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LAB – 3
AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS
EXPERIMENT – 3.1
COMMON – EMITTER AMPLIFIER
3.1.1 OBJECTIVE
a. To sketch a common – emitter amplifier circuit and explain the operation of the circuit.
b. To analyze the amplifier circuit to determine input resistance output resistance, voltage gain,
current gain and power gain.
c. To design a CE amplifier Circuit for the given specifications.
d. To observe with an oscilloscope, the transient signal voltages of the input and output of the
amplifier.
e. To measure the voltage gain of the amplifier over and range of frequencies and plot the
frequency response curve.
f. To determine the values of lower and upper 3-dB frequencies and 3-dB bandwidth.
g. To trouble shoot a non-operational CE amplifier.
(i) To make a dynamic test which will determine whether the ac amplifier is operating
properly?
(ii) To consider dc voltage and resistance norms at test points in the amplifier which is
operating properly, and to draw inferences as to the nature of the trouble from the
voltage and resistance measurements in a defective amplifier.
R1 Rc
33k 2.2k
C2
C1
Q1
rs
600 RL
33k
Vs R2 RE CE
15k 2.7k
Fig. (a)
2. Calculate the transistor collector voltage for the circuit of problem – 1 with C2 present, and with
RL directly connected.
3. The CE circuit shown in problem – 1 has the following transistor parameters: hie=1KΩ, hfe=85,
hoe=2µS. Calculate Zi, ZO & AV.
4. For the circuit in problem–1, recalculate Zi &AV when the bypass capacitor is removed from RE.
5. For a CE circuit with voltage–divider bias, a bypass emitter resistor, a capacitor–coupled signal
source, and a capacitor-coupled load,
(i) Sketch the dc equivalent circuit and write expressions for the dc voltages and currents.
(ii) Sketch the ac equivalent circuit and approximate h-parameter equivalent circuit and
write expressions for Zi, Zo, Av, Ai and AP.
(iii) Draw ac and dc load lines on the output characteristics of CE configuration and explain
their significances.
6. The CE circuit has the following component values and parameter values: hie = 1.4kΩ, hfe = 55,
RL = 47K, VCC = 12V, rs= 600Ω and ZO = 3.9KΩ. Sketch the circuit and determine suitable
resistor and capacitor values. Also, calculate Zi, Zo, AV, Ai and AP for the circuit designed.
3.1.4 THEORY
Amplifier is an electronic circuit that is used to raise the strength of a weak signal.
The process of raising the strength of a weak signal is known as amplification. One importance
requirement during amplification is that only the magnitude of the signal should increase and there
should be no change in signal shape. The transistor is used for amplification. When a transistor is
used as an amplifier, the first step is to choose a proper configuration in which device is to be used.
Then the transistor is biased to get the desired Q-point. The signal is applied to the amplifier input
and gain is achieved.
Rc
R1
C2
C1
Q1
RL
Vs R2
RE CE
When the capacitors are regarded as ac short circuits, it is seen that the circuit input terminals are
the transistor base and emitter, and the output terminals are the collector and the emitter. So, the
emitter terminal is common to both input and output, and the circuit configuration is termed
Common –Emitter (CE).
From the voltage waveforms for the CE circuit shown in Fig. 3-1-1 (a) it is seen that
there is a 180o phase shift between the input and output waveforms. This can be understood by
considering the effect of a positive going input signal. When VS increases in a positive direction, it
increases the transistor VBE. The increase in VBE raises the level of IC, thereby increasing the drop
across Rc, and thus reducing the level of the VC. The changing level of VC is capacitor-coupled to
the circuit output to produce the ac output voltage, VO. As VS increases in a positive direction, VO
goes in a negative direction. Similarly, When VS changes in a negative direction, the resultant
decrease in VBE reduces the IC level, thereby reducing VRC, and producing a positive going output.
The circuit in Fig. 3-1-1(a) has input impedance (Zi) and output impedance (ZO).
These can cause voltage division of the circuit input and output voltages. So, for most transistor
circuits Zi and ZO are important parameters. The circuit voltage amplification (AV), or voltage gain,
depends on the transistor parameters and on resistor RC and RL.
(i) Biasing circuit: The resistances R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilization circuit. The
biasing circuit must establish a proper operating point, otherwise a part of the negative half-
cycle of the signal may be cut-off in the output.
(ii) Input capacitor, C1: An electrolyte capacitor C1 is used to couple the signal to the base of the
transistor. If it is not used, the signal source resistance, rs will come across R2 and thus change
the bias. C1 allows only ac signal to flow but isolates the signal source from R2
(iii) Emitter bypass capacitor, CE: An Emitter bypass capacitor, CE is used parallel with RE to
provide low reactance path to the amplified ac signal. If it is not used, then ac amplified ac
signal following through RE will cause a voltage drop across it, thereby reducing the output
voltage.
(iv) Coupling capacitor, C2: The coupling capacitor, C2 couples one stage of amplification to the
next stage. If it is not used, the bias conditions of the next stage will be drastically changed
due to the shunting effect of RC. This is because RC will come in parallel with the upper
resistance R1 of the biasing network of the next stage, thereby altering the biasing conditions
of the latter. In short, the coupling capacitor C2 isolates the dc of one stage from the next
stage, but allows the passage of ac signal.
It is clear that the voltage gain drops off at low (< fL) and high (> fH) frequencies whereas it is
uniform over mid-frequency range (fL to fH).
(i) At low frequencies (< fL), the reactance of coupling capacitor is quite high and hence very
small part of signal will pass from amplifier stage to the load. Moreover, CE cannot shunt the
RE effectively because of its large reactance at low frequencies. These two factors cause a
falling of voltage gain at low frequencies.
(ii) At high frequencies (> fH), the reactance of C2 is very small and it behaves as a short circuit.
This increases the loading effect of amplifier stage and serves to reduce the voltage gain.
Q1
Rc RL
Vs R1 R2
The next step in the ac analysis is to draw h-parameter circuit by replacing the transistor in the ac
equivalent circuit with its h-parameter model. Fig. 3-1-4 shows the h-parameter equivalent circuit
for CE circuit.
B C
+ -
rs
hfeib RL
Vi R1 R2 R3 1/hoe Rc Vo
Vs
Zi . Zb . .
Zc .
Zo
- +
E E
1
Device output impedance, Z C = (3-1-3)
hoe
h fe
Circuit voltage gain, AV = − ( RC RL ) (3-1-5)
hie
h fe RC RB
Circuit current gain, Ai = (3-1-6)
( RC + RL )( RC + hie )
Circuit power gain, AP = AV x Ai (3-1-7)
C1
Q1
RL
Vs R2
RE CE
Note: When VE>>VBE, VE will be only slightly affected by any variation in VBE (due to
temperature change or other effects)
Once VE, VCE and Ic are selected, VRC is determined as VRC = VCC – VCE – VE
VRC V
Then, RC and RE are calculated as RC = and RE = E
IC IC
Selection of bias resistors
As discussed in lab-1, experiment-1.1, section-1.1, selection of voltage divider
current (I2) as IC/10 gives good bias stability and reasonably high input resistance. The bias resistors
are calculated as
VB V − VB
R2 = and R1 = CC
I2 I2
Selecting R2 = 10RE gives I2 = IC/10 the precise level of I2 can be calculated as I2 = VB/R2 and this
can be used in the equation for R1.
The coupling capacitors C1 and C2 should have a negligible effect on the frequency
response of the circuit. To minimize the effects of C1 and C2, the reactance of each coupling
capacitor is selected to be approximately equal to one-tenth of the impedance in series with it at the
lowest operating frequency of the circuit (fL).
Z i + rs
X C1 =
10
Z O + RL
X C3 =
10
Usually, RL >> ZO and often Zi >> rS, so that ZO and rS can be omitted in the above equations.
Design problem
(i) Design a single stage CE transistor amplifier using BC107 transistor with Vcc = 15V,
VCEQ = 5V, VE = 3V, RL = 47KΩ and fL = 100Hz.
(ii) Determine Zi, ZO, AV, Ai and AP for the CE circuit designed in problem (i).
Procedure
Given VCC = 15V, VCE = 5V, VE = 3V, RL = 47kΩ and fL = 100Hz.
The data sheet of BC107 transistor shows: hie = 3kΩ and hFE=190
Selection of RC
RC << RL so that RL will have little effect on the circuit voltage gain.
R L 47 K
Select RC = = = 4.7 KΩ (Standard value)
10 10
Selection of RE
VE VE
RE = ≈
IE IC
Selection of C1 and C2
The coupling capacitors C1 and C2 should have negligible effect on the frequency response of
the circuit. So, the reactance of each coupling capacitor is selected to be approximately equal to
1/10th of the impedance in series with it at the lowest operating frequency for the circuit.
Z i R1 R2 hie 68K 22 K 3K
X C1 ≈ = = = 254
10 10 10
1 1
∴ C1 = = = 6 µF
2πf L X C1 2 × π × 100 × 254
RL 47 K
X C2 ≈ = = 4 .7 K Ω
10 10
1 1
∴ C2 = = = 0.34 µF (use a standard 0.33µF)
2πf L X C 2 2 × π × 100 × 4.7 K
Selection of CE
hie 3 KΩ
X CE = = = 15.71
1 + h fe 1 + 190
1 1
∴ CE = = = 101.36µF (use a standard 100µF)
2πf L X CE 2 × π × 100 × 15.71
Rc
R1 4.7K
68K C2
C1 0.33uF
Q1
6uF
RL
47K
Vs R2
22K RE CE
2.2K 4.7K
Rc
R1 4.7K
68K C2
0Vdc
C 5Vdc
C1 0.33uF
0Vdc 5.7Vdc
B Q1
6uF
E 3Vdc RL
47K
Vs R2
22K RE CE
2.2K 4.7K
Instability
After the circuit has been constructed, the power supply should be set to the
appropriate voltage and then connected and switched on. An oscilloscope should be connected
to monitor the output of the amplifier to check that the circuit is not oscillating. If the circuit is
oscilloscope the oscillations must be stopped before proceeding further.
Amplifier instability can be the result of incorrect design or poor circuit layout. It can
also be caused by feedback along the conductors from the power supply to the circuit. To
stabilize an unstable amplifier, commence by connecting a 0.01µf decoupling capacitor from the
positive supply line to ground. Where a plus–minus supply is used, connect capacitor from each
supply line to ground.
If the circuit is still unstable, small shunt capacitors should be connected from the
transistor collect terminal to ground, or between collector and base.
decoupling
capacitor
C1
Rc
R1
shunt
capacitor
C2
Q1
Fig. 3-1-8 CE amplifier circuit with decoupling capacitors and small shunt capacitors to eliminate
oscillations in an unstable
DC Voltage measurements
Once it is established that the circuit is stable the next step is to measure the dc
voltage levels at all transistor terminals. A digital multimeter (DMM) should be used IF the dc
vulgates are not satisfactory; they must be corrected before proceeding further.
Vcc=15V
Rc
R1 4.7K
68K
C 5Vdc
5.7Vdc
B Q1
E 3Vdc
R2
22K RE
2.2K
Dynamic test
When satisfactory dc levels are established throughout the circuit, dynamic test may
proceed. Suppose that there is no signal at the output terminals of the amplifier for a specified signal
input. The dynamic signal-tracing method can be used to determine what is wrong with the circuit.
The procedure is as follows. A sine-wave signal no larger than the amplifier can handle is injected
into the input terminals of the amplifier and observed at these terminals with an oscilloscope. If the
observed signal is normal, the oscilloscope probe is moved to point B (base) of the amplifier. (Refer
Fig.3-1-7) The sine-wave signal at this point should be approximately the same as at the input
terminals if the amplifier input is normal. If there is no signal at the base, two possible reasons exist.
The first is that the capacitor C1 is open. The second is that the base terminal is short circuited to
ground. An open capacitor may readily be found by connecting a 0-1µf capacitor across C1 and
observing with oscilloscope the output signal. If an output signal appears, this indicates that
capacitor is open. If no signal appears at output terminals, the oscilloscope probe is connected to the
base. No signal indicates a short circuit in the base circuit.
We may also determine if capacitor C2 is open by signal tracing. Assume that the
input circuit, including C1, is found to be operating correctly, but that there is no signal at the output
terminals of the amplifier. The oscilloscope probe is then connected directly to the collector of
transistor. If normal signal appears at the collector, but non exists at the output terminals, we know
that C2 is open.
Resistance measurements
Resistance measurements in transistor circuits, always made with power turned off,
are helpful in determining defective components. The resistance measured at the base B to G should
be 22kΩ. The resistance measured at the emitter E to G should be 2.2kΩ. The resistance from
collector C to G would be the sum of RC, R1 and R2; in this case 94.7kΩ. These value, then, are the
standard or norm for the circuit of Fig. 3-1-10.
Vcc=0V
Rc
R1 4.7K
68K
C
B
Q1
E
DMM R2
22K RE
2.2K
The most obvious resistor defects are opens, which can be spotted very easily. For example, if the
resistance measured from E to G is infinite (∞), then either RE is open, or the connective wiring is
open. So, the resistance checks and continuity checks will reveal where the defect is.
3.1.6 EXPERIMENT
1. DC voltage measurements
1.1 Assemble the dc equivalent of the CE amplifier circuit you have designed, as shown in fig. 3-1-
9. Use the BC 107 transistor, or equivalent.
1.2 Measure Q point and other transistor terminal voltages and currents as per the procedure given
in experiment 1.1. Tabulate the readings in table 3-1-1. Compare the measured values with the
calculated values.
Input Voltage
Output Voltage
4. Resistance measurements
4.1 In the above assembled circuit, keep the magnitude and frequency of the source same, ie.,
100mVpp at 1KHz frequency.
4.2 Connect a potentiometer Rin (variable resistance) in series with the circuit input terminal and the
signal source, as shown in fig. 3-1-11
4.3 Connect a two-channel CRO to simultaneously monitor the input and output signal voltage
Vcc=15V
waveforms.
Rc
R1 4.7K
68K C2
C1 R4 0.33uF
Q1
6uF 10k
R5
Vs R2 50k
22K RE CE
2.2K 4.7K
4.4 Adjust the POT until a new output signal VO, equal to one-half the original measured value of
VO is obtained. Now, remove Rin from the circuit and measure its resistance using DMM. The
measured value in ohms equals the input impedance, Zi.
4.5 To measure the output impedance ZO of the amplifier, connect a potentiometer Rout to the
output circuit.
4.6 Adjust the POT until a new output signal VO, equal to one-half the original measured value of
VO is obtained. Now, remove Rout from the circuit and measure its resistance using DMM. The
measured value in ohms equals the output impedance, Zo. Tabulate the readings in table 3-1-4.
Input Impedance, Zi
Output Impdance, ZO