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Environmental Engineering Skipka
Theodore
ENERGY RESOURCES
AVAILABILITY, MANAGEMENT, and ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

ENERGY RESOURCES
AVAILABILITY, MANAGEMENT,
and ENERGY RESOURCES
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AVAILABILITY, MANAGEMENT,
Energy Resources: Availability, Management, and Environmental Impacts identifies
historical increases in demand and a continuing lack of viable management policies for and
regional and global energy problems. Considering the state and consumption of energy
resources on a worldwide level, the authors outline and address three primary issues ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
that they view as growing concerns: the exploitation of current forms of energy, the
environmental consequences, and the social and economic ramifications involved.
The initial chapters offer an overview of energy management, providing an introduction

to energy, energy-related engineering principles, regulations, energy conservation, and
sustainability. The book discusses all energy resource forms from fossil fuels to renewable
resources. The authors introduce an energy matrix providing an analytical structure that
quantitatively can be used to evaluate resource options and their impacts.
The concluding chapters provide insight into the driving forces that have shaped energy
policy to date and the uncertainties that face future policymakers. The book analyzes
various aspects of energy management. It poses concerns and offers solutions, including a
proposed approach for developing, organizing, and implementing a national energy plan
for the U.S.
A Template for Developing an Energy Policy
• Examines the issues involved with energy management

• Explores the best options for achieving energy independence
• Provides quantitative approaches to energy policy development
• Discusses specific structural and analytical approaches to solving energy
management problems
The book considers conservation and the development of new, less expensive energy
forms, and the impact these can make in slowing growth in demand while fueling
efficiency. It analyzes the availability of traditional energy resources and a method of
quantifying their energy, economic, and environmental impacts to provide adequate,
inexpensive, long-term energy supplies. It also examines the feasibility of solar power,
wind, tidal, geothermal, nuclear, and other less traditional sources of energy. Kenneth J. Skipka • Louis Theodore
K15105
ISBN: 978-1-4665-1740-0
90000
9 781466 517400
K15105_COVER.indd 1 3/6/14 11:15 AM

ENERGY RESOURCES
and
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
SERIES EDITOR
Abbas Ghassemi
New Mexico State University
PUBLISHED TITLES
Energy Resources: Availability, Management, and Environmental Impacts

Kenneth J. Skipka and Louis Theodore
Finance Policy for Renewable Energy and a Sustainable Environment

Michael Curley
Wind Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment, Second Edition

Vaughn Nelson
Solar Radiation: Practical Modeling for Renewable Energy Applications

Daryl R. Myers
Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurements

Frank Vignola, Joseph Michalsky, and Thomas Stoffel
Forest-Based Biomass Energy: Concepts and Applications

Frank Spellman
Introduction to Renewable Energy

Vaughn Nelson
Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment

William E. Glassley
Solar Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment

Robert Foster, Majid Ghassemi, Alma Cota,
Jeanette Moore, and Vaughn Nelson
ENERGY RESOURCES
and
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Kenneth J. Skipka
Louis Theodore
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20140131
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-1741-7 (eBook - PDF)
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To those who seek a true and complete understanding of the world’s
energy problems and continually strive to select the best available
resources to meet energy demands considering all attendant impacts.
Our collective existence and prosperity are in their hands.
Kenneth J. Skipka
and
Governor Mike Huckabee—who thankfully continues to confront
the negative impacts of a biased media, and whose commitment to
traditional values and the American Dream has never wavered.
Lou Theodore
Contents
Series Preface....................................................................................................... xvii

Series Editor.......................................................................................................... xxi
Preface.................................................................................................................. xxiii
The Authors......................................................................................................... xxv
Section I Basic Principles
1. Introduction to the Issues..............................................................................3

Introduction.......................................................................................................3
Energy Terms.....................................................................................................4
Conservation Law for Energy.........................................................................6
Enthalpy.............................................................................................................8
Heat Transfer................................................................................................... 10
Net Energy Analysis...................................................................................... 11
Developing a National Energy Policy.......................................................... 13
Short Term................................................................................................... 14
Long Term................................................................................................... 14
References........................................................................................................ 15
2. Thermodynamic Principles: Entropy Analysis....................................... 17

Introduction..................................................................................................... 17
Qualitative Review of the Second Law........................................................ 18
Describing Equations..................................................................................... 19
The Heat Exchanger Dilemma......................................................................22
Applications..................................................................................................... 26
Concluding Comments.................................................................................. 29
References........................................................................................................30
3. Energy Demand............................................................................................. 31
Introduction..................................................................................................... 31
Early History................................................................................................... 32
The First Humans........................................................................................... 33
The Industrial Revolution..............................................................................34
Recent Years..................................................................................................... 35
Effect of Demand of Energy Resources....................................................... 36
Coal.............................................................................................................. 36
Oil................................................................................................................. 37
Natural Gas................................................................................................. 38
Oil Shale...................................................................................................... 38
vii
viii Contents
Nuclear Energy........................................................................................... 39
Solar............................................................................................................. 39
Hydroelectric.............................................................................................. 40
Geothermal................................................................................................. 40
Canada.............................................................................................................. 41
Energy Needs............................................................................................. 41
Energy Resources....................................................................................... 41
Tar Sands..........................................................................................................42
Future Energy Demands...............................................................................42
Concluding Remarks...................................................................................... 47
References........................................................................................................ 48
4. Sustainability and Green Science/Engineering...................................... 49

Introduction..................................................................................................... 49
Sustainability................................................................................................... 50
Historical Perspective................................................................................ 50
Resource Limitations................................................................................. 51
Sustainable Development Considerations.............................................. 53
Resources for Sustainability..................................................................... 57
Future Trends............................................................................................. 57
Green Science/Engineering.......................................................................... 58
Introduction to Green Chemistry............................................................ 58
Introduction to Green Science/Engineering.......................................... 61
Green Chemistry versus Green Engineering........................................ 62
Green Resources (Internet Sources)........................................................64
References........................................................................................................65
5. Energy Regulations....................................................................................... 67
Introduction..................................................................................................... 67
The Regulatory System.................................................................................. 68
Laws and Regulations: The Differences...................................................... 69
The Role of the States..................................................................................... 71
The Department of Energy (DOE)................................................................ 73
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)............................... 75
Energy Information Administration (EIA)................................................. 76
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)............................................77
The 2013 New York State Energy Plan.........................................................80
Overview of New York’s State Energy Plan........................................... 81
References........................................................................................................ 88
6. The Modern Energy Matrix: An Overview.............................................. 89

Introduction..................................................................................................... 89
Energy System Components.........................................................................90
Resources.....................................................................................................90
Production................................................................................................... 91
Contents ix
Transportation/Transmission.................................................................. 92
Coal.......................................................................................................... 93
Oil............................................................................................................ 94
Natural Gas............................................................................................ 95
Utilization................................................................................................... 95
Energy Matrix Overview............................................................................... 97
References...................................................................................................... 102
Section II Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels
7. Coal................................................................................................................. 105
Introduction................................................................................................... 105
Early History................................................................................................. 107
Availability/Distribution and Characterization...................................... 108
Availability/Distribution........................................................................ 109
Characterization....................................................................................... 112
Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission.................... 119
Extraction.................................................................................................. 119
Processing................................................................................................. 124
Transportation/Transmission................................................................ 125
Environmental Issues................................................................................... 126
Future Prospects and Concerns.................................................................. 127
References...................................................................................................... 130
8. Oil................................................................................................................... 131
Introduction................................................................................................... 131
Early History................................................................................................. 132
Extraction.................................................................................................. 140
Processing................................................................................................. 144
Pipelines............................................................................................... 147
Ships...................................................................................................... 148
Trains.................................................................................................... 148
References...................................................................................................... 150
9. Natural Gas................................................................................................... 151

Introduction................................................................................................... 151
x Contents
Early History................................................................................................. 152

Extraction.................................................................................................. 157
Processing................................................................................................. 158
References...................................................................................................... 161
10. Shale Oil........................................................................................................ 163

Introduction................................................................................................... 163
Early History................................................................................................. 164
Extraction.................................................................................................. 166
Processing................................................................................................. 167
References...................................................................................................... 171
11. Tar Sands....................................................................................................... 173

Introduction................................................................................................... 173
Early History................................................................................................. 174
Extraction.................................................................................................. 176
Processing................................................................................................. 178
References...................................................................................................... 181
Section III Other Energy Resources
12. Solar Energy.................................................................................................. 185

Introduction................................................................................................... 185
Early History................................................................................................. 186
Contents xi
Availability, Distribution, and Characterization...................................... 187

Availability................................................................................................ 187
Distribution............................................................................................... 188
Extraction.................................................................................................. 190
Processing................................................................................................. 192
References...................................................................................................... 195
13. Nuclear Energy............................................................................................. 197

Introduction................................................................................................... 197
Early History................................................................................................. 199
Extraction, Conversion, and Transportation/Transmission................... 203
Extraction and Conversion..................................................................... 203
Waste Disposal......................................................................................... 208
Plant Accidents/Safety............................................................................ 209
Radiation Effects...................................................................................... 209
References...................................................................................................... 213
14. Hydroelectric Energy.................................................................................. 215

Introduction................................................................................................... 215
Early History................................................................................................. 217
Extraction.................................................................................................. 221
Processing.................................................................................................222
Transportation/Transmission................................................................223
Future Prospects and Concerns..................................................................225
References...................................................................................................... 226
15. Wind Energy................................................................................................. 227

Introduction................................................................................................... 227
Early History................................................................................................. 228
xii Contents

Extraction.................................................................................................. 233
Processing.................................................................................................234
References...................................................................................................... 238
16. Geothermal Energy..................................................................................... 239

Introduction................................................................................................... 239
Early History................................................................................................. 240
Extraction.................................................................................................. 244
Processing and Transportation/Transmission.................................... 245
References...................................................................................................... 250
17. Hydrogen Energy......................................................................................... 251

Introduction................................................................................................... 251
Early History................................................................................................. 252
Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission....................254
Extraction..................................................................................................254
Processing.................................................................................................254
References...................................................................................................... 259
18. Biomass Energy............................................................................................ 261

Introduction................................................................................................... 261
Early History................................................................................................. 262
Refuse/Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)............................................ 264
Contents xiii
Wood..................................................................................................... 265
Hazardous Wastes............................................................................... 265
Biofuels................................................................................................. 268
Extraction.................................................................................................. 270
Processing................................................................................................. 271
References...................................................................................................... 275
19. Other Energy Sources................................................................................. 277

Introduction................................................................................................... 277
Fuels Derived from Coals and Oils............................................................ 278
Coke........................................................................................................... 278
Coal Char and Liquids............................................................................ 278
Gaseous Fuels from Coal........................................................................ 279
By-Product Gas from Gasification......................................................... 279
Coal–Water Mixture................................................................................ 280
Hydrocarbons................................................................................................ 280
Hydrokinetic Energy.................................................................................... 281
Tidal Energy.............................................................................................. 281
Ocean Thermal Energy........................................................................... 282
Wave Energy............................................................................................. 283
References...................................................................................................... 283
Section IV Aspects of Energy Management
20. Energy Demand and Distribution Systems........................................... 287

Introduction................................................................................................... 287
The Evolution of Energy Demand.............................................................. 288
Energy Stakeholders..................................................................................... 291
The Role of Distribution Systems............................................................... 294
References...................................................................................................... 295
21. Conservation, Sustainability, and Green Engineering....................... 297

Introduction................................................................................................... 297
Energy Conservation.................................................................................... 298
Chemical Plant and Process Applications............................................ 298
Domestic Applications............................................................................300
Cooling.................................................................................................. 301
Heating................................................................................................. 302
Hot Water.............................................................................................. 302
xiv Contents
Cooking................................................................................................ 303
Lighting................................................................................................ 303
New Appliances..................................................................................304
Individual Efforts.....................................................................................304
Sustainability Approaches..........................................................................305
Domestic Level.........................................................................................305
Benchmark Sustainability.......................................................................306
Green Engineering........................................................................................ 307
Buildings................................................................................................... 307
Materials....................................................................................................308
Architects..................................................................................................309
Insulation..................................................................................................309
Ducts and Piping...................................................................................... 310
Maintenance............................................................................................. 310
Reduced Loads......................................................................................... 311
Concluding Remarks.................................................................................... 311
References...................................................................................................... 313
22. Environmental Considerations................................................................. 315

Introduction................................................................................................... 315
Environmental Management Topics.......................................................... 317
Environmental Factors................................................................................. 318
The Health Risk Evaluation Process.......................................................... 321
The Hazard Risk Assessment Process....................................................... 325
References...................................................................................................... 328
23. Economic Considerations........................................................................... 331

Introduction................................................................................................... 331
Definitions..................................................................................................... 332
Simple Interest.......................................................................................... 332
Compound Interest.................................................................................. 332
Present Worth........................................................................................... 333
Evaluation of Sums of Money................................................................ 333
Uniform Series of Payments...................................................................334
Depreciation..............................................................................................334
Fabricated Equipment Cost Index......................................................... 335
Capital Recovery Factor.......................................................................... 335
Present Net Worth.................................................................................... 336
Perpetual Life........................................................................................... 336
Break-Even Point...................................................................................... 337
Approximate Rate of Return.................................................................. 337
Exact Rate of Return................................................................................ 337
Bonds......................................................................................................... 337
Incremental Cost...................................................................................... 338
Contents xv
Capital Costs.................................................................................................. 338

Operating Costs............................................................................................ 341
Energy Cost Data..........................................................................................342
Oil...............................................................................................................342
Coal............................................................................................................342
Natural Gas...............................................................................................343
Renewables................................................................................................343
Nuclear Energy.........................................................................................343
Hidden Economic Factors............................................................................344
Project Evaluation and Optimization........................................................345
Principles of Accounting..............................................................................345
References...................................................................................................... 349
24. Political Considerations............................................................................. 351

Introduction................................................................................................... 351
The Political Problem Associated with Natural Resource Wealth........ 353
Energy Politics............................................................................................... 355
References...................................................................................................... 357
25. Challenges Facing Future Energy Policy Makers................................. 359

Introduction................................................................................................... 359
Present Energy State..................................................................................... 361
Energy Sources of the Future...................................................................... 362
Some Policy Suggestions for the Future.................................................... 363
Incentives..................................................................................................364
Environmental Protection....................................................................... 365
Unnecessary Use of Energy.................................................................... 365
Capital Needs........................................................................................... 365
Applying the Concept of Net Energy........................................................ 366
Societal Concerns.......................................................................................... 367
Energy Forecasts for New York State and Canada.................................. 369
New York State Plan................................................................................ 369
Canadian Plan.......................................................................................... 370
References...................................................................................................... 372
Section V Energy Management Solutions
26. Introduction to Energy Policy Issues....................................................... 377

Introduction................................................................................................... 377
Energy Policy Priority.................................................................................. 378
Is Energy Independence a Legitimate Goal?............................................ 379
xvi Contents
The Responsibility of Government............................................................ 381

Concluding Comments................................................................................ 383
References......................................................................................................384
27. Energy–Environmental Interactions....................................................... 385

Introduction................................................................................................... 385
U.S. Energy–Environmental Policy Issues................................................ 387
General Overview/Comments.................................................................... 388
Net Energy Concepts.................................................................................... 389
Interaction with Other Goals...................................................................... 390
Environmental Concerns: A Technological Mandate.............................. 393
Individual State Energy Policies................................................................. 394
Global Energy Policies................................................................................. 396
References...................................................................................................... 396
28. Quantitative Analysis of Energy Management Options..................... 399

Introduction................................................................................................... 399
Energy Resource Comparison Procedure.................................................400
Energy Resource Comparative Analysis: United States (2015–2025).....404
Energy Resource Comparative Analysis: Developed Nations
(2015–2025)..................................................................................................... 407
Energy Resource Comparative Analysis: Underdeveloped Nations
(2015–2025)..................................................................................................... 409
References...................................................................................................... 411
29. Solving the Energy Management Policy Challenge............................. 413

Introduction................................................................................................... 413
Public or Private Control.............................................................................. 414
Management Approach............................................................................... 417
The Tasks at Hand........................................................................................ 419
Design Considerations for an Energy Management Plan....................... 420
Phase 1—Structural Elements................................................................ 421
Phase 2—Team Organization and Leadership.................................... 421
Phase 3—Establish Goal and Objectives..............................................422
Phase 4—Analytics..................................................................................423
Phase 5—Implementation Strategy.......................................................423
Phase 6—Critical Reviews...................................................................... 424
Factors for Consideration in Developing Energy Policy.........................425
References...................................................................................................... 427
Epilogue................................................................................................................ 429
Index...................................................................................................................... 431
Series Preface
By 2050, the demand for energy could double or even triple as the global pop-
ulation rises and developing countries expand their economies. According
to data from the United Nations, it is projected that world population will
increase from 7.2 billion to more than 9 billion in 2050. This increase, coupled
with continued demand for the same, limited natural resources, will cause
significant increase in consumption of energy. All life on Earth depends on
energy and the cycling of carbon. Affordable energy resources are essential
for economic and social development as well as food production, water sup-
ply availability, and sustainable, healthy living. In order to avoid long-term
adverse and potentially irreversible impact of harvesting energy resources,
we must explore all aspects of energy production and consumption, includ-
ing energy efficiency, clean energy, global carbon cycle, carbon sources
and sinks, and biomass as well as their relationship to climate and natu-
ral resource issues. Knowledge of energy has allowed humans to flourish in
numbers unimaginable to our ancestors. The world’s dependence on fossil
fuels began approximately 200 years ago. Are we running out of oil? No,
but we are certainly running out of the affordable oil that has powered the
world economy since the 1950s. We know how to recover fossil fuels and har-
vest their energy for operating power plants, planes, trains, and automobiles,
which results in modifying the carbon cycle and additional greenhouse gas
emissions. This has resulted in the debate on availability of fossil energy
resources, peak oil era, and timing for the anticipated end of fossil fuel era,
and price and environmental impact versus various renewable resources
and use, carbon footprint, emission, and control, including cap and trade,
and the emergence of “green power.”
Our current consumption has largely relied on oil for mobile applications
and coal, natural gas, nuclear, or water power for stationary applications. In
order to address the energy issues in a comprehensive manner, it is vital to
consider the complexity of energy. Any energy resource including oil, gas,
coal, wind, biomass, etc., is an element of a complex supply chain and must
be considered in the entirety as a system from production through con-
sumption. All of the elements of the system are interrelated and interdepen-
dent. Oil, for example, requires consideration for interlinking of all of the
elements, including exploration, drilling, production, transportation, water
usage and production, refining, refinery products and by-products, waste,
environmental impact, distribution, consumption/application, and finally
emissions. Inefficiency in any part of the system has impact on the overall
system and disruption if one of these elements causes major interruption and
a significant cost impact. As we have experienced in the past, interrupted
exploration will result in disruption in production, restricted refining and
xvii
xviii Series Preface
distribution, and consumption shortages; therefore, any proposed energy

solution requires careful evaluation and, as such, may be one of the key bar-
riers to implementing the proposed use of hydrogen as a mobile fuel.
Even though an admirable level of effort has gone into improving the
efficiency of fuel sources for delivery and use of energy, we are faced with
severe challenges on many fronts. These include population growth, emerg-
ing economies, new and expanded usage, and limited natural resources. All
energy solutions include some level of risk, including technology SNAFUs,
changes in market demand, economic drivers, and others. This is particu-
larly true when proposing energy solutions involving implementation of
untested alternative energy technologies.
There are concerns that emissions from fossil fuels lead to changing cli-
mate with possibly disastrous consequences. Over the past five decades, the
world’s collective greenhouse gas emissions have increased significantly,
even as efficiency has increased, resulting in extending energy benefits
to more of the population. Many propose that we improve the efficiency
of energy use and conserve resources to lessen greenhouse gas emissions
and avoid a climate catastrophe. Using fossil fuels more efficiently has not
reduced overall greenhouse gas emissions due to various reasons and it is
unlikely that such initiatives will have a perceptible effect on atmospheric
greenhouse gas content. While there is a debatable correlation between
energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, there are effective means to pro-
duce energy, even from fossil fuels, while controlling emissions. There are
also emerging technologies and engineered alternatives that will actually
manage the makeup of the atmosphere, but will require significant under-
standing and careful use of energy.
We need to step back and reconsider our role and the knowledge of energy
use. The traditional approach of micromanagement of greenhouse gas emis-
sions is not feasible or functional over a long period of time. More assertive
methods to influence the carbon cycle are needed and will be emerging in
the coming years. Modifications to the carbon cycle mean that we must look
at all options in managing atmospheric greenhouse gases, including vari-
ous ways to produce, consume, and deal with energy. We need to be willing
to face reality and search in earnest for alternative energy solutions. There
appear to be technologies that could assist; however, they may not all be
viable. The proposed solutions must not be in terms of a “quick approach”;
but a more comprehensive, long-term (10, 25, and 50+ years) approach that
is science based and utilizes aggressive research and development. The pro-
posed solutions must be capable of being retrofitted into our existing energy
chain. In the meantime, we must continually seek to increase the efficiency
of converting energy into heat and power.
One of the best ways to define sustainable development is through long-
term, affordable availability of limited resources including energy. There
are many potential constraints to sustainable development. Foremost of
these is the competition for water use in energy production, manufacturing,
Series Preface xix
farming, and others versus a shortage of fresh water for consumption and
development. Sustainable development is also dependent on the Earth’s lim-
ited amount of productive soil. In the not too distant future, it is anticipated
that we will have to restore and build soil as a part of sustainable devel-
opment. We need to focus our discussions on the motives, economics, and
benefits of natural resource conservation, as well as the limitation of technol-
ogy improvement in impacting sustainability (i.e., we are limited catching
fish from the ocean due to the number of fish available—not bigger boats or
better nets). Hence, possible sustainable solutions must not be solely based
on technology enhancement and improvement, specifically in obtaining the
fossil resources, but rather be comprehensive and based on integrating our
energy use with nature’s management of carbon, water, and life on Earth as
represented by the carbon and hydrogeological cycles. The challenges pre-
sented by the need to control atmospheric greenhouse gases are enormous
and require “out of the box” thinking, innovative approaches, imagination,
and bold engineering initiatives in order to achieve sustainable develop-
ment. We will need to exploit ingeniously even more energy and integrate its
use with control of atmospheric greenhouse gases.
The continued development and application of energy are essential to the
sustainable advancement of society. Therefore, we must consider all aspects
of the energy options, including performance against known criteria, basic
economics and benefits, efficiency, processing and utilization require-
ments, infrastructure requirements, subsidies and credits, and waste and
ecosystems, as well as unintended consequences such as impacts to natu-
ral resources and the environment. Additionally, we must include the over-
all changes and the emerging energy picture based on current and future
efforts in renewable alternatives and modified and enhanced fossil fuels and
evaluate the energy return for the investment of funds and other natural
resources such as water. Water is a precious commodity in the West in gen-
eral and the Southwest in particular and has a significant impact on energy
production, including alternative sources, due to the nexus between energy
and water and the major correlation with the environment and sustainabil-
ity-related issues.
A significant driver in creating this book series focused on alternative
energy and the environment and was provoked as a consequence of lectur-
ing around the country and in the classroom on the subject of energy, envi-
ronment, and natural resources such as water. While the correlation between
these elements, how they relate to each other, and the impact of one on the
other is understood, it is not significantly debated when it comes to integra-
tion and utilization of alternative energy resources into the energy matrix.
Additionally, as renewable technology implementation grows by various
states, nationally and internationally, the need for informed and trained
human resources continues to be a significant driver in future employment
resulting in universities, community colleges, and trade schools offering
minors, certificate programs, and even, in some cases, majors in renewable
xx Series Preface
energy and sustainability. As the field grows, the demand for trained opera-
tors, engineers, designers, and architects who would be able to incorporate
these technologies into their daily activity is increasing. We receive a daily
deluge of flyers, e-mails, and texts on various short courses available for par-
ties interested in solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, etc., under the umbrella
of retooling an individual’s career and providing trained resources needed
to interact with financial, governmental, and industrial organizations.
In all my interactions throughout the years in this field, I have conducted
significant searches in locating integrated textbooks that explain alternative
energy resources in a suitable manner and that would complement a sylla-
bus for a potential course to be taught at the university while providing good
reference material for interested parties getting involved in this field. I have
been able to locate a number of books on the subject matter related to energy,
energy systems, and resources such as fossil nuclear, renewable, and energy
conversion, as well as specific books in the subjects of natural resource avail-
ability, use, and impact as related to energy and the environment. However,
specific books that are correlated and present the various subjects in detail
are few and far between. We have therefore started a series of texts, each
addressing specific technology fields in the renewable energy arena. As part
of this series, there are textbooks in wind, solar, geothermal, biomass, and
hydro energy, and others yet to be developed. Our texts are intended for
upper level undergraduate students and graduate students and for informed
readers who have a solid fundamental understanding of science and math-
ematics, as well as individuals/organizations that are involved with design
development of the renewable energy field entities that are interested in hav-
ing reference material available to their scientists and engineers, consulting
organizations, and reference libraries. Each book presents fundamentals as
well as a series of numerical and conceptual problems designed to stimulate
creative thinking and problem solving.
I wish to express my deep gratitude to my wife, Maryam, who has served
as a motivator and intellectual companion and too often has been a victim
of this effort. Her support, encouragement, patience, and involvement have
been essential to the completion of this series.
Abbas Ghassemi, PhD

Las Cruces, New Mexico
Series Editor
Dr. Abbas Ghassemi is the director of the Institute for Energy and
Environment (IEE) and professor of chemical engineering at New Mexico
State University. As the director of IEE, he is the chief operating officer for
programs in education, research, and outreach in energy resources including
renewable energy, water quality and quantity, and environmental issues. He
is responsible for the budget and operation of the program. Dr. Ghassemi has
authored and edited several textbooks and has many publications and papers
in the areas of energy, water, carbon cycle, including carbon generation and
management, process control, thermodynamics, transport phenomena, edu-
cation management, and innovative teaching methods. His research areas
of interest include risk-based decision making, renewable energy and water,
carbon management and sequestration, energy efficiency, pollution preven-
tion, multiphase flow, and process control. Dr. Ghassemi serves on a number
of public and private boards, editorial boards, and peer-review panels. He
holds MS and PhD degrees in chemical engineering, with minors in statistics
and mathematics, from New Mexico State University and a BS in chemical
engineering, with a minor in mathematics, from the University of Oklahoma.
xxi
Preface
Over the past several decades, there has arisen among informed leaders of
industry, government, and the environmental movement, an acute aware-
ness of energy as a problem of impending critical magnitude on the national
and international scene. The energy crisis or problem, as it has been called,
was created by historical increases in demand for energy and the continuing
lack of a viable management policy. This situation has resulted in two issues
that are fast becoming pervasive concerns. One is the adequate, reliable sup-
ply of all forms of energy both in developed and underdeveloped countries,
and the other is the growing public concern with the environmental and
social consequences of producing and distributing usable energy.
The solution to the energy problem amazingly may simply be conservation
and the development of new, less destructive/consumptive energy forms.
Energy conservation may sharply reduce the historic and current waste of
resources that has been at the very heart of many of the problems resulting
from the exploitation of energy resources. An extensive conservation pro-
gram could be implemented in a very short period of time. Such an effort
could play a major role in slowing the growth in the demand for energy
and in causing energy to be used much more efficiently. At this same time,
new sources of energy must be developed to take the place of extinguish-
able resources and to ensure the availability of adequate, long-term energy
supplies. The feasibility of developing solar power, wind, tidal, geothermal,
fusion, etc., and other so-called unconventional sources of energy must con-
tinue to be investigated in this never-ending process until a truly viable
renewable or unlimited source of energy is discovered.
In the final analysis, grim projections for the future are obtained by extend-
ing the consumption patterns and trends of the past to define future “energy
demand.” Once it has been determined that the demand exists, the choice
among the various means of energy conversion systems, either available at
present or in some stage of development, will be made. This should involve an
evaluation of each means of power generation from the available fuel resources,
including the environmental implications, and their relation to relevant eco-
nomic, political, and social issues. However, these projections are themselves
influenced by assumptions regarding future demands for power that must
also be reexamined. For example, various alternatives can be devised to maxi-
mize long-term social return per unit of energy consumed by analyzing the
various components that presently constitute energy demand, resources, and
transmission options. In turn, such alternatives may have important implica-
tions for the economic systems, social processes, and lifestyles.
Topics such as resource quantity, resource availability, economics, energy
quality, conservation requirements, transportation requirements, delivery
xxiii
xxiv Preface
requirements, operation and manufacturing, regulatory issues, political

issues, environmental concerns, cost consequences, advantages, disadvan-
tages, and public acceptance will be reviewed throughout the analyses pre-
sented in this text. The work begins with a cursory review of the various
principles involved in the analysis of energy resource options. This is fol-
lowed by a synopsis of the primary and secondary energy resources avail-
able both historically and today. Chapters also provide insight into the
problems facing energy managers nationally and internationally, and they
examine or propose solutions to potential paths forward. Another feature
of the work includes a chapter that provides a ranked quantitative detailed
review and practical evaluation of all viable energy options, categories, and
corresponding weighting factors that are contained in the analysis. These
considerations define the energy issues and provide a means of solving
and managing energy problems that exist today and defining the optimal
course for future generations. Finally, the book concludes with the authors’
approach to solving the energy problem and developing a viable, manage-
able energy policy for the future.
The authors are particulary indebted to four individuals. Thanks are due
to Rita D’Aquino for effectively serving as the authors’ personal techni-
cal and editorial consultant on the project. Thanks are also due to Vinnie
DelGatto for his contribution to the manuscript. A special thank you to
Monica Dahl for typing the original manuscript and to Ronnie Zaglin for
doing a superb job in “beautifying” it, and for the extra pair of eyes when it
came time for proofreading.
Kenneth J. Skipka
Lou Theodore
The Authors
Kenneth Skipka received a BA degree in natural sciences from Long Island

University and an MS in meteorology from Cornell University. Over the past
45 years, Mr. Skipka has held a variety of academic, government, and private
industry positions. He worked as a research scientist at Brookhaven National
Laboratories in New York and at the White Sands Missile Range in New
Mexico. He taught at Queens College as an assistant professor and worked
as a research assistant at Cornell University. He has held staff scientist posi-
tions at the Tri-State Regional Planning Commission in New York and with
several environmental consulting firms, including Smith-Singer Associates,
Equitable Environmental Health (vice president), and Camp Dresser and
McKee (senior scientist, regional manager). In 1986, Mr. Skipka, along with
three other partners, founded RTP Environmental Associates, Inc. (RTP), an
environmental consulting firm specializing in air, water, and solid waste
issues for a variety of industries, particularly the power industry. RTP has
become a nationally recognized firm and its success is attributed to the
exceptional staff and their superior work products. Mr. Skipka’s background
includes extensive research while preparing various studies involving eval-
uating energy alternatives for the Pacific Northwest, preparing environmen-
tal analyses for permitting coal, gas, and nuclear power plants; wind power
projects; mining activities; biofuels projects; waste-to-energy plants; geother-
mal facilities; landfill projects; landfill gas energy plants; and pumped stor-
age facilities, in addition to projects in the electric power, pulp and paper,
steel, petrochemical, cement, mining, manufacturing, transportation, indus-
trial, commercial, and residential sectors. Mr. Skipka is currently a principal
with RTP Environmental Associates, Inc., owner of the IT Leasing Company,
and a long-standing member of the Air & Waste Management Association
(AWMA). He is also a certified consulting meteorologist (CCM) with the
American Meteorological Society (AMS). He has authored, collaborated on,
and/or published numerous books, technical reports, and papers concerned
with environmental and energy issues. One of his primary interests con-
cerns the development of a sound energy policy for future generations.
Louis Theodore received the degrees of MChE and EngScD from New York
University and a BChE from The Cooper Union. Over the past 50 years, Dr.
Theodore was a successful educator at Manhattan College (holding the rank
of full professor of chemical engineering), graduate program director (raising
extensive financial support from local industries), researcher, professional
innovator, and communicator in the engineering field. During this period, he
was primarily responsible for his program achieving a no. 2 ranking by the
US News & World Report and was particularly successful in placing students
xxv
xxvi The Authors
in internships, jobs, and graduate schools. He has authored 98 text/reference

books and over 100 technical papers, and is the author of the recent CRC Press/
Taylor & Francis Group risk assessment text entitled Environmental Health and
Hazard Risk Assessment: Principles and Calculations and the John Wiley & Sons
text Heat Transfer for the Practicing Engineer. He currently serves as a part-time
consultant to the US EPA and Theodore Tutorials. Dr. Theodore is a member
of Phi Lambda Upsilon, Sigma Xi, Tau Beta Pi, American Chemical Society,
American Society of Engineering Education, Royal Hellenic Society, and a
fellow of the International Air & Waste Management Association (AWMA).
Dr. Theodore is the recipient of the AWMA’s prestigious Ripperton award
that is “presented to an outstanding educator who, through example, dedica-
tion, and innovation has so inspired students to achieve excellence in their
professional endeavors.” He was also the recipient of the American Society
of Engineering Education (ASEE) AT&T Foundation award for “excellence in
the instruction of engineering students.”
Section I
Basic Principles
Section I provides as an overview on energy management. The subject mat-

ter varies from a broad introduction to energy, to energy-related engineering
principles, regulations, to energy conservation (including entropy calcula-
tions), and to sustainability/green engineering. Chapter titles include:
1. Introduction to the Issues

2. Thermodynamic Principles: Entropy Analysis
3. Energy Demand
4. Sustainability and Green Science/Engineering
5. Energy Regulations
6. The Modern Energy Matrix: An Overview
1
Introduction to the Issues
Introduction
Energy is the keystone of life and prosperity. Adequate energy supplies
and a satisfactory living environment are goals of overriding importance to
every individual. There is no question that as energy is made available, the
quality of life improves. At the same time, however, economic and national
stability must also be maintained. Recent developments provide evidence
that the discourse on all of these aspects will continue and be the prime
determinants of domestic and foreign policy for many years to come.
Over the past 40+ years there has arisen among informed leaders of indus-
try, governments, and the environmental movement an acute awareness of
energy as an issue of critical importance to everyone’s well-being and sur-
vival. An energy crisis—or problem, or shortage, or dilemma, as it has been
called—is created by the continually increasing demand for energy. This
demand has resulted in three issues becoming critical concerns of the entire
international community. First is the adequate, reliable supply of all forms of
energy. Second is the growing public concern with the environmental con-
sequences of producing energy. Finally—and equally important—are the
social ramifications associated with the accompanying financial expendi-
tures required to meet the energy demand.
The solutions to the problems that arise from energy demand may simply
be conservation and the development of new, less expensive energy forms.
Energy conservation can sharply reduce the waste of resources that has been
at the very heart of many environmental problems. Moreover, an extensive
conservation program can be implemented in a very short period of time.
Such an effort can play a major role in slowing the growth in the demand
for energy and in causing energy to be used more efficiently. At the same
time, new sources of energy must be developed to ensure the availability
of adequate, inexpensive, long-term energy supplies. The feasibility of solar
power, wind, tidal, geothermal, fusion, and other less traditional sources of
energy must continue to be investigated and developed further.
Because energy has been relatively cheap and plentiful in the past, many
energy-wasting practices were allowed to develop and continue in all areas
3
4 Energy Resources: Availability, Management, and Environmental Impacts
of energy use. Industries have wasted energy by discharging hot process

water instead of recovering its sensible heat and by wasting the energy dis-
charged in flue gases from power plant stacks. Waste hydrocarbons have
been discharged to the environment or combusted with little consider-
ation for recovering their energy value. There are many more examples, too
numerous to mention. Elimination of these practices can, at least temporarily
and partially, reduce the rate of increase in energy demand. Thus, the most
dramatic short-term improvements can be developed by energy conserva-
tion in the industrial sector of the economy since industrial users account
for approximately 40 percent of the energy consumed in the United States.
Also, industry might be considered more dynamic, progressive, and strongly
motivated by the economic incentives offered by conservation than the other
energy-use sectors (residential, commercial, and transportation).
Before discussing energy management, however, there are several terms
that require definition, because they are critical to understanding the laws
that govern energy resources and their use. These definitions are addressed
in the following section.
Energy Terms [1–3]

All forms of energy must be included in an energy balance. In many pro-
cesses, certain energy forms remain constant and changes in them may
be neglected. However, these forms should be recognized and understood
before their magnitude and constancy can be determined. Some forms of
energy are easily recognized in everyday life: the energy of a moving object,
the liberated energy given off by a fire, and the energy content of a container
of hot water. Other forms of energy are less easily recognized.
Five key energy terms—kinetic, potential, internal, heat, and work—are
commonly used as energy descriptors. These are briefly described next.
1. Kinetic energy. The energy of a moving object is called kinetic energy.

A baseball thrown by a pitcher possesses kinetic energy as it trav-
els toward the catcher. The mass of flowing fluid possesses kinetic
energy as it travels through a duct.
2. Potential energy. The energy possessed by a mass by virtue of its posi-
tion in the Earth’s gravitational field is referred to as potential energy.
A boulder lying at the top of a cliff possesses potential energy with
reference to the bottom of the cliff. If the boulder is pushed off the
cliff, its potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy as it falls.
Similarly, a mass of fluid in a flowing system possesses a potential
energy because of its height above an arbitrary reference level (e.g.,
Niagara Falls).
Introduction to the Issues 5
3. Internal energy. The component molecules of a substance are con-

stantly moving within the substance. This motion imparts inter-
nal energy to a mass. The molecules may rotate, vibrate, or migrate
within the substance. The addition of heat to a material increases its
molecular activity and thus its internal energy. The temperature of a
material is a direct measure of its internal energy.
4. Heat. When energy is transferred between a system and its sur-
roundings, it is transferred either as work or as heat. Thus, heat is
energy in transit. This type of energy transfer occurs whenever a hot
body is brought into contact with a cold body. Energy flows as heat
from the hot body to the cold body until the temperature difference
is dissipated (i.e., until thermal equilibrium is established). For this
reason, heat may be considered as energy being transferred due to a
temperature difference.
5. Work. Work is also energy in transit. Work is experienced whenever
a force acts through a distance.
Other less recognizable forms of energy include light, sound, electrical,

magnetic, etc. Included in this category is mass. This form of energy was
first realized at the beginning of the last century. It can be thought of as the
“energy of existence,” possessing energy simply by virtue of its presence.
Any mass is nothing more than a highly concentrated source of energy.
The amount of this energy (if motionless) is proportional to its mass. If
the mass is moving, it has still more energy because of its kinetic energy.
A massless substance, such as a photon, has only energy of motion and no
energy of being (mass). The relation between the mass and its energy is
given by Einstein’s equation, to be discussed shortly. Electricity is actually
another form of energy (others refer to it as a secondary source of energy).
It serves as a useful carrier of energy since it is readily and safely trans-
ported at high efficiencies.
Power is defined as the time rate of doing work, or
Work
Power, P = (1.1)
Time
The most common unit for power is horsepower (hp), defined as work being
done at the rate of 550 ft·lbf/s. Most continuously operating equipment,
such as electrical motors or internal combustion engines, are rated in terms
of horsepower and the “efficiency” of energy conversion of such units is
defined as
Power output
Efficiency = (1.2)
Power input
For most engineering work, the following approximate conversion factors

are used:
1 (Btu) = 1055 (J) = 252 (cal) = 778 (ft·lbf)
Another useful conversion factor is given by
1(cal)/(g) = 1.8 (Btu)/(lb)
Extensive sets of conversion factors are available on the Internet as well as

in several references in this chapter. These terms will be used throughout
this section and the remaining sections of this book.
Conservation Law for Energy

The concept of energy developed slowly over a period of several hundred
years and culminated in the establishment of the general principle of con-
servation of energy around 1850 [1–3]. This energy principle, as it applies
to mechanics, was presented earlier in the work of Galileo (1564–1642) and
Isaac Newton (1642–1726).
James Joule’s experiments cleared the way for the enunciation of the first
law of thermodynamics: When a closed system goes through a cyclic pro-
cess, the work done on the surroundings equals the heat absorbed from the
surroundings. Mathematically, this statement, in a very broad sense, intro-
duced the conservation law of energy.
A presentation of the conservation law for energy would be incomplete
without a brief review of some introductory thermodynamic principles.
Thermodynamics is defined as that science that deals with the relationships
among the various forms of energy. As noted earlier, a system may possess
energy due to certain qualities, including:
1. Temperature
2. Velocity
3. Position
4. Molecular structure
5. Surface properties
The energies corresponding to the five states listed are
1. Internal
2. Kinetic
3. Potential
4. Chemical
5. Surface
Empirical observations, during these early times, led to the conclusion that
although energy can be transformed, it cannot be created or destroyed. This
concept, known as the first law of thermodynamics, constitutes one of the
basic principles of classical mechanics. This principle, along with the parallel
principle of conservation of mass, holds true only for phenomena involving
velocities that are small compared to the velocity of light. At higher velocities
(close to that of light), as in nuclear reactions, energy and mass are intercon-
vertible. Thus, the two concepts—the conservation of energy and of mass—
are interedepent.
The first law of thermodynamics specifies that energy is conserved. Thus,
the change in energy of a system is exactly equal to the opposite change
in the energy of its surroundings. For a system of constant mass (a closed
system), a system and its surroundings may only interchange energy by the
aforementioned heat and work, where heat and work were defined as energy
in transit. They are not properties and cannot be stored in a system. Two
common forms of work are expansion and electrical. As also noted, heat is
energy in transit because of a temperature difference; this heat transfer may
take place by conduction, convection, or radiation [4].
The energy balance makes use of the conservation law to account for all
the energy in a chemical process, or in any other process for that matter.
After a system is defined, the energy balance considers the energy entering
the system across the boundary, the energy leaving the system across the
boundary, and the accumulation of energy within the system. This may be
written in a simplified equation form as:
Energy in – energy out = energy accumulated (1.3)
This expression has the same form as the general law of conservation of
mass as well as the conservation law for momentum. It may also be written
on a time rate basis. This law, in steady-state equation form for batch and
flow processes, is presented here.
For batch processes:
ΔE = Q + W (1.4)
For flow processes:
∆H = Q + Ws (1.5)
where potential, kinetic, and other energy effects have been neglected and
Q = the energy in the form of heat transferred across the boundar-

ies of the system
W = the energy in the form of work transferred across the boundar-
ies of the system
Ws = the energy in the form of mechanical work transferred across
the boundaries of the system
E = the internal energy of the system
H = the enthalpy of the system, as defined in Equation (1.6) (see next
section)
ΔE, ΔH = the change in the internal energy and enthalpy, respectively,
during the process.
The changes in internal energy and enthalpy as defined in Equations (1.4)

and (1.5), respectively, may be on a mass basis (i.e., for 1 kg or 1 lb of material),
on a mole basis (i.e., for 1 gmol or 1 lbmol of material), or represent the total
internal energy and enthalpy of the entire system. It makes no difference as
long as these equations are dimensionally consistent.
Enthalpy
One of the more important thermodynamic functions engineers work with
is the aforementioned enthalpy. The enthalpy is defined by
H = E + PV (1.6)
where
P = the pressure of the system
V = the volume of the system
The terms E and H are state or point functions. By fixing a certain number of
variables on which the function depends, the numerical value of the func-
tion is automatically fixed (i.e., it is single valued). For example, fixing the
temperature and pressure of a one-component, single-phase system imme-
diately specifies the enthalpy and internal energy.
The change in enthalpy as it undergoes a change in state from T1, P1 (initial)
to T2, P2 (final) is given by:
∆H = H 2 − H1 = Cp (T2 − T1 ) (1.7)
where
Cp = the heat capacity of the substance; Btu/lb·°F, cal/g·°C
Note that H and ΔH are independent of the path. This is a characteristic of

all state or point functions (i.e., the state of the system is independent of the
path by which the state is reached). The terms Q, W, and Ws in Equations (1.4)
and (1.5) are “path” functions; their values depend on the path used between
the two states. Unless a process or change of state is occurring, path func-
tions have no value.
There are many different types of enthalpy effects; these include:
Sensible (temperature)
Latent (phase)
Dilution (with water)—for example, HCl with H2O
Solution (nonaqueous)—for example, HCl with a solvent other than H2O
Reaction (chemical)
To summarize, a sensible enthalpy change is associated with temperature

changes. The latent enthalpy change finds application in thermodynamic cal-
culations for determining the heat (enthalpy) of condensation or vaporiza-
tion, often for water. Steam tables (or the equivalent) are usually employed
for this determination. The dilution and solution enthalpy effects are often sig-
nificant in some industrial absorber calculations but may safely be neglected
in most energy conservation calculations. The enthalpy of reaction is defined
as the enthalpy change of a fuel/source undergoing chemical reaction; this
effect normally cannot be neglected.
The equivalence of mass and energy was qualitatively addressed earlier.
This relationship is only important in nuclear reactions involving the rear-
rangement of electrons outside the nucleus of the atom. In a nuclear reaction,
it is the nucleus of the atom that undergoes rearrangement, releasing a signifi-
cant quantity of energy; this process occurs with a miniscule loss of mass. The
classic Einstein equation relates energy to mass, as provided in Equation (1.8).
∆E = ( ∆m)c 2 (1.8)
where
Δm = decrease in mass
c = velocity of light
Two simple examples involving the conservation law for energy are
Niagara Falls and a pendulum. At Niagara Falls, the potential energy of the
water at an elevated height is converted to kinetic energy as it falls to a lower
height. The action of a swinging pendulum provides a second example.
Here, both the height and velocity vary due to the swinging action of the
pendulum. The velocity is zero at its maximum height where the direction
of motion changes. At its lowest point, the velocity has its maximum value.
Although both the height and velocity are changing during the swinging
action, the combination of both energy quantities does not change with time,
but instead maintains a constant value (i.e., kinetic energy is transferred
into potential energy and then potential energy is transferred into kinetic
energy). Thus, the sum of both contributions is a conserved quantity.
Heat Transfer
As noted earlier, the most important thermodynamic term practicing engi-
neers and scientists work with is enthalpy. The subject of heat transfer and
heat exchangers plays an important role in many energy conservation stud-
ies. Most energy conservation measures in industry involving energy recov-
ery in the form of heat utilize any one of a variety of heat exchangers [4]. This
issue is discussed next in terms of heat transfer.
A review of the literature suggests that the concept of heat transfer was
first introduced by the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton in his 1701 paper
entitled “Scala Graduum Caloris” [5]. The specific ideas of heat convection
and Newton’s law of cooling were developed from that paper.
Before the development of kinetic theory in the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, the transfer of heat was explained by the caloric theory. This theory was
introduced by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) in 1789. In his
paper, Lavoisier proposed that caloric was a tasteless, odorless, massless, and
colorless substance that could be transferred from one body to another and that
the transfer of caloric to a body increased its temperature, and the loss of calo-
rics correspondingly decreased its temperature. Lavoisier also stated that if a
body cannot absorb/accept any additional caloric, then it should be considered
saturated and, hence, the idea of a saturated liquid and vapor was developed [6].
Lavoisier’s caloric theory was never fully accepted because the theory essen-
tially stated that heat could not be created or destroyed, even though it was
well known that heat could be generated by the simple act of rubbing hands
together. In 1798, an American physicist, Benjamin Thompson, reported in his
paper that heat was generated by friction, a form of motion, and not by caloric
flow. Although his idea was also not readily accepted, it did help establish the
law of conservation of energy in the nineteenth century [7].
In 1843, the caloric theory was proven wrong by the English physicist
James P. Joule. His experiments provided the relationship between mechani-
cal work and the nature of heat, and led to the development of the first law of
thermodynamics (i.e., the conservation of energy) [8].
The development of kinetic theory in the nineteenth century put to rest
all other theories. Kinetic theory states that energy or heat is created by the
random motion of atoms and molecules. The introduction of kinetic theory
helped to develop the concept of the conduction of heat [9].
The earlier developments in heat transfer helped set the stage for the
French mathematician and physicist Joseph Fourier (1768–1830) to reconcile
Newton’s law of cooling, which in turn led to the development of Fourier’s
law of conduction. Newton’s law of cooling suggested that there was a rela-
tionship between the temperature difference and the amount of heat trans-
ferred. Fourier took Newton’s law of cooling and arrived at a convection heat
equation [10]. Fourier also developed the concepts of heat flux and tempera-
ture gradient. Using the same process that he used to develop the equation
of heat convection, Fourier subsequently developed the classic equation for
heat conduction that has come to be known as Fourier’s law [11].
Heat transfer, as an engineering practice, grew out of thermodynamics at
around the turn of the twentieth century. This arose because of the need to
deal with the design of heat transfer equipment required by emerging and
growing industries. Early applications included steam generators for loco-
motives and ships, and condensers for power generation plants. Later, the
rapidly developing petroleum and petrochemical industries began to require
rugged, large-scale heat exchangers for a variety of processes. Between 1920
and 1950, the basic forms of many heat exchangers used today were devel-
oped and refined, as documented by Kern [12]. These heat exchangers still
remain the choice for most process applications.
Starting in the late 1950s, at least three unrelated developments rapidly
changed the heat exchanger industry:
1. With respect to heat exchanger design and sizing, the general avail-
ability of computers permitted the use of complex calculation proce-
dures that were not possible before.
2. The development of nuclear energy introduced the need for precise
design methods, especially in heat transfer calculations.
3. The energy crisis of the 1970s significantly increased the cost of
energy, triggering a demand for more efficient heat utilization [13].
As a result, heat-transfer technology suddenly became a prime recipient of

large research funds, especially during the 1960s and 1980s. This elevated
the knowledge of heat exchanger design principles to where it is today [14].
The application of heat transfer thermodynamic principles receives treat-
ment in the next chapter. In particular, it addresses energy conservation
measures utilizing heat exchangers [4].
Net Energy Analysis [15]

How much energy does it take to produce useable energy or materials?
The term energy analysis represents a broad field of study dealing with the
development and use of all aspects of energy in human society and the envi-
ronment. Net energy analysis, a more limited field of study, deals with the
analysis of the energy made available to society by energy production pro-
cesses after accounting for energy lost to society/environment as a result of
the processes. This subject can also include the energy analysis of materi-
als production (i.e., how much energy must be invested in the total system
needed for the production of a unit of material). Net energy analysis is a topic
that will be addressed several times in this book.
Net energy analysis differs significantly from traditional engineering effi-
ciency studies. First, net energy analysis is concerned with the total system
of production, starting with resources in the ground. Second, it is concerned
with the total quantity of energy throughout society that must be input into
construction and operation of an energy or material production system up to
the point where the produced energy is actually utilized.
The objectives of a net energy analysis are the following:
1. Provide reliable, objective, credible information to government and

industry on the net energy inputs and outputs of energy systems.
2. Provide a workable methodology that could be used in subsequent
expanded net energy studies.
3. Provide the best possible documentation of data related to net
energy.
4. Discuss and describe the usefulness and limitation of net energy
studies and their potential values in decision making.
5. Discuss philosophy and issues pertaining to net energy studies.
Three major concerns or issues to which the general title of net energy
analysis might apply include the following:
1. How much energy is required from the industrial component of

society to drive or establish and operate an energy production pro-
cess, relative to the energy yield of the process?
2. In extracting, processing, and moving a resource (if applicable) to
provide energy to end users, what final yields are obtained relative
to losses of the total energy of the recovered (fuel) resources and
of the industrial energy needed to establish and operate the energy
production systems?
3. For a given output of energy for end use, what total amounts of the
gross (fuel) resources and industrial energies are necessary to estab-
lish and operate the system?
The issues of the finiteness of (fuel) resources and the rate of depletion are
also of concern to society.
Energy must be expended when a material is extracted from its source,

is processed, or is transported. As a material moves downstream through a
series of processing steps, it represents (or has necessitated) an accumulation
of energy expenditures. This energy embodied in the material as a result of
processing is called sequestered energy. A petroleum-derived chemical usu-
ally has such an energy value. Thus, the energy requirements of finished
products include fuel values in some cases, and expended processing energy
in all cases, to represent the total sequestered energy.
Net energy analysis should not be used as the primary decision factor.
Other factors may generally carry more weight; they include the following:
1. Economics
2. Environment
3. National security
4. Energy mix
5. Lead times
6. Transportation capacities
7. Institutional restraints, such as governmental regulations and incentives
8. Availability of needed materials
9. Local attitudes
10. Socioeconomic impacts
11. Employment needs
12. Needs for energy
13. Safety concerns
Net energy analysis is not a panacea for energy planning, but is worth utiliz-
ing as a framework for energy analyses in examining a variety of issues. This
is addressed in more detail in the last chapter of Section I.
Developing a National Energy Policy

The facts on present-day energy consumption are universally accepted. Even
the projections for raw material reserves of oil, coal, gas, and uranium cause
little argument. But, consensus on all other aspects of energy policy is non-
existent. In the broadest sense, many cannot agree whether there is presently
a crisis or a problem. In any event, a number of measures must be taken
to assure that where energy problems exist, they will not worsen. To better
appraise the magnitude of these measures, one must set short-term and long-
term goals, both of which are discussed next [16].
Short Term
Because of the long lead times required to improve a nation’s energy position
substantially, the only answer to the present energy shortage is to allow the
continued importation of crude oil, distillate, and residuals. Because of the
serious strain that such imports are placing on the balance of payments, it is
critical that conservation steps be initiated.
Long Term
In the United States, a comprehensive coordinated national energy policy
must be formulated. This policy should be subject to continuing review and
adjustment to address such needs as depleting resources, new technological
breakthroughs, conservation measures, etc. In short, the policy should cover
the following (baker’s dozen) categories:
1. Set up a comprehensive cabinet-level agency dealing with all forms

of energy.
2. Systematize and refine air and water pollution guidelines and estab-
lish land utilization policies to ease the siting of refineries, power
plants, and petrochemical operations.
3. Stimulate increases in domestic oil and gas production by deregulat-
ing gas prices or regulating them with realistic price guidelines.
4. Stimulate increases in domestic oil and gas production by increasing
the size of offshore leases as well as the frequency of lease sales.
5. Change Internal Revenue guidelines to favor exploration in the
United States rather than favoring international exploration, and pro-
duction abroad by allowing royalties paid to foreign governments to
be written off against federal tax owed the U.S. government.
6. Foster research on improved coal mining and new reclamation
techniques.
7. Sponsor, fund, and encourage coal gasification projects to a degree
that would lead to possible commercialization of the process within
this and the next decade.
8. Foster additional research on alternative energy sources (solar,
nuclear, tidal, wind, biofuel, and geothermal energy).
9. Provide regulations and/or incentives to allow the use of coal as a
petroleum substitute in certain industrial operations.
10. Accelerate and systematize the environmental review process of
proposed energy projects.
11. Coordinate all energy research to take advantage of breakthrough
technologies with the end goal being energy independence.
12. Foster additional research on the environmental problems involved

in the production of nuclear energy.
13. Analyze and implement energy conservation measures whenever
such a need arises.
Similar options can be considered in other developed or developing nations.

In a very real sense, one of the objectives of the above list is to develop and
propose an energy policy. This introductory chapter is the beginning of that
attempt. The goal is that it will culminate with presentation of that policy in
the last chapter.
References
1. Adapted from R. Dupont, K. Ganesan, and L. Theodore, Pollution prevention,
CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, 1996.
2. Adapted from G. Burke, B. Singh, and L. Theodore, Handbook of environmental
management and technology, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2000.
3. Adapted from J. Reynolds and L. Theodore, Handbook of chemical and environ-
mental engineering calculations, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2004.
4. L. Theodore, Heat transfer for the practicing engineer, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken,
NJ, 2012.
5. E. Layton, History of heat transfer: Essays in the honor of the 50th anniversary
of the ASME heat transfer division, date and location unknown.
6. Y. Cengel, Heat transfer, 2nd ed., McGraw–Hill, New York, 2003.
7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Thompson#Experiments_on_heat
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule
9. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/thercond.html
10. J. Holman, Heat transfer, 7th ed., McGraw–Hill, New York, 1990.
11. J. B. Fourier, Théorie analytique de la chaleur, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1822; German
translation by Weinstein, Springer, Berlin, 1884; Annales de chimie et de physique,
37 (2), 291 (1828); Pogg. Annals, 13, 327, 1828.
12. D. Kern, Process heat transfer, McGraw–Hill, New York, 1950.
13. L. Theodore, F. Ricci, and T. VanVliet, Thermodynamics for the practicing engineer,
John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2009.
14. J. Taborek, Process heat transfer, Chemical Engineering, New York, August 2000.
15. A. Melcher, Net energy analysis and its application for conservation and envi-
ronmental impact statements, Proceedings of the Sixth National Conference on
Energy and the Environment, AIChE Dayton Section, Dayton, OH, 1979.
16. R. Deju, National energy needs: Availability, demand, and conservation,
Proceedings of the First National Conference on Energy and the Environment, AIChE
Dayton and Ohio Sections, Dayton, OH, 1973.
References
1 Chapter 1: Introduction to the Issues
1. Adapted from R. Dupont, K. Ganesan, and L. Theodore,

Pollution prevention, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group,
Boca Raton, FL, 1996.
2. Adapted from G. Burke, B. Singh, and L. Theodore,

Handbook of environmental management and technology, 2nd
ed., John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2000.
3. Adapted from J. Reynolds and L. Theodore, Handbook of

chemical and environmental engineering calculations, John
Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2004.
4. L. Theodore, Heat transfer for the practicing engineer,

5. E. Layton, History of heat transfer: Essays in the honor

of the 50th anniversary of the ASME heat transfer
division, date and location unknown.
6. Y. Cengel, Heat transfer, 2nd ed., McGraw–Hill, New

York, 2003.
7.
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule
9.
10. J. Holman, Heat transfer, 7th ed., McGraw–Hill, New

York, 1990.
11. J. B. Fourier, Théorie analytique de la chaleur,

Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1822; German translation by
Weinstein, Springer, Berlin, 1884; Annales de chimie et de
physique, 37 (2), 291 (1828); Pogg. Annals, 13, 327, 1828.
12. D. Kern, Process heat transfer, McGraw–Hill, New York,

1950.
13. L. Theodore, F. Ricci, and T. VanVliet, Thermodynamics

for the practicing engineer, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken,
NJ, 2009.
14. J. Taborek, Process heat transfer, Chemical

Engineering, New York, August 2000.
15. A. Melcher, Net energy analysis and its application for
conservation and environmental impact statements,
Proceedings of the Sixth National Conference on Energy and
the Environment, AIChE Dayton Section, Dayton, OH, 1979.
16. R. Deju, National energy needs: Availability, demand,

and conservation, Proceedings of the First National
Conference on Energy and the Environment, AIChE Dayton and
Ohio Sections, Dayton, OH, 1973.
2 Chapter 2: Thermodynamic
Principles:Entropy Analysis
1. M. K. Theodore and L. Theodore, Introduction to

environmental management, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis
Group, Boca Raton, FL, 2009.
2. J. Smith, H. Van Ness, and M. Abbott, Chemical

engineering thermodynamics, 6th ed., McGraw–Hill, New
York, 2001.
3. L. Theodore and J. Reynolds, Thermodynamics, a Theodore

tutorial, Theodore Tutorials, East Williston, NY, 1994.
4. Adapted from F. Ricci, T. VanVliet, and L. Theodore,

Thermodynamics for the practicing engineer, John Wiley &
Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2009.
5. A. Flynn, unpublished notes, 2005.

7. Adapted from C. Hill, An introduction to sustainable

resource use, Earthscan, Washington, DC, 2011.
8. V. Smil, Energy in nature and society, MIT Press,

Cambridge, MA, 2008.
9. D. Mackay, Sustainable energy—Without the hot air, VIT

Cambridge Ltd., Cambridge, MA, 2009.
3 Chapter 3: Energy Demand
1. Adapted from W. Elrod, H. Wreglit, and S. Zabaneycz,

Unlimited energy, unlimited control, ultimate disaster,
First National Conference on Energy and the Environment,
Dayton AIChE Section, Dayton, OH, 1973.
2. C. Maurer and G. Pearle, The rising cost of electricity,

First National Conference on Energy and the Environment,
Dayton AIChE Section, Dayton, OH, 1973.
3. Drawn (with permission) from M. K. Theodore and L.

Theodore, Major environmental issues facing the 21st
century, contributing author (Chapter 1): A. Meier,
Theodore Tutorials (originally published by Simon &
Schuster), East Williston, NY, 1995.
4. A. Gordon and D. Suzuki, It’s a matter of survival,

Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1991.
5. C. Ponting, A green history of the world, St. Martin’s

Press, New York, 1991.
6. L. Theodore and R. Dupont, Environmental health risk and

hazard risk assessment: Principles and calculations, CRC
Press/Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, 2012.

8. Adapted from K. Tempelmeyer, Energy development

policy—Canadian viewpoint, First Nation Conference on
Energy and the Environment, Dayton AIChE Section, Dayton,
OH, 1973.
9. S. Shaefer and L. Theodore, Probability and statistics

applications for environmental science, CRC Press/Taylor &
Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, 2007.
10. L. Theodore, Air pollution control equipment

calculations, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2009.
4 CHapter 4: Sustainability and Green
Science/Engineering
1. Adapted from M. K. Theodore and L. Theodore,

Introduction to environmental management, Chapters 8 and
9, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, 2009.
2. P. Bishop, Pollution prevention, Waveland Press, Inc.,

Prospect Heights, IL, 2000.
3. United Nations, Report of the World Commission on

Environment and Development, General Assembly Resolution
42/187, December 11, 1987. Retrieved October 31, 2007.
4. K. Schneider, White House snubs U.S. envoy’s plea to

sign Rio Treaty, New York Times, June 5, 1992; J. Brooke,
UN chief closes summit with an appeal for action, New York
Times, June 15, 1992.
5. R. Dupont, K. Ganesan, and L. Theodore, Pollution

prevention, CRC/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 2000.

prevention, sustainability, industrialization and green
science and engineering: The waste management approach in
the 21st century, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, Boca
Raton, FL, 2014 (in preparation).
7. J. Santoleri, J. Reynolds, and L. Theodore, Introduction

to hazard waste incineration, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons,
Hoboken, NJ, 2000.
8. B. Metzger and D. Salmoned, Managing for sustainability,

EM, Air & Waste Management Association, Pittsburgh, PA,
2004.
9. D. Reed, Stalking the elusive business case for

corporate sustainability, World Resources Institute,
Washington, DC, 2001.
10. P. Anastas and T. Williamson, Green chemistry: An

overview. In Green chemistry: designing chemistry for the
environment, eds. P. Anastas and T. Williamson, ACS
Symposium Series 626, American Chemical Society,
Washington, DC, 1996, pp. 1–17.
11. P. Anastas and J. Warner, Green chemistry: Theory and

practice, Oxford University Press, New York, 1998.
12. P. Anastas, StC. D. Black, J. Breen, T. Collins, S.

Memoli, J. Miyamoto, M. Polyakoff, W. Tumas, and P. Tundo,
Synthetic pathways and processes in green chemistry.
Introductory overview, Pure and Applied Chemistry, 72 (7),
1207–1228, 2000.
13. L. Theodore and R. Dupont, Environmental health risk

and hazard risk assessment: Principles and calculations,
14. www.greenchemistryinstitute.org, 2007.
15. D. Hancock and M. Cavanaugh,“Environmentally benign

chemical synthesis and processing for the economy and the
environment. In Benign by design, ed. P. T. Anastas and C.
A. Farris, ACS Symposium Series 577, American Chemical
Society, Washington, DC, 1994, pp. 23–30.
16.
17. http://www.eng.vt.edu/green/Program.php.
18. P. Anastas and J. Zimmerman, Design through the twelve

principles of green engineering, Environmental Science and
Technology, 37, 94A–101A, Washington, DC, 2003.
19. D. Allen, and D. Shonnard, Green engineering:

Environmentally conscious design of chemical processes,
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2002.
20. J. Brennecke, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular

Engineering, University of Notre Dame, IN.
http://www.rsc.org/delivery/Article LInking/ Display HTML
Articleforfree.cfm?JournalCode = GC&Year =
2004&ManuscriptID = b411954c&Iss = 8
21. http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb =
true&_pageLabel = PP_SUPERARTICLE&node_id = 1415&use_sec =
false&sec_url_var = region1.
22.
http://www.chem.cmu.edu/groups/Collins/ethics/ethics06.html
23. G. Boyle, B. Everett, and J. Ramage, Energy systems and

sustainability, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 2003.
24. D. Pearce, A. Markandya, and E. Barbier, Blueprint for

a green economy, Earthscan, London, UK, 1989.
5 Chapter 5: Energy Regulations
1. Webster’s New World Dictionary, 2nd college ed.,

Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1980.
2. W. Matystik, personal communication to L. Theodore, East

Williston, NY, 2011.
3. L. Stander, personal communication to L. Theodore, East

4. Of�ce of Solid Waste, Solving the hazardous waste

problem, EPA/530-SW-86-037.
5. Interstate cooperation to speed multistate acceptance of

environmental technologies. National Governor’s
Association-Natural Resources Policy Studies Division,
Sept. 10, 1997, Washington, DC.
6.
6 Chapter 6: The Modern Energy Matrix: An
Overview
1. K. Skipka, personal notes, Equitable Environmental

Health, Syosset, NY, 1979.
2. K. Skipka, personal notes, 2012.

7 Chapter 7: Coal
1. Adapted from Coal-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2011.
2. Adapted from R. Dorf, Energy, resources, and policy,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1978.
3. C. Mattusch, Networking and tools. J. Oleson (ed.): In

The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the
classical world, Oxford University Press, NY, 2008.

5. EIA, Washington DC, 2010.
6.
7. Bureau of Mines Bulletin, Coal-Bituminous and Lignite,

Washington DC, 1974.
8. L. Stander and L. Theodore, Environmental regulatory

calculations handbook, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ,
2008.

10. L. Theodore: personal notes, East Williston, NY, 2009.
11. L. Theodore and R. Kunz, Environmental implications of

nanotechnology, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2005.
12. L. Theodore, Nanotechnology: Basic calculations for

engineers and scientists, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ,
2006.

8 Chapter 8: Oil
1. L. Theodore and F. Ricci, Thermodynamics for the

practicing engineer, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2009.
2. P. Abulencia and L. Theodore, Fluid �ow for the

3. L. Theodore and R. Dupont, Environmental health risk and

4. L. Theodore and F. Ricci, Mass transfer operations for

the practicing engineer, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ,
2010.
9 Chapter 9: Natural Gas

2. L. Theodore and F. Ricci, Thermodynamics for the

3. J. Reynolds, J. Jeris, and L. Theodore, Chemical and

environmental engineering calculations handbook, John Wiley
& Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2004.

2010.

6. L. Theodore and R. Dupont, Environmental health and

10 Chapter 10: Shale Oil
1. M. Mantell, Deep shale natural gas: Abundant, affordable

and surprisingly water ef�cient, Water/Energy
Sustainability Symposium, Salt Lake City, UT, 2009.
2. L. Yin, Current status of oil shale industry in Fushun,

China, International Oil Shale Conference, Amman, Jordan,
2006.
3. E. Harder, Fundamentals of energy production, John Wiley

4. J. Santoleri, J. Reynolds, and L. Theodore, Industrial

and hazardous waste incineration, 2nd ed., John Wiley &

2010.
6. L. Theodore, Chemical reactor analyses and applications

NJ, 2012.


11 Chapter 11: Tar Sands
1. E. Harder, Fundamentals of energy production, John Wiley


3. K. Stan�eld, I. Frost, W. McAuley, and H. Smith,

Properties of Colorado oil shale, R.I. 4825, Bureau of
Mines, Pittsburgh, PA, 1951.
4. L. Johnson, L. Marchant, and C. Cupps, Properties of

Utah tar sands, asphalt wash area, P. R. spring deposit,
R. I. 8030, Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, PA, 1975.

the practicing engineer, John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, NJ,
2010.
6. J. Ancheyta, M. Rana, and E. Furimsky, Hydroprocessing

of heavy petroleum feeds: Tutorial, Catalysis Today 109
(1-4), November, 2005. Copyright 2013 Elsevier B.V.
7. Oil sands; Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2011.
8. R. Smandych and R. Kueneman, The Canadian–Alberta tar

sands: A case study of state–corporate environmental
crime, R. White (ed.), Global Environmental Harm,
Cullompton, location unknown, 2010.
12 Chapter 12: Solar Energy
1. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2011.
2. PVResources.com, World’s largest photovoltaic power

plants (http://www.
pvresources.com/PVPowerPlants/Top50.aspx), 2011.
3. National Solar Radiation Data Base, NSRDB, Vol. 1, 1992.
4. R. Dorf (adapted from), Energy resources and policy,

Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, 1978.
5. Adapted from D. Green and R. Perry (eds.), Perry’s

chemical engineers’ handbook, 8th ed., McGraw–Hill, New
York City, 2008.

7. E. Harder (adapted from), Fundamentals of energy

production, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 1982.
8. U.S. Department of Energy, Environmental development

plan, solar thermal power systems, DOE/EDP-0004, 1978.
9. F. Martin and R. Goswami, Solar Energy Pocket Reference,

International Solar Energy Society, 2005.
10. Concentrated solar thermal power—Now

(http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/
11. Concentrating Solar Power in 2001—An IEA/SolarPACES

summary of present status and future prospects
(http://www.solarpaces.org/Library/docs/
CSP_Brochure_2001.pdf). International Energy
Agency-SolarPACES (http://
solarpaces.org/Library/docs/CSP_Brochure_2001.pdf) 2001.
12. Advantages of using molten salt

(http://www.sandia.gov/Renewable_
Energy/solarthermal/NSTTF/salt.htm). Sandia National
Laboratory, 2007.
13. PV Systems and Net Metering

(http://web.archive.org/web/20080704062311/
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/net_metering.html).
Department of Energy. Archived from the original
(http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/net_ metering.html) on
July 4, 2008.
2010.

16. MSU-CSET participation archive with notation in the

Murray Ledger & Times, location and date unknown.
17. J. Layton, What is a luminescent solar concentrator?

Nov. 5, 2008,
13 Chapter 13: Nuclear Energy
1. A. Einstein, Annals of physics, 9(19), 289, 1906.
3. L. Theodore, As I see it: On nuclear energy, Williston

Times, Litmor Publications, East Williston, NY, 2003.
4. Nuclear Power in the USA, World Nuclear Association,

http://www.worldnuclear.org/info/inf41.html#license, 2008.
5. M. Wald, Nuclear ‘Renaissance’ is short on largess,

http://green.blogs.nytimes.
com/2010/12/07/nuclear-renaissance-is-short-on-largess/,
The New York Times, December 7, 2010.
6. Secondary energy infobook, Washington, DC, 2010.
7. Adapted from R. Dorf, Energy, resources and policy,



14 Chapter 14: Hydroelectric Energy
1. Renewables 2011: Global status report, p. 25, Hydropower

(http://www.ren21.
net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/REN21_GSR2011.pdf) REN21,
2011.

4. History of hydropower
(http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/
hydro_history.html) U.S. Department of Energy, 2011.
5. Industrial archaeology review, vols. 10–11,

http://books.google.com/books?id = 4xg9AQAAIAAJ&dq =
Industrial%20archaeology%20review%3A%20
Volumes%2010-11&source = gbs_book_other_versions, Oxford
University Press, New York, NY, 1982.
6. Hydroelectric power
(http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/GeHy/
Hydroelectric-Power.html), Water Encyclopedia, date
unknown.
7. Binge and purge

(http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id =
12970769), The Economist, 2009.
8. J. Reynolds, J. Jeris, and L. Theodore, Handbook of

9. Adapted from K. Theilheim (ed.), Primary energy,

Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1982.

15 Chapter 15: Wind Energy
1. Where does the wind come from and how much is there?
2. F. Kreith and R. West (eds.), CRC handbook of energy

ef�ciency, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton,
FL, 1997.
3. Adapted from E. Harder, Fundamentals of energy

4. Adapted from Mark’s standard handbook for mechanical

engineers, McGraw–Hill, New York, NY, 1966.
5. U.S. Weather Bureau. Washington, DC.
6. “World Wind Energy Report 2010”,

http://www.wwindea.org/home/images/
stories/pdfs/worldwindenergyreport, (PDF), World Wind
Energy Association, February 2011.
7. Wind power increase in 2008 exceeds 10-year average

growth rate (http://www. worldwatch.org/node/6102?emc =
el&m = 239273&1 = 5&v = ca5d0bd2df), Worldwatch.org, 2008.
8. BTM forecasts 340 GW of wind energy by 2013
10. S. Shaefer and L. Theodore, Probability and statistics

applications for environmental science, CRC Press/Taylor &
11. Adapted from Secondary energy infobook, Washington DC,

2011.
12. L. Theodore, F. Ricci and T. VanVliet, Thermodynamics

NJ, 2009.
13. Why Australia needs wind power

(http://www.sustainabilitycentre.com/au/
WindPowersStrength.pdf), date unknown.
16 Chapter 16: Geothermal Energy
1. J. Lund, Characteristics, Development and Utilization of

Geothermal Resources
(http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull28-2/art1.pdf),
Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin, Oregon Institute of
Technology, Klamath Falls, Oregon, 28 (2), 1–9, 2007.
2. R. Bloomquist, Geothermal Heat Pumps, Four Plus Decades

of Experience,
http://geoheat.oit.edu/bulletin/bull20-4/art3.pdf, Geo-Heat
Centre Quarterly Bulletin, Oregon Institute of Technology,
Klamath Falls, Oregon, 20 (4), 13–18.
3. J. Kroeker and R. Chewning, A heat pump in an of�ce

building, ASHVE Transactions 54, 221–238, 1958.
4. Geothermal Energy Association. Geothermal Energy:

International Market Update, May 2010.
5. A. Holm, Geothermal Energy: International Market Update



NJ, 2009.


2010.

12. L. Stander and L. Theodore, Handbook of environmental

regulatory calculations, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ,
2008.
17 Chapter 17: Hydrogen Energy
1. Adapted from R. Dorf, Energy resources and policy,



prevention: The waste management option for the 21st
century, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL,
2000.
18 Chapter 18:Biomass Energy
1. Adapted from The NEED Project, Manassas, VA, 2011.

3. J. Santoleri, J. Reynolds, and L. Theodore, Introduction

to hazardous waste incineration, 2nd ed., John Wiley &
4. K. Lee, J. Hasen, and G. Whipple, Characterizing

petrochemical wastes for combustion, Union Carbide, So.
Charleston, WV, ASTM’s Hazardous and Industrial Solid
Waste Testing: Fourth Symposium, Arlington, VA, May 2–4,
1984.
5. E. DeVera, B. Simmons, R. Stephens, and D. Storm,

Samplers and sampling procedures for hazardous waste
streams, Municipal Environmental Research Lab, Cincinnati,
OH, EPA-600/2-80/018, January, 1980.

19 Chapter 19: Other Energy Sources


2010.

NJ, 2009.
4. U.S. Dept. of Energy, Environmental development plan:

Ocean thermal energy conversion, DOE/EDP-0006, Washington,
DC, March 1978.
20 Chapter 20: Energy Demand and
Distribution Systems
1. Annual Energy Outlook 2012, DOE/EIA-0383 (2012),

www.eia.gov/forecasts/ aeo/pdf/0383(2012).pdf.
2.
3. U.S. Energy Information Administration/Annual Energy

Review 2011 (www. eia.gov).
4. www.census.gov/population/www/censusdata/�les/Table2.
5. www.vaughns-1-pagers.com/history/worldpopulation-growth
6. U.S. Primary Energy Consumption by Source, 1775–2011,

www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/annual/perspectives.cfm
7. G. Twerberg, 2012. World energy consumption charts, The

Oil Drum. March 16, 2012.
8. www.census.gov/geo/www/ua/2010urbanruralclass.html
9. www.qizmag.com/go/7334/
10. www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/pdf/ieorefcase.pdf.
11. International Energy Outlook 2011 Report No.

DOE/EIA-048(2011) www.eia. gov/forecasts/ieo/table1.cfm
12. www.useconomy.about.com/od/glossary/g/OECD.htm
21 Chapter 21: Conservation,
Sustainability,and Green Engineering
1. R. Mournighan and H. Bostian, Energy Conservation and

Improvement of the Environment, Proceedings of the Fifth
National Conference on Energy and the Environment, Dayton
AIChE Section, Dayton, OH, 1977.
2. G. Holmes, B. Singh, and L. Theodore, Handbook of

environmental management and technology, John Wiley &
3.
4. Adapted from C. Cobbetal, Benchmarking sustainability,

CEP, New York City, June 2007.
5. D. Earley, E. Rolinski, and A. Buonicore, More Ef�cient

Use of Energy in Building, Proceedings of the First
National Conference on Energy and the Environment, Dayton
AIChE Section, Dayton, OH, 1973.
6. J. Brevard and C. Portal, Oakridge National Laboratory,

CRNL-MIT-132, 26 May 1971.
7. J. Stein, There are ways to help buildings conserve

energy, Smithsonian, vol. 4, no. 7, 28–35, 1973.
8. Technical Options for Energy Conservation in Buildings,

NBS Technical Note 789, 1973.

10. F. Kreith and R. West (eds.), CRC handbook of energy

ef�ciency, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton,
FL, 1997.
11. M. Deutsch, Energy conservation policy problems,

Proceedings of the Fourth National Conference on Energy
and the Environment, Dayton AIChE Section, Dayton, OH,
1976.
22 Chapter 22: Environmental
Considerations

2. R. Dupont, L. Theodore, and J. Reynolds, Accident and

emergency management: Problems and solutions, VCH
Publishers, New York, 1991.
3. L. Theodore, R. Dupont, and J. Reynolds, Pollution

prevention: Problems and solutions, Gordon and Breach
Publishers, Amsterdam, Holland, 1994.
4. K. Ganeson, L. Theodore, and R. Dupont, Air toxics:

Problems and solutions, Gordon and Breach Publishers,
Amsterdam, Holland, 1996.
5. R. Dupont, T. Baxter, and L. Theodore, Environmental

management: Problems and solutions, CRC Press/Taylor &
6. J. Mycock, J. McKenna, and L. Theodore, Handbook of air

pollution control engineering and technology, CRC
7. J. Reynolds, J. Jeris, and L. Theodore, Handbook of

8. L. Theodore, Personal notes, East Williston, NY, 1981.
9. L. Theodore, Personal notes, East Williston, NY, 2012.
10. G. Holmes, R. Singh, and L. Theodore, Handbook of

environmental management and technology, 2nd ed.,
Wiley-Interscience, Hoboken, NJ, 2000.
11. ERM, Pollution Prevention Quarterly, Miami, FL, Winter,

1999.
12. R. Dupont, L. Theodore, and K. Ganesan, Pollution

prevention: The waste management approach for the 21st
century, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL,
2000.
13. M. K. Theodore, Pollution prevention calendar—Domestic

version, Theodore Tutorials, East Williston, NY, 2013.
14. M. K. Theodore, Pollution prevention calendar—Of�ce
version, Theodore Tutorials, East Williston, NY, 2013.
15. L. Theodore and R. Allen, Pollution prevention, a

Theodore tutorial, Theodore Tutorials, East Williston, NY,
1993.
16. A. Thumann and C. Miller, Fundamentals of noise control

engineering, The Fairmont Press, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
1990.
17. P. Cheremisinoff and E. Allen, Industrial noise control

handbook, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, MI,
1977.
18. USEPA, ISO 14000 resource directory, Of�ce of Research

and Development, Washington, DC, 2000.
19. T. Welch, Moving beyond environmental compliance, a

handbook for integrating pollution prevention with ISO
14000, Lewis Publisher, Boca Raton, FL, 1998.
20. D. Goleman, Assessing risk: Why fear may outweigh harm,

New York Times, February, 1, 1994.
21. M. Russell, Communicating risk to a concerned public,

EPA Journal, Washington, DC, November, 1989.
22. USEPA, Seven cardinal rules of risk communication, EPA

OPA/8700, Washington, DC, April, 1988.
23. C. Main Inc., Health risk assessment for air emissions

of metals and organic compounds from the PERC municipal
waste to energy facility, prepared for Penobscot Energy
Recovery Company (PERC), Boston, MA, December 1985.
24. A. Flynn and L. Theodore, Health, safety and accident

management on the chemical process industries, CRC
Press/Taylor & Francis Group (acquired from Marcel
Dekker), Boca Raton, FL, 2002.
25. L. Theodore and R. Kunz, Nanotechnology: Environmental

implications and solutions, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ,
2005.
26. L. Theodore, Nanotechnology: Basic calculations for

engineers and scientists, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ,
2006.
27. L. Theodore and R. Dupont, Environmental health risk

and hazard risk assessment: Principles and calculations,
28. G. Burke, B. Singh, and L. Theodore, Handbook of

environmental management and technology, 2nd edition, John
29. D. Paustenbach, The risk assessment of environmental

and human health hazards: A textbook of case studies, John
30. J. Rodricks and R. Tardiff, Assessment and management

of chemical risks, American Chemical Society, Washington
DC, 1984.
31. U.S. EPA, Technical Guidance for Hazards Analysis,

Washington, DC: EPA/FEMA/ DOT, December 1987.
32. D. Clayson, D. Krewski, and I. Munro, Toxicological

risk assessment, CRC Press/ Taylor & Francis Group, Boca
Raton, FL, 1985.
33. V. Foa, E. Emmett, M. Maron, and A. Colombi,

Occupational and environmental chemical hazards, Ellis
Horwood Limited, Chichester, UK, 1987.
34. AIChE, Guidelines for hazard evaluation procedures,

Batelle Columbus Division for the Center for Chemical
Process Safety of the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers (AIChE), New York, NY, 1985.
23 Chapter 23: Economic Considerations [1]
1. Adapted from M. K. Theodore and L. Theodore,

Introduction to environmental management, CRC Press/Taylor
& Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, 2009.
2. G. Burke, B. Singh, and L. Theodore, Handbook of

environmental science and technology, 2nd ed., John Wiley &
3. J. Matley, CE cost indexes set slower pace, Chemical

Engineering, 75–76, New York, April 29, 1985.
4. R. McCormick and R. De Rosier, Capital and O&M cost

relationships for hazardous waste incineration, Acurex
Corp., EPA Report 600/2-87-175, Cincinnati, OH, October
1984.
5. R. Neveril, Capital and operating costs of selected air

pollution control systems, EPA report 450/5-80-002, Gard,
Inc., Niles, IL, December 1978.
6. W. Vatavuk and R. Neveril, Factors for estimating

capital and operating costs, Chemical Engineering,
157–162, New York, November 3, 1980.
7. G. Vogel and E. Martin, Hazardous waste incineration,

Part 3—Estimating capital costs of facility components,
Chemical Engineering, 87–90, New York, November 28, 1983.
8. G. Ulrich, A guide to chemical engineering process

design and economics, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ,
1984.
9. G. Vogel and E. Martin, Hazardous waste incineration,

Part 3—Estimating operating costs, Chemical Engineering,
97–100, New York, January 9, 1984.
10. R. Dupont, L. Theodore, and K. Ganeson, Pollution

prevention, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton,
FL, 2000.
11. Adapted from L. Theodore, Heat transfer for the

practicing engineer, CRC Press/ Taylor & Francis Group,
Boca Raton, FL, 2012.
24 Chapter 24: Political Considerations
1. M. Humphreys, J. Sachs, and J. Stiglitz, Escaping the

resource curse, Columbia University Press, New York, 2007.
2. B. Shaffer, Energy politics, University of Pennsylvania

Press, Philadelphia, PA, 2009.
3. L. Theodore, The OHI Day, Williston Times, East

4. L. Theodore, The OHI Day, II, Williston Times, East

5. L. Theodore, The OHI Day, III, Williston Times, East

25 Chapter 25: Challenges Facing
FutureEnergy Policy Makers
1. A. Buonicore, Environmental impacts of energy use,

Proceedings of the Second National Conference on Energy
and the Environment, Dayton AIChE section, Dayton, OH,
1974.
2. Adapted from M. Deutch, Energy policy, Proceedings of

the First National Conference on Energy and the
Environment, Dayton AIChE Section, Dayton, OH, 1973.
3. Adapted from E. Frabetti, R. Lovell, C. Shedon, and W.

Decora, The development of net energy estimates,
Proceedings of the Third National Conference on Energy and
the Environment, Dayton AIChE Section, Dayton, OH, 1975.
4. Adapted from M. Deutch, Public interest, societal issues

and costs involved in the implementation of the NEP,
Proceedings of the Fifth National Conference on Energy and
5. New York State, 2013 energy plan, Albany, NY, 2011.
6. Adapted from K. Tempelmeyer, Energy development policy,

Proceedings of the First National Conference on Energy and
7. L. Theodore, personal notes, East Williston, NY, 2012.

26 Chapter 26: Introduction to Energy
Policy Issues
1. Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA) (P.L. 94-163),

42 U.S.C. 6201.
2. B. Cooper, U.S. Energy policy: Where we are? Remarks at

Fourth National Conference on Energy and the Environment,
October 5, 1976.
3. B. Terzic, Energy independence and security: A reality

check, Deloitte University Press, Westlake, TX, 2012.
4. W. Matysik, personal communication to L. Theodore,

September 2011.
5. J. Logan and T. James, A comparative review of a dozen

national energy plans; focus on renewable and ef�cient
energy. Technical report NREL/TP-6A2-45046, March 2009.
27 Chapter 27: Energy–Environmental
Interactions
1. D. Acemoglu and J. Robinson, Why nations fail: The

origins of power, prosperity, and poverty, 1st ed.
(www.crownpublishing.com), 2012.
2. V. Vukovic,. 2012. Review: Why nations fail: The origins

of power, prosperity, and poverty
(www.adamsmith.org/research/articles/review).
3. L. Theodore, personal notes, East Williston, NY, 2012.
4. K. Skipka, personal notes, Westbury, NY, 1974.
5. J. Logan and T. James, A comparative review of a dozen

national energy plans: Focus on renewables and ef�cient
energy. Technical report NREL/TP-6A245046, Golden, CO,
March 2009.
6. 2002 New York State Energy Plan

(www.nysenergyplan.com/2002 state energy
plan-documents/sepexecutivesummary).
7. NYSEP, 2013. New York State Energy Plan (www .

nysenergyplan.com/process .html).
28 Chapter 28: Quantitative Analysis of
Energy Management Options
2. A. Buonicore, J. Reynolds, L. Theodore, and P. Farber,

Control of ¦y ash from conventional coal-�red utility
boilers, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association,
Pittsburgh, PA, May 1980.
3. L. Theodore, Pollution prevention, a Theodore tutorial,

East Williston, NY, 1995.
4. J. Reynolds, I. Jeris, and L. Theodore, Handbook of

5. K. Skipka (Carle Place, NY) and L. Theodore (East

Williston, NY), personal notes, 2012.
6. A. J. Buonicore, R. Dupont, and J. McKenna: personal

communication to L. Theodore, 2012.
29 Chapter 29: Solving the Energy
Management Policy Challenge
1. M. Hubbert, Images of Hubbert’s peak

(http://www.google.com/search), Images for Hubbert’s
peak—Report images, 2013.
2. Department of Homeland Security, Critical Infrastructure

Partnership Advisory Council, 2012 annual update.
3. S. Denning, The �ve big surprises of radical management,

Forbes (www.forbes. com/sites/), July 8, 2011.
4. K. Skipka (Carle Place, NY) and L. Theodore (East

Williston, NY), personal notes, 2011–2013.

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Environmental Engineering Skipka

AVAILABILITY, MANAGEMENT, and ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

The initial chapters offer an overview of energy management, providing an introduction

A Template for Developing an Energy Policy

• Examines the issues involved with energy management

K15105_COVER.indd 1 3/6/14 11:15 AM

Energy Resources: Availability, Management, and Environmental Impacts

Finance Policy for Renewable Energy and a Sustainable Environment

Wind Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment, Second Edition

Solar Radiation: Practical Modeling for Renewable Energy Applications

Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurements

Forest-Based Biomass Energy: Concepts and Applications

Introduction to Renewable Energy

Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment

Solar Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment

© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-1741-7 (eBook - PDF)

and the CRC Press Web site at

energy problems and continually strive to select the best available

resources to meet energy demands considering all attendant impacts.

Our collective existence and prosperity are in their hands.

Governor Mike Huckabee—who thankfully continues to confront

the negative impacts of a biased media, and whose commitment to

traditional values and the American Dream has never wavered.

Series Preface....................................................................................................... xvii

Section I Basic Principles

1. Introduction to the Issues..............................................................................3

2. Thermodynamic Principles: Entropy Analysis....................................... 17

4. Sustainability and Green Science/Engineering...................................... 49

6. The Modern Energy Matrix: An Overview.............................................. 89

Section II Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels

9. Natural Gas................................................................................................... 151

Early History................................................................................................. 152

10. Shale Oil........................................................................................................ 163

11. Tar Sands....................................................................................................... 173

Section III Other Energy Resources

12. Solar Energy.................................................................................................. 185

Availability, Distribution, and Characterization...................................... 187

13. Nuclear Energy............................................................................................. 197

14. Hydroelectric Energy.................................................................................. 215

15. Wind Energy................................................................................................. 227

Availability/Distribution and Characterization...................................... 229

16. Geothermal Energy..................................................................................... 239

17. Hydrogen Energy......................................................................................... 251

18. Biomass Energy............................................................................................ 261

19. Other Energy Sources................................................................................. 277

Section IV Aspects of Energy Management

20. Energy Demand and Distribution Systems........................................... 287

21. Conservation, Sustainability, and Green Engineering....................... 297

22. Environmental Considerations................................................................. 315

23. Economic Considerations........................................................................... 331

Capital Costs.................................................................................................. 338

24. Political Considerations............................................................................. 351

25. Challenges Facing Future Energy Policy Makers................................. 359

Section V Energy Management Solutions

26. Introduction to Energy Policy Issues....................................................... 377

The Responsibility of Government............................................................ 381

27. Energy–Environmental Interactions....................................................... 385

28. Quantitative Analysis of Energy Management Options..................... 399

29. Solving the Energy Management Policy Challenge............................. 413

distribution, and consumption shortages; therefore, any proposed energy

Abbas Ghassemi, PhD

Section I Basic Principles

Section II Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels

Section III Other Energy Resources

Section IV Aspects of Energy Management

Section V Energy Management Solutions