Formulas and Conversions

Chapter 5
Engineering Concepts and Formulae

5.1 Electricity

Ohm's Law
V
I
R

Or

V = IR

Where
I = current (amperes)
E = electromotive force (volts)
R = resistance (ohms)

Temperature correction
Rt = Ro (1 + Įt)

Where
Ro = resistance at 0ºC (.)

Į = temperature coefficient which has an average value for copper of 0.004

Rt = resistance at tºC (.)

28 (ƻ/ƻ ºC)

(1  Dt2 )
(1  Dt1 )
R2 R1

Where R1 = resistance at t1
R2 = resistance at t2

Values of ƻ/ƻ ºC
alpha

Copper 0.00428

Platinum 0.00358

Nickel 0.00672

Tungsten 0.00450

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 Formulas and Conversions

Aluminum 0.0040

nqvtA
Current, I nqvA
t

UL
Conductor Resistivity
R
a

Ǐ = specific resistance (or resistivity) (ohm meters, ƻm)

Where

L = length (meters)
a = area of cross-section (square meters)

Quantity Equation

U
Resistance R of a uniform L
conductor R
A
Resistors in series, Rs Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

 
Resistors in parallel, R p 1 1 1 1
Rp R1 R2 R3
Power dissipated in resistor: V2
P VI I 2R
R
Potential drop across R V=IR

2MNpZ
Dynamo Formulae
Average e.m.f. generated in each conductor =
60c

Where
Z = total number of armature conductors
c = number of parallel paths through winding between positive and negative brushes
Where c = 2 (wave winding), c = 2p (lap winding)
ĭ = useful flux per pole (webers), entering or leaving the armature
p = number of pairs of poles
N = speed (revolutions per minute)

Generator Terminal volts = EG – IaRa

Motor Terminal volts = EB + IaRa

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 Formulas and Conversions

Where EG = generated e.m.f.

EB = generated back e.m.f.
Ia = armature current
Ra = armature resistance

Alternating Current
RMS value of sine curve = 0.707 of maximum value
Mean Value of Sine wave = 0.637 of maximum value
Form factor = RMS value / Mean Value = 1.11
pN
Frequency of Alternator = cycles per second
60
Where p is number of pairs of poles
N is the rotational speed in r/min

Slip of Induction Motor

[(Slip speed of the field – Speed of the rotor) / Speed of the Field] × 100

Inductors and Inductive Reactance

Physical Quantity Equation

Inductors and Inductance di

VL = L
dt
Inductors in Series: LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + . . . .

   .....
Inductor in Parallel: 1 1 1 1
LT L1 L 2 L 3

Current build up
W
t
-
(switch initially closed after having At v L ( t) Ee
been opened) 
W
t

v R ( t) E(1 - e )

(1  e
t
W
E -
i(t) )
R
W=
L
R
Current decay
Wc
t
-
(switch moved to a new position) i(t) I o e

vL(t) =  RT i(t)
vR(t) = R i(t)

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 Formulas and Conversions

Physical Quantity Equation

W' =
L
RT

Y=2Sf
Alternating Current f = 1/T

C = M cos T + j M sin T
Complex Numbers: C=a+jb

M a 2  b2
§b·
T tan -1 ¨
© a ¹̧
Polar form: C=M‘T

Inductive Reactance |XL| = Z L

Capacitive Reactance |XC| = 1 / (Z C)

Resistance R

Resistance: ZR = R ‘0q
Inductance: ZL = XL ‘90q = Z L ‘90q
Impedance

Capacitance: ZC = XC ‘-90q = 1 / (ZC)

‘-90q

Quantity Equation

Ohm’s Law for AC V=IZ

v(t) = Vm sin (Z t r I)
i(t) = Im sin (Z t r I)
Time Domain

V = Vrms ‘ I
V = Vm ‘ I
Phasor Notation

Components in Series ZT = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + .
.

Voltage Divider Rule Zx

Vx VT
ZT

   ...
Components in Parallel 1 1 1 1
ZT Z1 Z 2 Z 3

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 Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

Current Divider Rule ZT

Ix IT
Zx

Two impedance values in Z1 Z 2

Z1  Z 2
parallel ZT

Capacitance

Capacitors Q
C= [F] (Farads)
V

   .....
Capacitor in Series 1 1 1 1
CT C1 C 2 C 3

Capacitors in Parallel CT C1  C 2  C 3  .....

t
Charging a Capacitor E - RC
i(t) e
R
t
-
RC
v R ( t) Ee
t
-
RC
v C ( t) E(1 - e )
W = RC

 o e Wc
Discharging a V -
t

Capacitor i(t)
R

 Vo e Wc
t
-
v R ( t)

v C ( t) Vo e W c
t
-

W' = RTC

Quantity Equation

Capacitance Q
C
V

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 Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

Capacitance of a HA
Parallel-plate Capacitor C
d
V
E
d
Isolated Sphere C = 4Ⱥİr

Capacitors in parallel C = C1 + C2 + C3

 
Capacitors in series 1 1 1 1
C C1 C 2 C 3

Energy stored in a Q
2
1 1
charged capacitor W CV 2 QV
2C 2 2
If the capacitor is Q
2

isolated W
2C
If the capacitor is 1
connected to a battery W CV 2
2

For R C circuits Q = Qo (1 - e-t/RC);

V = Vo
Charging a capacitor (1 - e-t/RC)

Discharging a capacitor Q = Qo e- t/RC

V = Vo e-t/RC

x If the capacitor is isolated, the presence of the dielectric decreases the potential

x If the capacitor is connected to a battery, the presence of the dielectric increases the
difference between the plates

x The introduction of the dielectric increases the capacitance of the capacitor

charge stored in the capacitor.

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 Formulas and Conversions

Current in AC Circuit
RMS Current

ª § 1 ·º
˜ « R  j ¨ ZL 
ZC ¹̧»¼
In Cartesian V
ª 2 § 1 · º ¬ ©
I
« R  ¨ ZL 
form
»
2

«¬ © ZC ¹̧ ¼»
Amperes

‘  I s Amperes
In polar form V
§ 1 ·
I
[ R 2  ¨ ZL 
2

© ZC ¹̧
]

ª 1 º
« ZL 
where I s tan 1 « ZC »
»
« »
¬ ¼
R

Modulus V
§ 1 ·
I Amperes
R 2  ¨ ZL 
2

© ZC ¹̧

Complex Impedance

§ 1 ·
R  j ¨ ZL 
In Cartesian
© ZC ¹̧
form Z Ohms

§ 1 ·
R  ¨ ZL  ‘I s Ohms
In polar form 2

© ZC ¹̧
2
Z

ª 1 º
« Z 
Where I s tan 1 « ZC »
L
»
« »
¬ ¼
R

§ 1 ·
[ R 2  ¨ ZL 
Modulus 2

© ZC ¹̧
Z ] Ohms

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 Formulas and Conversions

Power dissipation

Average power, P VI cos I Watts

Power dissipation in a P
2
I R Watts
resistor

Rectification

1  cos D 
2S
Controlled half wave Vm
rectifier Average DC voltage

Volts

1  cos D 
S
Controlled full wave Vm
rectifier Average DC voltage

Volts

Power Factor

DC V2
Power Pdc VI I 2R
R
AC Pac Re(V .I ) VI cos I
Power

Power in ac circuits

Quantity Equation

Resistance The mean power = P = Irms Vrms = Irms2 R

Ⱥ)
Inductance The instantaneous power = (Io sin wt) (Vo sin (wt +

The mean power P =0

Capacitance The instantaneous power = (Io sin (wt + Ⱥ/2)) (Vo sin
wt )

The mean power P =0

Formula for a.c. The mean power = P = Irms Vrms cos I

power

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 Formulas and Conversions

Three Phase Alternators

Star connected
Line voltage = 3 x Phase Voltage
Line current = phase current
Delta connected
Line voltage = phase voltage
Line current = 3 x Phase Current

P = 3 x EL x IL x Cos I
Three phase power

Where:
P is the active power in Watts
EL is the Line Voltage in Volts

Cos I is the power factor

IL is the line current in Amperes

Electrostatics

Quantity Equation

Instantaneous current, dq dv
I C Amperes
dt dt

10 9
H0 8.85 u 10 12 Farads
Permittivity of free space
36S
(meters)-1

Energy stored in a 1
capacitor CV 2 Joules
2

Quantity Equation

Coulomb’s law Q1Q2

F k
r2

Electric fields F
E
q

4SH o r 2
Due to a point charge Q
E

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 Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

Due to a conducting sphere carrying charge E=0

Q Inside the sphere

4SH o r 2
Outside the sphere Q
E

V
Ho
Just outside a uniformly charged conducting E
sphere or plate

x An electric field E is a vector

x The electric field strength is directly proportional to the number of electric field lines

x The electric field at the surface of a conductor is perpendicular to the surface.

per unit cross-sectional area,

x The electric field is zero inside a conductor.

Quantity Equation

4SH o r
Suppose a point charge Q is at A. The work done in Qq
bringing a charge q from infinity to some point a distance W
r from A is

Electric potential W
V
q

4SH o r
Due to a point charge Q
V

4SH o a
Due to a conducting sphere, of radius a, carrying charge Q
Q: V
Inside the sphere

4SH o r
Outside the sphere Q
V

If the potential at a point is V, then the potential energy U = qV

of a charge q at that point is

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 Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

Work done in bringing charge q from A of potential VA to W = q (VB – VA)

point B of potential VB


Relation between E and V dV
E
dx

For uniform electric field V

E
d

Magnetostatics

Physical Quantity Equation

Magnetic flux density (also called the B- F

IO
field) is defined as the force acting per unit B
current length.

Force on a current-carrying conductor in a F = I O BF = I O · B

And Magnitude of F = F = I O B
magnetic field

sin LJ

Force on a moving charged particle in a F=q v · B

magnetic field

Circulating Charges mv 2
qvB
r

Calculation of magnetic flux density

Physical Quantity Equation

Magnetic fields around a long straight wire Po I

2Sa
carrying current I B
where a = perp. distance from a
very long straight wire.

Magnetic fields inside a long solenoid, I: B = Po n I, where n = number of

carrying current turns per unit length.

Hall effect VH
At equilibrium Q QvB and VH = B v d
d

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 Formulas and Conversions

Physical Quantity Equation

The current in a material is given by I = nQAv

The forces between two current-carrying P o I1 I 2 O

2Sa
conductors F21

Physical Quantity Equation

T = F b sin LJ
= N I O B b sinLJ
The torque on a rectangular coil in a magnetic
field
= N I A B sinLJ

If the coil is in a radial field and the plane of the T = N I A B sin LJ

coil is always parallel to the field, then = N I A B sin 90o
=NIAB

Magnetic flux I I = B A cos LJ

NI
and
Flux-linkage =

Current Sensitivity T NAB

SI
I c

H N I
Lenz's law d
The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that it tends to
oppose the flux-change causing it, and does oppose it if dt
induced current flows.

EMF Equations

E.m.f. induced in a straight conductor İ =BLv

E.m.f. induced between the center and the rim of a spinning İ = B Ⱥr2f
disc

E.m.f. induced in a rotating coil ƪ = N A B w sin

wt

Quantity Equation

H

Self-induction
L
dI / dt

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 Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

N I =LI

Energy stored in an inductor: 1 2

U LI
2
Transformers: VS NS
VP NP

(1  e  Rt / L )
The L R (d.c.) circuit: E
I
R
When a great load (or smaller VP  H p
resistance) is connected to Vp -İp = I R; I
R
the secondary coil, the flux in

e.m.f., İp, in the primary coil

the core decreases. The

falls.

Kirchoff’s laws
Kirchoff's first law (Junction Theorem)
At a junction, the total current entering the junction is equal to the total
current leaving the junction.

Kirchoff's second law (Loop Theorem)

The net e.m.f. round a circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d.s round the loop.

Physical Quantity Equation

Power W
P= VI
t
Electric current q
I=
t
Work W = qV

Ohm’s Law V = IR
Resistances in Series RT R1  R 2 .

 .
Resistances in Parallel 1 1 1
RT R1 R 2

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 Formulas and Conversions

Magnetic flux ) BA
() 2  ) 1 )
N
Electromagnetic
induction Emf
t
emf = l v B

Magnetic force F IlB

Transformer turns ratio Vs Ns

=
Vp Np

Electromagnetic spectrum

Wavelength
O (m) 10 2
10 1 10-1 -2
10 10 -3
10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11

radio frequencies
X-rays

Area of microwaves
visible

Spectrum ultraviolet
radiation

gamma rays
infrared radiation

f(Hz) 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020
Frequency

Note: 1. Shaded areas represent regions of overlap.

2. Gamma rays and X-rays occupy a common region.

5.2 Applied Mechanics

5.2.1 Newton's laws of motion

Newton' first law of motion
The inertia of a body is the reluctance of the body to change its state of rest or motion.
Mass is a measure of inertia.

Newton's second law of motion

Ʃt
mv-mu
F= ;

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