kt
(d) Stevens, E. A., "Progressive Trials of Screw Ferry- H = 18.5 ft Twin screws
boat Bremen," SNAME, 1903, pp. 1-14 A = 8,860 t
(e) Stevens, E. A., "Some Problems Ferry Boat
in
(u) Ferry Carabobo for Venezuela, Mar. Eng'g., Dec 1953,
Propulsion," SNAME, 1905, pp. 1-7 and Pis. 1-4
p. 76; Dec 1954, p. 73
(f) DuBosque, F. L., "A Fire-proof Ferry-boat,"
SNAME, 1906, pp. 7-29. The table on pp. 11-12 LoA = 162 ft D = 12 ft

gives principal dimensions of ferryboat Hammonton. Lpp = 161.67 ft H = Sh

(g) Olsen, H. M., "Danish State Railway Ferries," lESS, B = 42 ft A = 850 t
792 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.24

(v) San Diego-Coronado Crown

ferrj' City, Mar. Eng'g., both propellers must exert thrust simultan-
If
Apr 1954, pp. 58-59; Dec 1954, p. 79
eously to accelerate the craft at the high rates
LoA = 242. 13 ft B of = 46 ft
hull required for short runs, or to drive it at the re-
Lpp = 230 ft D = 17.25 ft
quired speed, the type of propelUng machinery
B over guards = 65.13 ft H approx. = 11.5 ft
is preferably such as to permit varying the rates
A = 995 t
of rotation and delivering the maximum power
(w) Lengthened ferry Princess Anne, Mar. Eng'g., Jul
to each propeller. This is done by:
1954, pp. 66-67, 81. After conversion,

= B = (1) Providing a separate prime mover for each

Lqa 350 ft over guards 59 ft
Lpp = 340 ft D = 19.1ft propeller, connected by separate shafts
H = 10.5 ft. (2) Utihzing an hydrauhc, or other type
electric,

(x) Ferry Cameron, Mar. Eng'g., Aug 1954, p. 63 of drive in which individual motors on each

(y) Automobile and passenger ferry Evergreen State; propeller shaft are driven from a central generating
see Mar. Eng'g., Jan 19.55, p. 70; Diesel Progr., plant. This is not too difficult even though
Mar 1955, pp. 40-41; Diesel Times, Nov 1955, p. 7. separate dynamos (generators) and pumps are
Said to be one of the largest ferries of its tjrpe in
not installed for each motor.
the world, with a length of 310.17 ft, a beam of
73.17 ft over the guards, a beam of 53.5 ft at the (3) Uncoupluig the bow propeller and permitting
waterline, and a depth of 23.25 ft. At a draft of it to free-wheel, while the vessel is driven entirely
15.0 ft it displaces 2,022 tons. There is a diesel- by the stern propeller. This is possible only if
electric drive to separate shafts and single 10.5-ft
either propeller can deUver the necessary power.
diameter propellers at each end of the vessel. The
It is not as uneconomical as it seems because of
power which can be applied to each propeller is
about 3,000 horses; 10 per cent of this is delivered the higher wake
fraction and greater propulsive
to that propeller which is at the bow on any one efficiency for the stern propeller. To be sure, it
run and 90 per cent to that at the stern. The trial requires the fitting of some kind of clutch, fluid
speed is 15 kt at 171 rpm.
couphng, or free-wheehng device between the
(z) De Rooij, "Practical Shipbuilding," 1953, Figs. 801
prime mover and each propeller.
and 802 on pp. 374-375.
Model tests with ferryboats having all three
76.24 Characteristics of Propelling Plant and methods of propulsion, carried out in the Swedish
Propulsion Devices for Double-Ended Vessels. State Model Basm at Goteborg, are described in:
When simplicity of propelling plant is a primary
(a) Nordstrom, H. F., and Freimanis, E., "ModeUforsok
requirement, as usually occurs on ferryboats med en Farja (Model Experiments with a Ferr}'),"
designed for short runs, both end screw propellers SSPA Rep. 7, 1947. Summary in EngUsh.
are coupled firmly to the same shaft so that they (b) Nordstrom, H. F., and Edstrand, H., "Propulsion
Problems Connected with Ferries," SSPA Rep. 17,
run at identical rates of rotation. This means, as
1951. Entirely in English.
described in Sec. 33.8, that neither propeller
runs at an efficient advance coefficient, and the For a ferryboat which travels bow first on its
propulsive coefficient is hkewise low. This situa- runs, which enters its shps either bow first or

tion was described admirably by F. L. DuBosque, stern first, and which is handicapped by narrow
well over a half-century ago, and it has improved slip clearance, cross winds, loose ice, and the hke,

little, if any, since that time: an admirable solution is to employ an under-the-

"The usual speed of this boat in ferry service is 11
miles per hour, and at this speed it requires 20 per cent
more power to propel the boat with two screws than with
one screw pushing, and 69 per cent more power to propel
the boat with the screw at the bow than
If the same power could be put into one screw at the
stern as is used by the two screws, the speed would be
increased from 11 miles to 11.53 miles per hour. It
bottom rotating-blade propeller at the bow. This
may supplement one or two rotating-blade pro-
pellers or screw propellers at the stern. The bow
propeller augments propulsive power when de-
at the stern. sired, provides powerful lateral forces and steering
effects at the bow, and creates a backward flow
of water at the head of the ship when entering a
is

clear, therefore, that the bow screw is inefficient. When shp, so as to clear out debris and ice [Virginia
under way, it thrust a column of water against the bow ferry Northampton, Motorship, New York, Aug
of the boat at a velocity equal to the shp ratio of the 1950, pp. 26-27, 43]. The principal drawback to
screw, and considerable power is absorbed through friction
this arrangement is that, if the rotating-blade
of the blade surface; but a ferryboat's bow becomes its
stern at each succeeding trip, and it is therefore im-
propellers are not retractable, and are not used to
possible to dispense with the forward screw" [SNAME, help propel the vessel, they must always be idled
1896, pp. 94-95]. when underway.
 Sec. 76.25
Brief design rules for feathering paddlewheels
on a double-ended ferryboat are given in Sec. 71.7.
It is emphasized in Part 5 of Volume III, under
the discussion of retardation and acceleration,
that to be able to start and stop properly, the
propulsion devices of a ferryboat must have a
thrust-producing area, equal
Ao in Fig. 15. G, that is large in comparison to the
size of the vessel. If driven by screw propellers
these must have a relatively large blade area as
well as a large diameter. Sometimes the necessary
blade area can be achieved only by increasing
the propeller diameter [DuBosque, F. L.,
1896, p. 103].
76.25 Design Notes for Ferryboat Hulls and
Appendages. The relatively large metacentric
height required for a ferryboat calls for a large
designed waterline, in all
with respect to displacement volume. Because
its
the cargo to be carried is one of volume rather
than of weight, the length and beam are also
large with respect to the displacement volume.
This means a small maximum-section
and a rather large beam-draft ratio.
It may be expected that with
area, small maximum-section
relatively shallow draft the ratio of the wetted
surface S of a ferryboat huU to the factor \^¥L
will be large. This means a large wetted-surface
coefficient Cs perhaps so large as to be off the
,
scale of the graph in Fig. 45.G.
Rather clever shaping of the waterhnes is called
for to achieve a fineness at the ends which will
avoid undue pressure resistance because of wave-
making forward and excessive pressure resistance
due to separation aft, yet which will provide the
square moment of area about the pitching axis
called for by (7) of Sec. 76.23. If this can not be
accompUshed, it is usually the hull resistance
which has to suffer. Fig. 76. P is a plot of half of
DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 793
the designed waterline of the ferryboat Cincinnali,
described in reference (b) of Sec. 76.23 preceding.
A complete set of lines for a double-ended ferry-
boat taken from Het Schip, issue of February
1929, is reproduced to small scale by W. P. A.
van Lammeren, L. Troost, and J. G. Koning
or equivalent to [RPSS, 1948, Fig. 195, p. 289].
Because thrust deduction is developed both
abaft the bow propeller and forward of the stern
propeller, it is important if both work simultan-
eously that the hull be fined as much as prac-
ticable abaft and ahead of these propellers. This
SNAME, fining should extend for at least 2 and preferably
3 propeller diameters abaft and ahead of the
respective propeller discs. Actually, the form of
hull adjacent to screw-propeller positions and the
propeller clearances are determined for each end
loading conditions, propeller, by the rules of Sees. 67.23 and 67.24,
on the basis that that propeller pushes from the
stern. The resulting design should be entirely
adequate for a propeller which pulls from ahead.
The combination of length to afford adequate
coefficient space on deck, large waterUne area for meta-
centric stabifity, and fining of the ends results in
its large waterline a block coefficient Cb that is extremely low com-
coefficient, and pared to its value for the average cargo vessel.
The first table accompanying reference (c) of
Sec. 76.23 shows a range of Cb from 0.34 to 0.42.
Because of the full waterline endings, described
elsewhere in this section, and of the large speed-
length quotients at which modern ferryboats
run, the heights of the bow- and stern-wave
crests are factors to be reckoned with in design.
The necessary clearances must be provided above
the wave profile and under the sponsons or
supports for the deck overhang, as well as the
necessary freeboard for normal running. In
addition, there must be some assurance that a
heavily loaded vessel will not take water over the
main deck when encountering or passing through

3-ft 6-ft 9-ft 12-a 15-ft Buttocks

Fig. 76.P Half-Body Plan and Half- Waterline foe New York Ferryboat Cincinnati
794 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.26

high waves made by another vessel [Naut. Gaz., ferryboat mth a plated-in sponson. It affords
Feb 1951, p. 28; MESR, Feb 1952, p. 61; MESR, additional buoyancy and righting moment in an
Dec 1952, p. 85; Mar. Eng'g., 1954, p. 12]. In emergency, it eliminates fouling of a long row
this case the encountered wave is superposed on of strut supports by waves and foreign objects,
the ship's bow wave. Running over shoal spots and it gives a far cleaner appearance to the
and meetuig the unexpected waves which often craft as a whole. Some notes and sketches relative
come along at inopportune times can greatly to these sponsons are found in Sec. 68.12 and
reduce the nominal main-hull freeboard above Fig. 68. K. An admirable view of the hull of the
these crests. Solid water over the large deck areas ferryboat Evergreen Stale, embodying this feature,
at the ends can be disastrous. is published in Diesel Times, November 1955,
Double-ended and double-direction craft are page 3.

invariably fitted with double steering rudders. The hulls of many ferryboats lend themselves
Because of the excessive torque imposed on a to the use of straight-element forms. A few of
bow rudder if it is allowed to SAving and to take this kind, to be found on ferryboats in service,
part in the steeling action, to say nothing of its are illustrated in SNAME, HT, 1943, Figs. 9, 11,
inefficiency as a steering device, for the reasons and 20 on pages and 179, respectively.
172, 174,
explained and illustrated in Sec. 37.11 and Fig. 76.26 Special Problems of Icebreakers and
37. G, it is preferable to lock the rudder mechanic- Iceships. An icebreaker is a special-service vessel
ally at the end which happens to be the bow. capable breakmg up and making its way
of
The steering control to that rudder is discon- through heavy floe ice, pack ice, and soM sea ice.
nected or de-energized, a centering pin is dropped It makes navigable lanes for other vessels as well
into the top of the rudder, and the vessel is steered as for itself. Indeed, it may be called upon to
only with the rudder at the after or trailing end. tow other vessels through these lanes, or to push
For this reason, each rudder is required to provide on another icebreaker ahead of it when the going
the entire control necessary for maneuverability gets particularly rough. Its primary duty,
of the vessel. involving great power on a limited length and
Even though located in a propeller outflow jet, exceptional sturdiness, is such that it can carry
as it should be, the rudder(s) of a ferryboat very fit tie useful load, either in weight or volume,
should be relatively large, to enable it to dodge other than that required for its own services.
traffic, to maneuver promptly in a fog, to enter Like a tug, it is often called upon to deliver
and leave its berth in a cross tidal current, and maximum forward (and astern) thrust at or near
to turn around, need be.if zero speed. This thrust, furthermore, is required
Ice guards and rope guards are often fitted to overcome forces other than its own hydro-
ahead of bow rudders and abaft stern ones. If dynamic resistance, just as its structure is required
these extend continuously around the outer to withstand forces other than those imposed
rudder profile, from the hull above to the rudder upon it in wavegoing.
shoe below, they form effective rope guards An and constructed
iceship is a vessel designed
[Graemer, L., Schiffbau, 11 Oct 1911, Fig. 4, for, oradapted to traveling in heavily iced waters
p. 4,and Pis. 1-2; WRH, 15 Dec 1939, p. 381]. without the necessity for breaking solid ice and
However, if they are bent inward accidentally, making its own water lane. It is intended to be
even only shghtly, they foul the rudder and capable only of withstanding ice impact and
prevent its swinging. They have one advantage traversing an ice field which has previously been
that they create a separation zone of sorts in broken up by an icebreaker or by natural causes
which the larger part of the rudder blade lies, such as wind and swell. As a rule, the iceship is
so that excessive torque is not apphed continually of more-or-less normal form, although it may
on a rudder at the leading end of the vessel. have a Maier bow, intended to ride up on and
Conversely, they may vibrate transversely be- break through not-too-tliick ice. Its hull plating
cause of alternate eddies shed abaft them. It is is thick at the waterline belt, at least, and its
therefore best to make such a guard, if fitted, a framing is heavily reinforced. It is, in fact,
sort of prolongation of the sides of the rudder designed and constructed for carrying cargo or
blade. for some other primary mission. Its abiUty to
There is much to be said in favor of supporting make its way through and to withstand not-too-
a long, wide deck overhang on each side of a heavy ice is purely secondary ["Ships for Arctic
Sec. 76.26 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 795

Use" (designations T-AKD-1 and T-AK270), the smaller vessels are not intended to break ice
Maritime Reporter, 15 Sep 1955, pp. 11-13]. as thick as retiuired for the larger ones.
No specific requirements other than the general More important than the length of an ice-
functions Usted in the two paragraphs preceding breaker length-beam ratio, which must be
is its

are given for icebreakers and iceships because small for superior maneuverability in driving
the service varies rather widely. A vessel suitable through leads in the ice. When forcing its way
for breaking a laneand convoying large vessels into a harbor or inlet the ship must go around
through the Northwest Passage, for example, is corners, or must back and fill and turn to clear
entirely unsuitable for clearing out a small an open space for other vessels. The icebreaker
harbor and working around slips. The details of may even have to back up or turn around to free
ship handling in various kinds of ice are men- convoyed vessels that have become stuck in the
tioned in a number of the references of Sec. 76.27 ice behind it [Sokol, A. E., USNI, May 1951,
following, but are given in more methodic fashion p. 482].
in the 1948 Edition of the British Antarctic Pilot, Fortunately, the very large beam relative to

Chap. I, pages 42-54, under "Ice Navigation." the length needed for this purpose is also required

While the process of bucking ice is in no sense a to clear a lane wide enough for a convoy following
hydrodynamic action there are major hydro- behind. This lane can not always be straight, so the
dynamic problems involved. Considering the corners must be cut off for longer vessels in the
rear.
solution of these problems and the selection of
design features for an icebreaker (not an iceship) A studybeam-draft data for a large number
of

in somewhat the same order as in Chaps. 64

of icebreakers (and designs), reveals ratherwide
through 68 for a surface ship, the appended list variations with weight displacement. Considering

supplements one previously given by D. R. only those vessels whose performance is known
Simonson ["Bow Characteristics for Ice Break- to be good or excellent, optimum values of L/B
ing," ASNE, 1936, Vol. 48, pp. 249-254]: ratio with weight W (or A) may be taken from
the vicinity of the curved broken line in Fig.
(1) Waterline length 76. Q. This ratio increases from about 3.6 in
(2) Normal displacement
(3) Length-beam and beam-draft ratios 5.50

(4) Engine power 525

(5) Thrust available from the propeller(s) at low
500
speeds
(6) Transverse section shape
(7) Number and position of propellers
(8) Forebody shape
(9) Appendages.

These items have to be balanced against carry-

ing capacity, steering and maneuvering qualities,
allowable draft, and economical power.
The length is limited to the practicable mini-
mum so that the vessel can work to advantage
in open-water spaces of small size. The waterline
length and the weight are also important because
they largely determine the downward icebreaking
force which can be exerted at the bow when the
latter ispushed up on the ice and the vessel lifts
forward, usually by an angle less than 5 deg.
Although there are limited authentic data for
analysisit appears obvious from a consideration

of the mechanics involved, presented by D. R.

Simonson in the reference cited, and by R. Rune-
berg in references (2) and (5) of Sec. 76.27, that
 796 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.26

diameter propellers with tip submergences great

enough to clear surface ice.

With these small L/B ratios and relatively deep

drafts it is natural that the block coefficients
should be low and the displacement-length
quotients or fatness ratios high. The Cb values
are of the order of 0.5 and the 0-diml fatness
ratios range from 8 or less to about 15.

Like a tug, the icebreaker has waterlines, both

above and below the DWL, which are well
curved throughout. These enable it to follow
desirable leads or to extricate itself when tem-
porarily caught.
The ship often has to back off, stop, and gain
the maximum possible speed ahead in a short
distance so that its momentum can be added to
the thrust forces to push the ship's bow up over
the ice. This means an ample reserve of power
and propellers that are large enough to develop
very high thrust values. In certain kinds of ice
the friction of a thick pack may exceed the water
friction around the hull, especially at low speeds.

On the basis that it is usually desirable to

break the ice without too much charging or
ramming, the thrust to keep the ship going at
low speeds in ice (say 3 kt) and at high real-shp
ratios or /-values is a function of the propeller-
disc area, the propeller power, and the overall

26

24

22
 Sen. 7r,.2r, DESIGN OF SPECIAL PlIRrOSF. CRAFT 797

a slope of 85 deg should suffice for "all ordinary knowing why things are done when new ships
ice-breakers." H. F. Johnson, in 1946, sa3's that are designed.
the slopes for the flaring sides of the midship It has since been found that when the ice is

section should be between 70and 80 deg.
A pronounced tumble home above the DWL is
desirable to prevent the foulmg of top hamper
when working around other vessels. One other
feature of the abovewater body not to be over-
looked at this point is the minimum
when heavily loaded. Entirely aside from wave-
going requirements, a reasonable amount of hull
extending above the ice level is required to insure
that, if held fast in the ice, the ship is not over-
whelmed by overriding floes and pressure ridges
rising above the water level. Nansen's Fram,
although undamaged by lateral squeezing in its
drift over the Arctic Ocean in 1893-1896, never-
theless was nearly overwhelmed and sunk by
ice coming in sLx feet deep over the rail on 3-7
January 1895 [Nansen, F., "Farthest North,"
1897, Vol. II, pp. 47-60].
The powered steel icebreakers of
early, heavily
the 1890's and 1900's were almost mvariably
equipped with bow propellers, as were many of
those of later years. This was on the theory that,
after the breaker's bow had ridden up over a
thick ice layer and broken it into chunks, partly
by impact and partly by sheer weight, the
inflow current to the bow propeller (s) would
draw the ice down under the ship. The outflow
current would push it aft under the ship, leaving
the bow free to break more ice.
It may be well to remember, however, that
when F. E. Kirby of Detroit introduced the first
bow propeller on the icebreaking car ferry St.
Ignace for the Straits of Mackinac in 1888 [Rune-
berg, R., ICE, 1900, Vol. CXL, pp. 109-129], it
was to perform an entirely different function.
Faced with the problem of getting a ship through
ice that was piled in layers all the way down to
the channel bed, Kirby held the icebreaker's
bow to the ice with a powerful stern propeller
while the bow propeller, going astern, forced a
current of water into the ice mass ahead to loosen
it. When some was loosened, the bow pro-
of it
peller was set to drive ahead, whereupon the
inflow current produced by it drew loose ice from
the mass and pushed it aft. After the ship ad-
vanced until it was again stalled, the process was
repeated. Following Kirby's success, bow pro-
pellerswere fitted to many icebreakers, whether
faced with the same operational problems or not.
This is another example of the importance of
thin enough to be broken up and drawn down
under the bow by the inflow current from the
bow propeller, without damaging the propeller,
then the latter is of great assistance. When a
thick layer of heavy snow hes on top of a rela-
freeboard tively thin layer of sea ice the abovewater bow
banks the snow up in front of it until finally the
ship can no longer force its way through. The
procedure then is to break up the ice by small
increments and to suck both ice and snow down
and under the ship, finally ejecting it behind. A
bow propeller or propellers are of great assistance
here as well. If the ice is so heavy that as the
ship rides up on it the bow
is struck by
propeller
huge blocks, these blows are Uable, not only to
bend or break the propeller blades but to bend
the shaft or to dislodge the thrust bearing inside
the ship.
The meaning of the foregoing is that, under
conditions which may change from day to day,
the ship needs a bow propeller or propellers or
else it is encumbered by them. Although the
mechanical problems seem almost insurmountable,
especially for such heavy-duty machinery, it may
nevertheless be possible at some time in the future
to develop a housing bow propeller for an ice-
breaker. This might be a 2-bladed affair, made
controllable and reversible from within, with
nearly flat having thick sjonmetrical
blades
sections. When
not in use the blades could be
feathered fore and aft and the whole propeller
drawn backward into a shallow recess in a lower
vertical portion of the stem. This would support
the blades and hub against the impact of heavy
blocks of ice striking from ahead. When desired
for use the bow propeller with its shaft could be
pushed forward a short distance by an internal
hydrauhc or equivalent mechanism. With the
blades then turned to the desired angle, the
propeller would be instantly available for pulling
the ship ahead, sucking blocks of ice down clear
of the upper part of the bow, or helping to back
the ship out of a jam in the ice.
While the thrust deduction due to positive
differential pressures +Ap abaft the bow pro-
peller of an icebreaker is of no more than second-
ary consideration, the free passage of broken ice
through and abaft the wheel calls for the same
fining of the hull behind the propeller as would
be the case were it used for normal propulsion.
798 HYDRODYNAMICS
Indeed, the bow propellers of the ferryboat and
of the icebreaker,although installed for entirely
different normal functions, involve many of the
same hj^drodynamic principles in their action. The
ferryboat bow comes in handy for
propeller often
clearing loose ice out of the head of its slip.
For the designer faced with the problem of
considering one or two bow propellers, or of
designing an icebreaker with them, a most
useful document is SSPA Report 20 by H. F.
Nordstrom, H. Edstrand, and H. Lindgren,
entitled "Model Tests Avith Icebreakers." It was
published m 1952 and is entirely in English.
Whether a bow propeller is fitted or not, D. R.
Simonson mentions in the reference cited earher
in this section that it is often necessary to fill
out what would be the forefoot, just above the
baseline, m
order to obtain sufficient displacement
volume forward. The resulting bow profile cor-
responds somewhat to that of an icebreaker with
a bow propeller. The vertical stem portion
extending for a distance above the keel performs
another useful service in that it prevents a
vessel with a constant slope of about 30 deg in
the bow profile from riding up so far on a deep
accumulation of ice cakes that it can not be backed
off. The vertical portion of the stem acts also as
a cutter to loosen up the lower layers of ice in
deep windrows. Fig. 76.S shows the vertical
Fig. 76.S Bow Quarteu View of Hull of an Icebreaker of the Wind Class
IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.26
portion of the stem abaft a bow propeller position.
This portion should be retained, as previously
noted, even without a bow propeller. The peg-top
underwater sections, the tumble home above the
waterline, and the massive bossings are also well
shown in the figure.
The forward buttocks should be sloped as
much or more than the bow profile, extending
back to the section of maximum beam, so that
the whole forward part of the ship acts effectively
to break ice. The characteristics of the forebody
should be duplicated as much as possible in the
afterbody since the vessel will be required to
break ice when backing.
The follo\ving is quoted from page 254 of the
Simonson reference:
"It is desirable to work the same angles into the
buttocks of the fore body to obtain equalization of lifting
forces when the ice carries past the bow without breaking
clear of the hull. As for the frame sections, they should
show a marked flare at the waterline to relieve the crushing
force of the ice."
It is obvious that vessels having V-shaped
midship and other sections similar to those of
icebreakers, with their large bulge radius, possess
httle in the way of roll-damping characteristics.
Without roll-quenching devices of some kind
they roll deeply and heavily, to the great detri-
ment of their habitability. When the beam-draft
Sec. 76.27 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 799

ratio is moderately large they also roll sharply Underwater inlets and discharges for the cooling
unless the polar moment of inertia about the water of heat exchangers are often shut off by
fore-and-aft rolling axis is large. ice cakes resting across the openings or by broken
The usual type of roll-resisting keel is vulnerable ice lodged in the strainers. It is customary to
in the ice.Any type of retractable projection is provide a water box inside the shell to which the
almost as vulnerable. Plate-type keels, as dis- circulating lines can be connected. Water dis-
tinguished from those of triangular section, charged into this box is cooled by contact with
may be added at the start of each voyage and the shell before it is used over again. Similar
used to quench roll until such time as they are water boxes are fitted on vessels required to
bent over or stripped off by the ice. operate in very shallow water where the outboard
Most icebreakers carry fuel and other liquids connections could be plugged temporarily and
in certainwing tanks connected by pumps. where the system could be filled with mud, silt,
Shifting these liquids from one side to the other or sand.
produces enough heehng moment to rock the Published model-test data on icebreaker hulls
vessel and help free it from the ice. If sufficient are rather meager. There is available to the de-
power and weight could be spared to make this signer SSPA Report 20, published in 1952 by
shift in the order of half the natural rolling period, H. F. Nordstr5m, H. Estrand, and H. Lindgren,
the active tanks thus formed
roll-quenching entitled "Model Tests with Icebreakers." This
would go far toward making the icebreaker a is abstracted in SBSR of 5 June 1952, pages

more hvable ship in the open sea. 726-728; the Swedish report is, however, entirely
Protection against large blocks of ice striking in EngUsh.
a single propeller at the stern is afforded by fitting 76.27 Tabulated Data and References on
one or more fins, generally horizontal, ahead of Icebreakers. The first tabulation of dimensions,
the propeller, projecting on each side from the and other data on icebreakers
characteristics,
centerline skeg [M. S. Kista Dan, SBSR, 19 Jun was made by R. Runeberg in references (2) and
1952, pp. 778-779; 25 Dec 1952, p. 831; M. S. (5) of the fist in the latter part of this section.
Theia, The Motor Ship, London, Jan 1954, p. 458]. These data are contained in a single table on
Since the flow of water along such a skeg is aft page 285 of reference (2), pubhshed in 1889;
and upward, the fins should lie in the natural otherwise the small tables of data are somewhat
streamhnes, as determined from model lines of scattered throughout both references.
flow and as checked by tufts or equivalent The first really comprehensive tabulation
methods. A "ladder" of three or four fins, one appears to be that of H. F. Johnson [SNAME,
above the other, parallel to the shaft hne and 1946, pp. 112-151]. A large 3-page table on pages
extending forward for perhaps a propeller diam- 114-116 contains 44 entries for 39 icebreakers and
eter, might have a beneficial propulsion effect same year (1946) I. V. Vinogradov
iceships. In the
in producmg more nearly axial flow in ice-free pubhshed in Moscow a Russian book entitled
water. Such a layout, however, requires careful "Vessels for Arctic Navigation (Icebreakers),"
checking in the design stage, preferably on a which has a rather complete list of tabulated data
model in a circulating-water channel. The on pages 22-23 and 26-34. The ships described
trailing edges of all such fins require fining to in these tables datefrom 1871 to 1938. The book
avoid separation and eddying ahead of the wheel. appears to cover the theoretical and analytical
Rudders of icebreakers and iceships are in- aspects of icebreaker design rather well, and it
variably completely submerged. They are pro- contains a great deal of miscellaneous tabulated
tected after a fashion by horns, preferably data. At the time of writing (1955) only the table
integral with the hull, projecting downward of contents has been translated into English.
heyond the rudders and below their tops, so as to The Library of Congress number is VM451.V5.
break up the ice when going ahead or astern and Table 76.f contains some dunensions, propor-
prevent blocks from wedging themselves between tions, and characteristics of modern icebreakers,
the top of the rudder and the hull. To meet the supplementing the 1946 list of H. F. Johnson.
exacting maneuverability requirements they . These data were gathered from pubhshed sources
should be larger than normal but are often just so they are incomplete and in many cases in-
the opposite, to make them less vulnerable to consistent. This is due partly to a lack of strict
damage from the ice. definitions of displacements, powers, and other
 —
800 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.27

TABLE 76.f Dimensions, Proportions,

All dimensions are, unless otherwise stated, in ft to the proper power. All powers are in English

General
Name of Vessel
 Sec. 7r,.27 nF.STON OF SPECIAL PITRPOSF CRAFT 801

AND Form Data for Icebreakers

horses. AH weights and displacements are, so far as can be learned, in long tons of 2,240 lb.

Elbjom
 802 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.27

TABLE 76.f-

Proportions and Form Coefficients —

{<2onUnucd)
Name of Vessel
 Sec. 76.27 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 803

(Continued)

Elbjorn
804 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.27

terms and partly to incomplete descriptions of of 42.5 ft. When fully loaded, the draft is 25 ft,

the terms for which numerical quantities are and the corresponding displacement 2,000 t.
However, the displacement given is much too small
given. In any case, the new tables provide a
for the dimensions. Although not specifically
framework for filling hi missing data in the future. named in the reference, this vessel appears to be
In a number of cases new icebreakers have been the Errnack.
built to replace old ones and have been given There are three propellers aft and one propeller
exactly the same names. forward, driven by four engines having a combined
(indicated?) power of 10,000 horses. It is believed to
There follows a selected list of references on ice,
have been designed by Admiral Makarov.
icebreakers, and iceships, giving what are beUeved On page 1223 it states that "The stern of the ice
to be the principal sources of information. Except breaker is cut to form a recess, into which the stem of
for the Vmogradov book of 1946 and the Schiffbau another vessel can be securely lashed, and thus
references, these are all hi English. obtain the utmost protection from her powerful
consort."
(1) "Bibliography on Ice of the Northern Hemisphere," (4b) Swan, H. F., "Ice-Breakers," INA, 1899, Vol. 41,
H. O. Publ. 240, Hydrographic Office, U.S. Navy, pp. 325-332 and Pis. LIX-LXII; tells about the
1945 Erniack and the Finnish icebreaker Sampo
(2) Runeberg, R., "On Steamers for Winter Navigation (5) Runeberg, R., "Steamers for Winter Navigation and
and Ice-breaking," ICE, 1888-1889, Vol. XCVII, Ice-breaking," ICE, 1900, Vol. CXL, Sect. I, pp.
Part III, pp. 277-301 and Pis. 3-5. These plates 109-129 and PL The
plate embodies an arrange-
4.

show arrangement plans and lines drawings for the ment plan and drawing of the Aegir, complete
lines

ships Express, Bryderen, "Ice Boat No. 2" lines drawings of the St. Marie and Sampo, and

(driven by paddles!) and a projected steamer for forebody lines drawings of twelve icebreaking
the Finland Government. It seems incredible but vessels, built between 1871 and 1896. Runeberg

this reference appears to be the first one in the discusses the bow propeller, which was apparently

technical on this subject. Runeberg

literature introduced by F. E. Kirby on the Straits of
tackles the design problems involved in icebreaking Mackinac ferry St. Ignace in 1888.

from an analytic point of view and develops (6) "Icebreakers for the Port of Stockholm," the Ship-
formulas covering the various operations under: builder (now SBMEB), Jan-Jun 1914, Vol. X,
pp. 55-57. LoA = 200 ft, Lpp = 188 ft, Bx =
Ice-breaking by a continually progressing steamer 55.75 ft, D
= 21.5 ft. The ship has one large stern
Ice-breaking power of a steamer when charging propeller plus one smaller bow propeller; also there
Effect produced by the continued working of the is some drag in the keel.
engine (7) The Russian icebreakers Sviatogor and Alexander are
Frictional resistance caused by change of motion illustrated in Schiffbau, 11 Feb 1920, pp. 402-403;
Displacement of metacenter (vertically). also in Engineer, London, 26 Deo 1919. Some
details are:
These sections are followed by discussions entitled
"Details of Construction" and "Particulars of Some Sviatogor Alexander
Ice-Breaking Steamers." Among the latter are the 3 screws, all aft 2 stem screws, 1 bow
Express, Isbrytaren, Oland, Bryderen, Em. Z. Svitzer, screw
Starkodder, Ice-Boat No. and a proposed steamer
2, LoA 99.2 m = 325.48 ft Lqa 85.64 m= 280.98 ft
for the Finland Government. LirL 90.52 m = 297.0 ft Lwl 83.20 m= 272.98 ft

Runeberg's comments and conclusions in this

B 21.64 m = 71.0 ft B 19.45 m= 63.81 ft.

reference are somewhat modified by those in a later The midsections of these vessels, shown on page
ICE article by hun, dated 30 Jan 1900, reference 404 of the Schiffbau reference, are of the typical peg-
(5) hereunder. top shape, with a large tumble home above the DWL.
(3) Cassier's Magazine, Jul 1897, Vol. XII, p. 326, (8) Flodin, J., "Ice Breakers," Mar. Eng'g., Sep 1920,
shows the stern view of a vessel in a drydock at pp. 707-712
Newport News. From all indications this ship is (9) Kari, A., "The Design of Ice-Breakers," SBSR, 22
an icebreaker. In any case it has a very large beam, Deo 1921, pp. 802-804. Some of the information
a considerable amount of tumble home all around, given in this article is included in Mr. Kari's book
and is fitted with two huge 4-bladed propellers entitled "Design and Cost Estimating of Merchant
with fan-shaped blades. The propellers are of the and Passenger Ships." The reference discusses
built-up type with securing bolts or nuts that static and dynamic icebreaking, length, length-
project prominently from the hubs. It is believed beam and length-depth ratios, and gives various
to be Russian. formulas useful for design and for predicting the
(4a) A "gigantic Russian ice crusher" is mentioned in performance of a ship designed elsewhere.
ASNE, Aug 1898, Vol. X, pp. 917-918; also ASNE, (10) "Swedish Ice Breaker of 2,450 Tons Displacement
Nov 1898, Vol. X, pp. 1222-1223. According to the and 6,000 I.H.P.," SBSR, 12 Mar 1925, p. 310
latter reference this vessel was launched on 29 Oct (11) "(Russian) Ice Breaker Krisjamis Valdcmar," The
1898. It is 305 ft long and 71 ft beam, with a depth Shipbuilder, Jul 1925; abstracted in ASNE, Aug
 Sec. 76.27 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 805
192.'5, pp. 611-612; SBSR, 4 Mar 1926, pp. 247- particulars for a typical icebreaker, suggests
251.A small sketch showing the general hull shape length-beam and beam-draft ratios, and gives
and the principal dimensions of this vessel is found a formula for thickness of ice that can be broken.
in WRH, 22 Jan 1929, Fig. 9, p. 30. (31) "Icebreakers," SBSR, 20 Nov 1941, pp. 481-484, 491
(12) Judaschke, "Konstruktionsbedingungen fur die
F., (32) "The Ice-breaker Ernest LaPoinie," SBMEB, Jan
in Eisgang und Eisbrechdienst zu verwendenden 1942, pp. 13-18. This is a twin-screw ice-breaking
Schiffe (Construction Specifications for Ships Going and channel-surveying vessel built in Canada for
Through Ice and
Ice-Breaking Service),"
in the Canadian Department of Transport.
WRH, 22 Jan 1929, Vol. 10, pp. 27-31 (in German). (33) Wasmund, J. A., "Coast Guard Ice-Breaking
Comments in English on this article are to be Vessels," MESR, Dec 1944, pp. 184-186. Includes
found in Marine Engineer, Mar 1929, p. 116. discussions of hull construction, bow propellers,
(13) Icebreaker R. B. McLean, for the Hudson Bay propulsion motors, speed control, and power re-
Railway of the Canadian Government, MESA, quirements.
Nov 1930, p. 610. The displacement is 5,034 t, the (34) "Ice-Breaker Design," MESR, Apr 1945, pp. 142-145.
Lbp is 260 ft, the B 60 ft, D 31 ft, H 19.5 ft. Includes a history of icebreaking vessels and gives
Indicated power 2 times 3,250 horses. particulars of various icebreakers.
(14) Hammar, H. G., "The Construction of Cargo Vessels (35) "Coast Guard's Diesel Powered Ice-Breakers,"
Intended for Winter Traffic and Navigation in Motorship, London, Jun 1945, pp. 562-566, 604
Ice," SBMEB, Mar
1931, p. 175 (36) Johnson, H. F., "Development of Ice-Breaking
(15) Halldin, "Federal Icebreaker Ymer," Teknisk
G., Vessels for the U.S. Coast Guard," SNAME,
Tidskrift, Stockholm, Part I, Jan 1932; Part II, 1946, Vol. 54, pp. 112-151. A very complete paper,
Feb 1932 summarizing development to date and describing
(16) "Diesel-Electric Ice-Breaker Ymer," SBSR, 25 Aug the design of modern icebreakers.
1932, pp. 175-177 (37) Vinogradov, I. V., "Vessels for Arctic Navigation
(17) Christofferson, V., and Ericson, N., "The Federal (Icebreakers)," Moscow, 1946 (in Russian)
Ice Breaker Ymer's Machinery Installation, with (38) Outboard profile of Swedish icebreaker with diesel
Particular Attention to the Main Plant," Part drive, having controllable twin propellers aft and
VIII, Stockholm, Aug 1932, following ref. (15) one small screw propeller forward, is shown in AM,
(18) Christofferson, V., and Ericson, N., "Federal Ice Jul 1948, p. 26
Breaker Ymer's Machinery Equipment, with (39) Thiele, E. H., "Machinery Installation of the Wind
Special Emphasis on the Propelling Machinery," Class CoastGuard Icebreakers," ASME, 29 Nov-3
Part IX, Stockholm, Sep 1932 Dec 1948, No. 48-A-lll
(19) "Ice Breaker Ymer (9,000 B.H.P. Machinery)," (40) Finnish Government Icebreaker Into, with 12,000
Motorship, Jan 1933, p. 366 B.H.P. Machinery," Motor Ship, London, Aug
(20) "Ice-Breaker Goeta Lejon," SBMEB, Feb 1933, p. 91 1950, pp. 166-167. Includes particulars of vessel,
(21) "Ice Breaker Ymer" for Swedish Government, discussion of machinery, profile and arrangement
Motorship, London, Apr 1933, pp. 7-14; also plans. Ship has two bow and two stern propellers,
MESA, May 1933, pp. 165-167 with a motor power of 4 times 3,500 horses.
(22) "Japanese Ice Breaker Soya Maru," MESA, May (41) Kassell, B. M., "Russia's Icebreakers," ASNE, Feb
1933, pp. 162-164, 182. Gives particulars, trial 1951, pp. 137^152
data, and photographs. (42) "A Motorship for Arctic Waters (Kista Dan),"
(23) Hohnberg, G., "Federal Ice Breaker Ymer's Trial SBSR, 19 Jun 1952; pp. 829-831
Runs," Teknisk Tidskrift, Stockhohn, Jan 1934 =
LoA = 212.88 ft H, as cargo vessel 18.083 ft
(24) Gouljaeff, N., "Ice Breakers," SBMEB, Mar 1935,
Lpp = 185 ft y = 12 kt
pp. 143-150. Gives a bibliography of information B, molded = 36.75 ft Deadweight capacity as a
on icebreaker design. cargo vessel (iceship) =
(25) Simonson, D. R., "Bow Characteristics for Ice 1,200 tons
Breaking," ASNE, 1936, pp. 249-254
(26) Hunnewell, F. A., "U.S. Coast Guard Cutters," (43) De Rooij (pronounced Rooy), G., "Practical Ship-
SNAME, 1937, pp. 81-114. Describes cutters building," H. Stam, Harlem, Holland, 1953, Fig.
Escanaba, Algonquin, and Raritan (110-ft harbor 16 on p. 19, Art. 208 on p. 372, and Fig. 798
cutter). (44) Article on icebreakers in The Shipping World, 30
(27) Mendl, W. V., "Ice Breakers," SBMEB, Oct 1938, Jun 1954, Vol. 130, pp. 655-657. Abstracted in

pp. 543-544. Gives formula for thickness of ice IME, Jan LXVII, pp. 13-14. These
1955, Vol.
that can be broken. references give data on the Thule, Elbjom, and

(28) "The Sisu, A Diesel-Electric Ice Breaker," Motor Voima.

Ship, London, Apr 1939, pp. 22-24. Finnish (45) "Ships Against Ice," Bureau of Ships Journal, Navy
icebreaker. Gives particulars of vessel, with Dept., Aug 1954, pp. 2-6
arrangement plan and photographs. (46) Canadian Icebreaker Labrador, MENA, Aug 1954,

(29) Macy, R. H., "Icebreakers," USNI, 1940, Vol. 66, pp. 293-294. Gives general particulars and an out-
pp. 669-674 board profile.

(30) Smith, R. Munro, "The Design of Icebreakers," (47) One of sLx icebreaking cargo vessels for Russia, being
SBSR, 6 Feb 1941, pp. 127-128. This gives general built in Holland, is illustrated and described in
806 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.28

MENA, Aug pp. 288-290. These vessels

1954, permissible "holiday" for travel in mud. If it is
have a single screw driven by a 7,000-horse electric
soft enough it acts as a hquid; if hard enough, as
motor turning at 150 rpm.
a sohd.
LoA = 425 ft B = 61.58 it H = 27.63 ft
(b) Have an adequate reserve-buoyancy ratio,
Lpp = 387 ft D = 36.79 ft Deadweight capacity
at this draft = 6,500 tons. 7 = 15 kt. These
not only for wavegoing but for the bank require-
vessels have a profile resembling almost exactly ment of (f) following. This is more important in
that of a regular icebreaker. an amphibian than in a surface vessel because the
former can rarely be ship-shaped or have much
(48) "Ingalls Launches Most Powerful Icebreaker," Mar.
Eng'g., Oct 1954, p. 58
of a weather deck.

(49) "The Twin-Screw Diesel-Electric Ship General San (c) Maintain the reserve-buoyancy ratio through-

Martin; an Ice-breaking, Research and Supply out the design and construction period. This
Vessel for the Argentine," SBMEB, Feb 1955, pp. means that the total scale weight can not exceed
108-109; also The Motor Ship, London, Jan 1955,
the weight of the hghtest water displaced by the
p. 432, and MENA, Dec 1954, pp. 480-481. The
last reference contains photographs of the bow and
buoyant volume up to the safe working waterhne.
stern of the vessel in the building dock and a Judging by some bitter experiences of the past,
photograph of the completed ship under way. it means that an ample weight margin must be
(50) "Diesel-Engined Soviet Icebreakers," The Motor included in the preliminary design.
Ship, London, Feb 1955, p. 503. Illustrates and
(d) Possess adequate freeboard to guard against
describes the three vessels of the Kapetan Belousov
water from the crests of its Velox waves. With a
class, as well as the two 12,840-t icebreakers now
on order (1955). Abstracted, with outboard profile, blunt bow and full form, these crests may be high.
in IME, Jun 1955, Vol. LXVII, pp. 86-87; see (e) Limit its water speed to 1/3, 1/4, or possibly a
also SBSR, 6 Sep 1956, pp. 313-315. smaller ratio of its maximum land speed
(51) "Icebreaker with 12,000-B.H.P. Machinery," The
(f) Be able to drop down or run up a bank having
Motor Ship, London, Dec 1956, p. 362
a slope of at least 30 deg with the horizontal,
Lo A ,273 ft H, mean 22.33 ft both below and above the water surface.
LwL , 260 ft A, 4,950 t
An amphibian, in the form of a wheeled or
Bex , 63.75 ft Pb (normal), 10,500 horses.
tracked vehicle which can propel itself along the

Hydrodynamic Design surface of the water, or of a boat which can run

76.28 Features of
Amphibians. may
be expected that the future
It
on dry land with wheels, tracks, or the equivalent,
will find more and more peacetime uses for a
can hardly be expected to have a high degree of
good combination of water craft and land vehicle, propulsive efficiency when running in either

notwithstanding that its development to date is medium. If the primary object of the design is to
due largely to its wartime usefulness. Indeed, the produce a load- or passenger-carrymg vehicle, a
first successful "alhgator" of Donald Roebhng
watertight body to give it flotation may be a

was used originally in 1933, in the otherwise clumsy encumbrance. Shaping this body to ease
impenetrable expanse of the Florida Everglades, the water flow around it and at the same time

for rescuing hurricane victims and downed to incorporate a pair of paddletracks, one or

aviators. During the recent war its descendants

more screAV propellers, or a paddlewheel involves
served as means of carrying medical supphes and compromises Avhich must be worked out for each
even as mobile hospitals. Refitted World War II particular case. Applying wheels or tracks to an

DUKW's are already serving as combination
and salvage craft, equally useful
fireboats, rescue,
on dry land and in the water [Rudder, Aug 1952,
pp. 24-25]. There is no reason why they should
not be useful as ship-to-shore package and per-
sonnel carriers in out-of-the-way places where
object designed primarily as a water craft is no
less of a special problem. Fig. 76. T shows how
clumsy such a craft can look and still perform
well as an amphibian.
This is not the place to advance arguments for
or against the use of wheels or tracks for travehng

ships must anchor off and where there are no on land, through sand and mud, or over sub-
shore facilities.
merged reefs. There might be some reason for
For these duties an amphibian must: discussing the relative merits of propellers and
paddletracks if the form of the craft were in any
(a) Run in and on any kind of Hquid or sohd way standardized. It may, nevertheless, not be
medium, from fresh and salt water to dry land, amiss to list briefly the advantages, disadvantages,
or any combination of these two. There is no and precautions to be observed in adapting and
Sec. 76.28 m'.SK.N OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 807

lllllll will give good performance provided water can

in nil flow easily to it, either from the side or under the
fin bottom.
(3) The central paddlewheel
is specially adapted

to divided-hull craft of thecatamaran type. It is

simple mechanically, is easily constructed, main-
tained, and repaired, and is reasonably efficient
for shallow-water craft. It is admittedly bulky,
lumbersome, and heavy for the power delivered.
I
1) The sternwheel is indicated only for raft-like
craft designed for traveling in extremely shallow
water
(5) A water jet to propel a heavy, resistful am-
Fig. 76.T One Type of Tracked Amphibian
phibian is, with its ducts, likely to occupy more
Official U. S. Navy photograph. Note the M-shaped
paddles or cleats on the two moving tracks and the space than can be devoted to it. Such a device
relatively close spacing of these paddles along might serve for a lighter craft.
the tracks.
(6) The amphibian driven by a paddlewheel of

employing one of the several possible methods of

some kind or by one or more screw propellers
needs a good rudder. Probably it needs more than
water propulsion:
one to approach the maneuverability of the
(1) The paddle track has the advantage that the
tracked which can change its track
vehicle,
same mechanical installation is utihzed for run-
speeds or even go astern on one track while
ning on both the water and the land, including gomg ahead on the other. Rudders in amphibians
propulsion as well as maneuvering. If it is suffi-
propelled by paddlewheels or screw propellers
and durable it is satisfactory for
ciently strong
are almost of necessity placed in the outflow jets
extended land travel but not for high speeds from those propulsion devices.
ashore unless it can somehow be rubberized.
(7) Despite its clumsy form, maneuverability of
Balancing this present shortcoming is the great
an amphibian may not be too difficult to achieve
advantage that the track furnishes the only
because the length-beam ratio of such a contri-
known adequate and acceptable propulsion in
vance is usually about 3 or 4 and rarely exceeds 5.
the complete range of media from clear water to
hard ground, comprising silt, sand, vegetable Despite the fact that an amphibian is of no
growths, and mud of all possible consistencies. practical use unless it can travel in water, it is

(2) The screw propeller is adapted only for use possible that whatever water-propulsion device
in media having the consistency of water. Un- is fitted to it may have to play a secondary role
doubtedly, it is the most efficient of the propulsion to the land-propulsion gear. Because of the variety
devices, and capable of producing the highest of possible configurations, not much can be said
speeds at which craft of this kind can travel in as to design for water propulsion except to em-
water. The propeller can be housed and at the phasize that the water must have a reasonably
same time protected in a tunnel under the stern good path to flow to whatever propdev is fitted.
of the craft, similar to that on a shallow-draft Because of the interference effects described in
vessel. An adaptation of the outboard or swinging Sec. 32.2, the cleats on moving paddletracks
propeller is possible. It is even practicable to always give the best performance when they are
provide, as John Ericsson did for the American spaced as far apart as the considerations of
auxihary sailing ship Massachusetts in 1845, a ground or land travel permit.
propeller carried by an arm swingmg in a trans- Although the water-excludmg portion of an
verse plane [Isherwood, B. F., "Engineering amphibian may look more hke a covered wagon
Precedents for Steam Machinery," Vol. II, pp. than a boat or ship, the law of Archimedes still
213-220]. When
working it is swung down so that apphes. The craft sinks in the water untU the
the propeller below or at least abaft the hull.
is weight of water displaced equals its scale weight.
When not working it is swimg up, well clear of the Because of the relatively high bow-wave crest
ground and inside the frontal or transverse and deep folloAving trough created by the am-
projected area of the vehicle. The screw propeller phibian body when running at moderate speed.
808 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Ser. 76.29

and because it has a prow which resembles that (g) Relative importance of landing on a beach
of a scow more than that of a boat, the provision as compared to maintaining speed and wavegoing
of adequate freeboard at the running attitude in the open sea.
is particularly important. This is almost im-
The foregoing requirements are in addition to
possible to calculate and there is little background
those for a ship of normal design which lands at
of empirical data for reference. Towing and
a pier or quay.
simple self-propulsion tests of small-scale models
are definitely indicated. Fortunately, when the The conflicting requirements of (1) acceptable

drag almost wholly due to pressure

is and when wavegoing behavior for ocean voyages and (2)

the wavemaking aspects are to be studied, tests shallow draft with trim by the stern for landing

can be accomplished in any of the small model may be met by the same procedure as for ships in
basins. ballastand for tankers traveling light, that is,
76.29 Vessels Designed for Beaching. It is
by the use of liquid (water) ballast. This can be
reported that the Chmese junk became, in the
pumped out just before landing at the beach or

course of its long development, a rather more than it can be shifted aft to give the desired trim.
passable landmg craft because of the almost A much worse problem is not so easily solved
total lack of piers and wharves along the traffic by the compromises often encountered in ship
routes. In fact, it is supposed that the ancient design. This involves the almost inevitable use

use of a non-watertight forepeak and a watertight bow, adapted to landing

of a broad, flat, shallow

collisionbulkhead at its after end stemmed from on broad, sand beaches but wholly unsuited for
the hopelessness of keeping tight the hull seams wavegoing. The only reasonable solution to this
around the stem with constant beaching. While impasse appears to be the use of liquid ballast,
the shallow-draft sternwheel river steamers of liquid fuel, or liquid cargo in the forward part of

America were not designed expressly for beaching the vessel.

they were eminently adapted for tying up along The bow is, by this means, pushed down as far
the river banks and handling cargo whenever as possible, in an effort to keep the flat portion
the occasion demanded and wherever there always under water, so that slamming does not
was a bank suitable for the purpose. Like the occur there. The hquid is shifted aft when ap-
amphibian, therefore, the first craft designed for proaching the beach, to hghten the vessel forward
transferiing cargo directly to a bank or beach and to accommodate the slope of the beach.
were engaged in peaceful pursuits. The need for Proposals are made from time to time for a
peacetime landing craft may be expected to landing craft to be fitted Avith bow propellers
continue as long as shore facilities lag behind and to run in waves with the deep end forward.
human needs. This sounds attractive but has the disadvantage
Requu-ements for vessels to carry heavy, bulky, of a high thrust-deduction fraction for screw
and expensive cargo for landing directly on the propellers positioned ahead of the hull, as well
beach must state the: as inadequate submergence and racing because
of the large ampfitude of pitch at the bow when
(a) Minimum slope of beach wherever a landing
traveling in waves.
needs to be made
A form well adapted to operation in reasonably
(b) Minmium depth for keeping one end of the
rough water and to running in toward shore
craft waterborne or, conversely, the distance
through heavy swells and surf is one having a
within which the ship shall approach the water's
flattened W-section, similar to a pair of inverted-
edge at the beach
vee hulls, like two sea sleds placed side by side.
(c) Range water level to be expected
of tide or
Three projecting keels may be fitted under it to
at and during the landing
act somewhat as longitudinal stabilizing fins and to
(d) Strength and direction of tidal and other resist slewing, yawing, and broaching. In addition,
currents at the bank or beach the three keels provide great lateral stability
(e) Wind waves and surf to be encountered when beached, to say nothmg of an excellent dis-
(f) Percentage (approximate) of the useful load tribution of the beaching load. Under certain
which can be devoted to changing the trim of the circumstances the absence of flat, horizontal
craft to accommodate the depth and slope of the surfaces under the bow might defer or ehminate
beach slamming. Under other sea conditions, especially
Sec. 7 6.30 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT
Fig. 76.U Landing Craft with Inverted V-Bottom
AT Stern
Official U. S. Navy photograph. The small auxiliary
rudder forward of the strut is for control when backing.
The hole in the rudder permits withdrawing of the
propeller shaft without unshipping the rudder.
if driven hard, the W-sections forward might
produce large accelerations and decelerations, as
does the sea sled. The under side of the stern of a
landing craft with a single inverted vee of small
slope is illustrated in Fig. 76. U.
Although it has to date (1955) been used on
small vessels only, there is a great advantage in
having hydraulic jet propulsion available under
the bottom when getting off a bank or beach.
By directing the jet forward, toward the region
where the bow is aground, it is extremely useful
forwashing away the sand or soil and freeing
the vessel easily.
General arrangement drawings and principal
dimensions of landing and beaching craft of
intermediate size (LCF and LOT) are given by
G. de Rooij ["Practical Shipbuilding," 1953, Figs.
791 and 792 on pp. 368-369]. Model test data for
four models of landing craft are found on SNAME
RD sheets 38, 40, 43, and 44.
76.30 Some Hydrodynamic Design Problems
Common to All There are no books,
Submarines.
and there is little literature, which
technical
discuss the design of submarine vessels [Hay,
M. F., "The Design of Submarines," SNAME,
1909, pp. 233-255]. The hydrodynamic design
alone involves matters of diving and surfacing,
dynamic equilibrium, speed and propulsion,
.maneuvering, and wavegoing, both surface and
submerged. Diving and surfacing involve in turn
the flooding, venting, and blowing of the main
ballast tanks which provide the reserve buoyancy
of the submarine when it is on the surface.
809
It is impossible, within the space allotted in
this book, to do more than describe briefly certain
special problems encountered in this hydro-
dynamic design, having to do primarily with
operation submerged. One seldom finds these
problems discussed scientifically in any kind of
literature. A statement of them, with their
present solutions (or lack of solutions), should
not only broaden the outlook of the marine
architect engaged in the design of surface vessels
but also give him a more penetrating insight into
the influence of hydrodynamics on the design of
all kinds and sizes of water craft.
I. It might be thought strange,
Requirements.
were not for so many other missing ship-
it
operation requirements, that no basic require-
ments for submarine vessels have ever been
formulated and published. Those which follow
are sketchy but they may at least serve as the
groundwork for development in the future. They
are based upon a possible, even though seemingly
remote utilization of the submarine vessel for
peaceful purposes. No attempt is made to go into
detail or to insert numbers in these requirements:
(a) Submerge and emerge, while stationary or
under way, when initially on the surface or
submerged. This may or may not have to be
accomplished within a given interval from the
"execute" signal, starting from a given set of
conditions as regards ballast water carried and
percentage of reserve buoyancy.
(b) Run submerged at a given nominal depth,
throughout the complete speed range, without
varying up or down more than a given amount
from that depth
(c) Run submerged, throughout a given speed
range, without exceeding specified trim angles
(by the bow or stern) for the series of speeds
Maintain a given depth, within specified
(d)
hmits, when the excess of static weight or buoy-
ancy reaches a certain limiting amount, generally
a percentage of the total weight or buoyancy,
at all submerged speeds above a certain minimum
(e) Hold a given depth and maintain a level
fore-and-aft attitude, within not-too-close limits,
when underway submerged at a very slow speed,
lessthan a certain maxmium. This is the operation
known as hovering. The speed is so low that
dynamic control is rather weak.
(f) Change depth, either up or down, within
a given elapsed time from level running at the
original depth to level running at the new depth.
810 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 7630

within certain limits of speed, diving-plane the underwater hull design is

fittings. Similarly,

angles, fore-and-aft inclination of the vessel, and tied into the abovewater design to msure accept-
excess static weight or buoyancy able wavegoing performance, the same as for the

(g) Change course in a horizontal direction surface ship. While it is perfectly possible for a
when submerged, from the small angles involved properly sealed submarine to plow through
in normal steering to turns of 180 deg or more surface waves instead of riding over them, it

(h) Possess good wavegoing performance as a suffers from much the same retardation as would

surface vessel, including reasonable safeguards a surface vessel under similar circumstances.
for personnel who may be on deck at sea, when Most of the space between the inner and the
the craft is either stopped or underway outer hulls is devoted to the provision of added

Provide adequate freeboard in the surface

(i)
buoyancy when the vessel is on the surface. In
condition, for access hatches leading to the this condition the water-excluding volume of the

pressure hull which may be open when underway outer hull up to the surface waterline, in what is

or at anchor known as diving trim at full buoyancy, is equal

Rest on the bottom for appreciable periods, to the water-excluding volume of the inner hull
(j)

and possibly travel along the bottom. plus all its external appendages. The result is
that, when the vessel is on the surface, the inner
II. Physical Arrangement. To serve as a back- hull appendages are raised above the level
and its

ground for a discussion of hydrodynamic design of the surrounding water by a volume equal to
problems of a submarine there must be some that of the main-ballast tanks, between the mner
knowledge of the principal physical features of and outer hulls and below the surface waterline.
this type of vessel. It is possible but not likely This main-ballast-tank volume divided by the
that a further half-century of development will inner or pressure-hull volume is thus the reserve-
modify somewhat the physical arrangements of buoyancy ratio in the surface condition.
the modern (1955) design. One such design, Itcustomary, on double-hulled submersibles,
is

relatively modern, is shown by G. de Rooij for the main-ballast tanks to extend above the
["Practical Shipbuilding," 1953, Fig. 42 on p. 29 surface waterline in diving trim. In fact, this is
and Fig. 788 m the back of the book. A brief usually necessary, to provide adequate initial

description given in Sec. 203 on page 368].

is metacentric stability and a safe range of positive
The submarine which is also required to give stability. The volume of the main-ballast tanks
a good account of itself on the surface, called a above the surface waterline adds to the reserve-
submersible in this book, possesses two rather buoyancy volume of the pressure hull and of all
distinct hulls, taking into consideration the water-displacing appendages and objects above
underwater and the abovewater portions as the waterplane. The vertical hatching of Fig.
units performing distinctly different functions. 76.V indicates this volume in schematic fashion.
The always-buoyant inner or 'pressure hull is of A rather complete general discussion of these
a form best adapted to resist external hydrostatic features, including the matters of equilibrium
pressure, with practically no regard for the ease of static forces and of metacentric stability
with which it could, as an independent unit, be discussed subsequently in this section, is given
driven through or along the surface of the water. by A. I. McKee [Bu C and R, Tech. Bull. 8-29,
The outer hull is a ship-shaped envelope built Nov 1929; also "Development of Submarines in
around the inner or pressure hull, designed to the U.S.," SNAME, HT, 1943, pp. 344-355].
minimize resistance of the combination for surface When the craft submerges, sea water must be
propulsion and to provide spaces between the admitted to the main-ballast tanks to destroy
hulls for water-ballast tanks and fuel tanks. the buoyancy which lifted the pressure hull above
The portion of the outer hull lying below the the water in the surface condition. For a vessel
waterplane in surface condition, indicated in having a water-excluding displacement when
diagram 2 of Fig. 37. C and in the schematic submerged of say 3,000 tons, the weight of water
section of Fig. 76.V, fulfills exactly the same to be admitted to the main-ballast tanks may
function for a submarine as for a surface vessel. exceed 1,000 Furthermore, to permit
tons.
It is generally designed in the same manner, flooding with this water, the air in the main-
with necessarily more regard for machinery ballast tanks must be vented to the atmosphere.
clearance, access between hulls, and special Admitting this much water and venting an
Sec. 76.30 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 811

Wood-Slat Decklor Perforoted- Metal Deck for Ventino of Superstructure

I

Hatch
Freebocird

Fig. 76.V Schematic Section op Double-Hulled Submersible Showing Main-Ballast Flooding and
Venting Arrangements and Buoyant Volumes

equal volume of air, while at the same time given a large tumble home and the deck edges
exercising control of the flooding and venting are often well rounded into the side, so that the
among a number of separate tanks, involves a beam of the flat or cambered deck is rarely more
rather elaborate system of large flood valves in than 0.7 of the maximum beam at the surface
the lower part of the outer hull and correspond- waterplane. The deck forward, excluding the
ingly large vent valves along the tops of the rounded turtleback on each side, may be not
main-ballast tanks, indicated schematically in more than 0.5 times the beam at the corresponding
Fig. 76.V. section. The perforations and slots in the deck,
Somewhat similar water-handhng systems are- placed there to provide rapid venting of the free-
required for taking aboard, pumping out, and flooding superstructure volume, afford a means
shifting what is known as variable-ballast water of sluicing away the deck load of water before it
within the pressure-proof boundaries of the sub- sUdes aft during an up pitch and dashes against
marine. The admission, discharge, and transfer the deck erections amidships.
of water serve as compensation for the expenditure The freeboard at the extreme stern may be
of useful weights such as food, stores, and lubri- diminished to zero, so far as wavegoing charac-
cating oU; for the taking aboard of additional teristics are concerned. If, however, the surface
useful weights; and for the moving of these speed is high enough to produce a crest of appre-
weights fore and aft and transversely within the ciable height on the stern wave, the outer hull
pressure-proof boundaries to suit the mission of should be carried up at least to the top of this
the vessel. crest, with the vessel in running trim.

Because a submarine is not burdened with The flooding ports or openings along the lower
vulnerable deck hatches and rarely requires edges of the superstructure volume, just above
personnel to work on deck at sea, except possibly the surface waterline, represent an unsolved
for a limited region amidships, its freeboard to problem as far as combining rapid flooding of the
the superstructure deck can be much lower than superstructure with minimum drag along the
that of a surface vessel. With this low freeboard surface waterline is concerned. A continuous
it is expected that soUd water will be taken flooding slot along the lower edge of the super-
aboard. Several expedients are adopted for un- structure, used at various times, is not an accept-
loading this water expeditiously. The topside is able solution because of the relatively large
812 HYDRODYNAMICS
quantities of stationary water which can enter
there. When these are picked up and accelerated
by transverse structural members and other
parts housed mthin the superstructure a useless
loss of energy is involved.
The volume of water occupying certain small
free-flooding spaces below the surface waterplane,
rarely to be found on surface craft, is considered
as a part of the ship weight which must be
carried along. Outside water must be displaced
around these spaces the same as around the other
parts of the hull. In one respect these several
volumes of water are treated as though they were
blocks of ice, frozen in place. If the free-flooding
spaces have external openings in regions where
there is a pressure gradient on the outside of the
hull, a flow of water through the spaces takes
place because of this pressure gradient. Energy
expended in setting up and maintaining this flow,
generally of an eddying character and invariably
undesirable, is energy lost so far as the propulsion
of the submarine is concerned.
III. Equilibrium of Static and Dynamic Forces-
In a surface vessel, nature takes care of the
balance between the hydrostatic weight and
buoyancy forces by adjusting the latter so as to
equal the weight force imposed by the crew.
the weight is increased by loading something
aboard, the vessel sinks to provide the additional
buoyancy. In a submerged submarine the buoy-
ancy force is usually fixed by the total volume
of the water-excluding structure and external
parts, combined with the density of the sur-
rounding water. The crew then has to make the
necessary internal adjustments in the weight
force, by admitting or expelling or shifting
variable-ballast water, if equilibrium is to be
maintained.
While it is possible for the primary static
forces of weight W
and buoyancy B to be bal-
anced by taking in or pushing out variable-
ballast water, this is the exception rather than
the rule in submerged opei-ation. It is rarely
possible to achieve an exact balance of primary
hydrostatic forces, and moment as well, when
underway beneath the surface. In addition there
are vertical dynamic forces and moments gen-
erated when the vessel is underway by the lack
of symmetry of the outer hull about any longi-
tudinal horizontal plane, by the presence of deck
erections and appendages, and by small inclina-
tions of the fore-and-aft axis to the direction of
IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.30
motion. Combined, these render the equalization
of weight W
and buoyancy B a matter of hydro-
dynamics as well as hydrostatics.
Admitting and expelling variable-ballast water
in suitable quantities and at the proper locations
as the submarine is moving can take care of the
preponderant hydrostatic inequalities between W
and B. However, the hydrodynamic inequalities
usually vary in magnitude with ship speed.
They, as well as the undetermined {W-B) values,
are normally compensated by vertical forces
derived from hydrofoil action of the diving
planes.
It is found that an amazing variety of submarine
forms are afforded adequate control in rising and
diving by the usual arrangement of bow and
stern planes.
IV. Metacentric and Pendulum Stability. The
problem of adequate metacentric stability when
in the so-called "awash" condition, during either
diving or surfacing, undoubtedly involves a time
element to a small degree, and hence partakes of
the nature of hydrodynamics. There are free
surfaces in most if not all of the main-ballast
tanks at some time or other during flooding or
blo\\'ing. Each tank is in communication with the
If sea and only indirectly with its companion tank
on the opposite side of the vessel. For this reason
it is necessary to reckon a loss of BM
correspond-
ing only to the square moment of area of the free
surface in each tank about its own fore-and-aft
axis, and not about the longitudinal axis of the
vessel. As a practical matter the time element
enters particularly in the blowing-down operation
while surfacing. This requires some minutes,
dining which time the loose water in each main-
ballast tank is in direct communication with
the sea through the flood valves at the bottom
of the tank. There must be sufficient control over
the compressed air delivered to the main-ballast
tanks on the two sides to hold the vessel in a sort
of average upright position, even when acted upon
by a heavy beam sea, with water surging up and
down in the tanks.
For a consideration of the forces and moments
involved in maneuvering submerged it is neces-
sary to realize that the submarine in that con-
dition has no effective or intact surface -waterline
area (and no loose water), so that BM
= and
the metacenter M coincides with the center of
buoyancy CB. What holds the submerged sub-
marine upright is the fact that the center of
 C

Sec. 76.30 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 813

"Surfoi
BuoyancN; Force B -
A few features already kiarned from them are
discussed in Sec. 15.0 and illustrated in Fig. 15.
under flexible-fin propulsion.

However, in an effort to copy features that will

be helpful in submarine design, two obstacles
present themselves. They have not yet been sur-
Stern Up^^ -->_J^uM Axis mounted.
Restoring Arm
The first is mechanism
that, while the general
of fish propulsion known, man has not dis-
is

Submarine Acts Qs a covered the exact method by which the fi.sh or

Pendulum with Weight the sea mammal achieves its highest speeds or
at CG and Support at CB s-wims rapidly for long periods of time. Mani-
festly, thesemethods must be known and under-
Fig. 76.W Sketch Illustrating Pendulum Stability stood before they can be copied or utilized. For
OF Submerged Submarine in Plane of Symmetry example, it is asserted that, in order to maintain
a speed of 20 or 25 kt while converting food
gravity CG lies always below the combined energy into propulsion energy and motion at the
center of buoyancy and metacenter. This gives highest rate known to man, a porpoise would have
the vessel what known as pendulum stability,
is to consume his entire weight in small fish every
with G always below M, illustrated in Fig. 76.W. half hour. It seems certain that the animal does
Any moment of weight forward or aft of the not do this, at least while traveling continually at
submerged CB causes the vessel to trim in that such high speed. It is also asserted that a pigeon,
direction until the center of gravity is directly if as inefficient as some man-made airplanes,
underneath the center of buoyancy. A small would have to carry along an internal-combustion
offset may result in a large trim angle unless the engine with a power of several horses, in order to
necessary correction is made to the CG position. make its known speed through the air.

When the vessel is inclined submerged by some The second is that for the great majority of
external moment, either in heel or in trim, there creatures in this category, propulsion is based
is always a pendulum-type restoring moment inherently upon flexure of the body as a whole,
acting to level it off at an equilibrium attitude. in addition to motion of the fins, tail, and flukes.
When underway, this moment is superposed on Certainly, swimming at the high relative speeds
the hydrodynamic moments. desired always involves body undulations. Man
has not yet invented a submarine structure
V. Hull Shape and Propulsion. The question is
which can withstand great hydrostatic pressures
repeatedly raised, when submarine shape and
and house a powerful propelling plant, while at
propulsion is discussed, why the submarine de-
the same time possessing great flexibility and
signer should not take advantage of the develop-
capable of generating S-shaped undulations which
ments of nature, involving a process of evolution
travel along its length.
extending through untold millenniums. He is
Actually, because of their varying environment
questioned as to why he does not copy some sort
of aquatic fish or mammal, such as the shark or
and their different needs, fish and mammals are
the porpoise, or even the whale. These creatures
often rather poorly streamlined by modern
are known to be, for their size, capable of prodi-
hydrodynamic and aeronautic standards. If it
gious speeds, exceeding 20 kt in spurts for the
becomes necessary, on a submarine, to depart
porpoise and the whale. They make these speeds,
from a good streamline shape, that of some fish
at least in the case of the porpoise, with what or mammal could be accepted.

seems to be effortless ease.

VI. Maneuvering Submerged. The term maneuver-
The achievements of fish and aquatic mammals, ing, as used here, involves:
in the matter of propulsion and maneuvering and
related operations, have been the subject of (1) Transient and steady motions in a straight
scientific, engineering, and physiological study for line parallel to the submarine axis
three-quarters of a century or more. Research (2) Steering and turning in a plane that is hori-
along these lines is continuing, steadily if slowly. zontal or nearly so
 1

814 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76J

(3) Rising, diving, and depth-keeping in a is that the vessel maintain its charted position.
vertical plane. (3) Exert the minimum
consistent with
pull,
other characteristics, on
mooring cable or
its
The bulk shape and bulk volume of the vessel
are involved in each case, as contrasted to a
line, when subjected to wind, or current, or both
smaller underwater volume for the surface ship. (4) Be free of violent or undesirable yawing

If submerged to a depth h of the order of several

under the influence of wind or waves or both
times its hull height h, the effect of the free (5) Reduce the motions of rolling, pitching, and

surface above it is negligible. This situation is

heaving to a minimum consistent with other
contrasted with that of the surface ship, sur- requirements and the wavegoing conditions to be
rounded by an air-water interface upon which encountered. This is to reduce fatigue of personnel
gravity waves can be formed. and wear and tear on equipment, whether the
Heel when turning, usually only an inconven- vessel is manned or unmanned.
ience on a surface vessel, can introduce vertical (6) Be able to propel itself at reasonable speed
forces and moments on a submarine which and to maneuver, if the vessel is of this type.
affect its trim attitude and perhaps its depth of
The lightship is in a class with the life-saving
submergence. Unless the submarine carries a
boat discussed in Sec. 76.32 with respect to its
topside rudder of the type described in Sec. 37.14
abiUty to remain on station, completely operative
and illustrated in diagram 2 of Fig. 37. C, the same
except for its propulsion plant, when all other
steering rudder that "handles" the normal
vessels of its size (and larger) are required to
lateral area on the surface must, for horizontal
seek shelter in port.
steering and turning submerged, "handle" the
Its freeboard coefficient or freeboard-to-length
greater lateral area of the entire bulk of the
ratio is much greater than that of any other type
submarine.
of craft except a life-saving boat. Similarly, the
One feature related to both speed and pro-
reserve-buoyancy ratio is very large, perhaps
pulsion and to maneuvering requires mention.
even larger than that of the latter craft.
Unlike a surface vessel the speed and propulsion
Lightships may have much more than the usual
requirements for a submerged submarine can not
amount of sheer, especially forward, unless the
be dissociated from those of trim and attitude.
vessel has one more deck height, for its whole
In other words, it is useless for a submarine to
length, than would be customary in other vessels
be able to travel at a certain speed submerged
of its size.
unless the vessel can be held at the desired
While low resistance in a lightship when
attitude and depth at that speed.
moored in a seaway is one of the major require-
76.31 Lightships or Light Vessels. The
ments, some of it may be sacrificed to permit the
design of a lightship or a light vessel, whether
use of special features furthering the vessel's mis-
manned or unattended when on station, repre-
sion. One such feature is a set of extremely wide
sents some extremely interesting problems in
roll-resisting keels, possibly stayed by auxUiary
hydrodynamics, which have benefited from only
struts extending from near the outer edges of
sporadic scientific study in the past. A few of
the keel to the adjacent hull [SBSR, 17 Jan 1935,
these are discussed here, in rather limited scope.
p. Another would be an effective pitch-
66].
Stated briefly, the requirements for a lightship
damping device, provided a successful one could
are for a vessel that shall:
be devised for this type of vessel. Indeed, any-
(1) Display the necessary Ughts or other identifi- thing which assists in damping any part of the
cation, send out both abovewater and underwater wavegoing motion is a useful feature, whether
and perform
sonic signals, transmit radio signals, the craft is manned or unattended.
These are best accomplished
similar functions. Self-propulsion, provided, is almost never a
if

when the vessel is upright and at zero trim
although they must be carried out under all
ship-motion conditions.
(2) Remain afloat and operable and on
invariably an exposed one, regardless of the state
of the sea and of the wind and weather. In fact,
the worse the conditions, the more necessary
primary feature, but the drag exerted by the
stationary propeller in a current should be held
to the minimum practicable amount.
station, In only a very few cases does the technical
literature contain reasonably complete principal
dimensions, hull parameters, form coefficients,
it and other characteristics of lightships. Table 76.g
Sec. 7631 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 815

1
 816 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.32

embodies the rather meager information of this
type which could be collected for six lightship
designs dating from 1881 through about 1914.
Additional information and data, on old as well
as modern vessels, are to be found in the brief
list of references which follows:
(a) Body plan of Elbe lightship, with a B/H ratio of
25.25/12.46 = and a rise of floor of 24 deg, is
2.03,
shown in Schiffbau, 26 Jun 1912, pp. 715-722, PI. .3
(b) Idle, G., "The EfTect of Bilge Keels on the Rolling of
Lightships," INA, 1912, pp. 103-123 and Pis.
IX-XI. Figs. 10-13 on PI. X illustrate by flowlines
the assumed motion of the water around the
ship hull and around the bilge keels when rolling.
(c) Cook, G. C., "The Evolution of the Lightship,"
SNAME, 1913, pp. 97-118 and Pis. 52-63. Gives
considerable historical data. Shows arrangement
plans, body plan, and lines of self-propelled U.S.
Lightship 94. Principal dimensions and hull co-
efficients are listed in Table 76. g. The wedges of
immersion and emersion are intended to be nearly
equal. The bilges are very slack. The full-load dis-
placement at 18.58-ft draft is about 1,072 t. Static
stability is a maximum at about 60 deg, and very
large at 100 deg. The roll-resisting keels are of
triangular section, 1.5 ft wide. See also The Ship-
builder (now SBMEB), Jan-Jun 1914, Vol. X, pp.
215-220.
(d) Cooper, F. E., Liverpool Eng. Soc, Mar 1914; also
The Shipbuilder (now SBMEB), Jan-Jun
X, pp. 295-296. Describes the non-self-propelled
Vol.
light vessel Alarm, whose dimensions are listed in
Table 76. g. The bilge keels extend for 0.6L and are
about 1.2 ft wide.
(e) New Lurcher No. 2 Lightship, Diesel Prog., Mar
192, p. 59
(f) New Mar. Eng'g., Apr 1953, p. 45
Overfalls Lightship,
(g) New Ambrose Lightship, Mar. Eng'g., Sep 1953, p. 85
(h) Lightship Kish Bank, illustrated in SBSR, 27 Jan
and other vessels, intended only to remain afloat
and stay together on the scene until the rescued
personnel can be taken aboard another vessel.
Despite improved methods of removing personnel
from vessels in distress it appears that life-saving
boats operating from home or shore stations
will be required for many years to come.
Presumably general design requirements exist
for these craft but none have been located in the
technical literature, especially none that relate
directly to hydrodynamics. The following specifi-
cations appear to meet these needs:
(1) The craft .shall be able to operate in the open
sea or to stand by in practically any weather, no
matter how severe
(2) The boat shall be self-righting without crew,
when rolled to any angle of heel up to 180 deg
(3) It shall be virtually unsinkable; in other
words, it shall remain afloat, even when moder-
ately damaged
(4) The reserve-buoyancy ratio, with crew only,
shall be exceptionally large, preferably of the
order of 2 or 3. The wind resistance inherent in
this large abovewater volume is accepted. With
all the rescued personnel which can crowd aboard,
1914, the reserve-buoyancy ratio shall be not less than
1.0.
(5) There shall be a covered deck at both ends,
of arched or turbleback form, designed to reUeve
itself of water and spray which comes aboard well
before the craft is subjected to a succeeding load
of water
(6) All cockpits and depressions in the weather

1955, p. 36, has a centerline hawsepipe just above deck shall be self-baihng, with the boat carrying
the DWLfor mooring on station plus a regular its crew and the maximum number of rescued
hawsepipe on each bow with port and starboard personnel
bower anchors and separate chains. The Motor
Boat and Yachting, Aug 1954, p. 357, shows a (7) The free-running speed, without passengers
photograph indicating extreme local sheer at the but with crew and full fuel and stores, shall be
bow. sufficient to reach a disaster scene expeditiously.
(i) Light vessel Osprey, SBMEB, Jun 1955, pp. 417-418; It shall be not less than 10 kt, in smooth water
SBSR, 30 Jun 1955, p. 841. This non-self-propelled
and no wind, and preferably 12 kt or higher.
ship has an overall length of 136.42 ft and a beam
of 25 ft, with "exceptionally large bilge keels." The (8) The propulsion devices shall be housed, pref-
mooring is by 1.75-in chain, attached to a 4-ton erably, within the overall fair surface of the hull.
mushroom anchor, with port and starboard 1.5-ton In any case it shall be possible to operate them
anchors in reserve. in shallow water, with the boat jiust aground, or
(j) De Rooij, G., "Practical Shipbuilding," 1953, Figs.
when directly alongside a larger vessel.
793 and 794 and Sec. 206 on pp. 369, 373.
(9) The fore-and-aft position of the propulsion
76.32 Life-Saving or Rescue Boats. The devices shall be such that they continue to
hfe-saving or rescue boats discussed in this section produce thrust when running under heavy
are the self-propelled craft which are based on pitching conditions
shore .stations, or on large station ships afloat. (10) The draft shall be the minimum compatible
They e.xclude the lifeboats carried by passenger with other recjuirements listed
Sec. 7632 DESIGN OF SPECIAL-PURPOSE CRAFT 817

(11) The type and position of the rudder(s) taking suction from the bottom of the boat must
shall be such that steering or maneuvering control be able to work in water-mud or water-sand
of the boat is maintained at all times, regardless mixtures.
of the state of the sea. A Gill screw propeller, fitted inside an internal
duct, taking suction through a grating and dis-
It is from item (1) preceding that these
clear
charging through a rotable "deflecting nozzle,"
boats represent very nearly the ultimate in the
is sometimes used for a lifeboat installation
wavegoing performance required of any vessel
[SBSR, 27 Jul 1939, pp. HI, 113]. Figs. 59.Da
at sea. It might almost be said that life-saving
and 59. Db show the general arrangement and
boats should float and remain upright when all
method of operation of the Hotchkiss and Gill
other craft sink or turn bottom side up. To achieve
propellers, respectively.
requirements (1) and (4) they are distinguished
It is pointed out in reference (o) of the attached
by very large freeboard at the bow and stern,
list that rescue-boat speeds of the past, usually
usually very nearly equal at both ends, by a
not exceeding 8.5 kt, are no longer considered
very large sheer, and by a very large volume of
adequate. Speeds up to 20 kt, to be incorporated
abovewater reserve buoyancy, often in the form of
in German life-saving boats under design at the
closed compartments intended for buoyancy only.
time of writing (1955), will call for a rather
The self-righting requirement (2) means that
drastic modification in the double-ended form
the boat should have positive transverse meta-
which has been standard since the days when all
centric or positive pendulum stability when
these craft were propelled by oars. Transom
inclined to amj 'position in roll. It should not only
sterns of moderate width are indicated for speed-
right itself from heel angles between 90 and 180
length quotients exceeding about 1.2 or 1.3. It
deg but should be capable of rolling completely
is possible that the high-speed, round-bottom,
over (360 deg), without serious damage, if caught
transom-stern patrol boat of small size, already
by a breaking beam sea.
developed into a craft capable of withstanding
Cockpits and other depressions exposed to the extremely heavy weather, may be found suitable
weather are rendered self-bailing by making them for life-saving boats meeting the requirements
watertight, with freeing slots passing out through listed at the beginning of this section.
the sides or down through the bottom. Some Appended is a brief list of references relating
water enters through these slots when the boat to life-saving or rescue boats. Although by no
pitches and rolls but the amount is small, usually
means complete it will give the reader some idea
only enough to cause slippery footing or to freeze of the design problems involved:
into objectionable ice in cold weather.
Reynolds, "On Methods of Investigating the
On certain life-saving boats of older design, (a) O.,
Qualities of Lifeboats," Manchester Literary and
which were not required to be self-righting, it was
Philosophical Society, 14 Dec 1886, in which Pro-
customary to fit one or two projecting appendages, fessorReynolds advocated the use of models
resembhng roll-resisting keels, along the bulge on (b) Corbett, J., "Experiments with Lifeboat Models,"

each side. These were slotted so that, in the event
the boat turned bottom side up, the survivors
could use them as hand rails. In fact these
appendages were wide enough to serve rather
well as roll-resisting keels, despite the
cut through them. There is no reason why a
INA, 1890, pp. 263-283 and Pis. XIV and XV.
Reserve-buoyancy ratio of craft in the period
1862-1890 varied from about 0.75 to 2.1.
(c) Bamett, J. R., "Motor Lifeboats of the Royal
National Lifeboat Institution," INA, 1910, pp.
hand holes 112-119 and 129-139; also PI. X. This paper con-
self- tains the principal lifeboat requirements, expressed

righting rescue boat could not be fitted with one in somewhat general terms.
(d) Everett, H. A., "Stabihty of Lifeboats," SNAME,
ortwo pairs of roll-resisting keels, to improve the
1913, pp. 133-143 and Pis. 73-82. While this paper
wavegoing performance and to serve as fenders applies to lifeboats as carried on larger vessels, it
or guards for the lower portions of the hull. contain interesting information for the designer
To meet specification (7), propulsion may be by making a study of life-saving craft.
(e) Bamett, J. R., "Recent Developments in Motor
ducted propellers, approaching pure hydraulic-jet
Life-boats," INA, 1922, pp. 283-290 and Pis.
propulsion, or by screw propellers working in XIX-XXII
tunnels of suitable shape. Hotchkiss propellers, (f) Bamett, J. R., "Motor Life-boats of the Royal
with impellers entirely inside the hull, are often National Life-boat Institution," INA, 1929, pp.
employed. Any type of propeller or impeller 225-236 and Pis. XXIII and XXIV
818 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 76.33

(g) Motor lifeboat Insulinde, Zeit. des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., over and righting themselves, as for the smaller life-

13 Apr 1929, pp. 499-503; WRH, 22 Apr 1930, pp. boats.

165-166 The two propellers of the Bremen are carried in
(h) Ghiradi, L., "Moyens de sauvetage modemes (Modem side tunnels. There
one balanced rudder abaft each
is

Methods of Lifesaving)," ATMA, 1932, Vol. 36, propeller with its lower pintle carried by a skeg bar
pp. 83-104 which serves as a guard for both propeller and mdder.
(i) "Improved Design of Royal National Lifeboat Between the port and starboard skeg bars there is
Institution Lifeboats," SBSR, 15 May 1947, pp. mounted a horizontal hydrofoil which serves as a
482^83 trim-control device to depress the stem of the larger

(j) "The German Lifeboat Service," SBSR, 5 Jun 1947, craft when it is desired to launch or to take aboard
pp. 556-557 the smaller one.
(k) Self-righting, non-sinkable Coast Guard lifeboat is (n) A further discussion of British and German lifeboats
illustrated in USNI, Dec 1948, p. 1552 for sea-rescue work, of the period 1954-1955, is

(1) Attwood, E. L., Pengelly, H. S., and Sims, A. J., given by G. Wood SBSR, Int. Des. and Equip.
in

"Theoretical Naval Architecture," 1953, pp. No., 1955, pp. 67-68. The new British Coverack
181-183 class are 42.5 ft long, with twin screws driven by

(m) "German Lifesaving 'Cruisers'," SBSR, 13 Jan 1955, diesel engines, having a range of 238 miles at 8.38 kt.

pp. 41-43. This well-illustrated paper describes the

(o) "The Future of the R.N.L.I. Lifeboat," SBSR, 30
newest types of German lifesaving "cruisers" for Jun 1955, pp. 828-829. This article discusses a
rescue work. These craft are "of a larger, faster, number of requirements and features for lifeboat
and more powerful t3rpe than previously used." design and indicates the probable future trends
The Bremen is a converted steel huU having an for British lifeboats in particular and all lifeboats

overall length of 57.42 a beam of 13.75 ft, and

ft,
in general.

draft of 4.58 ft. The brake power is 2 times 120 horses; (p) "Fast German Rescue Ship (Herman Apelt)," SBSR,
the top speed is 11 kt. 25 Aug. 1955, p. 259 (illustration). Length, 66 ft;
The first of the larger boats built expressly for beam, 15 ft; speed, 17 kt.
rescue workthe Helgoland. It has an overall length
is (q) "A New Watson Class R.N.L.I. Lifeboat," The
of 73.75 a beam of 17.75 ft, and a draft of 4.75 ft.
ft,
Motor Boat and Yachting, Feb 1956, pp. 62-63.
The brake power is 2 times 300 horses and the de-
76.33 Special-Purpose Craft of the Future.
signed top speed is 20 kt.
Each of these rescue craft carries a smaller or No one can predict the uses, not now dreamed of,
"daughter" boat in an inclined trough set in the to which water craft will be put in the future.
stem, enabling the smaller boat to be launched and It is certain, however, that the creation of new
hauled aboard at will. The "daughter" boat is 16.42 forms or the adaptation of existing forms to these
ft long and 6.5 ft wide.
uses is to be done most efficiently by the applica-
Although the righting arms are large when the
boats are incUned to 90 deg, apparently neither of tion of hydrodynamic knowledge, as has been the
them are intended to withstand rolling completely aim in this book.
 ;

CHAPTER 77

The Preliminary Hydrodynamic Design of a

Motorboat
77.1 Scope of This Chapter 819 77.23 Interdependence of Hull-Design Features . 843
77.2 General Considerations Relating to Motor- 77.24 Layout of the Lines for the ABC Planing-
boat Design 820 Type Tender 843
77.3 Special Design Features for Small-Craft Hulls 822 77.25 Design Check on a Basis of Chine Dimen-
77 4 . Design Notes for Displacement-Type Motor- sions 846
boats 823 77.26 Second Estimate of Shaft Power, Based Upon
77 5 . Semi-Planing and Planing Small Craft . . 823 Effective Power 847
77.6 Operating Requirements for Planing Forms 824 77.27 Running Attitude and Fore-and-Aft Position
77.7 General Notes on the Powering of Small Craft 824 of the Heavy Weights 850
77.8 Principal Requirements for a Preliminary 77.28 First Space Layout of the 18-Knot Round-
Design Study 825 Bottom Hull 852
77 9 . Analysis of the Principal Requirements . . 826 77 29
. First Weight Estimate for the 18-Knot Hull . 853
77 10
. Tentative Selection of the Type and Propor- 77 30
. First Power Estimate for the 18-Knot and
tions of the Hull 827 14-Knot Conditions 853
77.11 First Space Layout of the 24-Knot Planing 77.31 Selecting the 18-Knot Hull Shape and Char-
Hull 827 acteristics 854
77.12 First Weight Estimate; Weight-Estimating 77.32 Layout of the Lines for the ABC Round-
Procedure 828 Bottom Tender 855
77.13 Second Weight Estimate 831 77.33 Example of a Modern Round-Bottom Utility-
77.14 FirstApproximation to Shaft and Brake Boat Design 858
Power 832 77.34 Design for a Motorboat of Limited Draft . 858
77.15 Selecting the Hull Features; Section Shapes . 835 77.35 Estimate of Screw-Propeller Characteristics . 859
77.16 Rise-of-Floor Magnitude and Variation . . 836 77.36 Propeller Tip Clearances; Hull Vibration . 859
77.17 Chine Shape, Proportions, and Dimensions . 837 77.37 Still- Air Drag and Wind Resistance .... 862
77.18 Buttock Shapes; The Mean Buttock ... 839 77.38 Design of Control Surfaces and Appendages . 862
77 19
. Trim Angle and Center-of-Gravity Position 77 39
. Third Weight Estimate 863
Use of Trim-Control Devices 840 77.40 Self-Propelled Tests for Models witii Dynam-
77.20 Spray Strips 841 ic Lift 864
77.21 Stem Shape 842 77.41 Partial Bibliography on Motorboats . . . 865
77.22 Deep Keel and Skeg; Other Appendages . . 842

77.1 Scope of This Chapter. A motorboat is design of a planing hull. Chap. 13 discusses basic
defined in this chapter as a mechanically pro- planing phenomena and Chap. 30 the behavior
pelled having a length of about 110 ft
craft of actual planing craft. Some quantitative data
(33.5 meters) or less, running at a Taylor quotient on dynamic and planing and a rather lengthy
lift

r, greater than 1.0, F„ > 0.3, and of a general set of references are given in Chap. 53. Notes for
type which may or may not include the fishing guidance in determining whether a craft designed
vessels and yachts of Sees. 76.11 and 76.19. The to meet a given set of requirements is to be of
treatment here is limited to craft driven by screw the displacement type, or whether it is to be a
propellers. The motorboats may be supported semi-planing or a full-planing form, are found in
wholly or in part by water buoyancy or by Sec. 77.10 of the present chapter.
dynamic lift on the hull proper. In other words, One aim of this chapter is to collect and cor-
they may be of the displacement, the semi- performance and design
relate certain small-craft
planing, or the fuU-planing type. Hydrofoil- information applicable to motorboats in general,
supported craft are in a separate category, supplementing the large-ship data set down in
discussed in Chap. 31 and partially covered by earlier chapters. Sec. 77.41 contains a partial
the limited bibhography of Sec. 53.9. bibhography relating to smaU-craft, yacht, and
As introductory material for notes on the motorboat design. It is to be hoped that, in the
819
820 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.2

not distant future, an enterprising small-boat for which the speeds are usually restricted to T,
designer will present a much more extensive values less than 2.0 or 2.5, F„ < 0.60 or 0.74,
summary and digest of all available and useful the comments as to water flow and ship behavior
information, as N. L. Skene did some years ago of Chaps. 24, 25, and 26 of Part 2 are vahd
in his book "Elements of Yacht Design," and regardless of size, at least for all craft large
as D. S. Simpson and P. G. Tomalin did more enough to carry an adult human. Except for
recently [SNAME, 1951, pp. 554-611; 1953, pp. certain limitations on small craft because of the
590-634]. accommodations which have to be provided for
Manifestly, it is not possible to compress into human beings of nearly constant dimensions, the
this chapter, with its illustrative examples, all design rules and considerations set forth in
the essentials fundamentals that have
and Chaps. 66, 67, and 68 of Part 4 apply to small
appeared in each of several books on the design craft as well as to large ones. W. F. Durand
of motorboats, Usted in the bibUography of Sec. pointed out as long ago as 1907, in his book
77.41, to say nothing of the valuable informa- "Motor Boats; A Thoroughly Scientific Discussion
tion in the multitude of technical papers and of Their Design, Construction, and Operation"
articles on this subject. It endeavors only to [Int. Mar. Eng'g., London and New York, 1907,
cover certain hydrodynamic features of motorboat Library of Congress number YM341.D9] that:
design in a manner similar to the coverage of the
". . the selection of principal dimensions, hull coeffi-
principal features of large-ship design in Chaps.
.

cientsand parameters, underwater form, and the size

64 through 68. It stresses the differences in
and form of appendages is handled in almost exactly the
characteristics and procedures necessitated by same way as for a large vessel."
the difference in size, as well as by the presence

of a major supporting force other than buoyancy The principal difference —and unfortunately also
in the form of dynamic lift. a principal difficulty —hes in estimating the total
As an illustration of the use of the data pre- weight of the finished small craft, especially if

sented and the procedures described, there are it is some new type. There is another difference,
of
included in the chapter the preliminary hydro- discussed in Part 6 of Volume III under Wave-
dynamic designs of two motorboats, to two going, in that the short wind and ship waves to
alternative specifications. One involves a fast be met by a motorboat or motor cruiser are
semi-planing hull and the other a high-speed full- considerably steeper than the long waves having
planing hull. the same ratio of wave length to ship length for a
77.2 General Considerations Relating to Mo- large vessel.
torboat Design. For water craft of all kinds there The motorboat has wavegoing adventures, even
is little difference in behavior \vith size if care is in waters that are considered sheltered. Velox
taken to maintain dynamic similarity of flow. waves from passing vessels of larger size or greater
This is done when a self-propelled free-running speed are steep and sometimes troublesome, as
model, or a pilot model large enough to carry one are the waves stirred up in shallow areas by
ormore persons, is built as part of the develop- sudden squalls and storms. As a rule, the slowing
ment work on a large project. Dynamic similarity down of motorboats in shallow and restricted
of flow is not fully realized if model tests include waters is taken for granted, so that no special
towing of the model of a mechanically propelled hull shapes are required for these conditions.
craft but exclude self-propulsion tests of that Motorboats of the semi-planing type represent
model, when driven by a small-scale replica of a considerably more difficult design problem than
its propulsion device. This matter is discussed those of the displacement type. The change of
further in Sec. 77.40. Since similarity of flow is trim when underway becomes a major design
almost never completely achieved, as when parameter and the necessity for an accurate
endeavoring to ruii simultaneously at the same estimate of the weight becomes much more acute.
values of the Froudenumber and of the Reynolds Moreover, there is a rather wide variety of
number model and ship, similarity is
for both possible hull shapes from which the proper choice
maintained for that flow which is considered the has to be made. It must be admitted that in the
most important. This is the basis of the whole past these problems have not had the benefit of
technicjue of ship-model testing. the systematic empirical and practical study, to
Considering vessels of the displacement type. say nothing of the scientific and analytic research
Sec. 77.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 821

that has been devoted to the design of larger accompanied by large vertical forces. Further-
ships. Until this time comes, the hydrodynamic more, the abovewater volume and exposed area
and other aspects of semi-planing motorboat of a motorboat increase with the speed, as the
design will not be adequately covered, in reference craft rises out of the water.
books or elsewhere. The planing-boat design problem is not only
In the design procedure for a full-planing craft vastly different from that of the displacement-
it is necessary to emphasize the large and numer- type craft but vastly more intricate, with
is

ous differences between the design problems for a interrelationships and interactions of major effect.
displacement craft, set forth in Chaps. 6G, 67, In perhaps no other branch of water-craft design
and 68, and those applying to a planing motor- is there so great a dependence of each design

boat: feature upon all the others. A 10 per cent increase

in displacement of a vessel supported only by
(1) In the first place, the total resistance in
buoyancy means that it sinks somewhat deeper
pounds per long ton of displacement, 7?,. /A or
in the water and runs at slightly reduced speed
Rr/W, is higher than for a displacement-type
but it retains essentially the same underwater
craft, often by two orders of magnitude. Whereas
form and gives about the same performance. A
Rt/W for a tanker may be 4 or 5, for a liner 10
10 per cent increase in weight of a planing craft
or 12, and for a destroyer or similar high-speed may prevent it from planing at all, and from
craft up to 130 or 150, the Rt/W value for a designed speed.
reaching more than half of its full
motorboat with a T, of 5 or 6 is 700 or 800,
A slight change in shape of the bottom surface
indicated clearly by Fig. 56.M. The latter figure when planing may not
which supports the craft
represents a ratio of say 750 to 2,240, or roughly planing but double running
only prevent its its
one-third of the total weight.
trim by the stern. Another slight change in
(2) In the second place, the buoyancy force bottom shape, hardly large enough to be notice-
corresponds to practically the entire weight of a able, may lift it to planing position but may
displacement-type vessel, whereas for a planing render it actually dangerous to handle at high
craft it may be not more than one-third or perhaps speed.
only one-thirteenth of the total weight. The The planing-craft designer must accordingly
remainder is dynamic lift.
reconcile himself to learning, and understanding,
(3) The shape of the bottom of a displacement- what amounts almost to an entirely new science
type craft usually affects only its pressure resist- and art. Fortunately for him, dynamic lift and
ance but may and often does have an effect upon other planing phenomena have also called for
maneuvering and wavegoing. In a planing craft intensive study and experimentation on the part
the bottom shape affects its ability to plane at of aeronautical engineers and aerodynamicists
all, its behavior when planing, its pitching and who have been designing seaplanes and flying
porpoising characteristics, its wavegoing behavior boats for the past half-century. Many more
and its slamming loads, as well as its controll- minds and hands were concentrated on the
ability, stability of route, and heel when steering problem than would have been the case if the
and turning. naval architect had had to go it alone.
(4) For a destroyer or similar high-speed vessel The attainment of superior hydrodynamic per-
running on the after side of its own bow wave the formance is perhaps of greater importance in small
slope drag may be as much as 0.01511'", correspond- pleasure craft than in small utility craft. A person
ing to say 30 or 35 lb per long ton. On a motorboat, who builds or buys a boat and runs it for sheer
before planing is reached, it may be as high as enjoyment expects to have fun and not trouble.
O.lOH^or more, corresponding to say 225 lb per ton. He is in a position, as when buying an automobile,
(5) The actual wetted surface of a planing craft to pick and choose, and to be satisfied with nothing
diminishes rapidly as the speed increases, until at but the best.
designed speed it may be only one-third or less For the same reasons, appearance may likewise
of the at-rest value be more of a factor than it is on a larger vessel,
(6) The still-air resistance of a large ship is although as a rule not more important than per-
rarely a large percentage of the hydrodynamic formance in the water. Even a racing yacht must
resistance but in an ultra-high speed motorboat have pleasingfines. A skipper who is proud of

it may approach that resistance in value, and be her racing record must also be proud of her
822 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.3

appearance. He must like to look at her as well as less than 6 kt is likely to be unacceptable in any
to sail her. pure power boat and more is generally needed.
Many modern motorboats, and small sailing For this reason the values of T^ for non-planing
yachts as well, are of the V-bottom, hard-chine craft rise from a minimum of 1.3 to a maximum
type, as contrasted with the round-bottom craft of 1.5 or more, F„ in excess of 0.45 [Phillips-Birt,
discussed in earlier chapters of Part 4. The fast, D., The Motor Boat and Yachting, Apr 1953,
hard-chine, full-planing craft may have stepless p. 158].
hulls or hulls with double or multiple steps. In (7) The larger change of trim for small craft at
the former, there is a single bottom surface their designed speed. Vision ahead, and fairly
generating dynamic terminating in a single
lift, close aboard, must be maintained at all trim
transverse edge at the stern. In the latter there angles to be encountered in the speed range.
are two or more separate lift-generating surfaces, (8) The increased importance of aerodynamic
each with its own sharp downstream edge. In loads with high absolute motorboat speeds, and
some cases the sharp, deep edges of steps may the effects of natural Avinds on high abovewater
run in diagonal directions, both fore-and-aft and structures
transversely. (9) The types of hull construction and building
77.3 Special Design Features for Small-Craft procedures are of considerably greater variety
Hulls. The design of small-craft hulls under than for large vessels. This is of importance to
about 110 ft (or 33.5 m) in length requires par- the hydrodynamic problem because of the possi-
ticular emphasis on certain features of lesser biUty that the finished weight may exceed the
relative importance on large vessels. Among these estimated weight. If so, the calculated or pre-
are: dicted dynamic Uft is not sufficient to raise or to
trim the boat to the position or attitude where its
(1) The normal size of a human adult and the
hydrodynamic resistance is matched by the
more-or-less fixed deck heights, headroom, berth
power and thrust available.
and bunk messing spaces, seating room,
sizes,

passages, areas, and stowage facilities

access The considerations of Sec. 77.2 combine with
resulting therefrom. A skiff, for example, must the special features mentioned in this section to
have enough stability so that a man can stand render the preliminary design of a motorboat of
up in it without risk of capsizing. A motorboat the semi-planing or full-planing type exceedingly
can not have bunks smaller than a given minimum complex as compared with that of a large dis-
size. placement-type vessel. W. P. Walker describes
(2) The diminution in transverse metacentric the situation admirably by saying that:
stabUity with scale as the vessel becomes smaller, ". . . (he) considers it one of the parado.xes of his profession
especially when certain factors or parameters that the smaller the ship the greater are the problems
."
remain constant. This is the reason why, when associated with its design, . . [lESS, 1948-1949, Vol. 92,
p. 304].
sailing in the same wind, a model yacht has to
have a much larger and heavier ballast keel in The large number of successful displacement-
proportion to its hull than the full-scale prototype. and planing boats in service
type, semi-planing,
(3) The increased space required for handling proves that they can be designed. However, the
and stowing relatively larger items of equipment embarrassingly frequent poor performers and
on deck. A dinghy carried for safety purposes is downright failures leave most designers with a
much larger in proportion than a lifeboat on a distinct sense of uncertainty in the behavior of
larger vessel. their next product if it is different from what has
(4) The proportionately larger area of huU and already been built and run.
upper works on a small craft, because the fixed The pubUshed design comments and notes
deck height is large with respect to the hull size suffer to some extent from this uncertainty, as
(5) The increased inconvenience from spray with well as from the lack of a straightforward pro-
everything closer to the water, with higher cedure or sequence of operations by which one can
relative speeds, and with heavier impact loads actually design a boat. However, they can be
from slamming at those speeds greatly improved if experienced designers are
(6) The relatively larger T, = V/VL or F„ able to find time and are willing to write down,
values at which most small craft run. Anything systematically and in detail, the most reliable
Sec. 77.5 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOA E 823

and useful information in their possession. These people on board. The ends have to be filled out
data, when made available to the profession at more than on a large ship, where spaces for man
large, will surely lead to improvement and prog- and his requirements are more readily provided.
ress. Some additional design information which
The present effort is to be looked upon, there- apphes to certain kinds of motorboats and small
fore, as only a beginning in the application of craft, together with appUcable references, is given
h3'drodynamics to the design of small craft. in Sees. 76.2 and 7G.3.
77.4 Design Notes for Displacement-Type 77.5 Semi-Planing and Planing Small Craft.
Motorboats. There has been a major change in It is difficult to define a semi-planing craft, or to
what may be termed the "normal" form of the limit, by a description in words, the range of
motorboat in the course of a half-century. The variables within which a small craft of this type
fine, slender launches of the 1900's and the 1910's is best located, as it were. Until something more
have become the much fatter transom-stern appropriate is devised, a semi-planing craft is

forms of the 1930's, 1940's, and 1950's. This assumed to be one mtermediate between a dis-
major change in shape has left the marine archi- placement type and a true- or full-planing type,
tect with httle save his own resources in the without specifying the speed range too closely.
design of a displacement-type motorboat. W. F. Put ia another way, the craft is of the semi-
Durand's design procedure of 1907, embodied in planing type, when:
the book referenced in the first part of Sec. 77.2, The dynamic becomes appreciable with
lift
(1)
differed but little from that of a Uner of about the respect to the weight of the boat, say more than
same proportions. Indeed, the analysis undertaken 5 per cent of the latter. It may, in fact, become
for the preparation of Chaps. 66, 67, and 68 still the controlling factor in its design and perform-
leaves the marine architect with unfinished spaces ance.
and missing design lanes on the following: (2) The total resistance Rt becomes more than
(a) Fig. 66.A; the design lane for fatness ratios 10 or 15 per cent of the total weight W
The craft trims by the stern at its designed
should have an upward branch, not indicated on (3)

that plot, for relatively high values of ¥/{0.lQLY
above 1.0
in the range of T,
(b) Fig. 66.D shows the upper portion only of a
lower branch into which the value of the maxi-
speed and the center of gravity CG at this speed
is at least as high with reference to the undis-
turbed water surface as when the boat is at rest
(4) Roughly, the speed range Hes between T,

mum-section coefficient Cx drops rapidly for values of 2.0 and 3.0, F„ between 0.60 and 0.89.
yachts, tugs, fishing craft, and other small This corresponds to the upper part of the inter-
vessels. This is because of the need for large deck mediate range of Fig. 29.D.
space, for wide beam to give metacentric stabihty, A somewhat more practical way of defining a
for a deep keel with which to resist drifting, or semi-planing craft is to say that it is the round-
for other reasons. bottom version of a high-speed planing craft, more
(c) Fig. 66.E illustrates the manner in which the suitable than the latter for moderate weights
beam Bx diminishes to a limiting or minimum carrying purposes and for continuous operation
average value of about 2 or 3 ft as the vessel in heavy weather.
length diminishes to zero The length used in semi-planuig craft design is

(d) Fig. 66.1; because of the wider beam of small the waterMne length of the vessel when at rest,
vessels the waterUne slopes at the entrance branch with the loads on board specified for the designed
off into a lane of their own, for the present not condition, the same as for a displacement-type
too well defined. vessel. The change of level or of trim that occurs
when running at designed speed or below is not
A graph given by D. PhiUips-Birt ["The Design
taken into account here. 'Un
of Small Power Craft," The Motor Boat and
The craft is of the fuU-planing type when:
Yachting, London, Apr 1953, pp. 158-162] for
the selection of prismatic coefficient Cp on a basis (a) The dynamic lift is the controlling factor in
of a given T, = V/ "s/L Ues well above the design its design and performance
lane of Fig. 66.A for large vessels. This is un- (b) The total resistance Rt rises above 10 to 15
doubtedly due to the need in small craft of finding per cent of the total weight TI^ to a range of from
space for all that must be carried, including the 25 to 75 per cent or more of that weight
82-1 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.6

(c) The CG at the planing speed rises above its It should be no higher than the speed at which a

position when the craft is at rest, reckoned with displacement-type hull of the same approximate
respect to the level of the undisturbed water size begins to require an inordinate amount of

surface power.
(d) The designed-speed range lies above T", (3) To achieve successful wavegoing performance
values of 2.5 or 3.0, F„ > 0.74 or 0.89. This a planing hull must plane at a speed so far below
corresponds to the range given in (1) of Sec. the cruising range that in a seaway it will maintain
30.2, subject to the quaUfication given there. its planing characteristics. If the craft is involun-
tarily slowed to below that speed it should at
A fifth criterion for differentiating a semi-
once regain its planing position upon an increase
planing from a full-planing type of boat is that
in speed. This factor is of the most vital import-
used at the Expermiental Towing Tank, Stevens
ance. For example, if a planing hull must travel
Institute of Technology. It is based on the fact
at 14 kt to reach planing speed and if it has a
that the full-planing type is always built with
sustained cruising speed of only 16 kt, the adverse
chines at the outer edges of the bottom. Here a
effect of only a small or moderate sea Avill suffice
full-planing condition is defined as that in Avhich
to slow the craft down to below the planing speed
the water breaks away cleanly from the chine for
of 14 kt. It will struggle along, alternately planing
the entire length of the boat. No water curls up
and back below hump speed. Such a craft
falling
over the chine and wets either the sides or the
is, in the words of Teller, "neither a successful
transom.
planing boat nor an honest displacement boat."
A sixth criterion is that given in (3) of Sec. 30.2,
(4) If the planing craft is deliberately throttled
illustrated graphically in Fig. 30.B. This defines
to below planing speed, must have as good
it
the full-planing speed as that at which there is a
wavegoing performance as the best displacement-
sharp reduction of the exponent n in the formula
type hull. OtherAvise, if the planing boat experi-
Rr = kV:
ences power-plant failure in a gale or has to be
The length used for planing-craft design pur-
slowed because of fog or any other cause, it is no
poses varies. It may be:
longer a seagoing vessel.
(i) The chine length Lc ,
projected upon the (5) The planing hull must be as free from pound-
baseplane ing and slamming as the best displacement-type
(ii) The waterline length Lwl at normal load and hull of the same size, running at the same speed.
trim when the craft is at rest Otherwise it is no seagoing vessel.
(iii) The overall length Lqa (6) Finally, the true planing craft is not a weight-

This matter is discussed further in subsequent carrying vessel, in the sense of a cargo ship. Its

sections. use should be restricted to carrying special

77.6 Operating Requirements for Planing equipment, certain types of cargo in an emergency,
Forms. There are a number of operating require- or so-called premium loads, where the expense

ments peculiar to all planing forms which call involved in transportation is justified by the
for consideration ahead of the particular require- saving in time. An aircraft rescue boat is an

ments of the owner and operator. The former are excellent example illustrating these features.

in addition to the normal requirements for speed, Indeed, the planing craft may well be regarded

maneuverabihty, good wavegoing behavior, and more nearly as a seaplane or flying boat than as
adequate stability, the same as for any other an ordinary boat. If the fljdng boat is overloaded
small craft. The items listed and discussed here it can not and will not take off from the water.

If the planing craft is overloaded it likewise will

are adapted from those previously published by
C. R. Teller [Motor Boating, New York, Ann. not take off and plane.
Show Number (Jan), 1952, pp. 66-68, 247-249]:
General Notes on the Powering of Small
77.7
(1) At less than planing speed, that is, when Craft. of powering for motor-
The general subject
running as a displacement-type boat, the planing boats and other small craft is touched upon here
craft must be as seaworthy as the best displace- briefly, as a preliminary discussion of quantitative
ment boat. Otherwise it is no seagoing vessel. power estimates in Sees. 77.14 and 77.26.

(2) The speed at which the craft passes the hump- The designed or minimum speeds for which
resistance region and begins to plane must be low. motorboats are powered are usually those to be
 Sec. 77.S PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 825
made in (|uLet water, either fresh or salt as of and excessive time between overhauls
fuel,
specified, with a clean, smooth, new bottom, and (e) Damage to blades of propulsion devices from
with the propelling machinery delivering its numerous causes, probably of more frequent
rated power or some specified fraction thereof, occurrence on small craft than on large ones.
corresponding to the 0.95 factor of Sec. 69.9.
77.8 Principal Requirements for a Preliminary
It is important for the naval architect as well
Design Study. The craft selected as the running
as for the marine engineer to realize that because
example in this chapter is a small motor tender
of the limit on mean effective pressure in the
for the ABC ship designed in Chaps. 64 through
cylinders, any reciprocating internal-combustion
68. The first step in the preliminary hydrodynamic
engine can produce its rated power only at a
de.sign of this motorboat is to outline the mission
certain rate of rotation. At a lesser rotating speed,
of the craft; in other words, to state what it is
the power is less. Furthermore, it may not be
required to do. After consultation with the owners
possible for the engine to deliver its rated power
and operators of the large vessel, this is set down
at a higher rotating speed than that for which it is
in items (1) and (2) of Table 77.a. It is followed
designed or adjusted. This makes it most impor-
tant that the small-craft propeller be one which,
TABLE 77.a—Motor Tender for ABC Ship;
at a desired boat speed, absorbs exactly the engine
Principal Hydrodynamic and Other Requirements
output, less the transmission and shafting losses.
More power absorption means that the engine MISSION —The craft described in these specifications is to:

and propeller both have to speed up to make the (1) Serve as a power launch for and to be carried on board
the ABC ship whose requirements are set forth in Tables
powers match, if indeed this can be done.
64.a through 64.g
It is customary to overpower the modern
(2) Serve as an all-weather tender for the ferrying of
motorboat, just as a modern tug or fishing vessel and miscellaneous portable
personnel, incidental packages,
is overpowered, but not for exactly the same articlesfrom ship to shore and vice versa, under special
reasons. Motorboat overpowering resembles more conditions where the ship must anchor or lie-to.

nearly, in fact, the gross overpowering of the

WEIGHT AND SIZE LIMITATIONS—To permit
modern (1955) passenger automobile. Engine life hoisting it on board the ABC ship the boat is to:
is longer and wear and tear is less at reduced
(3) Have a gross hoisting weight not exceeding 25,000 lb,
powers. The engine power actually required for the including a full supply of fuel, other consumables, parts,
greater part of the time is delivered reliably tools, and two crew members, the latter assumed to weigh
even though the engine may be somewhat out of 350 lb. Hoisting is to be by a single hook on the ship.

adjustment or the fuel may not be up to standard. (4) Be capable of stowage, in a secure position for travel
at sea,on the weather deck either forward of or abaft the
For these reasons, and others not mentioned,
passenger accommodations
powering allowances are as necessary for a small (5) Have an overall length not exceeding 40 ft.
craft as for a large one. It is customary for these
to cover the power needed for:
CARRYING CAPACITY AND ACCOMMODATIONS
—The tender is to:

(a) Increase in weight due to thorough Avetting (6) Be capable of carrying one of the following items, or
of the boat structure, if of wood, corresponding any reasonable combination of all three, not exceeding
to a period of at least six months in the water and 3,000 lb in weight:

in the weather, covering at least two seasons (a) Twelve passengers plus a maximum crew of four
(b) Cargo in packages or luggage, in total weight not
(b) Unavoidable increases in weight with time
to exceed 2,300 lb and in total volume not to exceed 125
in service, because of adding new equipment. ft', plus a maximum crew of four
Demands for increased carrying capacity, over (c) Eight passengers and a maximum crew of four, plus
and above design requirements, are not in this one litter patient
(7) Provide protection from rain, wind, spray, and sun
category. Logically, they must be paid for
for all passengers and cargo.
separately, either in increased power or reduced
speed. SPEED AND ENDURANCE—The craft shall be able to:
(8) Achieve a speed of:
(c) Roughening of the bottom surface because of
rusting, pitting, oxidizing, flaking, peeling, uneven 18 kt in smooth water with a half-load of fuel, a
(a)

calking, and fouling by marine organisms crew of two, and two passengers and their personal baggage
(b) 14 kt in smooth water with a full load of fuel and
(d) Reduction of propelling-machinery efficiency cargo.
and output because of wear and tear, low grades (9) Run at full power for six hr without replenishing fuel.
 a

826 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.9

TABLE 77.a— (Continued) (g) Materials of construction

SAFETY—The following requirements apply: (h) Method of attaching the single-ring hoisting
sling.
(10) The fuel used in the power plant shall be diesel fuel
or its equivalent; no type of gasoline or equally volatile 77.9 Analysis of the Principal Requirements.
fuel is permitted
Before starting the design proper it is well to
(11) The tender remain afloat and upright if com-
shall
pletely swamped, with crew, passengers, and cargo on
analyze the requirements, in terms of the back-
board. The cargo may be considered as 50 per cent per- ground already gained in the preliminary design
meable, and the special flotation volume as fully intact. of the ABC ship. The
overall length of 40 ft is
(12) Drinking water and emergency rations for sixteen fixed for both the principal and the alternative
persons for two days are to be carried
designs. To achieve the load- and volume-carrying
(13) Safety and operational equipment as required by
capacities required, it is almost a certainty
regulations of the U. S. Coast Guard for operation in
semi-protected ocean waters. that the stern will have to be of the transom type.
From an examination of the pubUshed data for
OTHER REQUIREMENTS
other motorboats an average length for the water-
(14) It shall be possible to warm up and run the power
hne at rest may be estimated as 37 or 38 ft; the
plant for a short period before the boat is hoisted out
lower value is on the safe side. Its square root
(15) The boat shall preferably bank inward on turns in
normal steering is 6.083. Based upon the speeds in item (8) of

(16) The craft shall possess adequate steering control in Table 77.a and item (b) of Table 77.b, the T,
either head or following seas and F„ values are:
(17) It shall not pound or slam excessively, so as to risk
injury to the boat structure or to the crew and passengers, Speed 14 kt
when running in rough water at speeds in excess of 10 kt r« = 14/6.083 = 2.30
(18) The design and construction shall be rugged and Fn = 2.30(0.2978) = 0.685
substantial, suitable for hard service and reliable operation
Speed 18 kt
in salt water.
T, = 18/6.083 = 2.96
Fn = 2.96(0.2978) = 0.881
by requirements for weight, carrying capacity,
and other features, Speed 24 kt
speed, endurance, safety,
embodied in items (3) through (18). Still other
T, = 24/6.083 = 3.95
F„ = 3.95(0.2978) = 1 176.
may
.

items develop as the design proceeds.

The prospective operators wish an alternative Nothing is said in the specifications about
design prepared for a craft to meet substantially running trim; that is, change of trim when
the same general requirements as in Table 77. underway. Excessive trim by the stern, resulting
but to run at a higher maximum speed with less either from placing the useful load too far aft, or
carrying capacity. The detail requirements are
set down in Table 77. b. TABLE 77.b— Motor Tender for ABC Ship;
It noted that complete freedom is left to the
is
Requirements for Alternative High-Speed Design
designer with respect to the following, for both An alternative design of motor tender is to be prepared
the principal and the alternative designs: having the general requirements of items (1) through (14)
plus (18) of Table 77.a, modified by the following:
(a) Type of hull, whether displacement, semi-
(a) Carrying capacity of six passengers plus a crew of
planing, or full-planing. However, a conference two, all having an average weight of 170 lb per person,
with the prospective operators of the ABC ship plus a cargo of packages or luggage weighing not in excess
brings out that reUabUity of operation, all- of 900 lb and having a volume not in excess of 50 ft', plus

weather behavior, and load-carrying performance a two-thirds load of fuel

(b) Speed, 24 kt minimum, in quiet water, with the load
of the craft are considered of paramount import-
of item (a)
ance. Speed can be sacrificed if need be. (c) Run at full power for two hr without refueUng
(b) Hull proportions, principally the L/B ratio (d) The boat shall bank inward on turns when running in

but more important still, for actual stowage on the planing range

the ship, the maximum beam (e) The craft shall possess adequate steering control in
either head or following seas
(c) Hull draft or hmiting draft
(f) It shall not pound or slam excessively, so as to risk
(d) General shape and appearance of hull injury to the boat structure or to the crew and passengers,
(e) Power plant and power when running in rough water in the planing range
(f) Number of propellers (g) The craft shall not porpoise at any operating speed.
Sec. 77.11 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 827

from too much squat, increases the power un-

necessarily and leads to impaired maneuvering
and wavegoing. On the other hand, the craft
with only the crew on board, but with full fuel,
should not trim unduly by the bow. Better still,
it should not trim by the bow at all.

Since the steering is to be entirely by hand,

the rudder(s) must trail under all running con-
ditions.
Freedom from pounding and slamming in both
designs calls for V-sections in the lower f orebody,
with appreciable rise of floor. The speeds in all
cases approach those for planing, especially at
Hght loads, hence the buttock lines aft should be
straight or only very shghtly convex downward.
15 ZO 25
77.10 Tentative Selection of the Type and Speed, kt
Proportions of the Hull. For the principal design
Fig. 77.A Ranges op Size and Speed for
it appears practicable to shape one hull that will
Round-Bottom and V-Bottom Craft
run well at both 14 and 18 kt. However, the total
Adapted from the data of D. De Groot, referenced in
weight displacements will be different for these the text.
two speeds because of the different useful loads
of items (8) (a) and (8)(b) of Table 77.a. The bination for the ABC tender hes shghtly inside
underwater portions of the hull will thus be some- the round-bottom region in the figure.
what different in the two conditions, especially Because the design of a planing craft represents
if the trim changes between loadings. It is ex- what might be termed the general case, embodying
pected, nevertheless, that the 18-kt condition practically all the variables to be encountered in
will be the controUing one in the principal design. lajdng out and selecting parameters for small
The 24-kt craft, to run definitely in the planing craft, it is described This is not to make the
first.

range, is destined to have an entirely different hull. problem more but to avoid introducing
difficult
From Sec. 77.9, the T, value for an 18-kt entirely new features into the story at points
design of 37-ft length is below 3.0. If the whole which would break up the reader's line of thought.
available length of 40 ft overall is used, the The round-bottom design procedure then becomes
WL length will be about 39 ft and the T, value one of simplifying that for the general case.
2.88. A semi-planing type of hull is tentatively 77.11 First Space Layout of the 24-Knot Plan-
indicated. This, combined with the important ing Hull. The first actual step in the design of
requirement for excellent wavegoing performance, the ABC tender, as for any motorboat, is to
points to a round-bottom hull as the preferred determine about how large the boat has to be to
shape. For the faster 24-kt boat, running at a meet the design requirements. This is done by
T, of the order of 4.0, well within the planing making a series of sketches to a convenient scale,
range, a hard-chine, V-bottom hull is called for. usually free-hand on ruled or Ught-lined coordinate
These will hereafter be called, for convenience, paper, showing proposed internal-space layouts.
the round-bottom boat and the V-bottom or Sec. 77.3 points out that these craft are relatively
full-planing boat. small in proportion to a human and his accommo-
a basis of quiet-water resistance, D. De
On dations afloat. They must, therefore, almost
Groot says that "the upper limit for the advan- invariably be designed on a volume basis rather
tageous use of the U-form (round bottom) hes . . . than a weight-carrying basis. The size of the
somewhere about F/a/L = 3.25" [Int. Shipbldg. boat is determined, not so much from those
Progr., 1955, Vol. 2, No. 6, p. 70]. Fig. 77.A is dimensions which will, with a normal form, give
adapted from De Groot's diagram, showing the enough volume displacement to float the weight
round-bottom and V-bottom regions in graphic to be carried as from the positions of the boat-
form. However, the dividing hne in his plot shaped boundaries which wiU enclose the various
corresponds to a T, of about 3.13; this was not spaces and units needed to meet the specification
changed in the adaptation. The 18-kt 37-ft com- requirements. Several separate space studies are
828 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.12

perhaps a dozen oi' more, especially

(lesiniblc, worked into spaces not useful for anj^thiug else.
when the designer is allowed some latitude in Their volumes should, if practicable, be so placed
arranging the various principal units, the accom- that the swamped boat is supported at or about
modations, and the service facilities. zero trim.
For craft over 25 ft or 30 ft in length the pre- Fig. 77. B was drawn from the last of several

liminary space layouts may involve two or more layout and arrangement sketches made for the
deck plans, one for the weather deck and another ABC planing-type tender. These indicated that a
for the space below deck. A boat-shaped hull craft 40 ft in overall length, with an estimated
sketched around these spaces affords a rough idea displacement weight of 25,000 lb, was somewhat
of the principal dimensions such as overall length, larger than necessary. A smaller boat, 35 ft in
beam, and depth of hull. Profiles based on these overall length and 32 ft long on the waterline,
hull sketches indicate the positions and sizes of appeared to be sufficiently roomy but with an
houses or other erections projecting above the estimated weight of 18,000 lb its displacement-
weather deck. Having the general size and shape, length cjuotient of 245 was too high. The boat
or perhaps one might say the minimum size and shown in the figure, with a waterhne length of
shape, the designer proceeds to incorporate 35 ft, provides room enough to meet the require-
certain other features in the sketches such as ments of Table 77. b and is not too heavy for its
minimum freeboard and sheer, freeboard at or length. The layout is nevertheless considered
near the bow, and profiles of the bow and stern. purely preliminary. Its sole purpose is to show
He shows crew and passengers, as well as "cargo" that the spaces called for by the specifications
in the present case, in their proper or proposed can be fitted into a craft of the minunum dimen-
positions. sions represented by the sketch. It does not
Even though the powers and sizes of the en- necessarily represent the best arrangement pos-
gine(s) are not yet known, the spaces for propelhng sible within the limitations established by the
machinery and auxiliaries can be roughed in, owner and operator.
leaving them oversize in case of doubt. The hull 77.12 First Weight Estimate; Weight-Esti-
structure usually presents no problem at this mating Procedure. The second step in the design
stage, unless fire or subdivision bulkheads are of the planing-type craft is to make a preliminary
required. The buoyancy tanks or compartments weight estimate of the complete boat, in operating
for flotation in an emergency can usually be condition and with the full useful load on board.

Trace of De&iqned Waterline at rest

In Second Arronqe-
ment Sketch T^^J
\. L Movino Engines
^ ^
'^ / Forward and
Passenqers Mt
to Make Them
More Comfortable
and to Place
Heavy
Removable Sections to Permit Liftinq Out Enqmes Weiqhts
Over

FP Stotlons

Fig. 77.B Sketch of Tentative Space Layout fok V-Bottom Tender for ABC Ship
Sec. 77.12 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 829
This may
be handled in several ways. All of them,
like that used for the ABC ship in Sec. 66.4,
involve weight estimates for a craft which is still

in a distinctly nebulous state. To make this

situation more difficult, reliable pubhshed informa-
tion as to the weight percentages of the various
groups and detailed information as to the actual
scale weights for motorboats are much scarcer
than corresponding data for large vessels. A
start in this direction has recently been made by
E. Monk ["Weight and the Motor Boat," Yacht-
ing, Jan 1955, pp. 118-120]. The graphic data
presented by Monk, comprising a relationship
between waterline length at and total weight
rest
for wooden pleasure boats, are embodied in the
lower broken-line curve of Fig. 77. C. The full-fine
830 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.12

ob
Froude Number Fn'WT -1=- 1
USEFUL LOAD
FUEL-
/ :=!: FUEi:' /

MACHINERY and ELECTRICAL

1—4—
IPMEifr, ,5T0RE5, OUTFIT

::=^=1
::i

1.0 12 1.4 1.6 I, 20 '

2Z
'

24 '

26 '

2.8
Toylor Quotient Jcf '^j^

3.0 3.E 3.4 3.6 5B 4.0 4.2

M
4.4 46 4.8 5.6 5,2 54 i,b

Fig. 77.D Percentage Disteibution op Principal Weights for Seven Moderate- to High-Speed Craft

quirement in item (c) of Table 77.b calls for a One method of making a preliminary weight
2-hr supply at full power. Under these conditions estimate of the remainder, with the craft not yet
the fuel rate for the two 215-horse engines pro- roughed out in the form of lines or structural
posed is about 0.5 lb per brake horse per hr, so drawings from which weights can be calculated,
that 430 lb of fuel is required for both engines for is to use a weight-percentage diagram such as

a 2-hr run. Since the owner has had no previous that of Fig. 77.D. Here the percentages of seven
service experience with a tender of this kind, it weight groups, making up a total of 100 per cent
seems mse at this stage to allow for a considerably- for the complete boat, are plotted on a basis of
enlarged fuel capacity, say about tmce that Taylor quotient T^ (and f„) for seven different
actually required. With an assumed weight of planing craft for which reasonably reliable data
6.2 lb per gal, 860 lb of fuel amounts to 860/6.2 = are available. Only a general pattern of weight
138.7, or say 140 gal. A further study of the prob- distribution is apparent for any of the boat types,
able service required of this tender reveals that, because of great differences in the operating
despite the increased capacity, it may be neces- functions of the various craft, hsted in Table 77. c.
sary under some circumstances to return to the For the ABC planing-form tender, with an
parent ship for refuehng before the day's work assumed WL length of 35 ft, the Taylor quotient
isdone. There may be times when this will be T, = 24/\/35 = 4.05. The only reference craft
extremely inconvenient, so another 50 gal is of Fig. 77. D with a T, of about this value is the

added to the fuel capacity for good measure, 24-ft personnel boat, designation D of the table

bringing the total capacity to 190 gal, or 1,178 lb. and the Here the combined total of useful
figure.

The weights reasonably well known at this load, fuel, and machinery (including electrical

stage are: items) is 52.5 per cent, working down from the
top in Fig. 77.D. For the craft being designed the
(1) Useful load, from owner's requirements, six corresponding percentage is 8,738/18,000 = 48.5,
passengers at 170 lb plus 900 lb of packages,
leaving 51.5 per cent for the hull, hull fittings,
1,920 lb equipment and Stores, electrical and electronics
(2) Weight ready to run, 5,300 lb
of engines,
gear,and margin.
(3) Fuel; although the owner requires only two-
What appears at this stage to be a reasonable
thirds capacity on board for the designed speed,
subdivision of the 51.5 per cent is:
the full capacity is hsted here, 1,178 lb
(4) Crew, two persons at 170 lb, 340 lb. (a) Hull, 28 per cent or 5,040 lb

The known weights total 8,738 lb, leaving (b) Hull fittings, 9 per cent or 1,620 lb. This must
18,000 - 8,738 = 9,262 lb for the weight groups include the hoisting shngs if they are built in and

still to be considered. carried as part of the boat structure.

 —

Sec. 77.13 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 831

TABLE 77.C Weight Distribution for Different Motorboat Types

The data in this table supplement those set down graphically in Fig. 77. D. The Taylor quotients listed are based
upon the waterline length, where this is known.

Function of boat
832 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.14

brake power required is about 430 horses. When

rigged for direct drive and fitted with hydrau-
lically operated chitches, with all lubricating oil

carried in the engine sumps, the weight is 2,650

lb per engine or 5,300 lb total. This includes all

liquids in the engines and the piping systems. It

is the same as was used for the first estimate.
With an increase in the ratio of hull weight to
total weight of from 0.28 to 0.33, it is clear that
too much additional fuel can not be carried if the
percentage of margin is also to be increased. The
fuel is therefore limited to the 140 gal necessary
to run both engines at full power for 4 hr. Its
weight is 868 lb.
140(6.2) =
Hull fittings usually account for an unreason-
ably large proportion of the total weight for small
boats because many of these parts are of standard
sizeand constant weight for a rather wide range
A good value for a twin-screw planing
of boat sizes.
boat of 35-ft waterline length seems to be about
8 per cent of the total.
The planing boat under design is a tender,
therefore many usual items of equipment are not
required. For example, no bunks or mattresses
minimum and
are needed. Stores can be held to a
only a small quantity of drinking water need be
carried. A low percentage of weight assigned to
the stores group, say only 3.0 per cent of the total,
appears adequate.
The customary amount of electrical and elec-
tronic equipment is called for. This is estimated
as 800 lb.

To avoid overweight, the most common fault

of planing motorboats, an ample margin is man-
datory. At this stage a good 10 per cent of the
total of the preceding groups is none too much,
or about 9.5 per cent of the resulting total.
A summary of the groups of the second weight
estimate follows:
Hull = 0.33(18,000) =
Sec. 77.14 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 833

ment vessel, it is imperative to i^now, very early

in the design, about how much shaft (or brake)
power is and the approximate weight
called for
of this machinery. Perhaps because it has been
customary to make direct power estimates in the
past, as distmguished from indirect estimates
based upon effective power and propulsive coeffi-
cient, there are more shaft (or brake) power
estimating procedures available to the motorboat
designer than to the one who undertakes to
design a large ship. Unfortunately, these many
methods usually give as many different answers,
and sometimes the answers vary widely among
each other. Moreover, the observed data upon
which these procedures are based also vary in
reliability, principally because of the lack of
proper instrumentation and techniques whereby
shaft powers for small craft may be measured
accurately on trial. In the late 1920's and early
1930's Charles Ross undertook a lengthy
Sir
research project in an effort to measure the brake
power of small-boat internal-combustion engines
by recording the rate of rotation and measuring
the rate of fuel consumption with extreme care.
Unfortunately the project was never finished nor
were the results of the work written up for publi-
cation.The designer is therefore left with the
hope that when a given engine is put into a boat
it will deliver the same brake power at the output
shaft at rated rpm that it did when it ran on the
factory test stand.
One of the simplest direct estimates of brake
power is the table and the dimensional "K"
formula of K. C. Barnaby [BNA, 1954, Table 40

100

90

30

TO

60

50

«
834 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.14

of the Taylor quotient r„ less than 2.0. This is where the coefficient K^ is taken from a table
below the planing range for most motorboats. given by PhilUps-Birt, reproduced here as
C. E. Werback has developed still another Table 77.e.
dimensional relation, derived originally by G. F. N. L. Skene uses a formula almost exactly
Crouch, of the following form: the same as Eqs. (77.i) and (77.iii), with the
alternative forms
(ft)
= C (77.ii)
7(kt)
TF(lb) F (lb)
(77.iv)
iPs (horses) Y (mph) ^^
\Pb (horses)

Transposed for deriving the shaft power in terms

P. (horses)
=^(M_5imph) (77.iva)
of the other quantities it becomes

Fs (horses)
W (lb) 7' (kt)
(77.iia)
The values of Skene's coefficient C range from:
CVL;,^ (ft)
(a) 180 to 185 for high-speed runabouts
Analysis of this method indicates that a family (b) 190 to 205 for multiple-step or shingled
of curves for various displacement-length quo- hydroplanes
tients TF/(0.010L)^ is required for taking off (c) 210 for single-step hydroplanes of good design

.proper values of the coefficient C. However, on (d) 220 for small sea sleds to 270 for the largest
the basis that displacement-length quotients for and most efficient sleds

good planing craft are of the order of 200 or (e) 240 to 250 for small, three-point hydroplanes
slightly less, Fig. 77. F gives a graph for selecting ["Elements of Yacht Design," New York, 1944,
p. 222].

A value of C = 185 appears appropriate for the

ABC tender.
Five of the methods listed give first approxi-
mations to the shaft power as follows, based upon
an estimated weight, at this stage, of 19,000 lb
or 8.482 tons, a speed of 24 kt, a waterline
length hy,!^ of 35 ft, a T, of 4.056, and an P„ of
This is on Approximate Meonline.
1.208:
Only. There Should Be Q Fomlly-
of Curves for Various DisplQce-_
50 I. Method of K. C. Barnaby, Table 77.d. With a
ment-Lenqth Quotients
boat of the Y-chine, stepless type, 35 ft long, and
Taylor Quotierrt Tq= t^
'
ill liinlnnl L YlVh = 4.056, K^ is 3.4. Then
1.0 3.0 J.O

Fig. 77.F Crouch- Werback Formula and Graph P^ = A ^= 8.482 -^^ = 422.6 horses.
FOR Relating Shaft Power to Length, Speed,
AND Weight II. Method of P. Du Cane, Fig. 77.E. The ratio
of (IF in lb)/(PB in horses) is estimated conserva-
C at Tj values greater than 2.5 and not exceeding
tively at 43. Then
6.0.
D. PhiUips-Birt gives a dimensional formula Pb = (IF in lb)/43 = 19,000/43 = 442 horses.
exactly the same as K. C. Barnaby's (Eq. 77.i)
III. Method of Crouch-Werback, where C is
for relating the brake power P^ the total ,

taken as 72 from Fig. 77.F, and Eq. (77.iia) is

weight W, and the speed Y ["The Design of
Seagoing Planing Boats," The Motor Boat and
Ps (horses) = F (lb) F^ (let)
Yachting, Jan 1954, p. 29]. This takes the alter-
C'VL^^ (ft)
native forms
19,000(24)'
= 356.9.
F(kt) = i^.^/f^^^^ (77.iii)
W (long tons)
/
(72)'V35

From this the brake power Pb is estimated as

Pb (horses) = (77.iiia)
356.9/0.95 or 375.7 horses.
 —

Sec. 77.15 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 835

TABLE 77.e Values of tub Piiillips-Birt Powering Coefficient Ki in Equation (77.iii)

The values set down here arc taken from a table published by D. Phillips-Birt [The Motor Boat and Yachting, Jan
1954, p. 29).
836 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.16

sections. This is often an important design

consideration.
Straight entrance sections, depicted at 1 in
Fig. 77. F, have many of the disadvantages of both
the concave and convex types with few of their
advantages. Straight segments are often used in
Some Nominal Rise-of-Roor Annie j£ For All
sections near the stern where the rise of floor is a
minimum and there is little difference between
the various section types. In regions of high
rise-of-floor angle, they are used only for ease of
construction.
The yoke or inverted-bell section, drawn at 3
-Hr^Holf-Sidinq '^Possible Modification
in the figure, offers agood compromise. It gives
Fig. 77. G Four Types of Typical Forebody the excellent wavegoing performance of the
Sections for Planing Craft round-bottom entrance but retains the sharp
angle at the chine to throw the water off cleanly,
rough water there is heavy pounding and slam- thus holding down the wetted area. It provides
ming, accompanied by either a reduction in speed adequate reserve buoyancy, an ample rise of
or a risk of damage to the boat and injury to the floor, and a constantly diminishing flare with

personnel. vertical distance above the base, to prevent

Better performance in rough water is obtained slamming and pounding. By using a high chine
by raising the chine forward and increasing the forward, the entrance sections are kept fine
rise of floor but this change increases the resistance enough to avoid too great a hook at the chine
and involves a sacrifice of smooth-water speed. corner where water could be trapped in a slam.
Running into a wind, the concave forward section The rounded portion near the centerline acts to
keeps the boat dry because the water is thrown deflect the water under the bottom and give
to the side with little spray and disturbance. In reasonably quick planing with good flow lines.
heavy weather, entrance sections which are fine Bell-shaped sections produce less spray than the
as well as concave result in heavy pitching. They pure convex type. They have the disadvantage
give little reserve buoyancy and they are still that they are more difficult to construct, they
subject to pounding and slamming. involve slightly higher building costs, and they
Boats with convex sections, sketched at 4 in can not be worked into developable surfaces.
Fig. 77. G, and of a type to be found in developable They have slightly greater resistance in smooth
bottoms, have higher smooth-water resistances water than the low-chine concave sections, due
than those with concave sections. The water to the greater wetted surface, but probably less
climbs up the side more easily and does not resistance than pure convex sections.
separate cleanly from the chine, resulting in 77.16 Rise-of -Floor Magnitude and Variation.
greater wetted area. This type of section is much The rise of floor or deadrise, expressed as a section-
better for wavegoing because, like the round- slope angle ;8(beta), is an important characteristic
bottom form, it presents a constantly decreasing of a planing boat. In fact, its choice influences

flare tothe oncoming (and upcoming) water as many other features of the underwater and above-
the bow pitches down. Pounding and slamming are water hulls. From pure planing and dynamic-lift
reduced considerably or avoided altogether. The considerations the smaller the rise-of-floor angle
convex section builds up reserve buoyancy and the better; in other words, the barn-door type of
acts to ease the pitching motion. As might be inchned flat surface is the best load-carrying

expected, boats with convex sections will not device. As the rise-of-floor angle of the bottom
plane as rapidly or as readily as those with concave increases, the resistance increases and the dynamic
sections. lift diminishes.
Convex sections throw considerably more spray In the case of racing motorboats of the stepless
and make the boat wetter in a wind. The fitting type, havmg a continuous bottom terminating in
of spray strips, described in Sec. 77.20, largely the transom edge, this bottom is often made
overcomes these disadvantages. Convex sections practically flat. At other times
has a shape it

forward give more internal volume than concave approximating that of an inverted deck with a
Sec. 77.17 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 837

small camber. Excessive slamming and pounding are valid hydrodynamic reasons for devoting to
in waves are accepted in the effort to rcat'li the the chine the attention it has received sinc(; the
ultiinate in speed. At Froude numbers of 4.5 or early 1950's at the hands of E. P. Clement ["The
4.8, Taylor quotients of 15 or IG, the minimum Analysis of Stepless Planing Hulls," SNAME,
pressure and friction drag are achieved with the Ches. Sect., May 1951; "Hull Form of Stepless
.3

minimiuii of bottom surface in contact with the Planing Boats," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 12 Jan
water. The spray, like the pounding, is taken for 1955]. In his 1955 paper Clement approa(!hes the
granted as an unavoidable characteristic of ultra- planing-boat design problem by using the chine
high-speed performance. If the craft jumps com- length Lc , the chine beam Be , the chine pro-
pletely out of water because of impact with the jected area Ac , the chine planform shape, and
crests of waves, this too is accepted providing certain loading factors on the chine area as the
the stabilizmg fin, the lower blades of the propeller, fundamental design parameters. However, the
and the rudder can be kept reasonably well in the lack of comprehensive and reliable full-scale per-
water. formance data renders this scheme something less
Obviously, a planing boat with a flat bottom than adequate at the present time (1956). For
does not make a satisfactory boat for all-around convenience, Clement has embodied the data of
service. High rise of floor is necessary forward for the referenced 1951 and 1955 reports in a new
wavegoing and for low resistance at speeds below report entitled "Analyzing the Stepless Planing
planmg. Some rise-of-fioor angle is necessary in Boat" [TMB Rep. 1093, Nov 1956].
the bottom aft to provide dynamic stability of Nevertheless, the maximum chine beam Bc(Mai)
rovite and proper steering qualities, although the serves as an excellent starting point for deter-
angle required at the extreme stern is small. mining the proper transverse dimensions of a
Thus most planing boats are built with what is planing craft. Good design graphs of what appears
known as a twisted or warped bottom, with a to be a maximum chine beam on a basis of
decreasing rise-of-floor angle from forward aft. waterline length, although the author does not
D. Phillips-Birt gives the following typical values mention either of them specifically, are given by
for these angles: D. Phillips-Birt ["Motor Yacht and Boat Design,"
Amidships, 14 to 18 deg, flattening along the run London, 1953, Fig. 51, p. 147]. The graphs of
to 2.5 to 4 deg at the stern [The Motor Boat and Fig. 77. H are adapted from curves 1 and 2 of
Yachting, Jan 1954, p. 28; "Motor Yacht and the reference cited. Ratios of Lw^/BcfM^^) be-
Boat Design," London, 1953, p. 148]. tween 3 and 4 are typical of modern planing craft.
G. A. Guins states, in the paper listed as In fact, many of the smaller boats, 20 to 25 ft in
reference (16) of Sec. 77.41, that the minimum length, have ratios less than 3. For the ABC
rise-of-floor angle found necessary for satisfactory tender of 35-ft waterUne length a maximum beam
longitudinal stability is 7 deg, together with a at the chine of about 10 ft is indicated. The
long tapering skeg. fore-and-aft position of the point of maximum
Some planmg boats are built with an ^un- chine beam should lie in the range of 0.55 to

twisted bottom, embodying a constant rise-of- 0.65L„,i abaft the FP.

floor angle from amidships to the stern. Compared If good planing is desired the chine beam is

to the warped bottom, the constant-slope bottom kept full to the stern, with a value at the transom
usually gives less rise of floor amidships and more ranging from 0.80 to 0.90 of Bcdnao • A wide
at the stern. The untwisted bottom has the lower stern is also beneficial to steering when planing.

smooth-water resistance of the two, but its use However, in rough weather, especially in a
may lead easily to other unfavorable character- following sea, too wide a stern may cause broach-
istics such as poor location of the center of ing or sudden sheering from one side to the other.
buoyancy or bad steering qualities. Most small- This condition is aggravated if the craft is running
boat designers seem to find it easier to obtain below planing speed. To improve wavegoing
good planing-boat performance with the twisted behavior and steering under these conditions, it is
bottom than with the constant- slope type. advisable to tuck in the sides at the stern to say
77.17 Chine Shape, Proportions, and Dimen- 0.65 to 0.75 of the maximum beam at the chine.

sions. Inasmuch as the sensibly flat bottom of a Acceptable chine planforms, at least for larger
planing craft, within the boundaries of the chine, planing craft, are shown by E. P. Clement ["Hull
produces practically all the dynamic lift, there Form of Stepless Planing Craft," SNAME, Ches.
HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.17
Snc. 77.18 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MO TORBOAT 839

other hydrodynamic reasons, the following general or 7 to the stern. There should be no concave
design rules are given, based on a 10-station curvature in this region.
waterline length and the craft at rest at the (5) The chine Hne from Sta. 6 or 7 to the stern
designed load and trim: should be parallel to or have only a slight slope
upward and forward with respect to the at-rest
(1) The chine height at Sta.O, above the designed
waterline. Large slopes are to be avoided.
waterline at rest, should be at least O.OQLwl If
(6) The chine depth at Sta. 10 should be about
the design a small pleasure boat the chine
is for
O.OlOLfTL to0.030Z/,pi below the designed water-
can be higher, up to 0.13L,tl above the designed line
waterline, because the pay load is small and the
(7) If the boat is intended for smooth-water
lost internal volume is relatively unimportant. operation only, a lower chine height forward can
happens that pay-load capacity is import-
If it so
be used. Indeed, if smooth-water speed is import-
ant then a low chine height may be necessary to ant, a lower chine height is desirable in that region.
get additional internal volume, at a sacrifice of Spray strips of the general form shown
(8) in
rough-water performance. Fig. 30. A should be fitted along the chine, espe-
(2) Large boats can operate satisfactorily with
cially at the forward sections and preferably along
less chine height forward than can small boats, the entire length. This matter is discussed more
because the small, steep waves usually encoun- fully in Sec. 77.20.
tered have less influence on the rough-water
performance of the larger craft 77.18 Buttock Shapes; The Mean Buttock.
(3) The chine should He above the at-rest water- The buttock shapes in the bottom of a planing
line from Sta. at the FP to a point somewhere craft are so important that some repetition is
between Sta. 3 and Sta. 5 emphasizing them. With the straight
justified in

(4) The chine line should be straight from Sta. 6 floor segments customary in V-bottom planing

Fig. 77.1 Dimensionless Chine-Elevation Diagrams for Six Types and Sizes of Planing Craft
810 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.19

boats the fore-and-aft shapes of the buttocks are results in discomfort to passengersand an un-
largely determined by the shape of the chine, attractive appearance when viewed from outside
when projected on the centerplane. This is true the boat. It may actually interfere with the
particularly in the afterbody. steersman's vision from the control station.
The shape and position of the buttock at about Moreover, the possibility of porpoising is greater
one-ciuarter beam on each side of the centerhne, with the larger trim angles. As a practical com-
often called the mean buttock, is used by some as promise the running-trim angle of a planing craft
one of the characteristic parameters of a planing is usually kept below 2 or 3 deg; the greater

craft [Clement, E. P., "Hull Form of Stepless resistance and lower speed inherent in this lesser
Planing Craft," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 12 Jan trim are accepted. Limiting the trim to these
1955, pp. 2-3]. small angles requires that the center-of-gravity
Straight buttocks in the wetted region, where position be farther forward than would otherwise
the dynamic pressures are generated, reduce or be the case. This in turn acts to prevent porpois-
avoid negative differential pressures under the ing.
afterbody. These in turn act to prevent bottom There are many advantages in level running
suction and excessive trim by the stern. aside from those just mentioned, when the force
The effect of concavity in the buttocks under the and moment to achieve the smaller trim angle
afterbody, reckoned with reference to the water are applied by a trim-control device external to
underneath, is described in the section following. the planing under surface of the hull proper. The
Convex buttock lines under the afterbody act —
slope drag called by some the induced drag, and
to develop — Ap's,
but the convexity is sometimes illustrated in Fig. 53. A— is diminished, the load-
unavoidable. Successful planing boats have been carrying ability of the boat is greatly increased,
and can be designed with slightly convex buttock and it usually behaves better in waves. Trim-
lines in the run, but they require careful attention control devices to accomplish this are discussed in
to other features of the design, such as the center- Sees. 30.11 and 37.24 but the principal kinds are
of-gravity location, because of the negative lift hsted here for the convenience of the designer:
generated under the bottom.
mentioned previously in item (4) of Sec.
It is (1) A wedge or "shingle" applied to the under

77.17, to be discussed in item (1) of Sec.

it is side of the bottom at its extreme after end, or a
77.19, and the designer is cautioned here that controllable flap hinged to the bottom in such
slight downward hooks in the buttocks near the manner that it forms a downward "hook" of
stern are to be used vnih caution. They often variable angle at the extreme after ends of the
produce erratic and sometimes even dangerous buttocks terminating on it. The thickness of
performance. such a wedge, and the angle it makes with the
77.19 Trim Angle and Center-of-Gravity Posi- bottom on the full-scale boat, still require to be
tion; Use of Trim-Control Devices. Theoretical determined by cut-and-try methods. The wedge
and practical considerations relating to the must be applied with caution because too much
running trim of a planing craft are rather thor- wedge action and vertical lift at the extreme
oughly discussed by A. B. Murray [SNAME, stern are liable to have a disastrous effect upon
1950, pp. 658-692], It is customary, in analytic the steering, especially in a following sea.
and design work, to express the trun in degrees; (2) The controllable flap, with its variable
this is the form employed in the present chapter. "hook" angle, probably requires for best per-
It would be preferable, if the full-scale data for formance something better than a shnple me-
it could be readily derived, to express the trim chanical device which holds it rigidly in any
as a linear distance over the boat length, as is selected position. A yielding device, loaded with
done Measuring the sinkage or
for large vessels. a gas or with liquid, similar to the Plum stabilizer

rise at the bow and stern would give the naval mentioned in (3) improve the
following, should
architect a direct measure of the amount by performance of both the boat and the trim-
which the center of gravity shifts its vertical control device when in waves.

position. (3) The Plum stabilizer, whose action is explained

For most planing boats, the ideal planing angle briefly in Sec. 37.24. This was developed and
for least smooth-water resistance lies between 4 described many j'^ears ago [Motor Boating, Mar
to 6 deg by the stern. This much trim often 1928, pp. 16-17, 54, 134] and has benefited by a
Sec. 77.20 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 841

great amount of development by the inventor, In the absence of more extensive chine data it
John Plum, in the period 1945-1955. From the has been customary to indicate the fore-and-aft
first, however, produced amazing increases in
it CG position as a fraction of the WL length from
the capabilities of a planing craft as compared Sta. at the waterline beginning or from the
with boat performance without trim control. extreme stern. The chine planforms of all single-
(4) Surface propellers, such as those fitted to sea step planing craft terminate at the transom, and
sleds, and propellers on ultra-high-speed racing the chine planforms approximate a shape that is
motorboats which become surface propellers at rather well standardized. Referring the CG to the
high speed, exert an upward lift at the disc at-rest WL termination is therefore a reasonable
position which acts as a trim-control device. In enginee ring p rocedure.
fact, some planing craft with surface propellers The LCG values for the two test conditions
are not able to get through the hump speed and reported by Clement on Plate 6 of the reference
to plane without their help. cited are O.b'ilLwL and 0.567L,i^i ,
respectively.

(5) It is possible that some form of auxiliary C. W. Spooner, Jr., in refe rence (26) of Sec. 77.41,

subsurface hydrofoil may

be found useful in the states that t he value of LCB (and presumably
future for trim control but no practical device of also of LCG) varies from about 0.53Ln^z, at a T^
this kind is as yet developed. of 1.5 to 0.58L[F£, at or above a T, of 3.0. He reports
that successful high-speed designs have had the
Because of its rather specialized nature, no CB as far aft as Q.^SLwl ,
with engines in the
trim-control device is considered for the ABC stern and V-drives to the propellers.
planing-form tender, and it is not discussed Moving the CG forward reduces the running
further here. trim and lessens the risk of porpoising but at
Lacking the trimming effect of a trim-control the expense of increase in wetted length and
device, of surface propellers, or of an auxihary wetted area. The effect on the total resistance
hydrofoil, and neglecting for the moment the depends upon the variation of friction and
effect of buoyancy, it is apparent that the fore- pressure resistance with trim angle, indicated by
and-aft position of the center of gravity CG of a graphs similar to those in Fig. 77.0 of Sec. 77.26.
fuU-planing craft must lie close to the center of At low trims the total resistance usually increases
pressure CP of thedynamic lift on the wetted but this is not to be taken for granted by any
area of the bottom. There is no direct, practical means, as witness the beneficial effect of trim-
method now available (1955) for determining control devices.
this CP position on an actual boat. must be It 77.20 Spray Strips. The form, position, and
estimated, therefore, with reference to some part function of spray strips are well described and
of the planform, on a basis of expei'imental data generously illustrated by R. Ashton [ETT Tech.
from models. The chine planform, projected on Memo 99,Feb 1949]. These devices, probably
the baseplane, is the logical element to use, and first employed on multi-engine seaplanes and
the center of area of this element is the logical flying boats to keep spray out of the offset pro-
reference point in it. Unfortunately, the chine pellers, are excellent illustrations of the more-or-
area has not been in use long enough, or to a less major hydrodynamic effects produced by
sufficient extent among planing-craft designers, minor, not almost insignificant physical features.
if

to build up a fund of reference data indicating Spray strips are most important along the
optimum relative fore-and-aft positions of the forward portion of the boat. However, it is

center of the chine area and of the CG. E. P. usually beneficial to fit them for the full length.
Clement gives some performance data for several They can be used to advantage on all hulls,
types of motorboats with the CG abaft the center round-bottom as well as V-bottom with chine,
of chine area ^c by from 2.1 to 11.1 per cent of except perhaps for forms with concave sections
the chine length Lc ["Hull Form of Stepless and low chines which have extremely sharp
Planing Boats," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 12 Jan chine corners. On certain round-bottom craft
1955, Pis. 6-8, 10]. On Plate 9 of the reference they can also be used as fender strakes.
Clement gives a plot of CG positions expressed Spray strips usually result in a sUght increase
in the manner described, related to the ratio in resistance at low and cruising speeds. However,
4 c/y^'^, based on data from half a dozen models their many beneficial effects outweigh this slight
of large planing boats. disadvantage. They:
 842 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.21

(a) Decrease resistance at planing speeds three "highly capable and well-known designers,"
(b) Deflect spray roots and random water sharply supplemented by design sketches on page 27.
off the sides Fortunately for the designer, spray strips are in
(c) Reduce spray throwing the nature of appendages which can be adjusted
(d) Provide a positive lift in the forward part of in form and position to produce the best effect
the boat which helps counteract any diving without either major or minor changes in the hull.
moment 77.21 Stem Shape. Up to a speed-length quo-
(e) Reduce, in round-bottom boats, the large tient T, of 2.0, F„ of O.GO, the stem of a displace-
bow wave which at full speed sometimes climbs ment or semi-planing type of boat should be
high up the side toward the deck edge. The spray nearly plumb. This takes advantage of all the
root and spray accompanying this wave can be waterline length possible, without increasing the
troublesome at times. hull weight to provide an overhang. For a higher
T, and F„ the forefoot should be cut away,
,

starting above the waterline, to get the bow

Fig. 77.Ja Model of Large V-Bottom Craft
Running Without Sprat Strips
wave under the boat as much as possible and to
lessen sheering in a seaway [Spooner, C. W., Jr.,
"Speed and Power of Motorboats," unpublished
manuscript dated Oct 1950 (in TMB
library)].
For pleasure craft of all three types discussed
in this chapter the matter of appearance is not
to be overlooked. There is some objection, from
this standpoint, to a stem which rakes downward

The displacement-length quotient A/(0.010L)' for this
hull is SO. It is being towed here at a Tq of 3.5. The spray
root climbs up the side and the spraj' rises higher than
the deck.
and forward under any trim or running condition.
To prevent this, the stem must have a rake
downward and aft, when at rest, of at least 6
deg, and possibly as much as 7 or 8 deg.
77.22 Deep Keel and Skeg Other Appendages.
;

Most motorboats carry a centerhne keel that is

Fig. 77.Jb Model op Fig. 77. Ja Running With
Spray Strips
The spray roots and the spray are thrown to either
side, well clear of the hull. The speed-length quotient T,
is the same as for Fig. 77.Ja but the bow is lifted slightly
higher.
The photographs. Figs. 77.Ja and 77. Jb, repro-
duced from the Ashton report referenced at the
beginning of this section by the permission of the
Experimental Towing Tank, Stevens Institute of
Technology, offer an excellent pictorial means of
comparing spray formation on a planing-huU
model, mth and without spray strips. There are
many other pairs of photographs in the Ashton
report which give similar comparisons for both
models and full-scale motorboats, and which
show the beneficial effect of the spray strips.
The Appendix to the referenced ETT report
by R. Ashton contains design comments from
rather deep, compared to the flatness of the
bottom. This keel terminates aft in a skeg through
which passes the shaft tube and shaft for an engine
and propeller that happen to be located on the
centerline. Examples are the small planing
motorboat of Fig. 30.A and the larger round-
bottom utility boat of Sec. 77.33 and Fig. 77.T.
Besides acting as a support and fairing for the
centerline shaft the skeg serves as a deep vertical
fin which gives the boat dynamic stability of route
and facilitates steering by serving as a sort of
fulcrum about which the rudder moment is
applied. For high-speed racing motorboats this
skeg is reduced to a small, thin metal fin, generally
forward of midlength, which also serves as a
fulcrum about which the swinging moment
exerted by the rudder is applied.
There are no known rules for positioning and
shaping this skeg, unless it is desired to have it
extend far enough below the keel to serve as
mechanical protection ahead of the propeller.
Many such skegs are included on published
drawings of motorboats but a designer consulting
these drawings rarely knows whether the skegs
shown in them are good or othermse.
Sec. 77.2-f PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MO'IORBOAT 843

Rudders for motorboats are discussed in Sec. larger ship. Even though, as described presently,
74.11. Comments upon the fairing of external it may be necessary later on to change slightly
pads for the attachment of strut arms to wooden the water-surface level on the hull to effect a
motorboat hulls are given in Sec. 75.6. balance between weight and buoyancy rather
77.23 Interdependence of Hull-Design Fea- than to draw a new set of lines, the original
tures. The principal hull-design features of a waterline (or waterplane) serves a definite purpose
planing craft are mvich more dependent upon each in establishing dimensions, proportions, and
other than are those of a displacement-type parameters while the size and shape of the hull
vessel, just as the latter are much more intimately are being worked out.
tied together than are the corresponding features Using the planing-type ABC tender as an
of an airplane. For a planing craft the beam, the example, assumed as a starter that all the
it is

chine height, the rise of floor, and the type of
sections are all related and must go hand
hand in fashioning the boat.
A proper design procedure involves selecting
the desirable features pertaining to each individual
parameter, and then working out a compromise
to produce the nearest approach to the desired
overall performance that can be estimated during
requirements can be met on a WL length of
in 35 ft. A horizontal waterline of this dimension is
drawn to a convenient scale, with Sta. at the
FP or waterline beginning and Sta. 10 at the
AP or waterhne ending. The latter is also the
transom position on the centerline. The shape of
the hull is to be based, but only generally at this
stage, upon the arrangement sketch of Fig. 77. B.

the preliminary design. Often several different The next step is to fix the shape of the chine
types of section may be used to advantage along and to position it vertically with respect to the
the length of a boat. Yoke sections forward easily DWL. A tentative chine line is drawn according
transform into convex or straight sections aft. to the rules previously discussed:
Concave sections are often employed forward to
(a) Chine height at the FP. Because of the good
obtain good planing characteristics, transforming
wavegoing performance desired the chine height
into convex sections amidships and aft where
at the FP is made greater than the value of
space needed for the machinery plant and for
is
O.OQLwL previously mentioned in item (1) of
tanks to carry liquids. Convex forward sections
Sec. 77.17. This allows finer sections forward with
lend themselves to an easy transformation to
less probabifity of slamming and pounding. A
straight sections where the rise of floor is small.
chine height of 0.07ZLwl appears adequate.
Still greater compromises are made when
(b) Chine height at the AP. A tentative value is
selecting features favorable to both seakindliness
-0.02lL,^z, .

and planing. In many boats the seakindly round-

(c) Straight chine fine from Sta. 7 aft, for the
hull form used in the entrance, transforming
is
aftermost 0.3 of the length
into the hard-chine efficient planing hull in the
(d) Chine, as projected on the centerplane,
run. The reverse of this is sometimes encountered,
crosses the DWL between Stas. 4 and 5.
but there appears to be no advantage in such an
arrangement [Phillips-Birt, D., The Motor Boat The plan view of the chine then laid out on is

and Yachting, Jan 1954, p. 27]. the basis of the preliminary arrangement sketch
77.24 Layout of the Lines for the ABC Planing- of Fig. 77.B. As a rule, the maximum chine beam
Type Tender. With the comments of the pre- should within the range of 0.55 to 0.65Lwl
fie

ceding sections as a background the designer is abaft the FP. For the ABC tender it is placed at
now ready to lay down a tentative set of lines. Sta. 6, or at O.QOLwt, abaft the FP. The maximum
He must anticipate that this set may be only the chine beam is tentatively selected as 10 ft, which
first of a half dozen or more, in his search for a gives a ratio Lwl/Bc of 3.5. This is typical for a

shape that best meets the design requirements. modern high-speed planing craft, for which the
For this reason it is well to start with a scale just ratio Lwl/Bc varies from 3.0 to 3.6. The beam
large enough to permit measuring lengths, areas, at the transom ending made about 0.9 the
is

angles, and slopes with reasonable accuracy. maximum beam, Subsequent fairing of
or 9 ft.

The first line to draw is a waterUne for the the lines and working over the design produces a
profile and the bow and stern elevations. The 5c(Max) of 10.04 ft and a chine beam at the
designer is advised to work to this waterUne as a transom of 8.96 ft.
sort of fixed reference plane, the same as for a In this design a wide stern is chosen because
844 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 11.24
Sec. 77.24 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOl'ORBOAT 81

the boat will operate most of the time in sheltered The net effectwas to decrease the risc-of-floor
harbors or rivers. In addition, it improves the angles in the run of the boat. Every effort was
steering when planing. made to keep the buttock lines straight in the
A tentative keel Kne next drawn in the
is run, especially abaft Sta. 7.
elevation. It is so placed with reference to the The sections were then redrawn with the
same
chine as to give a rise-of-floor angle amidships general characteristics, and the volume new hull
in the range of 14 to 18 deg. At the stern the was calculated. The volume below the DWL was
range is from 1 to 4 deg. If constant rise-of-floor found to be sUghtly more than needed, but a
angle aft is no twist in the afterbody
desired, with uniform decrease in draft of about 0.21 ft along
bottom, the angle may
be of the order of 6 to the whole length gave the correct volume. A
9 deg. The lines of two motorboats of good lifting of the whole boat in this manner is usually
performance published by L. Lord ["Naval Archi- found acceptable, because all the changes in the
tecture of Planing Hulls," 1946], in Fig. 41 on hull characteristics are favorable. The revised
page 89 and Fig. 43 on page 92, have constant chine height at the FP is +0.073 IL^t and at
rise-of-floor angles of 5.8 deg and 9.2 deg, respec- the AP it is —0.0211Lwl The relocated chine
tively. Those of one planing boat whose Unes are crosses the new designed waterhne between Stas.
pubUshed by D. D. Beach [The Rudder, Jan 4 and 5.

1954, p. 38] average about 8.3 deg. Next, the fore-and-aft position of the center of
The sections are next sketched in. For the buoyancy CB is determined, and a check is
ABC tender, sections of inverted-bell shape are made with available data such as those presented
suitable forward, fairing into slightly convex at the end of Sec. 77.19 to determine whether
sections in the run. As previously mentioned, the CB lies mthin a range of CG position found
these sections give volume forward but still acceptable for good planing-boat design. If the
allow the water and spray to break off cleanly at CB is not less than 0.55Z/nr£ or more than 0.65L„.i,
the chine. They mil probably result in slightly from the FP, the CG can probably be placed
greater resistance in smooth water, but should within that range so that the craft will float at
give improved wavegoing performance. Sections the draft and in the attitude desired when at rest.
with slightly convex bottom segments are favored If the CB is as far forward as 0.45LH^i from the
aft, as they provide more hull volume and allow FP, or as far aft as 0.70L^z, , the hull will have
lower mounting of the engines. to be reshaped to correct this condition. The
When the sections are sketched a tentative
in, craft is liable to porpoise if the at-rest CB —and
check is made of the volume of the hull up to the the CG—are too far aft.

designed waterline at rest. Whenwas first

this After making the necessary shifts in the section
done for the ABC tender the volume was found and other hues, and checking the volumes and
to be smaller than that corresponding to a weight CG positions, the lines are faired and drawn,
of 19,000 lb of salt water. It would have been including the abovewater body to the main-deck
necessary to increase the draft about 0.5 ft to edge. The final result for the ABC planing-form
support the estimated boat weight. This was tender is shown in Fig. 77. K. The section-area
unacceptable as it lowered the chine too far and or A/Ax curve is drawn in Fig. 77. L, in the usual
it altered the wavegoing characteristics intended 1:4 box. This is supplemented by the B/Bwx
for the forward sections. curve, drawn so that the half-beam Bwx/2 is

Increasing the volume required the following equal to one-fourth the waterline length L^l
changes:
Holfthe

(1) The chine submergence at the AP was

increased to 0.0275Lwl or 0.962 ft . The revised
chine crossed the DWL
between Sta. 3 and
Sta. 4. It was still a straight line from Sta. 7 to
the stern at Sta. 10.
(2) The depth of the keel below the DWL was
increased shghtly
(3) The chine forward remained at the same
position mth respect to the DWL.
846 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.25

77.25 Design Check on a Basis of Chine Di- 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56

mensions. Despite the logical nature of the pro- I I I I I I.I I I I I

D.iaplocement, met 1000 to

cedure and the various design data given in
Adopted from
Sec. 77.17, based upon the chine dimensions,
E.P Clement,' Hull
proportions, and position, there are insufficient Form of Stepless
background and reference data to enable a new Ploninc) Boats,* :t
planing craft to be laid out on a basis solely of 5NAME, Ches.Sect
l2Jan I955,PI. 12 ^1
the chine dimensions and characteristics. It is
nevertheless useful at this point to ascertain how
the characteristics already determined for the
ABC tender compare ^\'ith the available chine o Motor Yachts
data plotted by E. P. Clement ["Hull Form of • PT Boots,
Stepless Planing Boats," SNAME, Ches. Sect., World Worll

12 Jan 1955; also TMB Rep. 1093, Nov 1956].

There are listed in Table 77. f the principal 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
dimensions and characteristics of the ABC Bisplocement, l<ip», or thousands cff pounds

planing-form tender, derived by the methods Fig. 77. M Vaeiation op Chine Ratio Lc/Bc
described in the sections preceding. Included in With Displacement
the table are some of the ratios used as parameters The dimension Lc is the projeoted length of the chine
by Clement, based upon the actual dimensions and Be is the mean width of the projected chine planform.
of the craft whose lines are depicted in Fig. 77. K. The displacement corresponds to the buoyancy volume
with the boat at rest. The solid line represents a tentative
As a check of these dimensions and ratios with
meanline for the data plotted here.
the data given by Clement in the reference cited.
Figs. 77. M and 77. N have been adapted from his Ac/V^^^ of 0.3 is taken from the meanline. The
Plates 12 and 13, with necessary changes to value of ¥''' from Table 77.f is 44.484 ft'; Ac is
standard notation. Using the tentative total found to be 413.7 ft'. This is considerably larger
weight of 19,000 lb for the full-planing tender, than the projected area of the chine, 334.6 ft',
Fig. 77. M
is entered along the bottom scale and of the actual boat of Fig. 77. K. If this larger
a value of the ratio Lc/Bc of 3.86 is taken from value of A c is divided by the actual chine length,
the meanline shown. With a fore-and-aft chine the mean chine beam Be is found to be 413.7/36.65
length Lc of 36.35 ft from Table 77.f, the mean or 11.29 ft. If, on the other hand, this larger area
chine beam Be = 36.35/3.86 = 9.417 ft. is used in combination with the Lc/Bc ratio of

With the Lc/Bc ratio of 3.86, Fig. 77.N is 3.86, the fore-and-aft chine length comes out as
entered along the bottom scale and a ratio of 39.96 ft.

TABLE 77.f Chine Chabacteristics and Other Features of Proposed Fuli^Planing Tender fob ABC Ship

The principal dimensions, characteristics, and other data listed here are for the craft whose lines are shown in Fig. 77.K.

LoA = 38.0 ft V = 296.7 ft' in standard salt water

LwL = 35.0 ft Ax = 10.56 ft"

Lc of chine = 36.35 ft Le = 0.57LwL , from FP to section of maximum area

W = 19,000 lb
A = 8.482 long tons 4jf of at-rest waterline = 281.9 ft-

T, = V/VL = 24/V35 Ac of chine, projeoted, = 334.6 ft^

= 4.057 ¥'!' = 6.6696 ft

A/(0.010L)' = 197.8 F2/3 = 44.484 ft^

Ratios Based upon the Chine Dimensions:

Ac/Vi' = 334.6/44.484 = 7.522 Le/Be = 36.35/9.205 = 3.949
Be mean, over chines, 334.6/36.35 = 9.205
= Ac/Lc = ft

Ratio of Weight W /{Brake Power Pb at designed speed) = 19,000/430(est.) 44.19

Weight TF/(Brake Power Pb) = 19,000/450 (to be installed) = 42.22
Center of projected area of chine, Ac Ues at 0.532LirL abaft the FP
,

Rise of floor at midlength of Lwl = 18.25 deg; at AP = 3.75 deg

LCB = 0.5ML^L or 20.79 ft abaft the FP
LCG is assumed to be in the same fore-and-aft position, corresponding to 3.29 ft abaft midlength of the designed waterline
or 14.21 ft forward of the AP.
Sec. 77.26 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 8-17

6
 —

818 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Srr. 77.26

the designed speed, the afterbody mean chine The dynamic-lift coefficient, assuming a con-
beam is 9.46 ft, slightlj^ less than Be Strictly
. stant rise-of-floor angle of /3, is

speaking, Murray's data are not applicable to

— 2Cl
the present case, because they are derived from {Cdl)»
O.opV'B' Cl
models with a constant rise-of-floor /3. angle
However, they are used here by taking as the
reference angle 13 the mean of the rise-of-floor
the midlength section and at the
angles
transom. This
at
is 0.5 (18.25 + 3.75) or 11 deg.
This on the basis that the entire weight
is of W
the boat is supported by dynamic lift. Data so
The speed coefficient, based on the mean chine
derived are certainly on the conservative side.
beam of the afterbody, is
The dynamic-lift- coefficient {Cdljo for a ri.se-
of-floor angle of /3 = is required for the resistance
V = =
Cv = J'^'-'^''^
2.324 (77.vi) calculations. To determine it, enter the lower part
\/32. 174(9 .46)
of Fig. 53. B in Sec. 53.4 with the average rise-of-
floor angle /3 of 11 deg and the value {Cdl)^ of
The load coefficient, also based on the afterbody
0.1298.The derived value of {Col) a = 0.155.
mean chine beam, is expressed as C^ in Murray's
represented by Cld in
The sum of the friction resistance Rp and the
referenced paper but is

the ATTC notation. It is

residuary resistance Rr is, the total drag force
opposing motion, represented as the sum of the

C,
W 19,000
= 0.3504 (77.vii)
forces 7 and J However, as it is
in Fig. 13. C.

wB^c 64.043(9.46)' not always practicable or possible to determine

TABLE 77.g Resistance Calculation for Full-Planing Tender Hull of Fig. 77.K bt Murray's Planing-Surface Data
The data referenced in the heading of this table are found in Fig. 53.B, Sec. 53.4.

Col.
 —

Sec. 77.26 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOIORBOAT 819

TABLE 77.h Calculation for CENTEn-OF-PuEssonE Location fob Fuli^Planing Hull op Fia. 77.K by
Murray's Planing Surface Data
The data referenced in the heading of this table are found ir
850 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.27

tender isand the T„ at designed speed is

197.8 of 0.50 in the absence of a better value, the shaft
4.057. From the referenced graph the minimum power P.5 (or better, the propeller power Pp) is
resistance per pound of weight for a displacement- Pe/vp = 207/0.50 = 414 horses. With a trans-
length quotient of 160 to ISO is 0.123 lb, cor- mission loss of say 5 per cent in the shafting and
responding to a resistance of 2,377 lb for a dis- bearings, the brake power Pb required to be
placement of 19,000 lb. From Fig. 77.0 the delivered by the engines is 414/0.95 = 436 horses.
minimum resistance predicted, at a trim angle d This independent estimate compares well with
of 3.25 deg, is 2,320 lb. the first approximations to the shaft power in
The LCB of the boat at rest is found, by routine Sec. 77.14, where it was found that two engines,
methods, to be approximately 0.594L„.l abaft the each delivering a brake power of 225 horses,
FP. By Table 77.f, the center of the projected would be adequate for the purpose.
chine area is found to be 0.532L,rL abaft the FP. K. C. Barnaby gives a few average values of
The CB thus lies at slightly more than 6 per the propulsive coefficient j/p as applying to craft
cent of LwL abaft the centroid of the chine area. in the category being considered here [INA, 1943,
This is close to an average value as indicated by Appx. 1, p. 126]:
E. P. Clement ["Hull Form of Stepless Planing
(a) 25-ft motorboats, average t]p is about 0.58
Boats," SNAME, Ches. Sect., 12 Jan 1955, PL 9].
(b) 50-ft motorboats, average tjp is about 0.59.
It be assumed that the CG of the boat
may
laid out in Figs. 77. B and 77. K lies directly above Barnaby's book "Basic Naval Architecture"
the center of bu oyancy CB when the craft is at [1954, Art. 191, Fig. 100, p. 306] contains a graph
rest. Then LCG = 0.594L,rL = 0.594(35) = 20.79 of average tjp values which indicates a propulsive
ft abaft the FP, or 14.21 ft forward of the AP at coefficient of only about 0.45 for single-screw
the transom. To run at a steady trim the CP craft 50 ft long. Since this graph extends to
position on the bottom must lie approximately lengths of 1,000 ft it may not be intended to
under the CG position in the hull. From the cover motorboats.
upper graph of Fig. 77.0, the running trim for 77.27 Running Attitude and Fore-and-Aft Po-
this CG position is found to be about 4.9 deg by sition of the Heavy Weights. To visualize the
the stern. At this trim the total resistance Rr situation at this stage relative to the probable
from the lower set of graphs of that figure is position of the proposed craft with reference to
2,500 lb. the surrounding water and its running attitude
The resistance data given by Murray take no when planing, the designer proceeds to predict
account of the still-air drag of the hull and upper certain features. Among these are the change in
works above the DWL. To predict this value for elevation of the center of gravity CG with speed,
the ABC tender, it is necessary to estimate the the fore-and-aft position of the center of pressure
transverse projected area above water. A rough CP and of the CG, the dimensions and shape of
calculation from Fig. 77. B gives 60.2 ft^. For the the wetted bottom surface, the position of the
still-air drag the designer may use the dunensional probable impact area in waves, and the best
formula Dsa = 0.0044^7' [S and P, 1943, p. 52], positions for the heavy weights in the boat.
where D is in lb and V is in kt. Substituting, There are at least two methods of determining
Dsa = 0.004 (60.2) (24)' = 138.7 lb. Other the vertical position of the boat when underway
coefficients for this formula are given in Sec. 54.7. at full speed with respect to the level of the sur-
Based upon the rule given by H. F. Nordstrom rounding undisturbed water. One is to make use
[SSPA Rep. 19, 1951, p. 15], the resistance of well of a diagram such as that given by A. B. Murray
streamlined appendages for a twin-screw motor- in Fig. 2 on page 658 of his referenced paper, or in
boat need not exceed 7 per cent of the bare-hull Fig. 29. D of Volume I of the present book, for a
total resistance. An estimated value is then full-planing about the same size and
craft of
0.07(2,500) = 175 lb. Still-air drag and wind shape. Although Murray's diagram referenced in
resistance for motorboats are discussed further in this case is for 40-ft V-bottom motorboats it
Sec. 77.37. should serve reasonably well for the ABC tender,
The total resistance Rt + Dsa + ^app = which is 35on the waterhne and 38 ft overall.
ft

2,500 -I- 138.7-I- 175 = 2,813.7 lb. The effective At the designed speed of 24 kt, equivalent to
power is then 2,813.7(24)1.0889/550, or about 27.6 mph, tlie rise of the center of gravity above
207 horses. Assuming a propulsive coefficient t/^ its at-rest position is approximately 0.7 ft, or
 —

Sec. 77.27 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 851

0.0175 of the 40-ft length. For a craft 38 ft long _ (planing surface beam) tan /3
^
the rise of the CG would be about 0.G7 ft. If tan 9
(77. ix)

Another method is to lay out an elevation or

It is probable that this length is a function of
profile of the boat at its designed speed and in its
the local rather than of the average chine beam
predicted position and attitude with respect to
and rise-of-floor angle. For the ABC planing
the undisturbed smooth water into which it is
tender these are taken as the local chine beam at
advancing. One detailed method of accomplishing
Sta. 5, equal to 9.96 ft, and the local rise-of-floor
this is described in the paragraphs which follow.
angle at midlength, equal to 18.25 deg. Then,
With the CG and the CP tentatively located by for a trim 6 of 4.9 deg.
the procedures of Sec. 77.26 in a transverse
forward of the AP, the correspond- (9.96)(0.3298)
plane 14.21 ft
Li = = 1.22(9.96) = 12.2 ft.
ing running attitude is 4.9 deg by the stern. The 3.1416(0.0857)
mean wetted length L„,s at this trim angle is, On the basis of perfectly flat V-shaped bottom
by interpolation from Col. B of Table 77. h, surfaces, with constant angle /3 and no twist, the
21.4 ft. wetted length of the keel should equal the mean
According to B. V. Korvin-Kroukovsky, D. wetted length L^s plus half the length L^ For .

Savitsky, and W. F. Lehman [ETT, Stevens, the ABC tender this is 21.4 ft plus 6.1 ft or 27.5 ft.
Rep. 360, Aug 1939, Fig. 15, p. 36] the forward This wetted keel length is laid off along the keel,
edges of the wetted area of a planing craft when forward from the AP, terminating at the point
underway are defined by the bases of the spray K in Fig. 77. P. The wetted chine length is 21.4
roots under the bottom. These extend generally ft less 6.1 ft or 15.3 ft. This distance is laid off

in two straight lines from a point on the keel to along the chine, also forward of the AP, terminat-
points abaft this on either chine. When the wetted ing at the point C. The diagonal broken line KG in
area on one side of the hull is projected on the the figure forms the locus of the spray-root bases
centerplane the point of intersection of the spray- on each side. Taking for granted that the water
root base with the chine lies somewhat above the breaks off cleanly along the chines, and that the
level of the undisturbed water surface. This transom clears to its lower edge, the wetted area
situation is illustrated schematically in the small hes entirely under the after portion of the V-
figurepubhshed by A. B. Murray as a part of bottom, indicated by the hatched area in the
Fig. 10 on page 665 of his paper"The Hydro- figure.
dynamics of Planing Hulls" [SNAME, 1950]. The point K is placed at the level of the sur-
The mean wetted length Lws measured generally , rounding undisturbed water, and the craft is
parallel to the mean buttock at the quarter-beam, trhnmed 4.9 deg by the stern. Its profile is then
is the arithmeticmean of the wetted length of the drawn in, picturing the position and attitude of
keel and the wetted length along the chine. The the hull with respect to the undisturbed water
differencebetween these two lengths, indicated level. Fig. 77.P is this profile for the ABC full-

as Li in ETT,
Stevens, Report 360, is estimated planing tender, with dimensions and explanatory
by Eq. (17) on page 14 of that report, namely notes.

[Proposed E'ye

Offset of Mean Buttock from Centerplane 15 -^-2 30 ft \ Position of

Calculated Trim is 4,9 deo b\ the Stern

Water Surface

\*
— ^Mean Welted Lencjth
is^ b^ calcuialion,
Lws
214 ft f^CP Position for Normal H^dronomic Pressures on Bottom, 14.21 ft Forword of FP

Fig. 77.P Diagbam Showing Pbedicted Running Position and Attitude op Planing Tender at Full Speed
 P

852 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 11 2R

Assuming a suitable vertical position of the Despite the fact that this item has received little

CG, in this case 0.5 ft above the DWL, the at-rest
and underway CG positions are placed on the
drawing, in a transverse plane 14.21 ft forward
of the AP. Scaling the rise of the CG due to the
forward speed of 24 kt from the original of Fig.
77.P gives 0.81 ft, as compared to the 0.67 ft
derived from the Murray reference earlier in
the section.
Two other features now
some considera-
require
tion. The first is the question of whether or not
the steersman at the control station can see ahead
over the bow in this running attitude. Fig. 77.
indicates that with the stem carried all the
up to the forward deck line, vision in a horizontal
direction is just possible from the proposed
control station. In order to see clearly to a point
on the water surface some 90 ahead of the
ft
steersman, his line of sight would have to be
depressed about 5 deg, indicated by a broken line
in the figure. Clear vision at this angle would
necessitate rounding the stem head and using
some reverse sheer forward.
The second matter is one of appearance. A
planing boat running at full speed with a trim
of the order of 5 deg by the stern seems to be
struggling along, as though it could not quite get
through its hump speed. The same boat, running
at the same speed but with a trim of only some
2 deg, gives that delightful impression of smooth,
effortless running which is the aim of every
attention in the technical literature, John Plum
and others who have produced high-speed planing
craft which give reasonably satisfactory behavior
under these severe conditions maintain that the
proper adjustment of the fore-and-aft location of
the heavy weight groups, and the control of the
proper trim angle, are more important factors in
superior wavegoing performance than any par-
ticular or special shape of the
give the hull. To
naval architect a more reliable background in
this respect and to furnish him with better design
rules, an intensive and thorough study of the
way effect of weight location and trim control should
be carried out at the earUest opportunity.
77.28 First Space Layout of the 18-Knot
Round-Bottom Hull. For the round-bottom tjT)e
of semi-planing motorboat selected tentatively
in Sec. 77.10 as the one best suited for the 18-kt
speed, the requirements of Table 77. a indicate
that the craft must make this speed with a half-
load of fuel and a crew of two, as well as two
passengers and their personal baggage. It must,
however, be able to accommodate, at the slower
speed of 14 kt, any of the items listed in (6) of
Table 77. a and to run for 6 hr at full power.
In short, it must have power enough for the 18-kt
load and speed, but room enough for the 14-kt
load.
Sketching a preliminary arrangement indicates,
as it did for the full-planing boat, that a hull

motorboat designer and builder and the hope of 40 ft long is unnecessarily large and that the
every owner and operator. Few among those who weight hmit of 25,000 lb need not even be ap-
ride or watch seem to reahze, or to be concerned, proached. A second arrangement sketch, repro-
that the resistance and power may be less at duced in Fig. 77. Q, reveals that a transom-stern
5 deg than at 2 deg trim by the stern. If level hull of 35-ft waterline length is ample to contain
running becomes of more importance than the necessaiy spaces and volumes without
efficiency of propulsion, a trim-control device of crowding.
some kind is clearly indicated, as described in For Taylor quotient 2\ at 14
this length the
Sees. 36.26 and 37.24. kt is 2.366, F,, = For 18 kt it is 3.042,
0.705.
The next step is to estimate, possibly from a F„ = 0.906. From the utihty-boat curve of Fig.
diagram such as Fig. 77. P, about where the 77. C, the total weight should be not in excess of
impact area will be under the bottom when the 18,000 lb or 8.036 tons. Using the PhilUps-Birt
craft runs at high speed through relatively short Eq. (77.iiia) of Sec. 77.14, the 14-kt speed, and
waves. If this area is well forward of the CG the the proper value of K2 from Table 77. e.
boat receives an up-pitch moment as it strikes
V^ (kt) W (long tons)
every crest. however, the impact forces are
If, Pb (horses) =
applied more or less underneath one of the heavy
(14)^(8.036)
weight groups such as the propelhng machinery, = 201.
(2.80)'
the result of slamming on wave crests is limited
generally to a compression of the structure It is to be remembered that at the 18-kt speed
between the engine bearers and the bottom of the the useful load (and the total weight) will be
boat, with an effective reduction in pitching considerably less than 8.04 t. It appears for the
moment. moment that one of the HN-10 diesel engines
!ser. 1130 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORROAT 853

/Trace of Desioned Waterline

In Second Layout
Enqme Should
Be Moved
Forward and
Passengers Aft
to Provide
More Comfort
for Them

Weather
Protection
Over Corqo
and Boqt^Qqe
'*-
not Shown
Here

Desiqned" Woterlineot rest

96765|43ZIF|P
Fig. 77. Q
Stations

Sketch op Tentative Space Layout for Round-Bottom Tender for ABC Ship

mentioned in Sees. 77.13 and 77.14 for installa-

tion in the 24-kt planing tender, with a maximum
brake power of 225 horses, may be sufficient for
the round-bottom tender. At least, it will be used
for a first weight estimate.
77.29 First Weight Estimate for the 18-Knot
Hull. A first weight estimate is made by using
a few known weights plus reasonable percentages
(from Fig. 77. D) of the estimated gross weight
of 18,000 lb. These are, in lb:

18-kthull 14-kthuU
Pb =
(1) Pay load, including crew 1,000 3,000
(2) Diesel engine, one HN-10 or the
equivalent, including water
and oil in the engine 2,650 2,650
(3) Fuel for 6 hr at power, reck-
full

oned as 0.5 lb per brake horse 338 (half 675

per hr
854 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.31

Assuiiiiiig a tiaiisinissioii loss of 5 per cent, the Characteristics. The round-bottom design dis-
necessary brake power is 178/0.95 = 187 horses. cus.sed in these sections is intended to run at
two speeds, at different displacements. The high-
IV. Skene's Eq. (77.iva) of Sec. 77.14 does not
speed light-load condition found to control the
is
apply to round-bottom forms. Instead he gives
engine power to be installed but for the selection
a graph of the dimensional ratio P/W^'^ on a
of hull features the heavy-load condition is used.
base of 7\ = V/'\/L, where P is in horses
For the ABC ship itself, where the hull at its
(presumably of brake power) and is in tons W designed full-load displacement could have been
["Elements of Yacht Design," New York, 1944,
shaped to run well at either the sustained .speed
Fig. 147, p. 295].
or the maximum was considered better
speed, it

For the 18-kt boat, where

(a) is 6.071 t, W design to fashion it for the higher speed. Although
For T, = 3.042, the value of P/W'^"
TF'^' is 8.20. it was known that the ship would run for much

from Skene's graph is 25. Then P = 25(8.20) = of the time at reduced load and draft, the design

205 horses. was laid out for full load and full draft.
(b) For the 14-kt boat, where is 7.187 t, W Here, however, it is not possible to install
W'^" = 9.98. For T, = 2.366, the value of P/W'^" enough power to reach the higher speed at the
is 13. Then P = 13(9.98) = 130 horses. This heavier load condition. This limitation would
seems very low. apply, at least with modern (1955) reciprocating,
internal-combustion power plants, to all semi-
V. The nomogram of P. G. TomaUn [SNAME, planing as well as full-planing craft. It is con-
1953, Fig. 7, p. 600, for displacement-type vessels] sidered good boat design, therefore, to shape the
gives: hull for the heavier load condition and the deeper
draft.
For the 18-kt boat, Aveighing 13,582 lb, a
(a)

predicted shaft power Ps of 195 horses. Then Although the alternative design of the ABC
Pb = 195/0.95 = 205 horses. tender, running in the lower range of speeds, is

(b) For the 14-kt boat, weighing 16,099 lb, a to have a round bottom it is nevertheless of the
predicted shaft power Ps of 165 horses. Then semi-planing type. For this reason, as well as to

Pb = 165/0.95 = 174 horses. give it adequate metacentric stability and to

provide a better internal arrangement, a wide-
The H. F. Nordstrom for determining
chart of beam hull is again favored.
effective power Pe Fig. 48 of SSPA Report 19,
,
As a first guess, a maximum waterline beam of
1951, is a good one for craft of this type but 10 ft is selected. It is placed at Sta. 6 or at O.QQLwl
unfortunately it does not extend far enough for from the FP. At the 14- to 18-kt speeds at which
either the 18-kt or the 14-kt designs considered this craft will run, a narrower stern is favored
here. than for the 24-kt full-planing hull. Following
From the foregoing it is manifest that the 18-kt seas are more of a problem in steering the slower
light-load condition is the one which controls the craft and the liability of broaching is greater. The
amount power required. Of the empirical
of engine transom width is tentatively selected as only
estimates, that of the Crouch-Werback formula 0.75j5.y or 7.5 ft. A waterline is then sketched in,
is only 187 horses, and is decidedly low. Those of avoiding any hollow in the entrance portion.
the Skene graph and of the Tomalin nomogram D. Phillips-Birt recommends certain optimum
are identical and low, but to a lesser degree. The prismatic coefficients for small craft in the range
identical predictions of the K. C. Barnaby and
of T, from 1.3 to 1.8 ["The Design of Small Power
Philhps-Birt formulas, 251 horses, are higher than Craft," The Motor Boat and Yachting, Apr 1953,
the average by a greater amount. Despite these While the lowest T^ value for this version
p. 160].
variations, appears safe at this stage to make
it
of the ABC tender is 2.366 for 14 kt, Phillips-
use of one HN-10 engine or its equivalent, with Birt's value ofCp = 0.69 is used as a starter.
a rated brake power Pu of 225 horses. For an Lwl 35 ft and a weight displacement of
of
All the foregoing estimates are based upon the 7.187 t, the underwater volume V is 251.4 ft^
brake power Pb at the engine coupUng, and upon and the maximum-section area is
the designed (maximum) speed V and weight
W of the complete boat. Ax =
251.4
= 10.4
77.31 Selecting the 18-Knot Hull Shape and Cp{L,r,)
~ (0.69)(35)
ft'
Sec. 77J2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OE A MOTORHOAT 855

This areaabout the same as for the 24-kt

is service [SNAME, 1050, pp. 081-082). Information
planing-type tender, the beam is about the same, of this kind is extrem(!ly valuable but almost
and the length is exactly the same. The keel equally rare.
profile boat in Fig. 77. K, at the
of the 24-kt Layout of the Lines for the ABC Round-
77.32
bottom of the hull proper,
is therefore used as a Bottom Tender. Laying out the underwater lines
guide in drawing a similar profile for the round- for the semi-planing motor tender being designed
bottom craft. The depth at the fore-and-aft here calls for following the general principles set
position of the section of maximum area is selected forth in previous sections for this operation on
as 1.65 about the same as for the faster boat.
ft, full-planing craft. Fashioning the abovewater hull
There is no general or special rule concerning is based upon considerations of wavegoing, good
the longitudinal position of the maximum-area vision from the control platform and other
section for a boat of this type. To afford a clean operating requirements, convenience of the pas-
run toward the transom it should, however, not sengers and crew and, last but not least, appear-
lie abaft the midlength of the waterline. It is ance.
preferably placed slightly forward of that point. Specifically, the first three steps involve
For the design in question it is taken at 0A7Lwl roughing in the maximum-section contour, laying
from the FP. out a designed waterline, and sketching a pre-
Any small-craft designer welcomes the oppor- liminary section-area curve, much as they did for
tunity to study the hull shapes fashioned by the large ABC ship design in Chap. 06. Summariz-
others, even though he may have little intention ing from Sec. 77.31:
of follomng or copying any of them. Sources of a
(a) The maximum waterline beam Bwx is 10.0 ft.
considerable amount of these data are listed here
from the FP.
Its fore-and-aft position is O.GOLwi,
for convenience:
(b) The half-siding at the bow may be taken
(a) Nordstrom, H. F., "Some Tests with Models
of Small tentatively as 0.05 ft
Vessels," SSPA Rep. This pubhcation
19, 1951.
(c) The designed waterline beam at the transom
gives the body plans of many round-bottom forms,
together with their section-area curves and tabu-
(or at the AP) is 7.5 ft
lated model-test data. Text is in English. (d) The maximum-sectio n area is 10.4 ft'
(b) Baader, "Cruceros y Lanchas Veloces," Buenos
J., (e) The value of LMA is 0.47L,^,, reckoned ,

Aires, 1951. The text is in Spanish, as yet untrans- from the FP

lated (1957), but the lines drawings are understood
(f) The keel profile of the 24-kt full-planing
by any naval architect.
tender, at the bottom of the hull proper, is to be
(c) Beach, D. D., "Power Boat Form," The Rudder,
Jan 1954, pp. 38-43, 90. The author gives lines used as a guide.
drawings of seven modern hull forms, with the
The first layout of the maximum-area section
practical and the hydrodynamic reasons for their
various features and characteristics. (actually taken at the position of Bwx) indicated
(d) Literally hundreds of lines drawings of modern motor- that the initial beam of 10 ft was too large and
boats are to be found on the pages of yachting and that the keel line used for guidance lay too near
motorboating magazines, most of them mentioned the at-rest waterplane. The floor lines in the
in the references of Sec. 77.41.
bottom had too smaU a rise to insure reasonable
It is extremely unfortunate that, ^vith such a freedom from pounding. The bottom slope was
wealth of published data at hand, a motorboat in fact smaller than for the corresponding sections
designer renders himself vulnerable by rarely of the full-planing form. Unfortunately there
knowing whether the shape he is using for gui- appears to be no set of minimum values to be
dance is a good one or not. In other words, he used as a design criterion for selecting a proper
seldom knows a fraction as much about the good rise-of-fioor angle for this type of boat.

or bad performance of a boat as he knows about The combination of wide beam and shallow
its physical shape and other features from the underwater body produced an extremely sharp
published lines, arrangement drawings, photo- curvature at the turn of the bilge. Indeed, the
graphs, and descriptions. As an example of what maximum-area section had the appearance of
should be done with published material, D. S. one taken from a hard-chine hull in which the
Simpson includes a sketchy body plan of a chines had simply been rounded oS. For the
round-bottom motorboat, but gives rather full second layout the beam was decreased and the
comments on the behavior of the actual craft in keel line was lowered.
856
 —

Sec. 77 J2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 857

Skot.ching a icMitativc designed watcrliiie When the section areas correspond roughly to
through the three points given in the summary the section-area curve ordinatcs, and the rise of
presented no problem, but there is no way of floor ofeach appears to be adequate to prevent
knowing whether it is a good one until the sections pounding, with convex sections in the entrance
are drawn. Before this can be done, there has to and not-too-sharp transverse bilge curvature, the
be a tentative section-area curve from which to designer may proceed to add the abovewater body.
work. The main deck edge at the side is drawn to
Before sketching such a curve for a normal give a moderate flare in the forward sections, a
form of motorboat it is necessary to fix its termi- slight flare in the midship sections, and some
nation at the AP. Here again there are few design tumble home in the stern sections. Unless deck
rules for selecting an immersed-transom area Au space is required in service, the extremely wide
but the immersed draft Hu should not exceed decks seen in many motorboat designs do little
the values given in Table 67. d. For a speed of but add weight and require exaggerated flare in
18 kt, it is about 1.15 ft; for 14 kt, about 0.695 ft. the forward sections. The latter may, in turn,
Probably it should not exceed 1.0 ft in the present easily lead to dangerous slamming when waves
case. With a transom beam Bu of 7.5 ft and an strike under this overhang.
average draft of say 0.6 ft, the value of Au is For the ABC round-bottom tender the stem
4.5 ft^ and A^/Ax is 0.43. A section-area curve is made more nearly plumb than that of the

is sketched in roughly through the three known planing tender. This provides a greater waterline
points and a check on the probable volume is length on a given overall length, with lower
obtained. It should be about 6.07 (35) or 212.5 ft'. resistance at the speeds below planing.
Many of the descriptive articles hsted in Sees. Upon completion of the shaping and fairing
77.31 and 77.41 include section-area curves with for this craft, involving the preparation of two
the hull lines. These may be used by the designer successive sets of lines, was found that the
it

as guides. volume under the tentative waterUne at rest was

Starting again with a new and deeper keel slightly greater than that required by the heavy-
profile, an assumed designed waterline, and a load Wof 16,100 lb of salt water. Rather than to
tentative section-area curve, sketching of the draw a third set of lines the designed waterline
sections at the various stations may proceed. was lowered to give the correct volume. The final
When drawing these sections a distinct effort is faired lines are reproduced in Fig. 77.R.
njade to keep the buttocks in the run as straight All the revised characteristics and parameters
as possible. Even though the craft is not intended were checked to make sure that they were satis-
to plane at the designed load, this shape may be factory. They are listed in Table 77. i.
relied upon to encourage planing at the higher A final section-area curve of the usual 1:4 pro-
speeds, under loads (total Aveights) that are portions, and a curve of B/B^x ratio, are laid

somewhat lighter than those specified. down in Fig. 77. S, together with the fore-and-aft

TABLE 77.i Hull Characteristics and Other Features of Proposed Round-Bottom Tender for ABC Ship
The principal dimensions, characteristics, and other data Hsted here are for the craft whose lines are shown in Fig. 77. R.

LoA = 37.07 ft Bwx = 9.3 ft

LwL = 35.0 ft Bu of transom = 7.3 ft
Bx = 9.04 ft y = 251.4 ft' in standard salt water
W = 16,100 lb Ax = 10.6 ft^
A = 7.188 long tons Aw of at-rest waterline = 250.9 ft^
A/(0.010L)3 = 167.6 Hu of transom = 0.87 ft at rest
Speed Data
V = 14 kt at full load; T, = V/Vl = 2.366
V = 18 kt at light load; r, = V/Vl = 3.042

Hull Parameters
LCB = 0.5S0LwL from the FP
Cp = 251.4/(35)(10.6) = 0.678 Cx 10.6/9.04(1.7) = 0.690
L/B^x = 35/9.30 = 3.763 C„ 250.9/35(9.04) = 0.793
Bfj = 0.785 B^x
lE of entrance = 21 deg; ir of run, at transom corner, = 5.75 deg. LMA = 0.47Z/
 —

858 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77 J3

Holf the Beom B^x ^^ Drown to a Scoie of One-Quorter the Unqth Lu/i_ extreme draft is often determined by the size
- B '

and vertical position of the propeller(s) and

rudder (s). The bottom of the skeg or rudder shoe
may be the lowest projection but if so it is lower
than the bottom of the propeller tip circle to
give protection to the latter.
When the draft is limited by operating con-
ditions, or when it is desired to give the propellers
Fig. 77.S Duiensionless Watebline-Offset and some protection, they may be recessed upward
Section-Akea Cukves for Round-Bottom Tender
into one or more tunnels just as they are in larger
OP ABC Ship
tunnel-stern shallow-draft vessels. Usually, how-

positions of the maximum ordinates of each. ever, there is insufficient length to drop the
This completes the preUminary hydrodynamic tunnel roof down to the plane of the designed

design of the ABC round-bottom tender, as waterline abaft the wheel, so the after end of the

worked out in this chapter. upper portion of the tunnel is exposed.

77.33 Example of a Modem Round-Bottom In certain speed-length ranges, particularly
Utility-Boat Design. An example of a round- just below hump speed, the change of trim and

bottom design for a motorboat somewhat larger squat for most motorboat forms is large. Shallow
than that of the ABC tender is the 50-ft open water exaggerates this situation because of the
utihty boat designed recently (1954) by C. E. increased steepness of the waves, generated either

Werback. Fig. 77. T is a body plan of this craft by the boat's own motion or by natural winds.
and Table 77. j lists its characteristics for the It must not be expected, therefore, that a boat

light- and full-load conditions. which has a draft of x ft when at rest may be
able to run, under a variety of conditions, in
TABLE j
77. Dimensions and Other Data for the water of x ft depth without scraping along or
50-FT Round-Bottom Utility Boat of Fig. 77.T striking on the bottom.
Light displacement, 24,500 lb = 10.937 t When working up the characteristics of a
Speed, 13.5 kt shallow-draft motorboat the designer may, with
Full-load displacement, 48,000 lb = 21.784 t
what appears to be a reasonable first weight
Speed, 10.5 kt
estimate, convert this weight to volume of the
LoA = 50.02 ft Lk^l = 48.0 ft
= liquid in which the craft is to run. Then on the
Be (over guards) 14.48 ft Bwx = 12.02 ft
Freeboard at FP above = 6.2 ft DWL basis of a tentative waterline area and shape, he
Freeboard amidships = 4.1 ft may determine the mean draft necessary to give
Freeboard at AP = 4.02 ft the displaced volume, assuming first that this
Draft to bottom of skeg = 3.92 ft
draft is constant under the entire waterline area.
Radius at full power =145 miles
Brake power, one 165-horse diesel engine As a first approximation, the maximum draft of
Fuel, 170 gallons the hull proper may be taken as equal to 3 times
_
At 13.5 kt, T, = V/\/L_= 1.950 the mean draft. Additional draft needed to
At 10.5 kt, T, = V/^L
= 1.517 provide dynamic stability of route, or mechanical
A/(0.010L)' at full load = 21.78/0.1106 = 197.2
Ratio of (Ih/Ps) at full load = 48,800/165 = 296.0 lb
Lenqth on Waterline, 48.0 ft
per horse.
Beom, maximum on waterline, 12.02 ft
Displacement Full Lood, 48,
This craft has buttock lines that are very WL5
nearly straight in the region from Sta. 8 to Sta.
12, or for the aftermost third of the length. The
minimum rise-of-floor angle at Sta. 4, one-third
of the length from the bow, exceeds 8 deg. The
ratio of transom beam to maximum waterline
beam is rather large for a round-bottom boat but Wcterlme

in this case it provides additional room within Buttock Spocmq 15 l_ ..

Spacing 15

1.0 ft for all

the hull.
Designed Speed ot Full Lood, 10.5 kt YV/Vl at 'this 'speed. 1.517
77.34 Design for a Motorboat of Limited
Draft. For a motorboat of normal design, the Fig. 77.T Body Plan op 50-Foot Utility Boat
Sec. 77.36 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORBOAT 859

protection to the propener(s) and ruddcr(is), is (1) The speed of advance Va is 0.95 (21) kt. In
added to the liuU draft. the units required for the chart. Fig. 77. U, this
This estimate, plus a preliminary layout of the is 0.95(24) (1.15) = 24.84 mph.
propeller(s) and rudder(s), and an estimate of (2) The shaft power, considered here as the power
the sinkage at the stern, indicates roughly whether delivered directly to tiie propeller, is 207 horses
the limiting-draft conditions can be met. per shaft, from the calculation at the end of
Because of the small immersion of its surface Sec. 77.26. On the basis that the engine is rated
propellers and the small trim by the stern at for sea-level operation the barometric modifier
which it runs, a sea-sled type of motorboat may of (b) preceding is 1.00, for a boat to be operated
be admirably suited to operation in waters of always at sea level. Strictly speaking, since the
limited depth. A 75-ft cruising yacht of the sea- 24 kt is a maxunum trial speed and not a sus-
sled type, in which the extreme draft is of the tained speed, the sustained-load factor should
order of only 3.5 ft, is illustrated in the literature also be 1.00. However, it seems wise, as in the
[Yachting, Apr 1950, p. 62]. case of the ABC ship described in Chap. 69, to
77.35 Estimate of Screw-Propeller Charac- limit the power at designed speed to about 0.96
teristics. For the selection of preliminary screw- of the maximum. Allowing for transmission losses
propeller characteristics for a motorboat, use is of the order of 3 per centand taking the nearest
made here of a nomogram developed by W. E. round figure, the shaft power delivered at each
Fermann, issued by the Marine Division of the propeller is assumed to be 210 horses.
Federal-Mogul Corporation, and used since 1943 (3) The engines are designed to run at 2,500 rpm
by the Bureau of Ships of the U. S. Navy Depart- at rated full power.
ment. The diagram is reproduced as Fig. 77. U.
On the facing page there are instructions for its Only when special performance justifies the
use, supplemented by an example worked out cost is it custom-made motor-
possible to install a

for the 24-kt planing type of ABC tender. boat propeller, conforming to a design drawn
Use of this Fermann nomogram requires that up in accordance with big-ship methods such as
three of the principal quantities be known: described in Chap. 70. Normally, a propeller is
selected from stock, having the desired number
(a) The speed of advance Va of the propeller,
of blades, diameter, pitch, and mean-width ratio.
expressed as miles per hour, where 1 kt = 1.15
77.36 Propeller Tip Clearances; Hull Vibra-
mph. The value Va
reckoned as 0.90 the
of is
tion. For a craft of the displacement type the
speed V of the boat for a single-screw craft with
propeller-tip clearance need beno more than the
a fine run and 0.95 times that speed for twin-screw
nominal turbulent boundary-layer thickness 5
craft, whether of the planing or round-bottom
(delta), determined for an a;-distance equal to
types. P. G. Tomalin gives a special nomogram
that from the stem to the propeller position and
for determining the factor (1 — w) [SNAME, for a speed V equal to the highest boat speed
1953, p. 602].
expected. Using the ABC round-bottom tender
(b) The shaft power Ps delivered at each pro-
as an example, the .r-distance to the propeller is
peller. This may
be taken as 0.95 times the rated
about 33 ft. At a speed of say 14 kt or 23.65 ft
brake power P^ of the engine connected to that
per sec in standard salt water, R^ from Table 45.b
propeller. The instructions accompanying the
isabout 60 (10*^). Assuming that the flow is fully
Fermann chart state that the shaft power is equal
turbulent and interpolating between the graphs
to the brake power times the efficiency of trans-
of Fig. 45. C, the value of 5 at the propeller is
mission to the propeller times a barometric
about 0.3 ft. The data plotted there are for fresh
modifier times a sustained-load factor. The water but the values would not change materially
product of the last three factors is given as an
for salt water.
average of 0.90 for gasoline engines and 0.85 for
For a planing craft, the R^ length is somewhat
diesel engines.
shortened because of the diminished wetted length
(c) The rate of rotation in rpm at which the
along the keel. For the ABC planing tender,
propeller turns. This is equal to the engine rpm
running at 24 kt or 40.53 ft per sec, the mean
for direct drive.
wetted length is just under 22 ft, giving an R^ of
Taking the twin-screw 24-kt planing type ABC about 66 (lO**) in salt water and a 5 at the pro-
tender as an example: peller position (from Fig. 45. C) of the order of
 r

860 HVDRODVN.\i\riC,S IN SHIP DESIGN Srr. 77 Jf^

RATE OF ROTATION, revolutions per minute, LOCATOR

RATE OF ROTATION, REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE, SELECTOR

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SPEED OF ADVAjNCE, miles per hour

PITCH-DIAMETER RATIO for MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

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 Sec. n.3C, PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A MOTORROAT 861

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862 HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP DESIGN Sec. 77.37

0.2 Here the .r-distance involved is slightly

ft. boat, with the center of its "sail" area in the
less than the mean wetted length, because the proper fore-and-aft position, is usually more
propeller is to be forward of the transom. important than on a large vessel.
Without any more than instinctive or intuitive Chap. 54 contains sufficient information for an
knowledge of viscous flow, boundary layers, or estimate of the still-air drag of the hull and deck
wake velocities, N. G. Herreshoff buUt many erections of a small craft. Sec. 77.26 contains a
successful high-speed launches, yachts, and tor- computation of this drag for the planing-type of
pedoboats in the half-century between 1870 and ABC tender.
1920 Mith extremely small tip clearances [Herre- 77.38 Design of Control Surfaces and Appen-
shoff, L. Francis, "N. G. Herreshoff and Some of dages. The
principal control surfaces and ap-
the Yachts He Designed," The Rudder, Mar pendages on a motorboat or other self-propelled
1950, pp. 33-35; Sep 1950, pp. 26-27, 56-58]. small craft are:
He was fully as conscious as are modern marine
(1) Deep keel or skeg, or a combination of the two
architects of the advantages of smooth running
(2) Vertical stabihzing fin on an ultra-high-speed
and the need