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P17. - Variable Frequency Drive Principles and Practices (Above NEMA) AC Motors and VFD Application
P17. - Variable Frequency Drive Principles and Practices (Above NEMA) AC Motors and VFD Application
Abstract - Since AC motors are increasingly used in WPI - Weather Protected NEMA Type I - open motor
applications traditionally served by DC motors, a comparison constructed to minimize the entrance of rain, snow, and
of some characteristics of AC and DC motors seems airborne particles, guarded to keep objects over 34 inch out.
appropriate. Aspects of motor design and application will be WPII - Weather Protected NEMA Type TI - Weather
reviewed, including typical construction, torque production, Proof outdoor duty - open hooded motor with both intake
equivalent circuits, power and torque density ratings, speed
and load ranges. passages making three turns equal to or greater than 90".
The intake and discharge ventilating passages are arranged
Understanding the effects of variable frequency on the so that high-velocity air and air-borne particles blown into
motor's characteristics will help in the selection process of a the machine by storms or high winds can not enter the
motor and control unit matched to the application. internal ventilating passages.
Depending on the type of inverter, the input voltage and
current waveform supplied to the motor will cause some Totally Enclosed - restricted air flow - no flee exchange
degree of distortion from a pure sine wave. This distortion of air between air inside the motor and outside ambient air
can be mathematically expressed in terms of harmonics.
Harmonic currents create no useful torque at the motor shaft, TENV - Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated - no fan, cooled
just additional heating in the motor. by convection and radiation only.
TEFC - Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled, Totally enclosed
The motor application must also be considered. Different with an external air circulation powered by a shaft-
load types have different effects on the motor. Constant mounted fan.
torque, variable torque, and constant horsepower are the TETC - Totally Enclosed Tube Cooled - Totally enclosed
three different load requirements typically considered, and with internal and external shaft-mounted fans for air
affect motor heating in different ways. While all three will movement through an air to air tube-type heat exchanger.
be discussed, the primary focus of this paper is on the TEWAC - Totally Enclosed Water to Air Cooled -
"constant torque" applications with PWM inverters, as
applied to process machines such as Paper Machines and Totally enclosed with internal shaft-mounted fans for air
Winders. movement through an air to water heat exchanger and
external water flowing through the heat exchanger.
TETC-BC - Totally Enclosed Tube Cooled, Blower
Variable speed motor enclosure configurations - There are Cooled - TETC with internal and external air circulations
two basic types of AC motors, Induction and Synchronous. powered by separately powered blowers.
The focus in this paper is the AC induction motor. There TEWAC-BC - Totally Enclosed Water to Air Cooled,
are two general categories of enclosures, Open and Blower Cooled - TEWAC with internal air circulation
Enclosed. Some variations of these two types are listed powered by separately powered blower, external water
below: flowing through the heat exchanger.
TEFC-XP - Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled, Explosion
Open Enclosures - generally unrestricted air flow, Proof - a more restrictive version of TEFC, with
provides for primary heat dissipation via external air restrictions on potential flame paths andlor skin
circulation through the machine. temperature, depending upon environmental requirements
Open - external air circulation directly through windings. - in the US, categories are Class I for gases, Class I1 for
Guarded - with mesh to keep objects over % inch out. dusts.
ODP - Open Drip Proof - protected from drops falling at TEAO-BC - Totally Enclosed Air Over Blower Cooled
up to 15" from the vertical. (with mounted blower) - basically TEFC, except with
DPG - Drip Proof Guarded - ODP plus Guarded. separately powered mounted blower circulating air over
SPG - Splash Proof - protected from drops falling at up to the outside of the motor. Often available in either in-line
100" from the vertical.
or piggy-back blower configurations.
DPG or SPG -FV / -SV - DPG or SPG Force Ventilated
(Blower Cooled) I Separately Ventilated.
0-7803-5526-1/99/$10.0001999 IEEE
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TESV / TEPV - Totally Enclosed Se:parately Ventilated / was usually tied to the speed. The following table shows
TE Pipe Ventilated - TEA0 with forced air from separate the relationship between the speed of an AC induction
supply circulating air through the inside of the m'otor. motor versus poles.
For variable speed motors, TEFC motors are often used in I 1 Synchronous Frequency (Hz) 1
NEMA frame sizes, and depending upon size, can yield Poles 1 50 60
from 2:l up to 1O:l Constant Torque Speed ranges with
proper fan selection. TENV (in smaller horsepower or 4 1 1500 1
intermittent duty) motors are used for wider speed range, 6 1 1000 I 1200
since these motors do not depend upon an integral fan for
cooling. For widest speed ranges, separately ventilated or
8 1 750 I
10 I 600 I 720
900
blower-cooled motors are used, since they can be cooled at
12 I 500 1
low speeds or at rest as well as at higher speeds. Due 14 I 429 I 5 14
partially to the expense of separate ventilation systems, Figure 1
blower-cooled AC motors have become more favored over
time. The equation of speed of an AC induction motor is as
follows:
Design Considerationsfor an AC Variable Speed Motor RPM (N) = 120 x f / P, where
DC motors have always been designed for specidied speed F = applied frequency in Hertz
ranges. DC motors are manufactured with a predetermined P = number of magnetic poles
number of poles. DC motor designers have always had the
ability to choose the optimal number of poleis in a DC When AC motors are designed to operate on variable
motor. Specifications never requested an %pole DC frequency power the designer usually will choose an
motor, but rather a DC motor with a specified speed range. optimal number of poles. The number of poles in a
The variable speed DC product line was optimized for variable speed AC induction motor may be different than
many different speed ranges utilizing a set inumber of those most user are accustom to. By using a set number of
poles. The following equation shows how speed is poles for a given frame size regardless of the ispeed range
proportional to number of poles in a DC motor . the manufacturing and tooling cost can be reduced, and the
performance of the motor can be optimized. For example,
DC Motor pole equation: a motor with a 900-RPM base speed could be a 4-pole
motor operated at 30 Hz.
N = (Eg x a x k) / (@ x z x P), where
The AC motor designer takes into consideration the
N = speed in RPM following when choosing the number of poles in a variable
E, = motor counter EMF speed AC motor.
a = number of armature parallel circuits,
k = constant related to units Motor Optimization:
CP = flux per pole Maximize torque density.
z = number of armature concluctors 0 Maximize power factor and efficiency.
P = number of magnetic poles 0 Maximize speed range.
Maximize overload.
Maximize reliability.
This leads to the following rough polt: selections vs torque: Minimize current.
0 2 pole - up to 60 lb-ft 0 Minimize temperature rise.
4 pole - from 50 through 8,000 11)-ft Minimize noise.
6 pole - from 2,000 through 13,000lb-ft Minimize cost.
8 pole - from 10,000 through 90,000 lb-ft Minimize vibration.
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Variable Speed - Motor Operation and Speed Range constant torque range voltage increase proportional to
frequency, flux is held constant.
AC Induction motors can operate in a “Constant Flux” or
“Field Weakened” mode. The Constant flux mode is often Flux cc Volts/Hertz
referred to as the Constant Torque range and the Field
Weakened mode as the Constant Power range. The If flux is held constant, constant torque per amp can be
following equation shows the relationship between torque achieved.
and power:
Torque cc Flux x Amps
Torque = Horsepower x 5252
RPM Therefore, constant torque range is defined by:
1. Base Speed is maximum speed and is constrained
The equation shows that if torque is held constant as speed by the limitation on increasing voltage
increases power must also increases. If power is held proportionalto frequency for constant flux.
constant than torque decreases proportional to speed. 2. Minimum speed is limited by:
Figure 2 shows the relationship between torque, power and 0 Heat transfer if motor cooling is dependent
speed. on motor speed
Maintaining constant flux.
To better understand the operation of a variable speed
motor several terms should be defined. Constant volts per hertz is usually viewed as the ratio of
terminal voltage, V1.,/Hz. It is actually the ratio of E,,,/Hz,
Base speed - the speed point at which the motor changes where E, is the magnetizing voltage. The motor
from constant torque to constant power operation. This is equivalent circuit in figure 3 shows Em.
normally the point at which the motor transitions from
constant volts per hertz to constant volts.
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To maintain constant flux the terminal voltage would have
to follow the pattern in figure 4. The percent difference at
higher frequencies between loads is small. However, at
low frequencies only several volts may result in a large
percentage change.
,., Motor Losses
When proper voltage boost is not applied the torque/amp TEFC Thermal Capacity, /’ I
L o w Frequency Figure 7
Per U n i t T o r q u e per A m p
Constant Power Range
i=HxVN
97
Typically in the constant power range volts are held By plotting the speed power curves it can be seen that the
constant. The following equation shows that flux in the power decreases inversely proportionately to the change in
constant power range decreases as frequency increases. speed or frequency, see figure 10. It is then clear that
eventually the motor will not be able to maintain constant
Flux K Volts / Hertz power.
SPEED
8 Overload Torque
I ‘\\
Overload Amps
1
cn”
The maximum torque of an AC induction motor is
proportionate to the square of the flux level. Since the flux
level in the constant power range is decreasing inversely Q
e -.A&.-.
Volts *,‘
proportionately to the speed, the breakdown torque 6
3
decreases as the square of the speed.
P
t-“ ,- -
; Rated Amps
Speed
Figure 12
98
Maximum Speed Limitations in Field Weakened Range: speed ranges may cause the motor size to significantly
Torque or Power Limited: Motor will not carry rated increase if constant current is required throughout the
power due to the inverse relationship between power speed range.
and speed in the constant power region.
Rotor Stresses: Maximum speed may be limited by Several ways to achieve wide constant power range are:
material fatigue stress limits in the rotor bars, 1. Increase breakdown torque at application base speed,
laminations or end rings. usually requires increased motor size.
Fans: Shaft mounted fans can limit motor speed due 2. Increase available torque at maximum speed by
to noise, fatigue stresses or fan losses. shifting motor base speed point. Shifting the motor
Bearing Limit: Safe running speed for the bearings base speed point, end of the constant vodt per hertz
limits the maximum speed of the motor. range, can reduce the size of the motor required for
Critical Speed: A proper separation, 15-20%, between wide constant power ranges.
a motor shaft critical speed and the motor running
speed must be maintained. Motors can operate with A motor with a "shifted" base speed means that the
the first critical speed below maximum field application base speed and the motor base speed are no
weakened speed if 1520% of the speed range on both longer the same speed. In other words the spe:ed at which
sides of the critical is blocked out in the running the motor changes from constant volt/Hz to constant volts
mode. is no longer the same speed at which the application
Maximum Safe Speed: This is the maximum safe changes for constant torque to constant power. Figure 13
speed the motor can run. This speed is not to be shows a motor curve with the shifted base speed. Note
exceeded for any time or load condition. that since the constant volts per hertz is shifted into the
constant power range that current increase as speed drops
from the motor base speed until it reaches apphcation base
Wide Constant Power Speed Ranges speed. The following equation shows the reason for the
current increase.
Many applications such as winders require wide: constant
power speed ranges. Typical applications with wide Power =Volts x Amps
constant power speed ranges may require a maximum
speed of 3 to 5 times base speed. Wide consstantpower
0 180 360 540 720 900 1080 1260 1440 1620 1800
99
The advantages of shifting motor base speed: cost and improved performance and reliability in AC
1. Reduced motor size and cost, sometimes one to drives. Concerns to be addressed in the design for variable
two frame sizes. frequency drives are the same as those for constant speed
2. Reduced motor inertia. motors with the added concern of the varying speed range.
3. Increased overload capability.
The main areas of concern are rotating assembly stresses,
The disadvantages of shifting motor base speed: lateral critical speeds, structural resonance and bearing
1. Increased motor current may increase drive size. limitations. This paper will provide an overview of each of
these key mechanical concerns when designing ac motors
for variable frequency drives.
Overloads
Overloads are frequently required for variable speed Rotating Assembly Design
operation. Overloads are defined as momentary loads,
usually 1 minute or less, some percentage above rated The primary components placing stresses on the rotating
torque. Infrequent overloads below 200% of rated torque assembly are centrifugal forces and forces due to thermal
in the constant torque range usually are standard on expansion. Centrifugal force is proportional to the product
variable speed large AC motors. of the mass times the square of the speed.
The following overload conditions may require design Centrifugal Force Equation:
changes including oversizing of the motor:
1. Frequently applied overloads. F = ma2,where
2. Overloads 200% and greater in the constant m = mass
torque range. r = radius
3. Overloads in the constant power range which are w = speed in rpm
not tapered to 100% of rated torque at maximum
speed. In many variable frequency motor designs, a six-pole
design may be required to operate at a speed of 1800 rpm
Since motor breakdown torque decreases proportionately instead of a four pole, in part due to better power factors,
to the square of speed increase in the constant power efficiencies, and in some cases larger torque requirements.
range, overloads at maximum speed are difficult to With the six-pole motor design, the rotating assembly is
produce. larger in diameter than a four-pole design, resulting in
higher centrifugal forces on the rotating assembly at the
Applications which require overloads in the constant maximum operating speed. The excess radial expansion
power range that are not tapered to rated torque at places the end ring in circumferential or hoop stress, and
maximum speed have the following effect on motor the bar extension in shear with a bending moment (Fig 14).
design:
Heat generated in the rotor by secondary 1% losses, iron
1. Require higher breakdown torque at base speed, losses, and friction and windage losses results in thermal
shifting of motor base speed or further shifting of expansion of the rotor bars and end rings. During startup
motor base speed. current flows through the rotor bars, and the bars expand
2. May further oversize motor. axially as the heat flows towards the end rings, which act
3. May increase rated current of motor. as heat sinks. At this time the rotor cage is subjected to
4. May negatively impact thermal rating at base extremely high thermal stresses and dynamic loads. The
speed. stress levels at the bar extension, brazed end ring to bar
joint, and shrink rings are all analyzed based on all
Mechanical Design Considerations for an AC Variable projected operating conditions.
Speed Motor
Figure 14 shows the effects of centrifugal forces and
AC variable speed motors are becoming increasing popular thermal expansion on a fabricated bar rotor.
due to advances in inverter technology that has reduced
100
Modifying the slot shape and height (Fig. 16) can
redistribute the stresses and extend the rotor life. A larger
slot cross sectional area Drovides more shear area.
--
Figure 14. Fabricated Bar Rotor Design
Laminations
-
I
Bridge I hickness
-, -Overhang
I01
High stresses can also cause yielding or the fracturing of necessary airflow to keep the motor within temperature
the laminations between the slots, bridge bending, etc., rise limitations.
(Fig 18a and 18b).
102
a guide for maximum safe operating speeds. The speed contact surfaces results in a reduction of the: fatigue life.
value (DN) for inner ring rotation is the product of bearing Fatigue life is reduced due to direct metallic contact
bore in mm and shaft speed in rpm. between the bearing rings, rolling elements, and cage.
Operating at overspeed conditions or higher operating
For a 6217 bearing: temperatures reduces the number of operating hours for the
Bore size is 85 mm relubrication schedule (Fig. 19).
Single row - Conrad type I Pressed steel cage
Speed 4000 rpm I Grease Lubrication
DN Value = (85)(4000) = 340,000
Temperature
Bearing temperature is generally the limiting factor in
establishing limitations on the bearing operating speed. Figure 19. Grease Replacement and Bearing Speed
The motor enclosure also contributes to the bearing speed
limitation, since more of the heat transmits through the Options include:
shaft on enclosed motors than open mot'ors. Higher
ambient requirements and high altitude requireiments also 1. High temperature greases that operate at higher
temperatures without generating additional heat.
place more restrictions on the be,aring speed. For high
2. Oil mist lubrication provides a continuous fresh
temperature environments, bearing manufacturers offer
higher heat stabilized bearings with larger internal supply of cool oil vapor to the bearing.
clearances. High temperature environments can be dealt
with in the design stage, by optimiziing the motor design to
minimize the heat being generated within th,e motor by
adding blower motors, air scoops, special fans, or Cage Design /Internal Clearance
increasing the frame size. The internal clearance of a bearing is the total clearance
between the rings and rolling elements. The radial and
axial internal clearance of a bearing affects the temperature
Lubrication and fatigue life. The clearances between the rings and balls
absorb the effects of press fitting. They also compensate
The operating temperature of the motor also1 (affects the for thermal expansion of the bearing, shaft, and housing.
bearing lubrication. An increase in bearing temperature Excessive heat results in thermal expansion of the shaft,
results in the viscosity of the lubricant being reduced and housing, or bearing, or any combination of these. Thermal
lubricant film formation is made more difficult, leading to expansion reduces the clearance between tlhe shaft and
higher friction and further temperature rise. Motor heat bearing, further increasing operating temperature. When a
transfers through the shaft into the bearing, which also large bearing temperature rise is expected, a bearing with a
leads to a reduced speed rating. A reduced film thickness greater internal clearance may be required to prevent
affects dynamics and stiffness, potentially leading to losing the entire operating clearance, which can lead to
excess vibration. A reduced film tlhickness at the rolling bearing failure.
103
Shaft axial thermal growth is taken into consideration by Lightly loaded bearings are also a problem. Bearings
having one bearing locked and having the other bearing lightly loaded are subject to skidding, which generates heat
free to float (Fig. 20). As the shaft expands axially, one and wear. This is primarily a concern on high torque
bearing is free to move in the housing. The housing design applications requiring large shaft extensions and large
allows for some expansion. Heat transmitting through the bearings. Larger bearings require additional loading for
shaft to the bearing reduces the free clearance in the proper operation.
bearing housing. Excessive heating will cause both
bearings to lock, placing a thrust load on the bearings and
leading to failure. Sleeve Bearings
Load
104
Sleeve Bearing Speed Limitations Bearing Clearance
The minimum speed for sleeve bearings is based on the In sleeve bearings the clearance between the journal and
load, speed, and bearing design. 'When there is not shaft depends on the bearing bore diameter, surface finish,
sufficient oil flow into the bearing to maintain proper oil and thermal growth. The typical rule for clearance is for
film thickness, the bearing and shaft surfaces contact, every inch of shaft diameter add one mil of clearance
leading to premature bearing failure. The maximum between the shaft and bearing. When a clearance is too
permissible speed is a function of lubrication, temperature, large, the load-carrying capability is reduced and affects
alignment, shaft surface finish, hardness and oil ring the bearing stiffness as well. The bearing clearance
delivery rates. The sleeve bearing liner is capable of changes as the bearing liner temperature changes. As the
handling temperatures up to 100°C, temperatures above temperature increases the clearance for the oil film is
this level exceeds the yield point of the bearing liner reduced. When the clearance is dramatically reduced, the
material. bearing overheats, resulting in a loss of clearance and then
failure occurs. As the oil film gets thinner two additional
properties of the system change. The bearing stiffness and
Oil Ring Design damping characteristics change. These changes will affect
the overall operation of the motor concerning system
Another factor to consider is the oil ring design. The oil resonance.
ring hangs over the shaft journal, with the lower half
dropping into the oil reservoir. As the shaft rotates, the
ring rotates and lifts oil to the top of the bearing. At high Resonant Frequencies
speeds, the oil ring design is less effective because
centrifugal force and air currents generated by the spinning Structural, lateral, and torsional natural frequencies are a
shaft throws oil from the rings meaning less oil lubricates real concern for motors that operate on variable frequency
the bearing (Fig. 23). At low speeds the oil ring will not drives. A natural frequency is a frequency at which the
sufficiently lubricate the bearing leading to bearing failure. greatest amplification of vibration occurs. A resonance
Changing the oil ring size, shape, material, cor adding occurs when a natural frequency is excited by a forcing
grooves can increase the oil flow in the bearing. function, such as imbalance. A lateral critical speed is the
natural resonant frequency of the rotor and support
systems. A torsional critical speed is a shaft natural
frequency involving a continuous twisting motion of the
shaft.
Structural Resonance
Linear Magnitude
I l l
0 0035
0 0030
0 0025
0 0020
P 00015
00010
0 0005
0 DODO
Figure 23. Oil Ring Delivery Rate -0 0005
-000l0
0 40 80 120 180 200 240 280 320 380 400
Flood lubrication, hydrostatic bearings, or anti-friction H7
105
resonates at is its natural frequency. The excitation is the The mass of the rotor and the stiffness of the shaft and
energy imparted when the fork is struck. The fork then support system determine the natural frequency. The
continues in free vibration. If the fork were to be support system includes the foundation, bearings and oil
continually struck at a rate that coincides with its natural film (Fig. 26). The oil film usually has the dominant effect
frequency, the tune would be constant. All structures have on support stiffness. The rotor can be represented as a
natural frequencies. A structure is the combination of mass supported by springs at each end.
components in the system. This is not a problem unless
there is an excitation force that coincides with one or more
of the natural frequencies. If this happens, the vibrations The natural frequency of the can then be determined from
become amplified, usually to damaging levels. the following equation:
106
concern. A motor should not be operated within minimum
of 2 15% of a critical speed to avoid amplification of the Torsional Critical Speed
motor vibration. Operating at a speed that approaches a
critical speed will cause damaging vibration levels, which
The torsional critical speed is the shaft natural frequency in
may result in bearing failure. Special consideration may
a continuous oscillatory angular (twisting) motion. The
include base designs with minimum stiffness, a lockout of
normal torsional excitation frequencies are lx mechanical
certain speed ranges, using anti-friction bearings or
and electrical and multiples of 6x running speed (Fig. 29).
reducing maximum speeds
Strong torsional vibration forces can impose severe cyclic
stresses on a drivetrain, resulting in fatigue failure. When
The location of a critical speed determines if the motor has
operating on a variable speed drive, the system’s torsional
a rigid shaft or one that is flexible. A motor operating
critical speed must be kept away from the excitation
below the first lateral critical speed is called a rigid shaft
forcing frequencies throughout the entire speed range.
design (Fig. 27). A motor with a flexible shaft operates
above the first lateral critical speed (Fig. 28). When a
Special considerations may include changing coupling
motor goes through a critical speed, it changes mode
mass and stiffness, special shaft diameters, or wing a cast
shape.
aluminum rotor. A complete drive train system analysis
must be performed to assure a torsional resonance will not
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107
References
108