“ates CONTEMPORARY WORLD LISANDRO E. CLAUDIO PATRICIO N. ABINALES Ee C & E Publishing, Inc.The Contempo it © 2018 by C & E Publishing, Inc., Lisandro Claudio, and Patricio Abinales ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this publication m: be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitte in any form, or by any means—electronic, mechanic photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the pri written permission of the publisher. Cataloguing-in-Publication Data IZ. Claudio, Lisandro E. a ‘The contemporary world / Lisandro E. Claudio and 2018 Patricio N. Abinales.—Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc., ©2018. xii, 182 p.: ill. ; cm. Includes bibliography and index. ISBN: 978-971-98-0862-6 1. Globalization. 2. World Economics. I. Abinales, Patricio N. II. Title. Book and Cover Design: Lynzel S. NaguitUnit 1 1HON 1 sublication maj LESSON 2 or transmittes ic, mechanical thout the priol E. Claudio and & E Publishing, LESSON 3 cs. I, Abinales, Contents An Introductory Note to the Student ix The Relevance of this Course x This Book's Approach xi The Structures of Globalization 1 What is Globalization? 2 Global Experiences 5 Some Description 6 Globalization: A Working Definition 7 Conclusion: Globalization from the Ground Up 9 The Globalization of World Economics 12 International Trading Systems 13 The Bretton Woods System 16 Neoliberalism and Its Discontents 17 The Global Financial Crisis and the Challenge toNeoliberalism 19 Economic Globalization Today 22 Conclusion 24 A History of Global Politics: Creating an International Order 26 The Attributes of Today's Global System = 27 The Interstate System 30 Internationalism 31 Conclusion 37LESSON 4 LESSON 5 Unit 2 LESSON 6 LESSON 7 LESSON 8 The United Nations and Contempor; Unit 3 Global Governance 39 What is an International Organization? 40 The United Nations 42 Challenges of the United Nations 45 Conclusion 46 LESSON 9 A World of Regions 50 Countries, Regions, and Globalization 51 Non-State Regionalism 53 Contemporary Challenges to Regionalism 56 Conclusion 58 LESSON 10 A World of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization 61 The Globalization of Religion 62 Realities 65 Religion for and against Globalization 66 Conclusion 69 LESSON 11 Media and Globalization 72 Media and Its Functions 73 The Global Village and Cultural Imperialism 75 Critiques of Cultural Imperialism 77 Social Media and the Creation of Cyber Ghettoes 78 Conclusion 81 Mov and Globz The“Pe It's the Womer The Fer Popula Conclu Globs What i: Benefit Cou The Pre Integre Envi and | The W Man-n “Catch Climat Comb; Conch Conclusion: The The Global City 83 Endnotes 135 Why Study Global Cities? 34 Defining the Global City 85 Bibliography 1 Indicators for Globality 86 Index 172 The Challenges of Global Cities 89 The Global City and the Poor 91 Conclusion 93 About the Authtemporal {jnit3 © Movement Lg and Sustainability 95 iwsson9 Global Demography 96 The “Perils” of Overpopulation 98 It’s the Economy, Not the Babies! 101 Women and Reproductive Rights 102 The Feminist Perspective 104 Population Growth and Food Security 105 m 56 Conclusion 107 twason10 Global Migration 109 What is Migration? 109 Benefits and Detriments for the Sending 61 Countries 112 The Problem of Human Trafficking 114 62 Integration 115 \wsson11 Environmental Crisis and Sustainable Development 119 The World's Leading Environmental Problems 120 Man-made Pollution 122 "Catching Up" 125 m 75 Climate Change 127 Combating Global Warming 128 Conclusion 130 56, Conclusion: The Global Filipino 132 Endnotes 135 Bibliography 155 Index 172 About the AuthorsAn Introductory Note to the Student Why do you need to study the world? At first glance, the world, as a concept, is abstract. After all, your daily experiences uve considered interactions with your country. When you read the news, you read about the Philippines. When you engage in an official transaction like paying taxes, you deal with the Philippine government. Almost all of your classmates and teachers are Hilipino. However, you only need to step back a little bit to see that the World “out there” is already here. For example, you likely have felatives who are overseas Filipino workers (OFWs). Every time these relatives visit or send something home, they are bringing part of the world with them. Even if you have not traveled outside the Philippines, you have likely heard stories about foreign countries from these family members. Some relatives might have {old you about the wonders of Rome. Others may have shown you pictures of San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge. Others may have dlescribed the lights and towering buildings of Shinjuku. Needless to say, the media and the internet are also your windows to the contemporary world. You watch American movies and can probably sing at least one K-pop song. If a major political event occurs, you don’t even need to go to CNN.com to find out more details; friends are already posting articles on Facebook. Finally, your consumption habits are global. You have dined in a McDonald’s, ridden in a Japanese car, maybe owned a Korean mobile phone, and eaten Australian beef. You are already a citizen of the world whether you are aware of \\ or not. Just by living your life, you automatically think about the contemporary world. This course will be your guide.The Relevance of this Course As the semester progresses, we expect you to realize the relevance of the material gradually. The succeeding lessons will introduce you to the major themes in the study of the world while providing opportunities for you to connect this knowledge with your experiences as a Filipino student. At the outset, though, why study this course? Why is it required for all students in higher education? First, studying the outside world is a cure to parochialism or an outlook that is limited to one’s immediate community. A Person who is concerned only with his/her family, village, or even country is parochial. The parochial person is, thus, close-minded. By teaching you about the world, this course aims to stretch the limits of your imagination and outlook. We will share with you unfamiliar ideas and cultures that may spark new interests and concerns. Not everything in this book will excite you, and that is fine. However, we hope that, at the end of the semester, you would have discovered new intellectual interests that you will continue to pursue. We also wish for you to explore the places, peoples, ideas, and cultures that you care about and value. This expansion of one’s ethical horizons, as you will see, is the very core of what it means to be a global citizen. Second, it is important to study the world because it can teach you more about yourself. Knowing about other countries allows you to compare your society with others. The experiences of communities outside the Philippines may provide solutions to many of the country’s current problems. They may also provide warnings about what not to do. Everyone, for example, desires economic growth. Isn’t it beneficial if policymakers know what economic models and policies have worked for other countries and what have not? Philippine national hero Jose Rizal said that anyone who has learned about the world will be haunted by the “ghost of comparisons.” Once you know about other societies, he says, you will not be able to look at your own in the same way: You will start comparing and asking various questions. This drive to compare will happen even when } {hat suddenly appears. Lastly, you need te Jolt to become OFWS. | More and more Filipino af you who plan to we this course can serve a who choose to remait phenomenon of globali sompanies operating i growth of call centers a industry as a whole. Du larger trade of goods jnterdependent. Filipin interdependence. You « 4 well study it. This Book’s App This book will not the world. Such an app any good world alma: countries. Instead, thi jnnues. The goal is not hut also to expose you that “out there.” Centr jlobalization—the dee ideas, economies, cult s concept further. 1 ying globalization yy, on in our world As the study of § attention deliberately core courses of the rlize the ons will Id while ge with gh, why | higher hialism nity. A or even ninded, tch the ith you sts and that is would inue to , ideas, of one’s means it can intries iences ons to rovide lesires what sand nyone ost of 5, You [start apare will happen even when you least expect its the urge is like a ghost {hat suddenly appears. Lustly, you need to study the world because you will be Jnleracting with it. In 2009, an average of 4,018 Filipinos per day Jeli to become OFWs. In 2015, that number increased to 6,092. More and more Filipinos are living and working abroad. For those of you who plan to work in another country after graduation, {ils course can serve as an orientation. Nevertheless, even those who choose to remain in the Philippines must confront the jlenomenon of globalization. Many of you will work for foreign tompanies operating in the country, especially because of the jyow'th of call centers and the busines process outsourcing (BPO) jndustry as a whole. Due to the internet, cheaper travel costs, and larger trade of goods and services, the world has grown more {nterdependent. Filipinos are increasingly becoming aware of this interdependence. You cannot avoid globalization so you might at a well study it. This Book’s Approach [his book will not take you on a country-per-country tour of the world, Such an approach is impractical and tedious. Moreover, Any good world almanac can give you quick overviews of these countries, Instead, this book will focus on themes, problems, and {sues. The goal is not simply to tell you about what is “out there,” jnut also to expose you to the ideas that allow you to make sense of that “out there.” Central to the study of the world is the concept of ylobalization—the deepening global interconnectedness of places, ideas, economies, cultures, and people. The first lesson will discuss this concept further. However, for now, it is sufficient to say that studying globalization allows one to step back and ask: “What is yoing on in our world today?” As the study of globalization progresses, we will take your attention deliberately away from the Philippines. Most of the core courses of the new general education (GE) curriculum ask xiquestions about yourself in a national context, You study Rizal; examine primary readings in Philippine history; and, in the course Understanding the Self, a section leads you to reflect on national identity. These courses are all necessary; you should reflect about yourself and your country. This course, however, will challenge you to think beyond your country and ask what it means to be a citizen of the world. Thus, most of the examples and case studies will be about peoples and places outside of the Philippines, Nevertheless, we acknowledge the need to connect the study of globalization to local experiences. For this reason, we will use the boxed text with the label “Localizing the Material” to provide examples that are relatable to the Filipino reader. As for classroom activities, it will be up to your teacher to integrate, conduct, and facilitate them. After each lesson, however, we provide guide questions which you may wish to answer before the class. As you answer these questions either on a notebook or just in your own mind, please do not lose sight of the main question of the course: What does it mean to be a citizen of the world? The course will be challenging. Much of the materials you will find are new and unfamiliar. Despite this, we hope that you will enjoy reading this book and taking this course. This may be one of the few times in your life as a college student when you are explicitly challenged to transcend the borders of your nation, your countrymen, and ultimately, your imagination. ~ Lisandro E. Claudio Patricio N. Abinalestudy Rizal; 1 the course on national flect about | challenge ans to bea ase studies hilippines. e study of re will use to provide teacher to , however, wer before notebook the main zen of the rials you > that you is may be n you are ion, your Claudio Abinales The Structures of Globalization This unit will introduce you to the various drivers of the globalization process, with specific focus on economics and politics. Although it emphasizes that you experience globalization on an “everyday” level, you must also realize that there are big institutions that create large-scale changes. This unit will first trace the emergence of these institutions historically. It will then move on to explain how they affect the countries and people today. The major learning outcomes of this unit are to: + analyze the various contemporary drivers of globalization; and + describe the emergence of global economic and political systems.©) Learning Outcomes ‘At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: |. agree on a working definition of globalization for the course; 2. differentiate the competing conceptions of globalization; and 3. _ narrate a personal experience of globalization, A Story: Gio, Latif, and the Laksa When Gio was a second-year internation: a university in Cebu City, he obtained fu team participating in an internati in Sydney, plenty of n the Malaysi al affairs student in nding to join the school ional Model UN competition Australia. At the height of the competition, Gio made ew friends and became Particularly close to Latif from ian team. The two first started talking when Latif asked Gio where he was from, Upon discovering that the Gio was from the Philippines, Latif lit up and declared that he was a big fan of Filipino actors Jericho Rosales and Kristine Hermosa. Gio was pleasantly surprised to learn that Latif had seen every episode of the ABS-CBN telenovela Pangako sa ‘Yo ("The Promise”). The show had aired on Malaysian TV a few years back, and its two stars had developed a modest following, Ashamed that he did not know as much about Malaysia as Latif knew about the Philippines, Gio asked Latif what his country was like. Latif, he discovered, was from a Muslim university in Kuala Lumpur. Gio asked him what he liked best about living in *KL," and Latif immediately mentioned the food. Latif explained that in Kuala Lumpur, one can find Chinese, Indian, and Malay cuisines. He told Gio that this assortment of foodways was the result of How the British reo fives, The British d who were the orig te work in the rub help manage the k core of a potential groups were identi According to | these cuisines whic ‘acioss the nation’s in outdoor food p Malaysia, from nasi Gio interrupte ashamed at his lac is and how itis pre The next day, blocks away from: Malaysian food w this, Latif explaine more and more Malaysian restaura fot only to these as well, whose ct diverse. Gio finally ha @ spicy coconut ¢ ike most Filipino deference to his f enjoying the hot ¢ After the me ordered “flat whi Usually served in what flat whites v both Kuala Lump:What is Globalization? | 3 a oe ee jiow the British reorganized Malaysian society during the colonial Jinves. The British did little to change the way of life of the Malays who were the original residents, but brought in Chinese laborers fo work in the rubber plantations and tin mines, and Indians to Hielp manage the bureaucracy and serve as the initial professional ‘ore of a potential middle class. One of the ways that these ethnic «groups were identified was through their foodways. According to Latif, Malaysia eventually became famous for {hese cuisines which can be found in the various “hawker centers” ‘acioas the nation’s cities and towns. These food stands are located in outdoor food parks where locals and tourists taste the best of Malaysia, from nasi lemak to laksa. Glo interrupted Latif and asked, “What is laksa?” He felt more amed at his lack of knowledge. “Ahh. ..let me show you what it “ Js and how it is prepared!” replied Latif. ue The next day, Latif 100k Gio to @ Malaysian restaurant a few eitont blocks away from the university Gio was surprised to discover that pee. Malaysian food was readily available in Sydney. Having noticed if from this, Latif explained to lis Filipino friend that, over the years, as ‘ashe more and more Malaysian students moved to Sydney to study, to art ay, nd Id ler What is Globalization? | 5 Ahawker center in Singepore One Saturday, while Gio was checking his Facebook feed along the very busy Orchard Road—Singapore’s main commercial foad—he noticed that Latif had just posted something 5 minutes earlier, It was a picture from Orchard Road. Surprised but also excited, Gio sent Latif a private message. Latif replied immediately | aying that he too had moved to Singapore and was, at that moment, standing in front a department store just a few blocks \way from where Gio was. The two friends met up, and after a long hug and quick questions as to what each was up to, they ducked into a café and renewed their international friendship...by | ordering a pair of flat whites. Global Experiences Gio and Latif’s story is fictional but very plausible since it is, in fact, based on the real-life experience of one of the authors. It was through such friendships that one was able to appreciate the meaning and impact of globalization. We begin our definition of globalization with this narrative to illustrate how concrete the phenomenon is. The story shows how globalization operates at multiple, intersecting levels. The spread of Filipino TV into Malaysia suggests how fast this popular culture has proliferated and criss-crossed all over Asia.6 | The Structures of Globalization The Model UN activity that Gio and Latif Participated in ig an international competition about international politics. Gio met Latif (a Malaysian involved in the model UN) in Sydney, a global city that derives its wealth and influence from the global capital that flows through it. Sydney is also a metropolis of families of international immigrants or foreigners working in the industries that also sell their Products abroad. After the two had gone back to their home countries, Gio and Latif kept in touch through Facebook, a global social networking site that provides instantaneous communication across countries and continents, They preserved their friendship online and then rekindled this face-to-face in Singapore, another hub for global commerce, with 40 percent of the population being classified as “foreign talents.” What other hints of globalization did you find in the story? Some Description Our discussion should begin with this intuitive sense that something is happening, and it is not affecting everyone in the same way. Gio’s story is a very privileged way of experiencing global flows, but for other people, the shrinking of the world may not be as exciting and edifying. For example, it is very common for young women in developing countries to be recruited in the internet as “mail-order brides” for foreign men living in other countries. After being promised a good life once married to a kind husband in a rich city, they end up becoming sexual and domestic servants in foreign lands. Some were even sold off by their “husbands” to gangs which run Prostitute rings in these cities. Like Gio, they too have experienced the shrinking of the world, albeit negatively. Governments that decide to welcome the foreign investments on the belief that they provide jobs and capital for the country offer public lands as factory or industrial sites. In the Process, poor People living in these lands, also called “urban poor communities,” are being evicted by the government. The irony is that these people {yyeibly removed fi ly foreign compar and then told tha {vom their relocat jninimum-wage w Because differ af ways, it is dec lobalization goo dliscussion begins complex phenome 4n uneven process Globalizatio Most accoun process, When a "ylobalization,” i markets to a wic trade. When acti of the 1990s, the facilitated and p Trade Organizat: Globalizatio who criticize un organizations. I economic globa political activist broader terms. consider multig an interdiscipli general educati this one. The best si by Manfred St and intensificain is . Gio ley, a lobal is of n the » had ouch vides ents. this with that the cing may non the her ind stic reir ike eit nts Dor 26” ple What is Globalization? | 7 forcibly removed from their “slums” are also the labor force sought by foreign companies. They had to be kicked out of their homes, and then told that they could take an hour or two of bus travel from their relocated communities back to the “old home” for minimum-wage work. Because different people encounter globalization in a variety of ways, it is deemed useful to ask simple questions like: “Is globalization good or bad? Is it beneficial or detrimental?” The discussion begins with two premises. First, globalization is a complex phenomenon that occurs at multiple levels. Second, it is an uneven process that affects people differently. Globalization: A Working Definition Most accounts view globalization as primarily an economic process. When a newspaper reports that nationalists are resisting “globalization,” it usually refers to the integration of the national markets to a wider global market signified by the increased free trade. When activists refer to the “anti-globalization” movement of the 1990s, they mean resisting th trade deals among countries facilitated and promoted by global organizations like the World Trade Organization. Globalization scholars do not necessarily disagree with people who criticize unfair international trade deals or global economic organizations. In fact, many are sympathetic to the critique of economic globalization. Academics differ from journalists and political activists, however, because they see globalization in much broader terms. They view the process through various lenses that consider multiple theories and perspectives. Academics call this an interdisciplinary approach, and it is this approach used by the general education (GE) courses thet you will be taking alongside this one. The best scholarly description of globalization is provided by Manfred Steger who described the process as “the expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness across8 | The Structures of Globalization world-time and across world-space.”! Expansion refers to “both the creation of new social networks and the multiplication of existing connections that cut across traditional political, economic, cultural, and geographic boundaries.”® These various connections occur at different levels. Social media, for example, establish new global connections between people, while international groups of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are networks that connect a more specific group—social workers and activists— from different corners of the globe. In the story, Gio was able to join a Model UN competition because his university was part of an international network. Intensification refers to the expansion, stretching, and acceleration of these networks.’ Not only are global connections multiplying, but they are also becoming more closely-knit and expanding their reach. For example, there has always been a strong financial market connecting London and New York. With the advent of electronic trading, however, the volume of that trade increases exponentially, since traders can now trade more at higher speeds. The connection is thus accelerating. Apart from this acceleration, however, as the world becomes more financially integrated, the intensified trading network between London and New York may expand and stretch to cover more and more cities. After China committed itself to the global economy in the 1980s, for example, Shanghai steadily returned to its old role as a major trading post. It is not only in financial matters that you can find these connections. In 2012, when the monsoon rains flooded much of Bangkok, the Honda plant making some of the critical car parts temporarily ceased production. This had a strong negative effect on Honda-USA which relied heavily on the parts being imported from Thailand. Not only was it unable to reach the sales targets it laid out, but the ability of the service centers nationwide to assist Honda owners also suffered. As a result, the Japanese car company’s global profits also fell. The final attribute of this definition relates to the way people perceive time and space. Steger notes that “globalization processes do not occur mer involve the subjec words, people beg place and distance mouse-click away. and get a reply ins their distance as le also exposed one t this greater sense « Steger posits differentiated wit represents the m: intensification of belief among po economic marke freedom and den forwarded in mec realize why it is p For now, wh journalists critic not, criticizing s criticisms are wa “globalization” a cannot simply be been integrated. Conclusion: the Ground All this talk Indeed, it may b because it is so: therefore, found a whole. Instead instead of just orWhat is Globalization? | 9 do not occur merely at an objective, material level but they also involve the subjective plane of human. consciousness.”* In other words, people begin to feel that the world has become a smaller place and distance has collapsed from thousands of miles to just a mouse-click away. One can now e-mail a friend in another country and get a reply instantaneously, and as a result, begins to perceive their distance as less consequential. Cable TV and the internet has also exposed one to news from across the globe, so now, he/she has this greater sense of what is happening in other places. Steger posits that his definition of globalization must be differentiated with an ideology he calls globalism. If globalization represents the many processes that allow for the expansion and intensification of global connections, globalism is a widespread belief among powerful people that the global integration of economic markets is beneficial for everyone, since it spreads freedom and democracy across the world.‘ It is a common belief forwarded in media and policy circles. In the next lesson, you will realize why it is problematic. For now, what is crucial to note is that when activists and journalists criticize “globalization,” they are, more often than not, criticizing some manifestations of globalism. Often, these criticisms are warranted. Nevertheless, it is crucial to insist that “globalization” as a process refers to a larger phenomenon that cannot simply be reduced to the ways in which global markets have been integrated. Conclusion: Globalization from the Ground Up All this talk of large, intersecting processes may be confusing. Indeed, it may be hard to assess globalization or comment on it because it is so diffuse and almost fleeting. Some scholars have, therefore, found it simpler to avoid talking about globalization as a whole. Instead, they want to discuss “multiple globalizations,” instead of just one process.0 | The Structures of Globalization For anthropologist Arjun Appadurai, different kinds of globalization occur on multiple and intersecting dimensions of integration that he calls “scapes.” An “ethnoscape,” for example, refers to the global movement of people, while a “mediascape” is about the flow of culture. A “technoscape” refers to the circulation of mechanical goods and software; a “financescape” denotes the global circulation of money; and an “ideoscape” is the realm where political ideas move around. Although they intersect, these various scapes have differing logics, They are thus distinct windows into the broader phenomenon of globalization, Appadurai’s argument is simple: there are multiple globalizations. Hence, even if one does not agree that globalization can be divided into the five “scapes,” it is hard to deny Appadurai’s central thrust of viewing globalization through various lenses, Depending on what is being globalized, a different dynamic (or dynamics) may emerge. So while it is important to ask “What is globalization?” it is likewise important to ask “What is/are being globalized?” Depending on what is being globalized, the vista and conclusions change, The structure of the lessons that follow will reflect this multidimensional understanding of globalization, Each of the lessons will focus on a particular kind of globalization, Every one of them will be about different networks and connections that are expanding and intensifying in the contemporary world. ‘Treat each lesson not as an end in itself but as window to the broader phenomenon of globalization, é (P) Guide « 1. Howhave 2. Whyisitc 3. Whatisth Deen @% Learn we How ( Go to your in your possessi the “things” inj cell phones, tele student, you m not to mention : Organize y are made in the brands. List the Do the sam should include: In class, ce to determine \ personal needs for Philippine- products are m abroad.s of s of ple, tion otes alm ect, net ion ai’s nic rat ng is ne 1e re What is Globalization? | 11 (P} Guide Questions 1. How have you experienced globalization? 2. Whyisit crucial to emphasize that globalization is uneven? 3. Whats the difference between globalization and globalism? aw Learning Activity: © How Globalized is Your Home? Go to your room and do an inventory of everything you have in your possession. You will find out that the most essential among the “things” in your room are footwear, clothes, computers (if any), cell phones, television (if possible), and maybe a radio. If you are a student, you may also notice books, newspapers, news magazines, not to mention school supplies and equipment. Organize your inventory into two types: first, “things” that are made in the Philippines and second, those that are of foreign brands. List the countries of origin of your foreign-brand items. Do the same thing for the kitchen and the living room. These should include appliances. In class, compare your lists with those of your classmates to determine which countries make the most household and personal needs you and your families have. Make a similar list for Philippine-made stuff. In the process, discuss why certain products are made in the Philippines while others are produced abroad.© Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. define economic globalization; 2. _ identify the actors that facilitate economic globalization; 3. _Narrate a short history of global market integration in the twentieth century; and 4. “articulate your stance on global économie integration, Tea ARTE DAE APO TEP ETSY PST The International Monetary Fund (IMF) regards “economic globalization” as a historical process representing the result of human innovation and technological progress. It is characterized by the increasing integration of economies around the world through the movement of goods, services, and capital across borders. These changes are the products of People, organizations, institutions, and technologies.’ As with all other Processes of globalization, there is a qualitative and subjective element to this definition. How does one define “increasing integration”? When is it considered that trade has increased? Is there a particular threshold? Even while the IMF and ordinary people grapple with the difficulty of arriving at precise definitions of globalization, they usually agree that a drastic economic change is occurring throughout the world. According to the IMF, the value of trade (goods and services) as a percentage of world GDP increased from 42.1 percent in 1980 to 62.1 percent in 2007 Increased trade also means that investments are moving all over the world at faster speeds. According to the United Nations Conference on ‘Trade and Developme investments flowing : By 2015, that number dramatic increase in § It has happened not e Apart from the also note the increa: days, supercomputer and sales between di a process called high- and traded are chang or music indicates a “book” can be digite and a music “album” purchase and downlo This lesson aim: about. It will also as who benefits from it International 1 International tra international trade pathways in the anci now the Middle Eas‘ one of the most pro: was silk, which was ! the Middle East as ' used the Silk Road Han dynasty opene: Ottoman Empire clo However, while truly “global” becau American continenThe Globalization of World Economics | 13 ‘Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the amount of foreign direct investments flowing across the world was US$ 57 billion in 1982. By 2015, that number was $1.76 trillion.’ These figures represent a dramatic increase in global trade in the span of just a few decades. It has happened not even after one human lifespan! Apart from the sheer magnitude of commerce, we should also note the increased speed and frequency of trading. These days, supercomputers can execute millions of stock purchases and sales between different cities in a matter of seconds through a process called high-frequency trading. Even the items being sold and traded are changing drastically. Ten years ago, buying books or music indicates acquiring physical items. Today, however, a “book” can be digitally downloaded to be read with an e-reader, and a music “album” refers to the 15 songs on mp3 format you can purchase and download from iTunes. This lesson aims to trace how economic globalization came about. It will also assess this globalization system, and examine who benefits from it and who is left out. International Trading Systems International trading systems are not new. The oldest known international trade route was the Silk Road—a network of pathways in the ancient world that spanned from China to what is now the Middle East and to Europe. It was called as such because one of the most profitable products traded through this network was silk, which was highly prized especially in the area that is now the Middle East as well as in the West (today’s Europe). Traders used the Silk Road regularly from 130 BCE when the Chinese Han dynasty opened trade to the West until 1453 BCE when the Ottoman Empire closed it. However, while the Silk Road was international, it was not truly “global” because it had no ocean routes that could reach the American continent. So when did full economic globalizationt | The Structures of Globalization begin? According to historians Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giraldez, the age of globalization began when “all important Populated continents began to exchange products continuously— both with each other directly and indirectly via other continents— and in values sufficient to generate crucial impacts on all trading partners.” Flynn and Giraldez trace this back to 1571 with the establishment of the galleon trade that connected Manila in the Philippines and Acapulco in Mexico."' This was the first time that the Americas were directly connected to Asian trading routes. For Filipinos, it is crucial to note that economic globalization began on the country’s shores. The galleon trade was part of the age of mercantilism. From the 16th century to the 18th century, countries, primarily in Europe, competed with one another to sell more goods as a means to boost their country’s income (called monetary reserves later on). To defend their products from competitors who sold goods more cheaply, these regimes (mainly monarchies) imposed high tariffs, forbade colonies to trade with other nations, restricted trade routes, and subsidized its exports. Mercantilism was thus also a system of global trade with multiple restrictions. A more open trade system emerged in 1867 when, following the lead of the United Kingdom, the United States and other European nations adopted the gold standard at an international monetary conference in Paris. Broadly, its goal was to create a common system that would allow for more efficient trade and prevent the isolationism of the mercantilist era. The countries thus established a common basis for currency prices and a fixed exchange rate system—all based on the value of gold. Despite facilitating simpler trade, the gold standard was still a very restrictive system, as it compelled countries to back their currencies with fixed gold reserves. During World War I, when countries depleted their gold reserves to fund their armies, many were forced to abandon the gold standard. Since European countries had low gold reserves, they adopted floating currencies that were no longer redeemable in gold. ye gold standard, though Returning to a the global economi during the 1920s an government coffers recession ever exper ‘gued that it was limited the amount demand and: const money that was equ increase the money | Economic hist recovery of the Unit the gold standard, t spend on reviving t other major industr ‘Though more i until as late as the standard of the ea operates based ont are not backed by | by their cost relat governments to fr increasing or decr they see fit.turo tant — ling the the that For 1on ‘om in ans on). ore ffs, ade ing her nal ea nd ies ed yas ick il es, an ies nomics | 15 The Globalization of Worl 3 joven to be a very restrictive form 0 ye gold standard, though once common, has globalizing tra Returning to a pure standard became more difficult as the global economic crisis called the Great Depression started during the 1920s and extended up to the 1930s, further emptying government coffers. This depression was the worst and longest recession ever experienced by the Western world. Some economists argued that it was largely caused by the gold standard, since it limited the amount of circulating money and, therefore, reduced demand and consumption. If governments could only spend money that was equivalent to gold, its capacity to print money and increase the money supply was severely curtailed. conomic historian Barry Eichengreen argues that the recovery of the United States really began when, having abandoned the gold standard, the US government was able to free up money to spend on reviving the economy.” At the height of World War Il, other major industrialized countries followed suit. Though more indirect versions of the gold standard were used until as late as the 1970s, the world never returned to the gold standard of the early 20th century. Today, the world economy operates based on what are called fiat currencies—currencies that are not backed by precious metals and whose value is determined by their cost relative to other currencies. This system allows governments to freely and actively manage their economies by increasing or decreasing the amount of money in circulation as they see fit.18 | The Structures of Globalization affected the Western economies that were reliant on oil." To make matters worse, the stock markets crashed in 1973- 1974 after the United States stopped linking the dollar to gold, effectively ending the Bretton Woods system." The result was a phenomenon that Keynesian economics could not have predicted—a phenomenon called stagflation, in which a decline in economic growth and employment (stagnation) takes place alongside a sharp increase in prices (inflation). Around this time, a new form of economic thinking was beginning to challenge the Keynesian orthodoxy. Economists such as Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman argued that the governments’ practice of pouring money into their economies had caused inflation by increasing demand for goods without necessarily increasing supply. More profoundly, they argued that government intervention in economies distort the proper functioning of the market. Economists like Fricdman used the economic turmoil to challenge the consensus around Keynes's ideas. What emerged was a new form of economic thinking that critics labeled neoliberalism. From the 1980s onward, neoliberalism became the codified strategy of the United States Treasury Department, the World Bank, the IMF, and eventually the World Trade Organization (WTO)—a new organization founded in 1995 to continue the tariff reduction under the GATT. The policies they forwarded came to be called the Washington Consensus. The Washington Consensus dominated global economic policies from the 1980s until the early 2000s. Its advocates pushed for minimal government spending to reduce government debt. They also called for the privatization of government-controlled services like water, power, communications, and ‘transport, believing that the free market can produce the best results, Finally, they pressured governments, particularly in the developing world, to reduce tariffs and open up their economies, arguing that it is the quickest way to progress. Advocates of the Washington Consensus conceded that, along the way, certain industries would be affected and die, but they considered this “shock therapy” necessary for long-term economic growth. The appeal of neo like US President Re Margaret Thatcher spending by compa Thatcher, in particula who reined in overspe ‘The problem with are not households. F households cannot. } governments provide them to pay and refin: Despite the init ‘Thatcher and Reagar became immediately post-communist Rus the 1990s, the IMF « government industri¢ free these industries to the more dynami happened, however, v accumulated wealth | money to purchase tl clites relied on easy | industries. This pra dominates the Russia The Global Fin to Neoliberalis Russia’s case was of neoliberalism did economists who bel: recent repudiation o sis of 2008-2009.oil? 1973- gold, result have ecline place Z was mists at the omies thout rgued roper vil to d was alism. lified Vorld ation tariff ne to omic ished debt. olled port, rally, orld, s the nsus cted y for The Globalization of World Economics | 19 ‘The appeal of neoliberalism was in its simplicity. Its advocates like US President Ronald Reagan and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher justified their reduction in government spending by comparing national economies to households. ‘Thatcher, in particular, promoted an image of herself as a mother, who reined in overspending to reduce the national debt. ‘The problem with the household analogy is that governments are not households. For one, governments can print money, while households cannot. Moreover, the constant taxation systems of governments provide them a steady flow of income that allows them to pay and refinance debts steadily. Despite the initial success of neoliberal politicians like ‘Thatcher and Reagan, the defects of the Washington Consensus became immediately palpable. A good early example is that of. post-communist Russia. After Communism had collapsed in the 1990s, the IME called for the immediate privatization of all government industries. The IMF assumed that such a move would. free these industries from corrupt bureaucrats and pass them on to the more dynamic and independent private investors. What happened, however, was that only individuals and groups who had accumulated wealth under the previous communist order had the money to purchase these industries. In some cases, the economic clites relied on easy access to government funds to take over the industries. This practice has entrenched an oligarchy that still dominates the Russian economy to this very day. The Global Financial Crisis and the Challenge to Neoliberalism Russia's case was just one example of how the “shock therapy” ‘of neoliberalism did not lead to the ideal outcomes predicted by economists who believed in perfectly free markets. The greatest fecent repudiation of this thinking was the recent global financial crisis of 2008-2009.) | The Structures of Globalization Neoliberalism came under significant strain during the global financial crisis of 2007-2008 when the world experienced the greatest economic downturn since the Great Depression. The crisis can be traced back to the 1980s when the United States systematically removed various banking and investment restrictions. The scaling back of regulations continued until the 2000s, paving the way for a brewing crisis. In their attempt to promote the free market, government authorities failed to regulate bad investments occurring in the US housing market. Taking advantage of “cheap housing loans,” Americans began building houses that were beyond their financial capacities. To mitigate the risk of these loans, banks that were lending houseowners’ money pooled these mortgage payments and sold them as “mortgage-backed securities” (MBSs). One MBS would be a combination of multiple mortgages that they assumed would pay a steady rate. Since there was so much surplus money circulating, the demand for MBSs increased as investors clamored for more investment opportunities. In their haste to issue these loans, however, the banks became less discriminating. They began extending loans to families and individuals with dubious credit records—people who were unlikely to pay their loans back. These high-risk mortgages became known as sub-prime mortgages. Financial experts wrongly assumed that, even if many of the borrowers were individuals and families who would struggle to Pay, a majority would not default. Moreover, banks thought that since there were so many mortgages in just one MBS, a few failures would not ruin the entirety of the investment. Banks also assumed that housing prices would continue to increase. Therefore, even if homeowners defaulted on their loans, these banks could simply reacquire the homes and sell them at a higher price, turning a profit. Sometime in 2007, however, home prices stopped increasing as supply caught up with demand. Moreover, it slowly became apparent that families realization triggered th investors tried to get rid cycle reached a tipping stment banks lik depleting major investm im The crisis spread investors were foreign gi The loss of their money ‘These series of inter effect that sent ripples banks heavily depende them, they failed to refi crunch, three of Icelan 2007 to 2008, Iceland’s Until now, count indebted (almost like has come at a high pri by Germany and the spending. Affecting ser forms of social securit the poor. Moreover, th slowed down growth at The United States large Keynesian-style Obama pushed for in F be said for many ot! economic crisis has 5] right parties like Mari risen to prominence | woes, claiming that th movements blend po racism. We will discus:g the enced ssion, Inited tment 000s, mote ulate aking Iding ding sold Id be d pay , the more Dans, egan redit ‘hese f the le to that lures ie to ans, ata sing ame The Globalization of World Economics | 21 apparent that families could not pay off their loans. This realization triggered the rapid reselling of MBSs, as banks and investors tried to get rid of their bad investments. This dangerous cycle reached a tipping point in September 2008, when major investment banks like Lehman Brothers collapsed, thereby depleting major investments. ‘The crisis spread beyond the United States since many investors were foreign governments, corporations, and individuals. The loss of their money spread like wildfire back to their countries. ‘These series of interconnections allowed for a global multiplier effect that sent ripples across the world. For example, Iceland’s banks heavily depended on foreign capital, so when the crisis hit them, they failed to refinance their loans. As a result of this credit crunch, three of Iceland’s top commercial banks defaulted. From 2007 to 2008, Iceland’s debt increased more than seven-fold. Until now, countries like Spain and Greece are heavily indebted (almost like Third World countries), and debt relief has come at a high price. Greece, in particular, has been forced by Germany and the IMF to cut back on its social and public spending. Affecting services like pensions, health care, and various forms of social security, these cuts have been felt most acutely by the poor. Moreover, the reduction in government spending has slowed down growth and ensured high levels of unemployment. The United States recovered relatively quickly thanks to a large Keynesian-style stimulus package that President Barack Obama pushed for in his first months in office. The same cannot be said for many other countries. In Europe, the continuing economic crisis has sparked a political upheaval. Recently, far- right parties like Marine Le Pen’s Front National in France have risen to prominence by unfairly blaming immigrants for their woes, claiming that they steal jobs and leech off welfare. ‘These movements blend popular resentment with utter hatred and racism. We will discuss their rise further in the final lesson.22 | The Structures of Globalization Economic Globalization Today The global financial crisis will take decades to resolve. The solutions proposed by certain nationalist and leftist groups of closing national economies to world trade, however, will no longer work. The world has become too integrated. Whatever one’s opinion about the Washington Consensus is, it is undeniable that some form of international trade remains essential for countries to develop in the contemporary world. Exports, not just the local selling of goods and services, make national economies grow at present. In the past, those that benefited the most from free trade were the advanced nations that were producing and selling industrial and agricultural goods. The United States, Japan, and the member-countries of the European Union were responsible for 65 percent of global exports, while the developing countries only accounted for 29 percent. When more countries opened up their economies to take advantage of increased free trade, the shares of the percentage began to change. By 2011, developing countries like the Philippines, India, China, Argentina, and Brazil accounted for 51 percent of global exports while the share of advanced nations— including the United States—had gone down to 45 percent." The WTO-Ied reduction of trade barriers, known as trade liberalization, has profoundly altered the dynamics of the global economy. In the recent decades, partly as a result of these increased exports, economic globalization has ushered in an unprecedented spike in global growth rates. According to the IMF, the global Per capita GDP rose over five-fold in the second half of the 20th century. It was this growth that created the large Asian economies like Japan, China, Korea, Hong Kong, and Singapore.'* And yet, economic globalization remains an uneven process, with some countries, corporations, and individuals benefiting a lot more than others. The series of trade talks under the WTO have led to unprecedent but these processes First, develop repeatedly refuse products that coul the developing wo Japan’s determine: to protect its farn sacred.” Ultimate economy that allo sector. ‘The United St forcing consumer prices instead of g America. Faced with powerful countric to make econom therefore, charact developing countr The benefici transnational — cc And like any of! with profits tha governments hos laws, which prev and environmen members of theit to countries’ lo protection of wor high profit mar; weaken environ consequences on their finite resourThe ger ne’s hat s to “es, hat ns ral of bal for ies ed ed al th es ot e The Globalization of World Economics | 23 \ed to unprecedented reductions in tariffs and other trade barriers, but these processes have often been unfair. First, developed countries are often protectionists, as they repeatedly refuse to lift policies that safeguard their primary products that could otherwise be overwhelmed by imports from the developing world. The best example of this double standard is Japan’s determined refusal to allow rice imports into the country to protect its farming sector. Japan's justification is that rice is sacred.” Ultimately, it is its economic muscle as the third largest economy that allows it to resist pressures to open its agricultural sector. ‘The United States likewise fiercely protects its sugar industry, forcing consumers and sugar-dependent businesses to pay higher prices instead of getting cheaper sugar from plantations of Central America. Faced with these blatantly protectionist measures from powerful countries and blocs, poorer countries can do very little to make economic globalization more just. Trade imbalances, therefore, characterize economic relations between developed and developing countries. The beneficiaries of global commerce have been mainly transnational corporations (TNCs) and not governments. And like any other business, these TNCs are concerned more with profits than with assisting the social programs of the governments hosting them. Host countries, in turn, loosen tax laws, which prevents wages from rising, while sacrificing social and environmental programs that protect the underprivileged members of their societies. The term “race to the bottom” refers to countries’ lowering their labor standards, including the protection of workers’ interests, to lure in foreign investors seeking high profit margins at the lowest cost possible. Governments weaken environmental laws to attract investors, creating fatal consequences on their ecological balance and depleting them of their finite resources (like oil, coal, and minerals).24 | The Structures of Globalization Localizing the Material Many Philippine industries were devastated by unfair trade deals under the GATT and eventually the WTO. One sector that was particularly affected was Philippine agriculture. According to Walden Bello and a team of researchers at Focus on the Global South, the US used its power under the GATT system to prevent Philippine importers from purchasing Philippine poultry and pork—even as it sold meat to the Philippines. Although the Philippines expected to make up losses in sectors like meat with gains in areas such as coconut products, no significant change was realized. In 1993, coconut exports amounted to $1.9 billion, and after a slight increase to $2.3 billion in 1997, it returned to $1.9 billion in 2000, Most strikingly, Bello and company noted that the Philippines became a net food importer under the GATT. In 1993, the country had an agricultural trade surplus of $292 million. It had a deficit of $764 million in 1997 and $794 million in 2002, « Bello, Walden, Herbert Docena, Marissa de Guzman, and Mary Lou Malig, The Anti-Development State: The Political Economy of Permanent Crisis in the Philippines. London and New York: Zed Books, 2006, 140-142. See pene eee emer SOIOISV: Conclusion International economic integration is a central tenet of globalization. In fact, it is so crucial to the process that many writers and commentators confuse this integration for the entirety of globalization. As a reminder, economics is just one window into the phenomenon of globalization; it is not the entire thing. Nevertheless, much of globalization is anchored on changes in the economy. Global culture, for example, is facilitated by trade. Filipinos would not be as aware of American culture if not for the trade that allows locals to watch American movies, listen to American music, and consume American products. The globalization of politics is likewise largely contingent on trade relations. These days, many events of foreign affairs are conducted to cement trading relations between and among states. Given the stak perennially imports just. Although som back, policies cann policymakers, ther trading deals fairer ways of cushionin globalization, while Guide Qu 1. _Howdo econ 2, Howis the Ph 3. Compare and system with t senna ® ae Learning Global E With the help | trip to and famil organization (Asi company (Honda, as you can during ' If this activit accomplish these of the institution connections it has of this institution interconnections. ‘Then answer t global economic | Philippines?trade or that ling to Global revent y and ses in ducts, ports billion pines puntry ficit of 1 Malig, in the net of many ntirety w into ranges ted by sure if 10vies, s. The trade jucted The Globalization of World Economics | 25 Given the stakes involved in economic globalization, it is perennially important to ask how this system can be made more just. Although some elements of global free trade can be scaled back, policies cannot do away with it as a whole. International policymakers, therefore, should strive to think of ways to make trading deals fairer. Governments must also continue to devise ways of cushioning the most damaging effects of economic globalization, while ensuring that its benefits accrue for everyone. (?) Guide Questions 1. How do economic forces facilitate the deepening of globalization? How is the Philippines central to the history of economic globalization? Compare and contrast the assumptions of the original Bretton Woods system with those of the Washington Consensus. a E 2 “AS Learning Activity: Global Economic Institutions With the help of the school administration, organize a school trip to and familiarization tour of an international economic organization (Asian Development Bank) or an international company (Honda, McDonald’s, etc.). Gather as much information as you can during the tour. If this activity cannot be arranged, go to the web and accomplish these tasks: (a) research the origins and history of the institution you have chosen; (b) map the international connections it has created; (c) identify the major country-leaders of this institution; and (d) locate the Philippines in this map of interconnections. ‘Then answer this question: How does this institution influence global economic activity? How does it affect economics in the Philippines?“esor A History of Global - Politics: Creating a International Orde @ Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: identify key events in the development of international relations; differentiate internationalization from globalization; define the state and the nation; AWN distinguish between the competing conceptions of internationalism; and 5. discuss the historical evolution of international politics. Walla eee ee ee The world is composed of many countries or states, all of them having different forms of government. Some scholars of politics are interested in individual states and examine the internal politics of these countries. For example, a scholar studying the politics of Japan may write about the history of its bureaucracy, Other scholars are more interested in the interactions between states rather than their internal politics. These scholars look at trade deals between states. They also study political, military, and other diplomatic engagements between two or more countries. These scholars are studying international relations. Moreover, when they explore the deepening of interactions between states, they refer to the phenomenon of internationalization. Internationalization does not equal globalization, although it is a major part of globalization. As we explained in Lesson 1, globalization encompasses a multitude of connections and interactions that cannot be reduced to the ties between governments. Nevertheless, it is important to study international relations as a facet of globalization, because states/governments A Histor are key drivers of global internationalization as | politics. Although this | we cannot avoid histor is largely defined by ¢ years ago. Don’t worry; world politics. But to d his lesson will begin contemporary global. this system emerge? In| to understand the maje lesson, The Attributes of World politics toda countries or states that Second, these countr diplomacy. Third, ther: United Nations (UN), beyond simply facilitat organizations also take part from being a mee of state, also has task Organization (WHO) a (ILO). What are the ori unpacking what one m¢ icademics also call the s it seems. The nation in human history, and 1s countries. At differe in various regions of t units as small as their they see themselves as Ch stendom” (the enta a Je em tics tics tics her ates ade her ese hey r to igh 11, ind een nal nts A History of Global Politics: Creating an International Order | 27 are key drivers of global processes. In this lesson, we will examine internationalization as one window to view the globalization of politics, Although this course is about the contemporary world, we cannot avoid history. What international relations are today is largely defined by events that occurred as far back as 400 years ago. Don’t worry; we will eventually discuss contemporary world politics. But to do that, we need first to work backward. This lesson will begin with identifying the major attributes of contemporary global politics and then proceed to ask: How did this system emerge? In doing so, you will have a solid foundation to understand the major issues of global governance in the next lesson. The Attributes of Today’s Global System World politics today has four key attributes. First, there are countries or states that are independent and govern themselves. Second, these countries interact with each other through diplomacy. Third, there are international organizations, like the United Nations (UN), that facilitate these interactions. Fourth, beyond simply facilitating meetings between states, international organizations also take on lives of their own. The UN, for example, part from being a meeting ground for presidents and other heads of state, also has task-specific agencies like the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Labour Organization (ILO). What are the origins of this system? A good start is by unpacking what one means when he/she says a “country,” or what academics also call the nation-state. This concept is not as simple it seems. The nation-state is a relatively modern phenomenon in human history, and people did not always organize themselves 4s countries. At different parts in the history of humanity, people in various regions of the world have identified exclusively with units as small as their village or their tribe, and at other times, they see themselves as members of larger political categories like Christendom” (the entire Christian world).28 | The Structures of Globalization The nation-state is composed of two non-interchangeable terms. Not all states are nations and not all nations are states, The nation of Scotland, for example, has its own flag and national culture, but still belongs to a state called the United Kingdom. Closer to home, many commentators believe that the Bangsamoro is a separate nation existing within the Philippines but, through their elites, Tecognizes the authority of the Philippine state. Meanwhile, if there are states with multiple nations, there are also single nations with multiple states. The nation of Korea is divided into North and South Korea, whereas the “Chinese nation” may refer to both the People’s Republic of China (the mainland) and Taiwan. What then is the difference between nation and state? In layman’s terms, state refers to a country and its government, i.e, the government of the Philippines, A state has four attributes, First, it exercises authority over a specific Population, called its citizens. Second, it governs a specific territory. Third, a state has a structure of government that crafts various rules th: (society) follow. Fourth and the most crucial, Sovereignty over its territory. Sovereignty here refer: external authority. Internally, at people , the state has 's to internal and no individuals or groups can operate ina given national territory by ignoring the state. This means that groups like churches, civil society organizations, corporations, and other entities have to follow the laws of the state where they establish their parishes, offices, or headquarters. Externally, Sovereignty means that a state’s Policies and procedures are independent of the interventions of other states. Russia or China, for example, cannot pass laws for the Philippines and vice versa. On the other hand, the nation, according to Benedict Anderson, is an “ima; gined community.” It is limited because it does not go beyond a given “official boundary,” rights and responsibilities are mi of the citizens of that nation.” nation has its boundaries, This ct and because ainly the privilege and concern Being limited means that the naracteristic is in stark contrast to many religious imagined communities. Anyone, for example, can become a Catholic if one chooses to. In fact, Catholics want more people to joi to discipleship. Bu An American can “convert” into a Ph to people who have language, and live i Calling it “ima up. Rather, the na community of peo in his/her lifetime. Olympics, for exan athlete. Rather, you the same Filipino Philippine archipel: people living in it a become states. Nati when that national authority and powe Moreover, if there 2 seek some form of is why, for example the state of Canade French-speaking a1 their citizens). It is. of the United King¢ by the Scottish Nati Nation and stat that facilitates state era, it has been the the creation of nai sovereign because ¢ independence. Sovereignty is, modern state politi entails going back asA History of Global Politics: Creating an International Order | 29 more people to join their community; they refer to it as the call to discipleship. But not everyone can simply become a Filipino. An American cannot simply go to the Philippine Embassy and “convert” into a Philippine citizen. Nations often limit themselves to people who have imbibed a particular culture, speak a common language, and live in a specific territory. Calling it “imagined” does not mean that the nation is made- up. Rather, the nation allows one to feel a connection with a community of people even if he/she will never meet all of them in his/her lifetime. When you cheer for a Filipino athlete in the Olympics, for example, it is not because you personally know that athlete. Rather, you imagine your connection as both members of the same Filipino community. In a given national territory like the Philippine archipelago, you rest in the comfort that the majority of people living in it are also Fillipinos. Finally, most nations strive to become states. Nation-builders can only feel a sense of fulfillment when that national ideal assumes an organizational form whose authority and power are recognized and accepted by “the people.” Moreover, if there are communities that are not states, they often seek some form of autonomy within their “mother states.” This is why, for example, the nation of Quebec, though belonging to the state of Canada, has different laws about language (they are French-speaking and require French language competencies for their citizens). It is also for this reason that Scotland, though part of the United Kingdom, has a strong independence movement led by the Scottish Nationalist Party. Nation and state are closely related because it is nationalism that facilitates state formation. In the modern and contemporary era, it has been the nationalist movements that have allowed for the creation of nation-states. States become independent and sovereign because of nationalist sentiment that clamors for this independence, Sovereignty is, thus, one of the fundamental principles of modern state politics. Understanding how this became the case entails going back as far as 400 years ago.30 | The Structures of Globalization The Interstate System The origins of the present-day concept of sovereignty can be traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia, which was a set of agreements signed in 1648 to end the Thirty Years’ War between the major continental powers of Europe. After a brutal religious war between Catholics and Protestants, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic designed a system that would avert wars in the future by recognizing that the treaty signers exercise complete control over their domestic affairs and swear not to meddle in each other’s affairs. The Westphalian system provided stability for the nations of Europe, until it faced its first major challenge by Napoleon Bonaparte. Bonaparte believed in spreading the principles of the French Revolution—liberty, equality, and fraternity—to the rest of Europe and thus challenged the power of kings, nobility, and religion in Europe. The Napoleonic Wars lasted from 1803-1815 with Napoleon and his armies marching all over much of Europe. In every country they conquered, the French implemented the Napoleonic Code that forbade birth privileges, encouraged freedom or religion, and promoted meritocracy in government service. This system shocked the monarchies and the hereditary elites (dukes, duchesses, etc.) of Europe, and they mustered their armies to push back against the French emperor. Anglo and Prussian armies finally defeated Napoleon in the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, ending the latter’s mission to spread his liberal code across Europe. To prevent another war and to keep their systems of privilege, the royal powers created a new system that, in effect, restored the Westphalian system. The Concert of Europe was an alliance of “great powers”—the United Kingdom, Austria, Russia, and Prussia—that sought to restore the world of monarchical, hereditary, and religious privileges of the time before the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. More importantly, it was an alliance that sought to restore the Sovereignty of states. Under this Metternich system (named after the Austrian diplomat, Klemens von Metternich, who was the AHis system’s main architec from 1815 to 1914, at tl Klemens Von Mett Despite the chall and the eventual col War I, present-day i history. Until now, st attempts to violenth countries are frowne reat powers” still h Vor example, the mo: Council, has a core | powers over the coun Internationali The Westphalia into separate, sove interstate system, threignty can vas a set of far between al religious an Empire, ed a system t the treaty affairs and he nations Napoleon iples of the to the rest bility, and 1803-1815 of Europe. rented the d freedom rvice. This tes (dukes, ies to push poleon in nission to other war created a stem. The he United to restore vileges of nic Wars. store the med after ) was the A History of Global Politics: Creating an International Order | 31 system’s main architect), the Concert’s power and authority lasted from 1815 to 1914, at the dawn of World War I. Klemens Von Metternich was the architect of the ‘Concert of Europe: Despite the challenge of Napoleon to the Westphalian system and the eventual collapse of the Concert of Europe after World War I, present-day international system still has traces of this history. Until now, states are considered sovereign, and Napoleonic attempts to violently impose systems of government in other countries are frowned upon. Moreover, like the Concert system, sreat powers” still hold significant influence over world politics. Vor example, the most powerful grouping in the UN, the Security Council, has a core of five permanent members, all having veto powers over the council’s decision-making process. Internationalism he Westphalian and Concert systems divided the world into separate, sovereign entities. Since the existence of this te system, there have been attempts to transcend it. Some,32 | The Structures of Globalization like Bonaparte, directly challenged the system by infringing on other states’ sovereignty, while others sought to imagine other systems of governance that go beyond, but do not necessarily challenge, sovereignty. Still, others imagine a system of heightened interaction between various sovereign states, particularly the desire for greater cooperation and unity among states and peoples. This desire is called internationalism. Internationalism comes in different forms, but the principle may be divided into two broad categori and socialist internationalism, : liberal internationalism ‘The first major thinker of liberal internationalism was the late 18th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Kant likened States in a global system to people living in a given territory. If People living together require a government to prevent lawlessness, shouldn’t that same Principle be applied to states? Without a form of world government, he argued, the international system would be chaotic. Therefore, states, like citizens of countries, must give up some freedoms and “establish a continuously growing state consisting of various nations which will ultimately include the nations of the world.” In short, Kant imagined a form of global government. Writing in the late 18th century as well, British philosopher Jeremy Bentham (who coined the word “international” in 1780), advocated the creation of “international law” that would govern the inter-state relations. Bentham believed that objective global legislators should aim to Propose legislation that would create “the greatest happiness of all nations taken together.” To many, these proposals for global government and international law seemed to represent challenges to states. Would not a world government, in effect, become supreme? And would not its laws overwhelm the sovereignty of individual states? The first thinker to reconcile nationalism with liberal internationalism was the 19th century Italian patriot Giuseppe Mazzini. Mazzini was both an advocate of the unification of the various Italian-speaking mini-states and a major critic of the AHi Metternich system. (without kings, queen system of free nations international system. be the basis of an eq) He argued that if the could scale up the sys Europe. Mazzini wa: that free, unified n: cooperation. Mazzini influenc (1913-1921) Woodro century’s most prom saw nationalism as « of his faith in natio determination—the | free, and sovereign g would become dem« they be able to build on international law « most notable advoca At the end of Worl League into a venue another war. For his Prize in 1919. ‘American Presic advocaAHistory of Global Politics: Creating an International Order | 33 Metternich system. He believed in a Republican government (without kings, queens, and hereditary succession) and proposed a system of free nations that cooperated with each other to create an international system. For Mazzini, free, independent states would be the basis of an equally free, cooperative international system. He argued that if the various Italian mini-states could unify, one could scale up the system to create, for example, a United States of Europe. Mazzini was a nationalist internationalist, who believes that free, unified nation-states should be the basis of global cooperation. Mazzini influenced the thinking of United States president (1913-1921) Woodrow Wilson, who became one of the 20th century's most prominent internationalist. Like Mazzini, Wilson saw nationalism as a prerequisite for internationalism. Because of his faith in nationalism, he forwarded the principle of self- determination—the belief that the world’s nations had a right to a free, and sovereign government. He hoped that these free nations would become democracies, because only by being such would they be able to build a free system of international relations based on international law and cooperation. Wilson, in short, became the most notable advocate for the creation of the League of Nations. At the end of World War I in 1918, he pushed to transform the League into a venue for conciliation and arbitration to prevent another war. For his efforts, Wilson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919. ‘American President Woodrow Wilson became the most prominent ‘advocate for the creation of the League of Nations,34 | The Structures of Globalization The League came into being that same year. Ironically and unfortunately for Wilson, the United States was not able to join the organization due to strong opposition from the Senate. The League was also unable to hinder another war from breaking out, It was practically helpless to prevent the onset and intensification of World War II. On one side of the war were the Axis Powers— Hitler's Germany, Mussolini’s Italy, and Hirohito’s Japan— who were ultra-nationalists that had an instinctive disdain for internationalism and preferred to violently impose their dominance over other nations. It was in the midst of this war between the Axis Powers and the Allied Powers (composed of the United States, United Kingdom, France, Holland, and Belgium) that internationalism would be eclipsed. Despite its failure, the League gave birth to some of the more task-specific international organizations that are still around until today, the most popular of which are the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Labour Organization (ILO). More importantly, it would serve as the blueprint for future forms of international cooperation. In this respect, despite its organizational dissolution, the League of Nations’ principles survived World War II. The League was the concretization of the concepts of liberal internationalism. From Kant, it emphasized the need to form common international principles. From Mazzini, it enshrined the principles of cooperation and respect among nation-states. From Wilson, it called for democracy and self-determination. These ideas would re-assert themselves in the creation of the United Nations in 1946 (see next lesson). One. of Mazzini’s biggest critics was German socialist philosopher Karl Marx who was also an internationalist, but who differed from the former because he did not believe in nationalism. He believed that any true form of internationalism should deliberately reject nationalism, which rooted people in domestic concerns instead of global ones. Instead, Marx placed a premium on economic equality; he did not divide the world into countries, AHi but into classes. The factories, companies, the proletariat class it production, but instea Marx and his co a socialist revoltutio the economy, the pro famous battle cry, “W to lose but your chai believed it prevente Instead of identifying workers in individual countries. Marx died in 188 vision concrete by e: ‘The Socialist Interna and labor parties es lived, the SI’s achieve Labor Day and the cr importantly, it initia workday. The SI collapsed refused or were unat for the war. Many o: each other. It was a c¢ and their organizatic each other, their long As the SI colla the so-called Russia overthrown and repl Bolshevik Party and called the Union of S majority of the mem believe in obtaining | Rather, they exhortIronically and not able to join he Senate. The n breaking out, intensification Axis Powers— hito’s Japan— nective disdain impose their ist of this war posed of the and Belgium) ne of the more > still around World Health Organization blueprint for spect, despite ns’ principles epts of liberal need to form enshrined the \-states. From 1ation. These f the United lan socialist alist, but who | nationalism. lism should in domestic da premium to countries, A History of Global Politics: Creating an International Order | 35 but into classes. The capitalist class referred to the owners of factories, companies, and other “means of production.” In contrast, the proletariat class included those who did not own the means of production, but instead, worked for the capitalists. Marx and his co-author, Friedrich Engels, believed that in 4 socialist revoltution seeking to overthrow the state and alter the economy, the proletariat “had no nation.” Hence, their now- famous battle cry, “Workers of the world, unite! You have nothing to lose but your chains.” They opposed nationalism because they believed it prevented the unification of the world’s workers. Instead of identifying with other workers, nationalism could make workers in individual countries identify with the capitalists of their countries. Marx died in 1883, but his followers soon sought to make his vision concrete by establishing their international organization. The Socialist International (SI) was a union of European socialist and labor parties established in Paris in 1889. Although short- lived, the ST’s achievements included the declaration of May 1 as Labor Day and the creation of an International Women's Day. Most importantly, it initiated the successful campaign for an 8-hour workday. The SI collapsed during World War I as the member parties refused or were unable to join the internationalist efforts to fight for the war. Many of these sister parties even ended up fighting each other. It was a confirmation of Marx’s warning: when workers and their organizations take the side of their countries instead of each other, their long-term interests are compromised. ‘As the SI collapsed, a more radical version emerged. In the so-called Russian Revolution of 1917, Czar Nicholas Il was overthrown and replaced by a revolutionary government led by the Bolshevik Party and its leader, Vladimir Lenin. This new state was called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, or USSR. Unlike the majority of the member parties of the SI, the Bolsheviks did not believe in obtaining power for the working class through elections. Rather, they exhorted the revolutionary “vanguard” parties to36 | The Structures of Globalization lead the revolutions across the world, using methods of terror if necessary. Today, parties like this are referred to as Communist parties. Russian revolutionary Viadimir Lenin founded the Comintern to spread socialist revolutions across the world To encourage these socialist revolutions across the world, Lenin established the Communist International (Comintern) in 1919. The Comintern served as the central body for directing Communist parties all over the world. This International was not only more radical than the Socialist International, it was also less democratic because it followed closely the top-down governance of the Bolsheviks. Many of the world’s states feared the Comintern, believing that it was working in secret to stir up revolutions in their countries (which was true). A problem arose during World War II when the Soviet Union joined the Allied Powers in 1941. The United States and the United Kingdom would, of course, not trust the Soviet Union in their fight against Hitler’s Germany. These countries Adis wondered if the Sovice in their backyards. To Stalin, dissolved the C After the war, ho as the Communist In, Union took over the ¢ States, the Soviet Un Europe into their res like the Comintern bi parties that had taken With the event whatever existing tho practically disappear 1951, but its influenc has never been consi to this very day. For the postwa would once again be rise of the United Na Conclu This lesson exa In tracing these ro provided. Moreove the broader phenc a very crucial asp. are heightened by increased interdep state-to-state relati also facilitated by global norms and organization, of cotods of terror if as Communist read socialist ss the world, omintern) in for directing tional was not t was also less governance of believing that \eir countries r II when the United States ist the Soviet ese countries ‘A History of Global Politics: Creating an International Order hey? wondered if the Soviet Union was trying to promote revolutions in their backyards. To appease his allies, Lenin’s successor, Joseph Stalin, dissolved the Comintern in 1943. ‘After the war, however, Stalin re-established the Comintern ‘as the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform). The Soviet Union took over the countries in Eastern Europe when the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain divided the war-torn Europe into their respective spheres of influence. The Cominform, like the Comintern before it, helped direct the various communist parties that had taken power in Eastern Europe. With the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, whatever existing thoughts about communist internationalism also practically disappeared. The SI managed to re-establish itself in 1951, but its influence remained primarily confined to Europe, and has never been considered a major player in internat ional relations to this very day. For the postwar period, however, liberal internationalism would once again be ascendant. And the best evidence of this is the rise of the United Nations as the center of global governance. Conclusion ‘This lesson examined the roots of the international system. In tracing these roots, a short history of internationalism was provided. Moreover, internationalism is but one window into the broader phenomenon of globalization. Nevertheless, it is a very crucial aspect of globalization since global interactions are heightened by the increased interdependence of states. This increased interdependence manifests itself not just through state-to-state relations. Increasingly, international relations are also facilitated by international organizations that promote global norms and policies. The most prominent example of this organization, of course, is the United Nations.| The Structures of Globalization (2) Guide Questions ‘What remnants of the Westphalian system can still be felt at this day and age? In what sense has the world gone beyond the Westphalian system? 2. What are the differences between liberal and socialist internationalism? What are their strengths and weaknesses? 3. Doyou think internationalization erodes the sovereignty of states? we “Learning Activity: Imaginary Interview Further research/read on Giuseppe Mazzini, Woodrow Wilson, Karl Marx, or Vladimir Lenin. Conduct an imaginary interview with one of them. In this interview, have your selected figure answer the following questions: 1. What do you think of nationalism? 2. What is necessary for the development of an international order? 3. What do you think of the League of Nations? 4, What is the role of revolution in internationalism? At the end of this lessc 1. define global go 2. identify the roles 3. determine the ch century. Although many imagined the possibi sort exists today. The are accountable to. compel a state to 0 however, some regu! example, they more more often than not Moreover, when they 2014—it becomes a that states in an inte global norms mean despite the lack of a refers to the various i There are many {treaties and form or international law (i between states as op} non-governmental | formal state power,_ The United Nations , and Contemporary - Global Governance | © Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. define global governance; 2. identify the roles and functions of the United Nations; and 3, determine the challenges of global governance in the twenty-first century. Although many internationalists like Bentham and Kant imagined the possibility of a global government, nothing of the sort exists today. There is no one organization that various states are accountable to. Moreover, no organization can militarily compel a state to obey predetermined global rules. There is, however, some regularity in the general behavior of states. For example, they more or less follow global navigation routes and, more often than not, respect each other’s territorial boundaries. Moreover, when they do not—like when Russia invaded Crimea in 2014—it becomes a cause for global concern and debate. The fact that states in an international order continue to adhere to certain global norms means that there is a semblance of world order despite the lack of a single world government. Global governance refers to the various intersecting processes that create this order. There are many sources of global governance. States sign treaties and form organizations, in the process legislating public international law (international rules that govern interactions between states as opposed to, say, private companies). International non-governmental organizations (NGOs), though not having formal state power, can lobby individual states to behave in a0 | The Structures of Globalization certain way (for example, an international animal protection NGO. can pressure governments to pass animal cruelty laws). Powerful transnational corporations can likewise have tremendous effects on global labor laws, environmental legislation, trade policy, etc. Even ideas such as the need for “global democracy” or the clamor for “good governance” can influence the ways international actors behave. One lesson will not be able to cover the various ways global governance occurs. As such, this lesson will only examine how global governance is articulated by intergovernmental organizations. It will focus primarily on the United Nations (UN) as the most prominent intergovernmental organization today. What is an International Organization? When scholars refer to groups like the UN or institutions like the IMF and the World Bank (see Lesson 2), they usually call them international organizations (IOs). Although international NGOs are sometimes considered as IOs, the term is commonly used to refer to international intergovernmental organizations or groups that are primarily made up of member-states."* One major fallacy about international organizations is that they are merely amalgamations of various state interests. In the 1960s and 1970s, many scholars believed that IOs were just venues where the contradicting, but sometimes intersecting, agendas of countries were discussed—no more than talk shops. What has become more evident in recent years, however, is that IOs can take on lives of their own. For example, as seen in Lesson 2, the IMF was able to promote a particular form of economic orthodoxy that stemmed mainly from the beliefs of its professional economists, TOs can thus become influential as independent organizations. International relations scholars Michael N. Barnett and Martha Finnemore listed the following powers of IOs. The First, IOs have can invent and app standards.” For exal Refugees (UNHCR) for more). And since their borders, this po Second, IOs have function related to “development” neec and individuals view such, the meanings t example, recently, th as not just safety fi environmental harm Finally, 10s h are accepted codes nevertheless produ: classify and fix mea world, thereby est: are, as Barnett an¢ of our time. Their that IOs are staffe considered experts economists come t thus carry some fe norms regarding t development projec Because of the great good and gr like environmenta other entrenched communities that the Nobel Prize criticized the IMF | economists made reThe United Nations and Contemporary Global Governance | 41 30 First, IOs have the power of classification. Because IOs ful can invent and apply categories, they create powerful global cts. standards.” For example, it is the UN High Commissioner for tc. Refugees (UNHCR) that defines what a refugee is (see Lesson 10 10r for more). And since states are required to accept refugees entering ors their borders, this power to establish identity has concrete effects.” Second, IOs have the power to fix meanings. This is a broader Dal function related to the first. Various terms like “security” or ne “development” need to be well-defined. States, organizations, tal and individuals view IOs as legitimate sources of information. As N) such, the meanings they create have effects on various policies. For example, recently, the United Nations has started to define security as not just safety from military violence, but also safety from environmental harm.” Finally, IOs have the power to diffuse norms. Norms are accepted codes of conduct that may not be strict law, but ke nevertheless produce regularity in behavior. IOs do not only m classify and fix meanings; they also spread their ideas across the Ds world, thereby establishing global standards. Their members to are, as Barnett and Finnemore emphasized, the “missionaries” ps of our time. Their power to diffuse norms stems from the fact that IOs are staffed with independent bureaucracies, who are considered experts in various fields. For example, World Bank 1e economists come to be regarded as experts in development and 25 thus carry some form of authority. They can, therefore, create of norms regarding the implementation and conceptualization of development projects. at 1s Because of these immense powers, IOs can be sources of ce F great good and great harm. They can promote relevant norms at like environmental protection and human rights. But, like S. other entrenched bureaucracies, they can become sealed-off 5. communities that fail to challenge their beliefs. For example, a the Nobel Prize-winning economist Joseph Stiglitz famously criticized the IMF for using a “one-size-fits-all” approach when its economists made recommendations to developing countries.”*42 | The Structures of Globalization The United Nations The main headquarters of the United Naticns in New York Having examined the powers, limitations, and weaknesses of. 10s, the spotlight will now fall on the most prominent IO in the contemporary world, the United Nations (UN). After the collapse of the League of Nations at the end of World War II, countries that worried about another global war began to push for the formation of a more lasting international league. The result was the creation of the UN. Although the organization is far from perfect, it should be emphasized that it has so far achieved its primary goal of averting another global war. For this reason alone, the UN should be considered a success. The UN is divided into five active organs. The General Assembly (GA) is UN’s “main deliberative policymaking and representative organ.”* According to the UN charter: “Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new members, and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority of the General Assembly. Decisions on other questions are done by simple majority. Annually, the General Assembly elects a GA President to serve a one-year term of office.” All member states (currently at 193) have seats in the GA. The Philippines played a prominent role in the GA's early years when Filipino diplomat Carlos P. Romulo was elected GA president from 1949-1950. The | Chinese Presider Although the GA the UN, many comm to be the most power of 15 member states. terms. The other fiv 5 (P5)—are China, the United States. T since the founding « election. The SC tak threat to the peace or to a dispute to settle methods of adjustme! resort to imposing si to maintain or restot of these powers, state state need to obtain t a military interventi power. Much attention permanent seats an over the council’s de member to stop an $ SC is heir to the tra with the Metternich lesson). It is especisnesses of O in the collapse ries that rmation creation t should goal of i should General ing and ecisions ecurity, quire a n other General erm of the GA. y years esident The United Nations and Contemporary Global Governance | 43 Chinese President Xi Jinping addresses the UN General Assembly Although the GA is the most representative organization in the UN, many commentators consider the Security Council (SC) to be the most powerful. According to the UN, this body consists of 15 member states. The GA elects ten of these 15 to two-year terms. The other five—sometimes referred to as the Permanent 5 (P5)—are China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These states have been permanent members since the founding of the UN, and cannot be replaced through election. The SC takes the lead in determining the existence of a threat to the peace or an act of aggression. It calls upon the parties to a dispute to settle the act by peaceful means and recommends methods of adjustment or terms of settlement. In some cases, it can resort to imposing sanctions or even authorizing the use of force to maintain or restore international peace and security.’ Because of these powers, states that seek to intervene militarily in another state need to obtain the approval of the SC. With the SC’s approval, a military intervention may be deemed legal. This is an immense power. Much attention has been placed on the SC’s P5 due to their permanent seats and because each country holds veto power ‘over the council’s decisions. It only takes one veto vote from a PS member to stop an SC action dead in its tracks. In this sense, the SC is heir to the tradition of “great power” diplomacy that began with the Metternich/Concert of Europe system (see the previous lesson). It is especially telling that the PS consists of the major6 | The Structures of Globalization to veto any action, rendering the UN incapable of addressing the crisis. In response, NATO decided to intervene on its own. Though the NATO intervention was largely a success, it, nevertheless, left the UN ineffectual. Today, a similar dynamic is evident in Syria, which is undergoing a civil war. Russia has threatened to veto any SC resolution against Syria; thus, the UN has done very little to stop state-sanctioned violence against opponents of the government. Since Syrian President Bashar al-Assad is an ally of Russian dictator Vladimir Putin, the latter has shied away from any policy that could weaken the legitimacy of the former. Asa result, the UN is again ineffectual amid a conflict that has led to over 220,000 people dead and 11 million displaced.” Despite these problems, it remains important for the SC to place a high bar on military intervention, The UN Security Council has been wrong on issues of intervention, but it has also made right decisions. When the United States sought to invade Iraq in 2001, it claimed that Iraq’s Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction (WMD) that threatened the world. However, UN members Russia, China, and France were unconvinced and vetoed the UN resolution for intervention, forcing the United States to lead a small “coalition of the willing” with its allies. It has since been discovered that there were no weapons of mass destruction, and the invasion of Iraq has caused problems for the country and the region that last until today. Conclusion Global governance is such a complex issue that one can actually teach an entire course in itself. This lesson has focused on the IOs and the United Nations in particular. International organizations are highlighted because they are the most visible symbols of global governance. The UN, in particular, is the closest to a world government. What is important to remember is that international institutions like the UN are always in a precarious position. The On the one hand, the they are organization is this tension that w organizations. However, note tl ideas that hold inter own time, you may ¥ } Guide Que 1. Whyis global g 2. How do interne What are the ct global security: "meeesing the ‘Though less, left rhich is any SC : to stop rnment. Russian y policy the UN 220,000 the SC ecurity as also invade pons of er, UN vetoed ates to s since uction, ry and t one yn. has icular. they The ment. tional sition. The United Nations and Contemporary Global Governance | 47 On the one hand, they are groups of sovereign states. On the otheh they are organizations with their own rationalities and agendas. It is this tension that will continue to inform the evolution of thes€ organizations. However, note that there are many institutions, groups, and ideas that hold international and global politics together. In your own time, you may want to explore these topics on your own. @ ) Guide Questions 1. Whyis global governance multi-faceted? 2. How do inte-national organizations take on “lives of their own?" What are the challenges faced by the United Nations in mai global securty?48 | The Structures of Globalization w Learning Activity: The United Nations Peacekeepers; Re-enacting their Roles, Responsibilities, and Challenges Research in Google what the United Nations peacekeepers are, the countries that send these peacekeepers, their responsibilities, and the places where they have been involved in the last 50 years. After familiarizing yourselves with the UN's peacekeeping function, you will now be teady to deal with a crisis. Read the scenario below. Countries A and B have been at war against each other for 50 years over a big area of land that is located in their borders. The land consists of rainforests, suitable farmlands, and rich mineral Tesources. It is also suspected to have oil reserves underground. The community that lives in this area is composed of people who have never been clear about their national loyalties, for the simple reason that they do not recognize these borders. They have been living in the area long before countries A and B had national territories. They, therefore, would like to be left alone, to “go back and forth” between the two borders. Countries A and B, however, want to exploit the resources of this borderland. They started supporting leaders in this community, secretly at first, but later on with open economic assistance. This association created tensions within the community that soon worsened into open factional rivalries between its leaders. The factional rivalry started over how assistance was to be shared, and then moved to competition over elected positions. The rivalry took a turn for the worse when Countries A and B began supplying their allies with arms and military training, especially after they both realized the security problems this borderland can cause, The It did not take Ic came out in the of affected the commur relatives against each And then sudd armies into the bore reality, to fight alon Thousands perished no side was winning Eventually, exh to realize how mu protagonists agreed of the United Natior to stand between the into a lasting peace. Your class is tha need to do to prepa your presence, thir peace, knowing thaters are, ilities, ast 50 eeping ad the for 50 s. The ineral d. reople or the have ‘ional back urces this omic inity nits o be "gan ally can ‘The United Nations and Contemporary Global Governance lag It did not take long before conflict between the two factions came out in the open. This “mini-war” spread and seriously affected the community, dividing families and pitting friends and relatives against each other. And then suddenly, the two countries were sending their armies into the border supposedly to help keep the peace, but in reality, to fight alongside their local allies. The war was intense. Thousands perished and were injured. But what was clear was that no side was winning. Eventually, exhausted by the war (Countries A and B began to realize how much resources they wasted in this war), the protagonists agreed to a temporary truce. They also asked the help of the United Nations in terms of bringing in a peacekeeping force to stand between the two sides, and negotiate how to turn the truce into a lasting peace. Your class is that peacekeeping force. List down the things you need to do to prepare for this mission. Once you have established your presence, think of measures you have to take to keep the peace, knowing that you will not be there permanently. Good luck.A World of Region © Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. differentiate between regionalization and globalization; 2. explain how regions are formed and kept together; 3, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of regionalism; and 4. _ identify the factors leading to a greater integration of the Asian region. Governments, associations, societies, and groups form regional organizations and/or networks as a way of coping with the challenges of globalization. Globalization has made people aware of the world in general, but it has also made Filipinos more cognizant of specific areas such as Southeast Asia. How, for instance, did the Philippines come to identify itself with the Southeast Asian region? Why is it part of a regional grouping known as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)? While regionalism is often seen as a political and economic phenomenon, the term actually encompasses a broader area. It can be examined in relation to identities, ethics, religion, ecological sustainability, and health.” Regionalism is also a Process, and must be treated as an “emergent, socially constituted phenomenon.” It means that regions are not natural or given; rather, they are constructed and defined by policymakers, economic actors, and even social movements. This lesson will look at regions as political entities and examine what brings them together as they interlock with globalization. The other facets of regionalism will then be explored, especially those that pertain to identities, ethics, religion, ecological sustainat asking where all the a nation and as citiz Countries, Ret Edward D, Man and political defin basic features that oup of countries area” or are “an an of more than two flows and policy ch regionalism should “regional concentr political process ch coordination amon Countries re globalization in ve lot of resources te global integration. workforce to attri countries it once « for its goods (e.g make up for their location. Singapot resources by turni Singapore develo] class transit port Africa, Europe, th countries in the | form a regional al in numbers. Countries for is for military deAWorld of Regions | 51 ecological sustainability, and health, The lesson will conclude by asking where all these regionalisms are bringing us as members of 4 nation and as citizens of the world. Countries, Regions, and Globalization Edward D, Mansfield and Helen V. Milner state that economic and political definitions of regions vary, but there are certain basic features that everyone can agree on. First, regions are “a group of countries located in the same geographically specified area” or are “an amalgamation of two regions [or] a combination of more than two regions” organized to regulate and “oversee flows and policy choices.”® Second, the words regionalization and regionalism should not be interchanged, as the former refers to the “regional concentration of economic flows” while the latter is “a political process characterized by economic policy cooperation and coordination among countries.”” Countries respond economically and politically to globalization in various ways. Some are large enough and have a lot of resources to dictate how they participate in processes of global integration. China, for example, offers its cheap and huge workforce to attract foreign businesses and expand trade with countries it once considered its enemies but now sees as markets for its goods (e.g., the United States and Japan). Other countries make up for their small size by taking advantage of their strategic location. Singapore and Switzerland compensate for their lack of resources by turning themselves into financial and banking hubs. Singapore developed its harbor facilities and made them a first- class transit port for ships carrying different commodities from Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and mainland Southeast Asia to countries in the Asia-Pacific. In most cases, however, countries form a regional alliance for—as the saying goes— there is strength in numbers. Countries form regional associations for several reasons. One is for military defense. The most widely known defense grouping52 | The Structures of Globalization is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed during the Cold War when several Western European countries plus the United States agreed to protect Europe against the threat of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union responded by creating its regional alliance, the Warsaw Pact, consisting of the Eastern European countries under Soviet domination. The Soviet Union imploded in December 1991, but NATO remains in place. Soldiers from NATO countries hold their flags. Countries also form regional organizations to pool their resources, get better returns for their exports, as well as expand their leverage against trading partners. The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was established in 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela to regulate the production and sale of oil. This regional alliance flexed its muscles in the 1970s when its member countries took over domestic production and dictated crude oil prices in the world market. In a world highly dependent on oil, this integration became a source of immense power. OPEC’s success convinced nine other oil- producing countries to join it.* Moreover, there are countries that form regional blocs to protect their independence from the pressures of superpower politics. The presidents of Egypt, Ghana, India, Indonesia, and Yugoslavia created the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in 1961 to pursue world peace and international cooperation, human rights, national sovereignty, racial and national equality, non- intervention, and peaceful conflict resolution. It called itself non- aligned becat First World cé America or th the NAM hac was never for although it lac Finally, ¢ The Thai ec speculators a Thai governn investments t to other Asiar foreign inves Fund (IMF) ASEAN oul agreed to esta Asian econon The crisi The Associat coalition of c the United St ASEAN cont after it invad economic co Non-Stat Tt is not: a single cau organizing. “tiny associ: focus on a si multitude 0 security.” likewise relAWorld of Regions | 53 aligned because the association refused to side with either the First World capitalist democracies in Western Europe and North America or the communist states in Eastern Europe. At its peak, the NAM had 120 member countries. The movement, however, was never formalized and continues to exist up to the present, although it lacks the same fervor that it had in the past. Finally, economic crisis compels countries to come together. ‘The Thai economy collapsed in 1996 after foreign currency speculators and troubled international banks demanded that the ‘Thai government pay back its loans. A rapid withdrawal of foreign investments bankrupted the economy. This crisis began to spread to other Asian countries as their currencies were also devalued and foreign investments left in a hurry. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) tried to reverse the crisis, but it was only after the ASEAN countries along with China, Japan, and South Korea agreed to establish an emergency fund to anticipate a crisis that the Asian economies stabilized. The crisis made ASEAN more “unified and coordinated.” ‘The Association has come a long way since it was formed as a coalition of countries which were pro-American and supportive of the United States intervention in Vietnam. After the Vietnam War, ASEAN continued to act as a military alliance to isolate Vietnam after it invaded Cambodia, but there were also the beginnings of economic cooperation. Non-State Regionalism It is not only states that agree to work together in the name of a single cause (or causes). Communities also engage in regional organizing. This “new regionalism” varies in form; they can be “tiny associations that include no more than a few actors and focus on a single issue, or huge continental unions that address a multitude of common problems from territorial defense to food security.”” Organizations representing this “new regionalism” likewise rely on the power of individuals, non-governmental54 | The Structures of Globalization organizations (NGOs), and associations to link up with one another in pursuit of a particular goal (or goals). Finally, “new regionalism” is identified with reformists who share the same “values, norms, institutions, and system that exist outside of the traditional, established mainstream institutions and systems.” Their strategies and tactics likewise vary. Some organizations Partner with governments to initiate social change. Those who work with governments (“legitimizers”) participate in “institutional mechanisms that afford some civil society groups voice and influence [in] technocratic policy-making processes.” For example, the ASEAN issued its Human Rights Declaration in 2009, but the regional body left it to member countries to apply the declaration’s principles as they see fit. Aware that democratic rights are limited in many ASEAN countries, “new regionalism” organizations used this official declaration to Pressure these governments to pass laws and regulations that Protect and promote human rights. In South America, left-wing governments support the Hemispheric Social Alliance’s opposition to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), while members of the Mesa de Articulacién de Asociaciones Nacionales y Redes de ONGs de América Latina y El Caribe (Roundtable of National Associations and Networks and NGOs in Latin America and the Caribbean) participate in “forums, summits, and dialogues with Presidents and ministers.” Likewise, a group called the Citizen Diplomacy Forum tries to influence the policies and programs of the Organization of American States,” In Southeast Asia, the organization of an ASEAN Parliamentarians for Human Rights was in part the result of non-government organizations and civil Society groups pushing to “prevent discrimination, uphold political freedom, and promote democracy and human rights throughout the region." Other regional organizations dedicate themselves to specialized causes. Activists across Central and South America established the Rainforest Foundation to Protect indigenous Peoples and the rainforests in Brazil, Guyana, Panama, and fier.” Young Christi the Americas, and tl Youth Networks to pro: sluication, and sustait i) Asia is another reg ‘ommitted to protect! of migrant workers." (hese organizati standing and their a politics. Unfortunatel places them at a disa sounterparts who hav , therefore, li polit New regionalism {o-state regionalism \ example, states treat technical or econom existing programs of economic policies, a issues. However, nev Global Forum see th development and ens economic developme ind hardly concerne poor Another challen may emerge among over issues like get breaking from relig Church, Muslim ime rights and other p society groups are a may not be welcomi after another. Migra of Action Researc governments to dethe can the cal put AWorld of Regions | 55 Hey.’ Young Christians across Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Wie Americas, and the Caribbean formed Regional Interfaith Yauih Networks to promote “conflict prevention, resolution, peace education, and sustainable development.™” The Migrant Forum jy Asia is another regional network of NGOs and trade unions “ymmitted to protect{ing] and promot[ing] the rights and welfare ‘if migrant workers.“* These organizations’ primary power lies in their moral sanding and their ability to combine lobbying with pressure politic: Unfortunately, most of them are poorly financed, which places them at a disadvantage when dealing with their official ‘ounterparts who have large state funds. Their impact in global politics is, therefore, limited.” New regionalism differs significantly from traditional state- {o-state regionalism when it comes to identifying problems. For example, states treat poverty or environmental degradation as {echnical or economic issues that can be resolved by refining existing programs of state agencies, making minor changes in economic policies, and creating new offices that address these issues. However, new regionalism advocates such as the NGO Global Forum see these issues as reflections of flawed economic development and environmental models. By “flawed,” they mean economic development plans that are market-based, profit-driven, and hardly concerned with social welfare, especially among the poor. Another challenge for new regionalists is the discord that may emerge among them. For example, disagreements surface over issues like gender and religion, with pro-choice NGOs breaking from religious civil society groups that side with the Church, Muslim imams, or governments opposed to reproductive rights and other pro-women policies. Moreover, while civil society groups are able to dialogue with governments, the latter may not be welcoming to this new trend and set up one obstacle after another, Migrant Forum Asia and its ally, the Coordination of Action Research on AIDS (CARAM), lobbied ASEAN governments to defend migrant labor rights. Their program56 | The Structures of Globalization of action, however, slowed down once countries like Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand refused to recognize the rights of undocumented migrant workers and the rights of the families of migrants.” Contemporary Challenges to Regionalism Today, regionalism faces multiple challenges, the most serious of which is the resurgence of militant nationalism and populism, The refusal to dismantle NATO after the collapse of the Soviet Union, for example, has become the basis of the anti-NATO. thetoric of Vladimir Putin in Russia, Now, even the relationship of the United States—the alliance’s core member—with NATO. has become problematic after Donald Trump demonized the organization as simply leeching off American military power without giving anything in return. Perhaps the most crisis-ridden regional organization of today is the European Union. The continuing financial crisis of the region is forcing countries like Greece to consider leaving the Union to gain more flexibility in their economic policy. Anti- immigrant sentiment and a populist campaign against Europe have already led to the United Kingdom voting to leave the European Union in a move the media has termed the “Brexit.” ASEAN members continue to disagree over the extent to which member countries should sacrifice their sovereignty for the sake of regional stability."* The Association’s link with East Asia has also been problematic. Recently, ASEAN countries also disagreed over how to relate to China, with the Philippines unable to get the other countries to support its condemnation of China’s occupation of the West Philippine Sea.” Cambodia and Laos led the opposition favoring diplomacy over confrontation, but the real reason was the dramatic increase of Chinese investments and economic aid to these countries,*° Moreover, when some formerly authoritarian countries democratized, this “participatory regionalism” clashed with ASEAN’s policy of non-interference, as civil society groups demanded that the open attitude toward AEC /aseat Infographics element * A final chall regionalism shouk organizations not instruments of } developing societi globalization, dev and Russia see de and deepening of inquiry about eco implementation o1 procedures must, tAWorld of Regions | 57 sivil society groups in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand ‘emanded that the other countries democratized adopt a more pen attitude towards foreign criticism.” AEC /asean Infographics elements p? © oO M/s RG Fl 4 a i The member countries of ASEAN ‘A final challenge pertains to differing visions of what regionalism should be for. Western governments may see regional organizations not simply as economic formations but also as instruments of political democratization. Non-Western and developing societies, however, may have a different view regarding globalization, development, and democracy. Singapore, China, and Russia see democracy as an obstacle to the implementation and deepening of economic globalization because constant public inquiry about economic projects and lengthy debate slow down implementation or lead to unclear outcomes. Democracy’s tedious procedures must, therefore, give way to efficiency.58 | The Structures of Globalization ‘i : Conclusion wp a Empires, tc Organize yourselv iivisions: North Americ; the world’s population in 2007, These countries are also part of “smaller” organizations that include the Association of Southeast China Asian Nations, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the North Raat _ American Free Trade Agreement, the Caribbean and Pacific — Group of States, and the Union of South American Nations, Even “isolationist” North Korea is Part of the Regional Forum, which discusses security issues in the region, At the beginning yuled the world, thi Kingdoms. When empire, some of the were weakened. This colonial rule, and oth of interests. Europear areas. After World W shift, this time with demanding that they their own future. Th Wilson called “the discussion on this it World War II destre their independence. In the same way the countries will find it difficult to reject all forms of global economic integration, it will also be hard for them to turn their backs on their regions. Even if the UK leaves the EU, it must continue to trade with its immediate neighbors and will, therefore, be forced to implement many EU rules. None of this isto say that regional organizations will remain unaltered. The history of regionalism shows that regional global concerns arise. The future of on the immense changes in global 21" century, I associations emerge as new regionalism will be contingent politics that will emerge in the @) Guide Questions Choose a regions the time before Euro world, then during th How is regionalism different from and yet apart of globalization? What is the difference between state-to-state regionalism and non-state regionalism? inds 3. What triggers various regionalist projects? List what kin principates, then pr inhabit there. Final]; born from the ashes ‘on the past era to ex} In the next meet of the other groups. |AWorld of Regions | 59 Learning Activity: From Kingdoms to of the Empires, to Colonies, and to Republics Asia. Organize yourselves based on these following broad regional ent o} ilivisions: irt of North America South America heas| China Japan jorth Korea South Asia cif Middle East Southeast Asia At the beginning of the 16th century, before the Europeans yuled the world, these regions had their own empires and Kingdoms. When the Spanish established the first global empire, some of these kingdoms and empires disappeared or were weakened. This process was continued under the British EU, colonial rule, and other powers began to carve their own spheres will, of interests. Europeans dominated and made colonies out of these is to areas. ee After World War I, however, there began a noticeable nea shift, this time with colonies challenging the colonial rule and ent demanding that they be allowed to become nations and determine the their own future. This pursuit was what US President Woodrow Wilson called “the principle of self-determination” (see the liscussion on this in the Lesson 3) reached a high point when World War II destroyed the empires, and the colonies achieved their independence. Choose a regional division and trace how it has changed from the time before European powers like Britain and Spain ruled the world, then during the era of colonialism, until its independence. List what kinds of changes happened to these areas (once principates, then provinces, then republics) and the people who inhabit there. Finally, see how the nations and republics that were born from the ashes of colonialism after World War IT looked back on the past era to explain their own histories. In the next meeting, compare your region's changes with those of the other groups. Pinpoint the similarities and differences.A World of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization This second unit focuses on how the globalization structures discussed in Unit 1 affect various forms of cultural life. “Culture” is used here in the broadest’ possible sense, referring to the daily practices of people. Thus, if the first unit focused on a “large” form of globalization, this unit will zero in on everyday globalizations in the realms of religion, culture, and city life. ‘The major learning outcome of this unit is to explain the role of global processes in everyday life.The Globalizatio of Religion @ Learning Outcomes ‘At the end of this lesson, you should be able ta 1. explain how globalization affects religious practices and beliefs 2. _ identify the various religious responses to globalization; and 3. discuss the future of religion in a globalized world. Religion, much more than culture, has the most difficult relationship with globalism (remember the distinction between “globalization” and “globalism” in Lesson 1). First, the two are entirely contrasting belief systems. Religion is concerned with the sacred, while globalism places value on material wealth, Religion follows divine commandments, while globalism abides by human-made laws. Religion assumes that there is “the possibility of communication between humans and the transcendent.” This link between the human and the divine confers some social power on the latter. Furthermore, “God,” “Allah,” or “Yahweh” defines and judges human action in moral terms (good vs. bad). Globalism’s yardstick, however, is how much of human action can lead to the highest material satisfaction and subsequent wisdom that this new status produces Religious people are less concerned with wealth and all that comes along with it (higher social status, a standard of living similar with that of the rest of the community, exposure to “culture,” top-of-the-line education for the children). They are ascetics precisely because they shun anything material for complete simplicity—from _ their domain to the clothes they wear, to the food they eat, and even to the manner in which they talk (lots of parables and allegories that are supposedly the language of the divine). \ religious person’s 1 such that when he/she world (Le. heaven). On the other han they will end up in he as they aim to seal enterprises, improve clites from being ex enrich themselves. If jlobalist sees his/her of the community, the another way, the reli trains to be a shrewd and the quest for p weakness; the global open up further the e Finally, religion religious evangelizat globalist ideal, on th of markets, The reli ally, while the gl ‘The “missions” t churches, Sufi and | like Buddhist monas churches are efforts adherents abroad. globalism (citizensh because they are e to a religious grou vffiliation that com supernatural. Being one in a higher plan or an Anglo-Saxon.The Globalization of Religion | 63 A religious person’s main duty is to live a virtuous, sin-less life such that when he/she dies, he/she is assured of a place in the other world (ie., heaven). On the other hand, globalists are less worried about whether they will end up in heaven or hell. Their skills are more pedestrian us they aim to seal trade deals, raise the profits of private enterprises, improve government revenue collections, protect the clites from being excessively taxed by the state, and, naturally, enrich themselves. If he/she has a strong social conscience, the jlobalist sees his/her work as contributing to the general progress of the community, the nation, and the global economic system. Put another way, the religious aspires to become a saint; the globalist trains to be a shrewd businessperson. The religious detests politics and the quest for power for they are evidence of humanity’s weakness; the globalist values them as both means and ends to open up further the economies of the world. Finally, religion and globalism clash over the fact that religious evangelization is in itself a form of globalization. The globalist ideal, on the other hand, is largely focused on the realm of markets, The religious is concerned with spreading holy ideas globally, while the globalist wishes to spread goods and services. ‘The “missions” being sent by American Born-Again Christian churches, Sufi and Shiite Muslim orders, as well as institutions like Buddhist monasteries and Catholic, Protestant, and Mormon churches are efforts at “spreading the word of God” and gaining adherents abroad. Religions regard identities associated with sslobalism (citizenship, language, and race) as inferior and narrow because they are earthly categories. In contrast, membership lo a religious group, organization, or cult represents a superior affiliation that connects humans directly to the divine and the supernatural, Being a Christian, a Muslim, or a Buddhist places one ina higher plane than just being a Filipino, a Spanish speaker, or an Anglo-Saxon.64 | AWorld of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization ‘A Mormon missionary These philosophical differences explain why certain groups “flee” their communities and create impenetrable sanctuaries where they can practice their religions without the meddling and control of state authorities, The followers of the Dalai Lama established Tibet for this Purpose, and certain Buddhist monasteries are located away from civilization so that hermits can devote themselves to Prayer and contemplation. These isolationist justifications are also used by the Rizalistas of Mount Banahaw, the Essenes during Roman-controlled Judea (now Israel), and for a certain period, the Mormons of Utah. These groups believe that living among “non-believers” will distract them from their mission or tempt them to abandon their faith and become sinners like everyone else. Communities justify their opposition to government authority on religious grounds. Priestesses and monks led the first revolts against colonialism in Asia and Africa, warning that these Outsiders were out to destroy their people's gods and ways of life. Similar arguments are being invoked by contemporary versions of these millenarian movements that wish to break away from the hold of the state or vow to overthrow the latter in the name of God. To their “prophets,” the state seeks to either destroy their people's sacred beliefs or distort religion to serve non-religious goals. Realities In actuality, th much more comp secularized, the In most of the w fervor, occurring traditions—Chris and even Confuc in many places i religions with ind Religions ar Malaysian govert system. Its consti of the Federatio “Head of the reli Ayatollah Ruhol Islamic rule ove “there is no fi despotic, dictate To Khomeini, a flawed—and Isl: because it was sf is associated wit!Realities In actuality, the relationship between religion and globalism is more complicated. Peter Berger argues that far from being ilarized, the “contemporary world is...furious! ious. nost of the world, there are veritable explosions of religious rvor, occurring in one form of another in all the major religious raditions—Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism nd nd even Confucianism (if one wants to call it a religion)— in many places in imaginative syntheses of one or more world religions with indigenous faiths.” Religions are the foundations of modern republics. The Malaysian government places religion at the center of the political gystem, Its constitution explicitly states that “Islam is the religion of the Federation,” and the rulers of each state was also the Head of the religion of Islam.”* The late Iranian religious leader, Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini, bragged about the superiority of Islamic rule over its secular counterparts and pointed out that there is no fundamental distinction among constitutional, despotic, dictatorial, democratic, and communistic regimes.”* To Khomeini, all secular ideologies were the same—they were flawed—and Islamic rule was the superior form of government because it was spiritual. Yet, Iran calls itself a republic, a term that is associated with the secular66 | AWorld of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization Moreover, religious movements do not hesitate to appropriate secular themes and practices. The moderate Muslim association: Nahdlatul Ulama in Indonesia has Islamic schools (pesantren) where students are taught not only about Islam but also about modern science, the social sciences, modern banking, civie education, rights of women, pluralism, and democracy.” In other cases, religion was the result of a shift in state policy. The Church of England, for example, was “shaped by the rationality of modern democratic (and bureaucratic) culture.”** King Henry VIII broke away from Roman Catholicism and established his own Church: to bolster his own power. In the United States, religion and law were fused together to help build this “modern secular society.” It was observed in the early 1800s by French historian and diplomat Alexis de Tocqueville who wrote, “not only do the Americans practice their religion out of self-interest but they often even place in this world the interest which they have in practicing it.”® Jose Casanova confirms this statement by noting that “historically, religion has always been at the very center of all great political conflicts and movements of social reform. From independence to abolition, from nativism to women’s suffrage, from prohibition to the civil rights movement, religion had always been at the center of these conflicts, but also on both sides of the political barricades.” It remains the case until today with the power the Christian Right has on the Republican Party. Religion for and against Globalization There is hardly a religious movement today that does not use religion to oppose “profane” globalization. Yet, two of the so-called “old world religions”—Christianity and Islam—see globalization less as an obstacle and more as an opportunity to expand their reach all over the world. Globalization has “freed” communities from the “constraints of the nation-state,” but in the process, also threatened to destroy the cultural system that bind them together.” Religion seeks to take the place of these broken “traditional ties” to either help communities cope with their new situation or organize th their lives. It can pro’ problems ranging fron personal happiness.”* that stops or slows do that gives communitie {yan instrument with in the reshaping of th term Religious fundar materialism, but it co means of communica with this economic t distance transport and as a global vernacula modern management of “almost promiscuot globe in all sorts of dit to assume that the pro case of Islam, the rise known as ISIS, or Isla defense against the n the opposite. These fu the spread of globaliz advantage of each othe While religions globalization, this do \deology will subside Trojan horse hiding s liberalism, or even c their areas to eventu Churches—an associ: has criticized econon that “we as churches of the project of e latter's advocates inChurch nodern I broke Church rically, olitical ence to tion to nter of des.” 1 Right es not of the 1—see ity to freed” in the t bind roken r new The Globalization of Religion | 67 situation or organize them to oppose this major transformation of their lives.® It can provide the groups “moral codes” that answer problems ranging from people’s health to social conflict to even “personal happiness." Religion is thus not the “regressive force” that stops or slows down globalization; it is a “pro-active force” that gives communities a new and powerful basis of identity. It jy an instrument with which religious people can put their mark in the reshaping of this globalizing world, although in its own terms. Religious fundamentalism may dislike _globalization’s inaterialism, but it continues to use “the full range of modern means of communication and organization” that is associated. with this economic transformation.® It has tapped “fast long- distance transport and communications, the availability of English 4s a global vernacular of unparalleled power, the know-how of modern management and marketing” which enabled the spread of “almost promiscuous propagation of religious forms across the lobe in all sorts of directions.” It is, therefore, not entirely correct to assume that the proliferation of “Born-Again” groups, or in the case of Islam, the rise of movements like Daesh (more popularly known as ISIS, or Islamic State in Iraq and Syria) signals religion's defense against the materialism of globalization.” It is, in fact, the opposite. These fundamentalist organizations are the result of the spread of globalization and both find ways to benefit or take advantage of each other. While religions may benefit from the processes of jlobalization, this does not mean that its tensions with globalist ideology will subside. Some Muslims view “globalization” as a [vojan horse hiding supporters of Western values like secularism, liberalism, or even communism ready to spread these ideas in their areas to eventually displace Islam. The World Council of Churches—an association of different Protestant congregations— has criticized economic globalization’s negative effects. It vowed that “we as churches make ourselves accountable to the victims of the project of economic globalization,” by becoming the latter’s advocates inside and outside “the centers of power.””68 | A World of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization The Catholic Church and its dynamic leader, Pope Francis, likewise condemned globalization’s “throw-away culture” that is “fatally destined to suffocate hope and increase risks and threats.” The Lutheran World Federation 10th Assembly's 292-page declaration message included economic and feminist critiques of globalization, sharing the voices of members of the Church who were affected by globalization, and contemplations on the different “pastoral and ethical reflections” that members could use to guide their opposition.” It warns that as a result of globalization: “Our world is split asunder by forces we often do not understand, but that result in stark contrasts between those who benefit and those who are harmed, especially under forces of globalization, ‘Today, there is also a desperate need for healing from ‘terrorism,’ its causes, and fearful reactions to it, Relationships in this world continue to be ruptured due to greed, injustices, and various forms of violence.” These advocacies to reverse or mitigate economic globalization eventually gained the attention of globalist institutions. In 1998, the World Bank brought in religious leaders in its discussions about global poverty, leading eventually to a “cautious, muted, and qualified” collaboration in 2000.” Although it only yielded insignificant results (the World Bank agreed to support some faith-based anti-poverty projects in Kenya and Ethiopia), it was evident enough that institutional advocates of globalization could be responsive to the “liberationist, moral critiques of economic globalization” (including many writings on “social justice”) coming from the religious.”* With the exception of militant Islam, religious forces are well aware that they are in no position to fight for a comprehensive alternative to the globalizing status quo. What Catholics call “the preferential option for the poor” is a powerful message of mobilization but lacks substance when it comes to working out a replacement system that can change the poor’s condition in concrete ways.”> And, of course, the traditionalism of fundamentalist political Islam is no alternative either, The terrorism of ISIS is unlikely to create a “Caliphate” governed by justice and stabilit religious autocracy democratic rituals Conclusion For a phenon globalization is s Peter Bayer and is somehow ‘out potential.”” One globalization wit! that is based on reason, one will | for fruitful think Religion, being proven is, there that modernizat secularization th Historians, debunked mucl one of the strong The Clash of Ci by religious wo as the 15th cen “ideological arn one of the gre observed the economic syste that God had al Calvinists, the to their fate, ar profit and its Weber referred modern capitalrat nd y's ist he sstice and stability. In Iran, the unchallenged superiority of a sous autocracy has stifled all freedom of expressions, distorted Jemocratic rituals like elections, and tainted the opposition: iclusion For a phenomenon that “is about everything,’ It is odd that lobalization is seen to have very little to do with religion. As Religion, it seems Peter Bayer and Lori Beaman obser ‘« somehow ‘outside’ looking at globalization as problem ot otential.””” One reason for this perspective is the association of obalization with modernization which is a concept of progress at is based on science, technol reason, and the law. With ‘son, one will have “to look elsewhere than to moral discourse globalization and religion.”* that cannot be empirically ) modernization.” The thesis for fruitful thinking about economic Religion, being a belief system proven is, therefore, anathema t that modernization will erode religious practice is often called secularization theory. and philosophers have now debunked much of secularization theory. Samuel Huntington, alization, admits in his book, Historians, political scientists ne of the strongest defenders of glob: he Clash of Civilizations, that civilizations can be held together by religious worldviews.®” This belief is hardly new. As far back is the 15th century, Jesuits and Dominicans used religion as an “{deological armature” to legitimize the Spanish empire. Finally one of the greatest sociologists of all time, Max Weber also bserved the correlation between religion branch of Protestantism, believed and capitalism as an economic system. Calvinism, @ that God had already decided who would and would not be saved. Calvinists, therefore, made it their mission to search for clues as to their fate, and in their pursuit, they inner-worldly asceticism” —as redefined the meaning of profit and its acquisition. This Weber referred to this Protestant ethic—contributed to the rise of modern capitalism.”70 | AWorld of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization It was because of “moral” arguments that religious people were able to justify their political involvement. When the Spaniards occupied lands in the Americas and the Philippines, it was done in the name of the Spanish King and of God, “for empire comes from God alone.”*? Then over 300 years later, American President William McKinley claimed “that after a night of prayer () Guide Que 1, What are the co ideology of glo! 2. Whyis seculariz d de and soul-searching, he had concluded that it was the duty of the . ae ao United States ‘to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and eee Christianize them, and by God’s grace do the very best we could by them.” Finally, as explained earlier, religious leaders have used religion to wield influence in the political arena, either as outsiders 9% Learning criticizing the pitfalls of pro-globalization regimes, o as integral Qe what Re members of coalitions who play key roles in policy decision- makings and the implementation of: government projects, Divide yoursely one religion (Budd Protestantism, Hin research the histor In short, despite their inflexible features—the warnings of perdition (“Hell is a real place prepared by Allah for those who do not believe in Him, rebel against His laws, and reject His messengers”), the promises of salvation (“But our citizenship is in foll p Heaven”), and their obligatory pilgrimages (the visits to Bethlehem ae ; or Mecca)—religions are actually quite malleable. Their resilience a. the religion’ has been extraordinary that they have outlasted secular ideologies b. the religion’s (e.g, communism). Globalists, therefore, have no choice but to c. the steps nee accept this reality that religion is here to stay, himself/hers¢ Afterwards, cc relationship with | politics? Why did i Discuss the re determine the sim: Finally, compare thThe Globalization of Religion | 71 () Guide Questions | as | fe 1 Whatare the conflicting ideas between religious thought and the a ideology of globalism discussed in Lesson 1? er 2. Why’s secularization theory outdateu? | he 3, How do you describe the reactions of some religious movements to | id globalization? How do others facilitate globalization? t ld er eR ed rs : A ay Learning Act i @* What Religion are You in? of Divide yourselves into groups. E: ch group must be assigned i one religion (Buddhism, Christianity-Catholicism, Christianity- a Protestantism, Hinduism, Judaism, Islam, etc.). Surf the web and a research the history of the assigned religion. Then describe the i following e a. the religion’s concept of good b. the religion’s concept of evil c. the steps needed by a person to become good and prevent himself/herself from becoming evil Afterwards, conduct a research on your assigned religion's relationship with politics, if any. In what ways is it engaged in politics? Why did its leaders decide to be involved in politics? Discuss the result of your research with the other groups to determine the similarities and differences between these religions. Finally, compare the religions’ relationship with politics.Media and Globalization © Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. analyze how various media drive different forms of global integration; 2. compare the social impacts of different media on the processes of globalization; 3. explain the dynamic between local and global cultural production; and define responsible media consumption. MAR cele wot barsiee ohio vena ot Globalization entails the spread of various cultures. When a film is made in Hollywood, it is shown not only in the United States, but also in other cities across the globe. South Korean rapper Psy’s song “Gangnam Style” may have been about a wealthy suburb in Seoul, but its listeners included millions who have never been or may never go to Gangnam. Some of them may not even know what Gangnam is. Globalization also involves the spread of ideas. For example, the notion of the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities is spreading across the world and becoming more widely accepted. Similarly, the conservative Christian Church that opposes these rights moves from places like South America to Korea and to Burundi in Africa. Korean rapper Psy People who tra beliefs in universitie as guests of a family ideas. But today, tel movies, magazines, to reach larger audi conduit for the spr then right to ask, “( of information on r empires have stret« throughout their | fiction, cuisine, a1 intermingling of m There is an and media which contemporary worl Media and It Lule describes such as a channelon “d in y er n d 1B Ys 2s, Media and Globalization | 73 Korean rapper Psy, was catapulted to ferme by his song “Gangnam Style” People who travel the globe teaching and preaching their beliefs in universities, churches, public forums, classrooms, or even as guests of a family play a major role in the spread of culture and ideas. But today, television programs, social media groups, books, movies, magazines, and the like have made it easier for advocates to reach larger audiences. Globalization relies on media as its main conduit for the spread of global culture and ideas. Jack Lule was then right to ask, “Could global trade have evolved without a flow of information on markets, prices, commodities, and more? Could empires have stretched across the world without communication throughout their borders? Could religion, music, poetry, film, fiction, cuisine, and fashion develop as they have without the intermingling of media and cultures?” There is an intimate relationship between globalization and media which must be unraveled to further understand the contemporary world. Media and Its Functions Lule describes media as “a means of conveying something, such as a channel of communication.”* ‘Technically speaking, a4 | A World of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization person's voice is a medium. However, when commentators refer to “media” (the plural of medium), they mean the technologies of mass communication. Print media include books, magazines, and newspapers. Broadcast media involve radio, film, and television. Finally, digital media cover the internet and mobile mass communication. Within the category of internet media, there are the e-mail, internet sites, social media, and internet-based video and audio. While it is relatively easy to define the term “media,” it is more difficult to determine what media do and how they affect societies, Media theorist Marshall McLuhan once declared that “the medium is the message.” He did not mean that ideas (“messages”) are useless and do not affect people. Rather, his statement was an attempt to draw attention to how media, as a form of technology, reshape societies. Thus, television is not a simple bearer of messages, it also shapes the social behavior of users and reorient family behavior. Since it was introduced in the 1960s, television has steered people from the dining table where they eat and tell stories to each other, to the living room where they silently munch on their food while watching primetime shows. Television has also drawn people away from other meaningful activities such as playing games or reading books. Today, the smart phone allows users to keep in touch instantly with multiple people at the same time. Consider the effect of the internet on relationships. Prior to the cellphone, there was no way for couples to keep constantly in touch, or to be updated on what the other does all the time. The technology (medium), and not the message, makes for this social change possible. McLuhan added that different media simultaneously extend and amputate human senses. New media may expand the reach of communication, but they also dull the users’ communicative capacities. Think about the medium of writing. Before people wrote things down on parchment, exchanging stories was mainly done orally. To be able pass stories verbally from one person to another, storytellers had to have retentive memories. However, Papyrus started becoming more common in Egypt after the fourth century BCE, whic write down their ste rely completely on {o some philosophe remember. Something sim one hand, they the capability to simultaneously. O: because they mak multitasking. This change with a trade The question amputate was not New media are n writer was merel technologically spé The Global V McLuhan us¢ impact of electrc 1960s, he mainly television. McLuh into a “global vill people sat down the same stories, tribal villages onc the members of t boxes in their livi In the years with the challen; thinkers assume culture. They ar;entators refer chnologies of igazines, and id television. nobile mass lia, there are -based video a,” it is more ect societies. d that “the (“messages”) ment was an ‘technology, e bearer of and reorient s, television eat and tell ently munch levision has ities such as hone allows at the same ips. Prior to onstantly in e time. The r this social usly extend d the reach municative fore people was mainly > person to . However, ‘the fourth Media and Globalization | 75 century BCE, which increasingly meant that more people could write down their stories. Asa result, storytellers no longer had to \ely completely on their memories. This development, according to some philosophers at the time, dulled the people’s capacity to remember. Something similar can be said about cellphones. On the one hand, they expand people's senses because they provide the capability to talk to more people instantaneously and simultaneously. On the other hand, they also limit the senses because they make users easily distractible and more prone to multitasking. This is not necessarily a bad thing; it is merely change with a trade-off. The question of what new media enhance and what they amputate was not a moral or ethical one, according to McLuhan. New media are neither inherently good nor bad. The famous writer was merely drawing attention to the historically and technologically specific attributes of various media. The Global Village and Cultural Imperialism McLuhan used his analysis of technology to examine the impact of electronic media. Since he was writing around the 1960s, he mainly analyzed the social changes brought about by television. McLuhan declared that television was turning the world 1 village.” By this, he meant that, as more and more cont of their television sets and listened to perception of the world would contract. If collective stories, in front of bright into a “globa people sat down in fr the same stories, their tribal villages once sat in front of fires to listen to the members of the new global village would si boxes in their living rooms. In the years after McLuhan, media scholars further grappled with the challenges of a global media culture. A lot of these early thinkers assumed that global media had a tendency to homogenize culture. They argued that as global media spread, people from all_ | AWorld of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization Critiques of Cultu 'f cultural globalization merely entails the spread of a Western monoculture, what explains the prevalence of regional cultural trends? For example, the regionalization of culture was a boon to Filipino telenovelas. From 2000 to 2002, ABS-CBN aired Pangako sa ‘Yo starring Jericho Rosales and Kristine Hermosa. The show soon | became a hit in Singapore and Malaysia, and its two stars became household names. In 2013, Cambodian TV even purchased the rights to produce its own version of the show. Until now, Filipino: telenovelas like Be Careful with My Heart find audiences across joeihiges Asia, Proponents of the i {act that media messag aye also consumed by jyegan to pay attention t nd interpreted media emphasizes that media jneaning-making proc studies, a “text” simp! through their own cul critic Ien Ang studied Netherlands experien Dallas. Through letter: analysis of audience~ receiving American « she noted that viewer process and they expe resonated with them.” In 1990, Elihu Ka analysis further by ex communities interpr received differently t they derived different Thus, people from d ways of understandit show’s content, belie America, but that it viewers believed thi primarily about the li over the world would begin to watch, listen to, and read the same things. This thinking arose at a time when America’s power had turned it into the world’s cultural heavyweight. Commentators, therefore, believed that media globalization coupled with American hegemony would create a form of cultural imperialism whereby American values and culture would overwhelm all others. In 1976, media critic Herbert Schiller argued that not only was the world being Americanized, but that this process also led to the spread of “American” capitalist values like consumerism.” Similarly, for John Tomlinson, cultural globalization is simply a euphemism for “Western cultural imperialism” since it promotes “homogenized, Westernized, consumer culture.” These scholars who decry cultural imperialism, however, have a top-down view of the media, since they are more concerned with the broad structures that determine media content. Moreover, their focus on America has led them to neglect other global flows of information that the media can enable. This media/cultural imperialism theory has, therefore, been subject to significant Apart from the critique. imperialism thesis | regional trends in t example, has prolife media. Japanese bra to Pokémon—are n¢ ‘The same can beMedia and Globalization | 7 Critiques of Cultural Imperialism Proponents of the idea of cultural imperialism ignored the juct that media messages are not just made by producers, they ire also consumed by audiences. In the 1980s, media scholars festern cultural, oon to jako sa jyegan to pay attention to the ways in which audiences understood v soon nud interpreted media messages. The field of audience studies emphasizes that media consumers are active participants in the jneaning-making process, who view media “texts” (in media studies, a “text” simply refers to the content of any medium) through their own cultural lenses. In 1985, Indonesian cultural critic Ien Ang studied the ways in which different viewers in the Netherlands experienced watching the American soap opers Dallas. Through letters from 42 viewers, she presented a detailed analysis of audience-viewing experiences. Rather than simply came ed the ilipino across, e same er had itators, receiving American culture in a “passive and resigned way,” | with she noted that viewers put “a lot ‘of emotional energy” into the rialism process and they experienced pleasure based on how the program Im all resonated with them.” ot only In 1990, Elihu Katz and Tamar Liebes decided to push Ang’s Iso led analysis further by examining how viewers from distinct cultural rism.”” communities interpreted Dallas. They argued that texts are nply a received differently by varied interpretive communities because they derived different meanings and pleasures from these texts. Thus, people from diverse cultural backgrounds had their own ways of understanding the show. Russians were suspicious of the motes rs have d with show’s content, believing not only that it was primarily about eover, ‘America, but that it contained American propaganda. American flows viewers believed that the show, though set in America, was Itural primarily about the lives of the rich. ficant Apart from the challenge of audience studies, the cultural imperialism thesis has been belied by the renewed strength of regional trends in the globalization process. Asian culture, for example, has proliferated worldwide through the globalization of media. Japanese brands—from Hello Kitty to the Mario Brothers to Pokémon—are now an indelible part of global popular culture. The same can be said for Korean pop (K-pop) and Koreanom | “WONG Of Idea Cultures of Globalization telenovelas, which are widely successful re The observation even applies to culinary ta: case of globalized Asian cuisine is sushi, Bionally and globally, stes. The most obvious hued to spread across Asia, it is also the case that Asian brands have Provided stiff competition, The Philippines’ Jollibee claims to be the number one choice for fast food in Brunei, Hello Kitty remains proof of Japan’s continued influence over global culture. Given these patterns, it is no longer tenable to insist that globalization is a unidirectional Process of foreign cultures overwhelming local ones. Globalization, as noted in Lesson 1 will remain an uneven process, and it will produce inequalities, Nevertheless, it leaves room for Social Media and the Creation of Cyber Ghettoes By now, very few media scholars argue that the world is becoming culturally homogenous, Apart from the nature of Any juojative have de womart have en: simulta evident Spring activist Libya v Their e the “we Trump natione T Hi 2000s “splint to the online read | read the jo medis share reselrMedia and Globalization | 79 globally, Ay with all new media, social media have both beneficial and t obvious, _ joyplive effects. On the one hand, these forms of communication it is true aye democratized access. Anyone with an internet connection or it is also 4 smart phone can use Facebook and Twitter for free. These media ion. The | have enabled users to be consumers and producers of information » for fast sjnnultaneously. The democratic potential of social media was most evident in 2011 during the wave of uprisings known as the Arab Spring. Without access to traditional broadcast media like TV, activists opposing authoritarian regimes in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya used Twitter to organize and to disseminate information. heir efforts toppled their respective governments. More recently, the “women’s march” against newly installed US President Donald frump began with a tweet from a Hawaii lawyer and became @ national, even global, movement. . st that tures son 1, alities. lange, 0 the The massive protests of the Arab Spring were largely enabled by social media However, social media also have their dark side. In the early 2000s, commentators began referring to the emergence of a Id is “splinternet” and the phenomenon of “cyberbalkanization” to refer oF to the various bubbles people place themselves in when they are , the online. In the United States, voters of the Democratic Party largely n of read liberal websites, and voters of the Republican Party largely tern read conservative websites. This segmentation, notes an article in led the journal Science, has been exacerbated by the nature of social net, media feeds, which leads users to read articles, memes, and videos out shared by like-minded friends.” As such, being on Facebook can resemble living in an echo chamber, which reinforces one’s existing80 | AWorld of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization beliefs and opinions. This echo chamber precludes users from listening to or reading opinions and information that challenge their viewpoints, thus, making them more partisan and closed- minded. This segmentation has been used by people in power who are aware that the social media bubbles can produce a herd mentality. It can be exploited by politicians with less than democratic intentions and demagogues wanting to whip up popular anger. The same inexpensiveness that allows social media to be a democratic force likewise makes it a cheap tool of government propaganda. Russian dictator Vladimir Putin has hired armies of social media “trolls” (paid users who harass political opponents) to manipulate public opinion through intimidation and the spreading of fake news.” Most recently, American intelligence agencies established that Putin used trolls and online misinformation to help Donald Trump win the presidency—a tactic the Russian autocrat is likely to repeat in European elections he seeks to influence.” In places across the world, Putin imitators replicate his strategy of online trolling and disinformation to clamp down on dissent and delegitimize critical media. Critics of the increasingly dictatorial regime of Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan are threatened by online mobs of pro-government trolls, who hack accounts and threaten violence. Some of their responses have included threats of sexual violence against women.”* As the preceding cases show, fake information can spread easily on social media since they have few content filters, Unlike newspapers, Facebook does not have a team of editors who are trained to sift through and filter information. If a news article, even a fake one, gets a lot of shares, it will reach many people with Facebook accounts. This dark side of social media shows that even a seemingly open and democratic media may be co-opted towards undemocratic means. Global online propaganda will be the biggest threat to face as the globalization of media deepens. Internet media have made the world so interconnected that a Russian dictator can, for example, influence American elections on the cheap. As consumer: how to distinguis! that allows politi advisers now call critical of mainst also operate basec sources are more written by a pro editors is still 1 produced by som their biases. Peop Conclusion This lesson : on globalization television was cr likely that social of people who d prepared for the Every technolog consequences. € time turning bi try to keep out | will continue t these changes o collectively disc ethically.rs from allenge closed- vho are tality. ocratic er. The ocratic ganda. | media ipulate of fake blished Jonald s likely te his wn on singly an are > hack s have spread Jnlike ho are rticle, e with aingly wards iggest media can, Media and Globalization | 81 As consumers of media, users must remain vigilant and learn how to distinguish fact from falsehood in a global media landscape that allows politicians to peddle what President Trump’s senior advisers now call “alternative facts.” Though people must remain critical of mainstream media and traditional journalism that may also operate based on vested interest, we must also insist that some sources are more credible than others. A newspaper story that is written by a professional journalist and vetted by professional editors is still likely to be more credible than a viral video produced by someone in his/her bedroom, even if both will have their biases. People must be able to tell the difference. Conclusion This lesson showed that different media have diverse effects on globalization processes. At one point, it seemed that global television was creating a global monoculture. Now, it seems more likely that social media will splinter cultures and ideas into bubbles of people who do not interact. Societies can never be completely prepared for the rapid changes in the systems of communication. Every technological change, after all, creates multiple unintended consequences. Consumers and users of media will have a hard time turning back the clock. Though people may individually try to keep out of Facebook or Twitter, for example, these media will continue to engender social changes. Instead of fearing these changes or entering a state of moral panic, everyone must collectively discover ways of dealing with them responsibly and ethically.32. | A World of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization ®) e 2) Guide Questions Compare and contrast the social impacts of television and social media, Do you think globalization leads to cultural imperialism? What strategies can you use to distinguish between fake and factual information on the internet? Learning Activity: Asian Music and Globalization Form groups of three to five members. Pick an Asian musical artist or group that became internationally famous (Psy, Utada Hikaru, F4, etc). In your group report, answer the following questions: i. = a 4, Where did the musical artist originate? In which countries did the artist become famous? How did the artist become famous? Why do you think the artist became famous? @) Learning ¢ At the end of this le 1. explain why gh 2. identify the att 3. analyze how ci If you had the « How about Sydne to these major citi¢ them anyway. Som cities as tourists or stories about them described buzzing train lines that zigs an idea of what the in movies or TV. D New York was des' (Iron Man, Thor, C Not all people them, Their influe these places? Why to you?© Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: why globalization is a spatial pheno! y the attributes of a global city; and 3. analyze how cities serve as engines of globalization. If you had the chance, would you move to New York? Tokyo? How about Sydney? Chances are many of you would like to move to these major cities. And if not, you would probably like to visit them anyway. Some of you might have already traveled to these cities as tourists or temporary residents. Or maybe you have heard stories about them. You may have relatives living there who have described buzzing metropolises, with forests of skyscrapers and train lines that zigzag on top of each other. You may likewise have an idea of what these cities look like based on what you have seen in movies or TV. Do you remember when downtown Manhattan in New York was destroyed in a confrontation between the Avengers (Iron Man, Thor, Captain America, the Hulk, etc.) and aliens? Not all people have been to global cities, but most know about them, Their influence extends even to one’s imagination. What are these places? Why are they important? And how are they relevant to you?84 | A World of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization Why Study Global Cities? So far, much of the analysis of globalization in the previous lessons has looked at how ideas of internationalism shaped modern world politics. We also examined cultural movements like K-pop, and how they spread through media like the internet. What this lesson will emphasize, however, is that globalization is spatial. This statement means two things. First, globalization is spatial because it occurs in physical spaces. You can see it when foreign investments and capital move through a city, and when companies build skyscrapers, People who are working in these businesses—or Filipinos working abroad— start to purchase or rent high-rise condominium units and better homes. As all these events happen, more Poor people are driven out of city centers to make way for the new developments. Second, globalization is spatial because what makes it move is the fact that it is based in places. Los Angeles, the home of Hollywood, is where movies are made for global consumption. The main headquarters of Sony is in Tokyo, and from there, the company coordinates the sale of its various electronics goods to branches across the world. In other words, cities act on globalization and globalization acts on cities. They are the sites as well as the mediums of globalization. Just as the internet enables and shapes global forces, so too do cities. In the years to come, more and more people will experience globalization through cities. In 1950, only 30 percent of the world lived in urban areas. By 2014, that number increased to 54 percent. And by 2050, it is expected to reach 66 percent. This lesson studies globalization through the living environment of a rapidly increasing number of people. Defining the ( Sociologist Sasl in the 1990s. Her « primarily economi global cities: New hubs of global fina instance, of the wo and sell shares in York Stock Exchar Stock Exchange (F’ money traded in th traded in the NYS! the shares in the Ph he New York Stock Exch Limiting the metropolises, how global economy | her book, and any must take note of have expanded th constitutes a glob: movie-making m cultural influenceThe Global City | 85 Defining the Global City Sociologist Saskia Sassen popularized the term “global city” in the 1990s. Her criteria for what constitutes a global city were primarily economic. In her work, she initially identified three global cities: New York, London, and Tokyo, all of which are hubs of global finance and capitalism.” They are the homes, for instance, of the world’s top stock exchanges where investors buy and sell shares in major corporations. New York has the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), London has the Financial Times Stock Exchange (FTSE), and Tokyo has the Nikkei, The amount of money traded in these markets is staggering. The value of shares traded in the NYSE, for example, is $19,300 billion, while that of the shares in the Philippine Stock Exchange is only $231.3 billion. he New York Stock Exchange represents the highest concentration of capital in the world. Limiting the discussion of global cities to these three metropolises, however, is proving more and more restrictive. The global economy has changed significantly since Sassen wrote her book, and any account of the economic power of cities today must take note of the latest developments. Recent commentators have expanded the criteria that Sassen used to determine what constitutes a global city. Though it is not as wealthy as New York, movie-making mecca Los Angeles can now rival the Big Apple’s cultural influence. San Francisco must now factor in as another86 | A World of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization global city because it is the home of the most powerful internet companies—Facebook, Twitter, and Google. Finally, the growth of the Chinese economy has turned cities like Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou into centers of trade and finance. The Chinese government reopened the Shanghai Stock Exchange in late 1990, and since then, it has grown to become the fifth largest stock market in the world. Others consider some cities “global” simply because they are great places to live in. In Australia, Sydney commands the greatest Proportion of capital. However, Melbourne is described as Sydney's rival “global city” because many magazines and lists have now referred to it as the world’s “most livable city”—a place with good public transportation, a thriving cultural scene, and a relatively easy pace of life. Defining a global city can thus be difficult. One way of solving this dilemma is to go beyond the simple dichotomy of global and non-global. Instead of asking whether or not one city is a global city (a yes or no question), it is better to ask: In what ways are cities global and to what extent are they global? Indicators for Globality So what are the multiple attributes of the global city? The foremost characteristic is economic power. Sassen remains correct in saying that economic power largely determines which cities are global. New York may have the largest stock market in the world but Tokyo houses the most number of corporate headquarters (613 company headquarters as against 217 in New York, its closest competitor). Shanghai may have a smaller stock market compared to New York and Tokyo, but plays a critical role in the global economic supply chain ever since China has become the manufacturing center of the world. Shanghai has the world’s busiest container port, moving over 33 million container units in 2013.” Economic opps talents from across IT programmers at Francisco Bay Aree Valley’s technology for many Filipinos To measure tl Economist Intellig size, purchasing pi potential for grow is considered Asia market, efficient a1 also houses the regi Global cities a may not be as weal state power. Peopl the White House, Court, the Lincolt Similarly, compat is a sleepy town as Australia’s pol: politicians, bureau The cities tha also be considered of the United Nat Union is in Bru Philippines is Jak but also the locati of Southeast Asi exert influence or affairs. The Euroy European Union’ made in that city. entire continent aret wth ing, nese 090, ock are test ey’s Low sod rely ing ind bal ties The Global City | Economic opportunities in a global city make it attractive to talents from across the world. Since the 1970s, many of the top IT programmers and engineers from Asia have moved to the San Francisco Bay Area to become some of the key figures in Silicon Valley’s technology boom. London remains a preferred destination for many Filipinos with nursing degrees. To measure the economic competitiveness of a city, The Economist Intelligence Unit has added other criteria like market size, purchasing power of citizens, size of the middle class, and potential for growth.” Based on these criteria, “tiny” Singapore is considered Asia’s most competitive city because of its strong market, efficient and incorruptible government, and livability.” It also houses the regional offices of many major global corporations. Global cities are also centers of authority. Washington D.C. may not be as wealthy as New York, but it is the seat of American state power. People around the world know its major landmarks: the White House, the Capitol Building (Congress), the Supreme Court, the Lincoln Memorial, and the Washington Monument. Similarly, compared with Sydney and Melbourne, Canberra is a sleepy town and thus is not as attractive to tourists. But as Australia’s political capital, it is home to the country’s top politicians, bureaucrats, and policy advisors. The cities that house major international organizations may also be considered centers of political influence. The headquarters of the United Nations is in New York, and that of the European Union is in Brussels. An influential political city near the Philippines is Jakarta, which is not just the capital of Indonesia, but also the location of the main headquarters of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Powerful political hubs exert influence on their own countries as well as on international affairs. The European Central Bank, which oversees the Euro (the European Union’s currency), is based in Frankfurt. A decision made in that city can, therefore, affect the political economy of an entire continent and beyond. 8788 | A World of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization Finally, global cities are centers of higher learning and culture, A city’s intellectual influence is seen through the influence of its publishing industry. Many of the books that people read are published in places like New York, London, or Paris. The New York Times carries the name of New York City, but it is far from being a local newspaper. People read it not just across America, but also all over the world. One of the reasons for the many tourists visiting Boston is because they want to see Harvard University—the world’s top university. Many Asian teenagers are moving to cities in Australia because of the leading English-language universities there. Education is currently Australia’s third largest export, just behind coal and iron ore, and significantly ahead of tourism. In 2015, the Australian government reported that it made as much as 19.2 billion Australian dollars (roughly 14 billion US dollars) from education alone.' We have already explained why Los Angeles, the center of the American film industry, may be considered a global city. A less obvious example, however, is Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark. It is so small that one can tour the entire city by bicycle in thirty minutes, It is not the home of a major stock market, and its population is rather homogenous However, Copenhagen is now considered one of the culinary capitals of the world, with its top restaurants incommensurate with its size. As the birthplace of “New Nordic” cuisine, Copenhagen has set into motion various culinary trends like foraging the forests for local ingredients. Similarly, Manchester, England in the 1980s was a dreary, industrial city. But many prominent post-punk and New Wave bands—Joy Division, the Smiths, the Happy Mondays—hailed from this city, making it a global household name. In Southeast Asia, Singapore (again) is slowly becoming a cultural hub for the region. It now houses some of the region’s top televisioa stations and news organizations (MTV Southeast Asia and Channel News Asia). Its various art galleries and cinemas also show paintings from artists and filmmakers, respectively, from the Philippines and Thailand. It is, in fact, sometimes easier to watch the movie of a Filipino indie filmmaker in Singapore than it is in Manila! Singapore, with its gleami It is the cultura imagination, Think about New York (Ja Frank Sinatra’s “Ne’ Simon and Garfunk of a place where an dreams are made of, Today, global cit one can try cuisines their large Turkish offer some of the be: Manila is not very g (despite the massive it has a foreign popu The Challenge Global cities exciting, cosmop are lacking. Gl They can be site as tremendous \ globalization, gleSingapore, with its gleaming buildings, i often viewed as a symbol of Asian modernity It is the cultural power of global cities that ties them to the imagination, Think about how many songs have been written about New York (Jay Z and Alicia Keys’s “Empire State of Mind,” Prank Sinatra’s “New York, New York,” and numerous songs by simon and Garfunkel) and how these references conjure up images of a place where anything is possible—“a concrete jungle where dreams are made of,” according to Alicia Keys. ‘Today, global cities become culturally diverse. In a global city, one can try cuisines from different parts of the world. Because of their large Turkish populations, for example, Berlin and Tokyo offer some of the best Turkish food one can find outside of Turkey. Manila is not very global because of the dearth of foreign residents (despite the massive domestic migration), but Singapore is, because it has a foreign population of 38%." The Challenges of Global Cities Global cities conjure up images of _fast-paced, exciting, cosmopolitan lifestyles. But such descriptions are lacking, Global cities also have their undersides They can be sites of great inequality and poverty as well violence. Like the broader processes of as tremendous winners and __ losers. globalization, global cities create0 | AWorld of Ideas: Cultures of Globalization In this section, we list some “pathologies” of the global city, based The major terror on the research of the Chicago Council on Global Affairs.” cities. Cities, especial ists Cities can be sustainable because of their density. As Richard target fog teripeate as symbols of global Florida notes: “Ecologists have found that by concentrating their populations in smaller areas, cities and metros decrease human encroachment on natural habitats. Denser settlement patterns yield energy savings; apartment buildings, for example, are more efficient to heat and cool than detached suburban houses.” Moreover, in cities with extensive public transportation systems, people tend to drive less and thereby cut carbon emissions. It is no surprise to learn that, largely because of the city’s extensive train system, New Yorkers have the lowest per capita carbon footprint in the United States." In Asia, dense global cities like Singapore and Tokyo also have relatively low per capita carbon footprints. attributes that make t them sites of potenti this perspective will that brought down tl New York, and the N zealots of the Islamic real estate magnate I States, security expe that carry his name ‘Trump Towers, for ex Not all cities, however, are as dense as New York or Tokyo. i lobal Cit Some cities like Los Angeles are urban sprawls, with massive The Global Cit freeways that force residents to spend money on cars and gas. And while cities like Manila, Bangkok, and Mumbai are dense, their lack of public transportation and their governments’ inability to regulate their car industries have made them extremely polluted. We have consist paved the way for n very pronounced in Scandinavia, have for led social redistribu those in the develoy places like Mumbai gleaming buildings may even be seen in. More importantly, because of the sheer size of city populations across the world, it is not surprising that urban areas consume most of the world’s energy. Cities only cover 2 percent of the world’s landmass, but they consume 78 precent of global energy." Therefore, if carbon emissions must be cut to prevent global warming, this massive energy consumption in cities must be curbed. This action will require a lot of creativity. For example, many food products travel many miles before they get to major city centers. Shipping this food through trains, buses, and even planes increases carbon emissions. Will it be possible to grow more food in cities instead? Solutions like so-called “vertical farms” built in abandoned buildings (as is increasingly being done in New York) may lead the way towards more environmentally sustainable cities. If more food can be grown with less water in denser spaces, cities will begin to be greener.