Edexcel A-Level Chemistry

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1 Formulae, equations and

amount of substance

SPECIFICATION
─ Why do atoms gain or lose electrons?
─ Ions
─ Empirical and molecular formula
─ Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass
─ Mole and Avogadro constant
─ Constructing balanced chemical equations
─ Molar gas volume
─ Hydrated salts
─ Calculations
─ Ideal gas equation
─ Identifying the limiting and excess reagent
─ Percentage yield and atom economy
─ Neutralisation reactions
─ Displacement reactions
─ Precipitation reactions

Source: Edexcel spec

Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

The actual mass of an atom is very small and a new unit is required to represent this
mass. In this article, a new chemical unit ‘mole’ is introduced. Avogadro constant, molar
mass and molar gas volume is also discussed. The method to derive empirical and
molecular formula of compounds using the mass by composition is discussed in detail.
The use of stoichiometric relationships in different calculations are highlighted in
numerous example problems. This article also highlights the parameters such as
percentage yield and atom economy in industrial applications.

A. Why do atoms gain or lose electrons?

Atoms gain or lose electrons to reach a stable state. All metals form positive ions. Some
non-metals form negative ions. Eight electrons in the last shell is the stable electronic
configuration. Atoms lose or gain electrons to reach this stable state. In case the atom
has only one shell, for example, hydrogen and helium, there arises an exception to this
rule. These elements are stable when they have two electrons in their outer most shell.
Another exception is that of Lithium which has three electrons (2 electrons in the first
shell and 1 electron in the outer most shell) in total. Lithium loses one electron to form Li+
ion, which has 2 electrons in the outer most shell. Lithium atom and Lithium ion are
illustrated in the following figure.

Figure 1: Lithium atom and Lithium ion

Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

B. Ions
When an atom loses or gains one or more electrons, it is called as an ion. Oppositely
charged ions combine to form ionic compounds. When an atom loses electron it forms a
positively charged ion called as cation. When an atom gains electron it forms a negatively
charged ion called as anion. Ion formation is illustrated in figure 2.

Figure 2: Ion formation

The ions are represented in the form of ! " , where X is the symbol of the element and Y is
the charge of the atom. For example, sodium forms $% & ion by losing one electron. This
ion has 11 protons and 10 electrons. It can be noted that the charges in the atom are not
neutralised. Chlorine form '( ) ion by gaining an electron.
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

C. Empirical and molecular formula

The simplest formula of a compound is its empirical formula. It represents the number of
atoms of each element in simplest ratio. Using composition of mass (n grams or
percentage), the empirical formula can be calculated by using following steps:
i. Divide the composition of mass by the relative atomic mass.
ii. Divide the answer in step (i) by the smallest value obtained amongst the results.
iii. Convert the number obtained in step (ii) to nearest whole number by multiplying
with a whole number to find the ratio of number of atoms.
Example 1: Find the empirical formula for the compound whose composition by mass
is: iron-72.3 % and oxygen 27.2%.
Solution:

Number of Convert to
Composition Divide by the
Element Ar moles=Compositio whole
by mass smallest
n by mass/Ar number (×3)
Fe 55.845 72.3 1.29 1 3
O 16 27.2 1.7 1.3 4

Fe (II) and O are in the ratio of 3:4 and hence, the empirical formula is Fe3O4.
Molecular formula denotes the actual(total) number of the atoms of each elements in a
compound. It is always a multiple of empirical formula. Molecular formula can be
determined with the empirical formula and relative molecular mass.
Example 2: What is the empirical formula of a hydrocarbon that contains 83.7 % of
carbon? Given that the relative molecular mass is 86. What is the molecular formula of
this hydrocarbon?
Solution:

Divide by Convert to
Composition Composition
Element Ar the whole
by mass by mass/Ar
smallest number (×3)
C 12 83.7 6.98 1 3
H 1 16.3 16.3 2.33 7
The empirical formula is C3H7. Relative molecular mass of C3H7=43.
But the relative molecular mass is 86.
86 ÷ 43 = 2 and therefore the molecular formula is C6H14.
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

D. Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass

Relative molecular mass is the mass of one molecule compared to one-twelfth of the
mass of one carbon-12 atom. It is usually calculated by adding the relative atomic mass
of all the atoms in a molecule.

0'"!$1" ($,, )2 )3" ()#"*+#"

!"#$%&'" ()#"*+#$! ($,, -. =
)3" − %5"#2%ℎ )2 %ℎ" ($,, )2 )3" *$!7)3 − 12 $%)(

A water molecule :; < consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
Relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1. Relative atomic mass of oxygen is 16
Relative molecular mass of water= (1×2)+ 16=18
Relative formula mass is the term used to denote ionic compounds that do not exist as
individual molecules. The relative formula mass of magnesium chloride (-1=#; ) is:
Relative atomic mass: Mg=24.3 and Cl = 35.5
Relative formula mass= 24.3 + (35.5×2) = 95.3
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

E. Mole and Avogadro constant

The number of atoms in one mole of any substance is the same. This rule holds good for
all substances such as atoms, molecules and ions. This number is called as Avogadro
constant which is equal to 6.02×1023. This means that one mole of any substance
contains 6.02×1023 atoms.
Example: Both one mole of sulphur and one mole of carbon dioxide contain 6.02×1023
atoms. The following figure illustrates the meaning of mole.

Figure 3: Meaning of mole

A mole (mol) is the number of atoms of a substance that make up the relative amount
mass, Ar in grams. The mass of a mole of the substance is called as molar mass. The
molar mass of an element is found from the periodic table and its unit is grams/mole.
Molar mass of a compound is found by adding the individual atomic masses from the
periodic table.
"*(( (0)
!"#$%& #' ($)(&*%+, "#- = 0
"#-*2 "*(( ()
"#-
%$"),2 #' 3*2&4+-,( = *"#$%& #' ($)(&*%+, "#- ×!6#0*72# +#%(&*%&
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

Example 3: How many moles and number of particles are present in 6 g of carbon?
Solution: One mole of an element has a mass in grams that is equal to relative atomic
mass. Therefore, 1 mole of carbon weighs 12 g (relative atomic mass of carbon=12).
Hence,
6
!"#$%& #' ($)(&*%+, "#- '#. 6 0 #' 1 = = 0.5
12
Therefore, 6 g of carbon contains 0.5 moles.
Let us find the number of atoms in 0.5 moles of carbon. 1 mole contains 6.02×1023
atoms. Therefore, 0.5 moles contains 3.01×1023 atoms.

Example 4: How many grams of carbon dioxide are in 0.25 moles?

Solution: The molar mass of a molecule is found by adding the relative atomic masses
of individual elements.
Therefore, the molar mass of carbon dioxide= 12+ (2×16) = 44 g/mol.
0
"*(( 0 = !"#$%& #' ($)(&*%+, "#- ×"#-*. "*((
"#-
"*(( = 0.25 ×44 = 11 0
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

F. Constructing balanced chemical equations

A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction in shorthand form. The chemical
formulae of reactants and products are used. The different state symbols used in
equations are:

Symbol State
s solid
l liquid
g gas
aq aqueous (solution in water)

Example 5: Heating lithium carbonate produces lithium oxide and carbon dioxide. This
reaction is represented in the form of equation as,
!"# $%& → !"# % + $%#

Number of atoms
Element Reactant Product Balanced?
side side
Li 2 2 Yes
C 1 1 Yes
O 3 3 Yes

The above chemical equation is balanced as number of atoms for each element is the
same in both reactant and product side. It is also important to insert the information
about the states of reactants and products. Additional information such as temperature
or pressure is given above the arrow mark.
*+,-
!"# $%& ) !"# %()) + $%# (0)
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

Example 6: Methane burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. Writing this
reaction using the formula of reactants and products,
!"# + %& → !%& + "& %

The number of atoms of carbon and oxygen are same in both reactant side and product
side. The number of hydrogen atoms is not the same in reactant and product sides and
hence, the equation is unbalanced.
To balance the equation, we make the number of molecules of water as 2.
!"# + %& → !%& + 2"& %

Now, the carbon and hydrogen atoms are balanced but oxygen atoms are not balanced.
Therefore,
!"# + 2%& → !%& + 2"& %

This equation is now balanced. Adding the states of all the compounds,
*+,-.
!"# ) + 2%& ) !%& ) + 2"& %(0)
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

G. Molar gas volume

For gases, measuring volume is convenient rather than calculating mass. Avogadro found
out that equal volume of gases at same temperature and pressure contains same number
of atoms. One mole of a gas occupies 24 dm3 (1 m3=1000 dm3) at standard pressure (1
atm) and temperature (273 K). Therefore, the molar gas volume is 24 dm3/mol.
!"#$%& "' ()* (,% - ) = 0$%1&2 "' %"#&* ×24

The following figure illustrates the meaning of molar gas volume.

Figure 4: Meaning of molar gas volume

Example 7: How much volume does 128 g of sulphur dioxide occupy at standard
temperature and pressure?
Solution: 1 mol of sulphur dioxide has mass of 32 + (2×16) = 64 g. Molar mass of SO2=
64 g/mol
128
6%"$07 "' *$1*7)08& %"# = = 2 %"#
64
1mol of SO2 occupies 24 dm3 and hence, 2 mol of SO2 occupies,
!"#$%& "' ()* ,% - = 0$%1&2 "' %"#&* ×24
! = 2×24 = 48 ,% -
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

H. Hydrated salts
Hydrated salts contain water of crystallisation. Anhydrous salts do not contain water of
crystallisation.
When hydrated copper sulphate is heated, anhydrous copper sulphate is obtained.

Hydrated copper(II) Anhydrous copper

sulphate sulphate
CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4

CuSO4.5H2O(s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H2O (l)

Example 8: 9.04 g of hydrated sodium sulphate was heated and 4.0 g of anhydrous
sodium sulphate was obtained. How many water molecules are there in 1 molecule of
hydrated sodium sulphate?
Solution: Hydrated sodium sulphate is of the form Na2SO4.xH2O where x is the number
of water molecules.
number of moles of Na2SO4= 4/142.04=0.028
Mass of water = 9.04-4.0=5.04 g
number of moles of H2O=5.04/18=0.28
ratio of number of moles of H2O and Na2SO4=0.28/0.028=10
Hence, the formula for hydrated copper sulphate is Na2SO4.10H2O.
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

I. Calculations
a) Reacting masses
Using a balanced equation and amount of reactants reacting together, the amount of
products formed can be found out and vice versa.

Example 9: What mass of FeCl2 reacts with excess of chlorine to form 50 g of FeCl3?
Solution: The balanced equation for reaction between FeCl2 and chlorine is given as,
2FeCl2+ Cl2→2FeCl3
2 mol of FeCl2 forms 2 mol FeCl3
Molar mass of FeCl2 is 55.8 + 35.5×2 = 126.8 g/mol.
Molar mass of FeCl3 is 55.8 + 3×35.5 = 162.3 g/mol.
126.8 g→162.3 g
To form 50 g of FeCl3, the mass of FeCl2 required is,
!"#.%
×50 = 39.06 .
!#".&

b) Gas Volumes
Example 10: Iron reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce iron(II) chloride and
hydrogen gas.
Fe(s) + 2HCl(l)→FeCl2 (aq)+ H2(g)
What volume of hydrogen gas is produced in this reaction if 10 g of iron reacts with
excess of hydrochloric acid?
Solution: In this reaction, 1 mole of iron reacts with 2 moles of HCl to form 1 mole of
iron chloride and 1 mole of hydrogen gas.
Atomic mass of Fe=55.845 (from periodic table)
Molar mass of Fe=55.845 g/mol
!<
/01234 15 62764839: 01; = ==.%>=
= 0.18 01l
10g of Fe contains 0.18 moles.
Therefore, 0.18 mol of hydrogen gas is produced.(as Hydrogen and Iron are in the ratio
1:1)
A1;20: 15 .86 B0 & = 0.18 ×24 = 4.32 B0 &
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

c) Solution volume and concentration

Concentration of a solution is expressed mathematically as,

*"+ #/*0%' "1 *"+%2 "1 2"+/&% (*"+)

!"#$%#&'(&)"# =
,* - &"&(+ 5"+/*% "1 2"+/&)"# (,* - )

Example 11: In a titration, 15 cm3 of 0.75 mol/dm3 hydrochloric solution reacts with 30
cm3 of sodium hydroxide. What is the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution?
Solution: The balanced chemical equation for this titration reaction is,
HCl+ NaOH→NaCl+H2O
From the chemical reaction, 1 mol of HCl reacts with 1 mol of NaOH.
Number of moles of HCl reacting is,
Number of moles=concentration × volume = 0.75 ×15 × 10-3 = 11.25 × 10-3 mol
11.25 × 10-3 mol of HCl reacts with 11.25 × 10-3 mol of NaOH,
Therefore,
11.25×10?-
$"#$%#&'(&)"# "1 6(78 = = 0.375 *"+/,* -
30 ×10?-
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

J. Ideal gas equation

An ideal gas is based on the assumptions that:
• Volume of particles is negligible compared to the volume of container.
• The collisions between particles are elastic which means that there is no change in
kinetic energy due to particle collisions.
• There is no force of attraction between particles and the walls of the container.
• Particles are in continuous random movement colliding with other particles and the
walls of the container.
Implementing these assumptions, Boyle found out that at a constant temperature, the
pressure due to collisions is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas.
1
!∝ (&' ()*+'&*' ',-.,/&'0/,)
$
Therefore, !$ = ()*+'&*'
Charles implemented these assumptions and found out that volume occupied by gas is
directly proportional to temperature at constant pressure.
$ ∝ 3 (&' ()*+'&*' ./,++0/,)
Using Charle’s and Boyle’s law, an ideal gas equation was developed,
!$ = *43
where n is the number of moles and R is the universal molar constant.
Units of the terms used in ideal gas equation are given in the table below:

P V n T R
Pascals (Pa) m3 mol K 8.314 J/mol/K
atm dm3 mol K 0.08206 atm dm3/ mol K

Example 12: How many moles of an ideal gas occupy a volume of 75 cm3 at a
pressure of 1.28 atm if the temperature is 27°C?
Solution:
Volume= 75 cm3=0.075 dm3 (1 dm3= 1000 cm3)
Pressure=1.28 atm
Temperature =273+27=300 K
Using the ideal gas equation,
1.28 ×0.075 = *×0.08206×300
* = 3.9 ×10?@ -)A
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

K. Identifying the limiting and excess reagent

The reactant that is completely used up in a reaction is called limiting reagent. The
reactant that does not get used up completely in a reaction is called excess reagent.
Example 13: Calculate the maximum mass of copper that can be produced by reacting
90 g of CuCl2 with 40 g of Al?
Solution:
Writing the balanced equation,
2Al+3CuCl2→3Cu+2AlCl3
Calculating the number of moles of CuCl2 and Al,
For CuCl2,
#,**
!"#$%& '( #')%* =
#'),& #,**
90
!"#$%& '( #')%* = = 0.669 #')
134.45
For Al,
40
!"#$%& '( #')%* = = 1.48 #')
26.98

Finding which of the reactant is in excess,

From the balanced chemical equation, 2 mol of Al reacts with 3 mol of CuCl2. Therefore,
0.669 mol of CuCl2 reacts with 2/3 of 0.669 mol of Al
2
×0.669 = 0.446 #')
3
But only 0.446 mol of Al is required, which means that there is an excess of 1.48 -0.446 =
1.034 mol of Al.
Calculating the amount of Copper formed
3 mol of CuCl2 forms 3 mol of Cu. Hence, 0.669 mol of CuCl2 forms 0.669 mol of CuCl2.
Calculating the mass of Cu formed,
mass=number of moles × molar mass= 0.669×63.546=42.512 g
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

L. Percentage yield and atom economy

Percentage yield is calculated using the theoretical yield and actual yield. The expected
amount of products in a reaction is called as theoretical yield. The actual amount of
products produced in a reaction is called as actual yield. Theoretical yield and actual yield
are illustrated in the following figure.

Figure 5: Theoretical yield and actual yield

The actual yield is not equal to theoretical yield due to various reasons such as
incomplete reactions, losses due to purification, losses due to transfer of substances.
'$&.'+ )*"+,
!"#$"%&'(" )*"+, = ×100
&ℎ"0#"&*$'+ )*"+,
The atom economy of a reaction is represented mathematically as,
4'55 06 .5"6.+ !#0,.$&5
'&04 "$0%04) = ×100
4'55 06 '++ #"'$&'%&5
In industries, the aim is to minimise the waste products produced. In reactions where
there is only one product, the atom economy is 100% and is best suitable for industrial
applications.
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

Example 14: Calculate the percentage yield of this reaction,

Fe(s) + 2HCl(l)→FeCl2 + H2(g)
Given that 25 g of FeCl2 was produced using 12 g of Fe.
Solution:
I. Finding the number of moles of Fe
#,** 10
!"#$%& '( #')%* = = = 0.179 #')
#'),& #,** 55.845
II. Using the balanced equation, finding the number of moles of FeCl2 produced,
1 mol of Fe produces 1 mol of FeCl2. Therefore, 0.179 mol of Fe produces 0.179
mol of FeCl2
III. Finding the mass of FeCl2 produced,
mass=number of moles × molar mass= 0.179×126.751=22.70 g
This is the theoretical yield of this reaction.
IV. Calculating the percentage yield,
The actual yield is 12 g.
,67",) 9:%);
5%&6%!7,8% 9:%); = ×100
7ℎ%'&%7:6,) 9:%);
12
5%&6%!7,8% 9:%); = ×100 = 52.863 %
22.70

Example 15: Calculate the atom economy of the following reaction, where FeCl2 is the
desired product. Assume that the reaction goes to completion.
Fe(s) + 2HCl(l)→FeCl2 + H2(g)
Solution:

#,** '( "*%(") 5&';"67*

,7'# %6'!'#9 = ×100
#,** '( ,)) &%,67,!7*

#,** '( B%C)D

= ×100
#,** '( B% ,!; 2 EC)

55.845 + 2×35.45
= ×100
55.845 + 2× 1 + 35.45

126.745
= ×100 = 98.45%
128.745
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 2.1.4 Acids

M. Neutralisation reactions
When an acid and base react, the hydrogen ion in the acid is replaced by the metal ion in
the base and a salt is formed. The hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion combine to form
water. This reaction is called as neutralisation.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water

i. Reaction of acids with metal oxides

When metal oxide reacts with acid, the metal ion replaces the H+ ions to form salt.
The H+ and OH- ions react together to form water.
Metal oxide + acid → Salt + water
MgO + 2HCl →MgCl2 + H2O
The H+ ion in HCl is replaced by the metal ion (Mg2+) and a salt (MgCl2) is formed.
The H+ and OH- ion combine to form H2O.

ii. Reaction of acids with metal hydroxides

When metal hydroxide reacts with acid, the metal ion replaces the H+ ions to form
salt. The H+ and OH- ions react together to form water.
Let us consider the reaction of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide,
HCl + NaOH → NaCl +H2O
The H+ ion in HCl is replaced by the metal ion (Na+) and a salt (NaCl) is formed. The
H+ and OH- ion combine to form H2O.

iii. Reaction of acids with metal carbonates

When metal carbonate reacts with acids, the metal ion replaces the H+ ions to form
salt.
The H+ and OH- ions react together to form water. In addition to salt and water,
carbon dioxide gas is also released.
Metal carbonate + acid → Salt + water + carbon dioxide
Let us consider the reaction of calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid,
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
The H+ ion in HCl is replaced by the metal ion (Ca2+) and a salt (CaCl2) is formed. In
this reaction, water is produced and carbon dioxide gas is released.
Edexcel A-Level Chemistry 1 Formulae, equations and amount of substance

N. Displacement reactions
A more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its salt solution. For
example: Zinc displaces copper from copper sulphate solution.
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
The ionic equation is,
Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
A more reactive halogen can replace a less reactive halogen from its halide solution.
Consider the reaction between chlorine and sodium bromide, which forms a yellowish-
brown colour solution.
Cl2 (aq) + 2NaBr (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)
Chlorine replaces the bromine from sodium bromide solution.
The ionic equation for this displacement reaction is,
Cl2 (aq) + 2Br- (aq) → 2Cl- (aq) + Br2 (aq)
The reactivity of halogens decreases down the group.

P. Precipitation reactions
Solutions of sodium hydroxide react with transition metal complexes to form hydroxides,
which are insoluble. Such reactions that form insoluble precipitates are called as
precipitation reactions. For example: