IGCSE Physics

Volume, Density and Mass

Volume (cm3) – the amount of space an object occupies

How to measure volume:

 For Liquids – use measuring cylinder and read the volume directly
 For Regular Solids – calculate using the objects measurements:
o Cuboid: height x width x length
o Sphere: 4/3 x x radius3.
o Cylinder: x radius2 x height
 For Irregular Solids – use the displacement method

Displacement method – place a selection of water in a measuring cylinder and measure the
volume. Then add the object into the water and measure it again. The volume of the object
is the difference in volumes. E.g.
Initial Volume = 30cm3

Final Volume = 40cm3

40cm3 – 30cm3 = 10cm3

Object Volume = 10cm3

Density (g/cm3) – mass per unit of volume

Relative Density – the ratio between the density of that substance and the density of water.
It has no limit.

Mass (g) – a measure of the amount of matter present in an object as well as the
characteristic which resists change in motion

The calculation of volume is volume =

m
The calculation of density is density =
ρ V
The calculation of mass is mass = density x volume

Density of air – 1.225 kg/m3

Density of water – 1000 kg/m3

Mechanics – the study of energy and forces and their effect on material bodies

Kinematics – the study of motion

Dynamics – the cause of motion

Scalars – physical quantity that is fully defined by an amount (magnitude) and a unit e.g.
time, distance, temperature, speed, mass, pressure, energy, volume, density

Vectors – physical quantity that is fully defined by an amount, a unit and a direction. e.g.
force, displacement, velocity, weight, acceleration, momentum

Speed (m/s) – the rate at which distance changes over time

Distance (m) – the total length of travel irrespective of direction of motion

The calculation of speed is speed =

d
The calculation of time is time =

The calculation of distance is distance = speed x time

s t
The calculation of average speed is average speed =

Velocity (m/s) – the rate, at which displacement changes over time, it has a direction

Displacement (m) – how far something has moved from its starting position

The calculation of velocity is velocity = disp

The calculation of time is time = v t
The calculation of displacement is displacement = time x velocity

Acceleration (m/s2) – the rate at which velocity changes

–
The calculation of acceleration is acceleration =

The calculation of an average velocity is average velocity = .

We find the average velocity when the acceleration in a time period is not constant
acceleration
 Motion Graphs

Distance/Time Velocity/Time
Stationary

Constant Velocity

Constant Acceleration

Distance Calculation Shown on Graph Area under line

Gradient Shows Velocity Acceleration

Measurements

Random Errors – an error in the way of measuring due to a fault in the observation of
measurement.

 Parallax Errors – in which the reading of the measurement is incorrect due to looking
at the measurement from an angle less than or greater than 90 degrees

Systematic Errors – errors in experimental observations caused by a fault/flaw in the

measuring instruments

 Zero Errors – in which the instrument does not read zero when the quantity is
measured to be zero
 Mechanical Errors – in which the instrument consistently reads changes in the
quantity to be greater or lesser than the actual changes
Accuracy – associated with how close your estimate is to the true value you are measuring

Precision – the degree to which you can measure your value

Simple Pendulum - a device consisting of a mass, suspended from a fixed point, that
oscillates with a known period under the influence of gravity, commonly used to track the
process of time in an oscillation with the starting point and A and B.

Vernier Scale - a small sliding scale which is 9mm long but is divided into 10 equal divisions.

Micrometer screw gauge – a device that is used to incorporate a calibrated screw. Its
measurement of small objects is very precise up to 0.001 cm.

Tickertape timers – measures time by marking a certain number of dots (usually 50) on
tickertape per second. The distance between the fifty successive dots equals the average
speed of whatever is pulling the tape. The spacing between the dots can show whether the
object is accelerating or not. Ticker tapes place 50 dots every
second. Thus a dot is placed
every 0.02 seconds.
If there are ten spaces on a
piece of tape, time taken is 10 x
0.02 = 0.20 s.
You can work out the speed
between each dot by measuring
distance and then distance/time
 Forces

Force (N) – push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another
object

Contact Forces – a force that acts at the point of contact between two things e.g. Friction,
Support, Tension, Thrust

Non-Contact Forces – a force that acts on an object that is not in direct contact with it e.g.
Gravity, Electric, Magnetic

Friction Force – the force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it or makes an
effort to move across it.

Support (Normal Reaction) Force – the support force exerted upon an object that is in
contact with another stable object

Tension Force – the force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable or wire when it is
pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends

Thrust Force – a force that is exerted on an object by the expulsion or acceleration of mass
in one direction

Electric Force – a force that is exerted between objects or particles with electric charge.

Resultant (Net) Force – the sum of all forces acting on a body

Weight Force – the force generated when two objects with mass (and therefore have a
gravitational field) interact with each other.

Gravity – a force that attracts a body towards the centre of a physical body having mass. (10
OR 9.8)

Air Resistance (Drag) –the force opposite the relative motion of an object moving through
air

The calculation of gravity is gravity =

W
The calculation of mass is mass =

The calculation of weight is weight = mass x gravity

m g
V
 Free Fall

 As a body falls, initially it has no resistive forces so the only force is weight (caused
by gravity) bringing it to earth at an acceleration of 9.8m/s2
 As the body begins to move through the atmosphere the air resistance builds up.
The faster the motion the higher the resistance. This air resistance is a force which
applies in opposition to the weight force
 The resultant force is the difference between these two forces. The resultant force
is also the factor which controls the acceleration. As air resistance increases the
resultant force decreases, which causes a reduction in the acceleration
 Eventually the air resistance force will equal the weight force and the resultant will
be zero. At this time there is no acceleration. The object has reached its Terminal
Velocity

Newton’s Laws

1. A body stays at rest, or if moving it continues to move with uniform velocity, unless
an external force makes it behave differently
2. The sum of the forces of an object is equal to the total mass of that object multiplied
by the acceleration of the object (F = m x a)
3. If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal but opposite force on
body A

The calculation of acceleration is acceleration =

F
The calculation of mass is mass =

The calculation of net force is force = mass x acceleration m a

V force
When given two forces, the calculation of net force is force = resistive force – driving

Hooke’s Law - extension is directly proportional to stretching force

Extension/Load Graphs – graphs used to show Hooke’s Law. The gradient of an

Extension/Load graph shows the ease of stretch of a spring measured in N/m.

This point is known as the Limit

of Proportionality. At this point
extension is no longer
Load (N)

proportional to load, so to
calculate extension and force
(load) we use F = kx (k being the
spring constant), as F = x no
longer works.

Extension (mm)
 Vector Additions

 Pythagoras Theorem is used to work out the vector quantity, when two forces are
applying in different directions.
 Pythagoras Theorem = a2 + b2 = c2

40 N
40 N

30N

30N
50N

Motion in a Circle

Centripetal Forces – a force which acts on a body moving in a circular path and is directed
towards the centre around which the body is moving

Velocity
When an object is moving
Acceleration

with a constant speed and

Force

we apply a force at right

angles to the motion it
causes the object to move
in a curved path.

Centre Of Mass - the point at which applying a force will not cause rotation. The effects of
the centre of mass are:

 The lower the height of the centre of mass, the more stable
 The wider/larger the support base, the more stable

Finding the Centre of Mass:

 In Regular Shapes: Centre of object

 In Irregular Shapes: Suspend the shape from a point, and then another. Draw plumb
lines and find the intersection
 Torque and Equilibrium

Turning Effects (Moment/Torque) (Nm) - forces acting about a pivot cause a turning motion

The calculation of force is force =

τ
The calculation of (perpendicular) distance from the pivot is distance =

The calculation of the torque is torque = force x distance F d

V
Equilibrium - when the resultant forces acting on a body are zero and the resultant moment
is also zero.

Stable Equilibrium – There is stable equilibrium, when the object

concerned, after having been disturbed, tends to resume its original
position. Thus, in the case of a stable equilibrium, there is a tendency
for the object to revert to the old position.

Unstable Equilibrium – The equilibrium is unstable when a slight

disturbance evokes further disturbance, so that the original position is
never restored. In this case, there is a tendency for the object to
assume newer and newer positions once there is departure from the
original position.

Neutral Equilibrium – It is neutral equilibrium when the disturbing

forces neither bring it back to the original position nor do they drive it
further away from it. It rests where it has been moved. Thus, in the
case of a neutral equilibrium, the object assumes once for all a new
position after the original position is disturbed.

4kg 2m 5m 1.6kg
40N 16N

τ=FXd τ=FXd
τ = 40 x 2 τ = 16 x 5
The clockwise
Energymoment and the
and Work
τ = 80 Nm anti-clockwise moment are equal τ = 80 Nm
Energy (J) – the ability to do work

Work (J) – energy that is transformed/change in energy

Law of conservation of energy – energy cannot be created or destroyed

The calculation of force is force = W

The calculation of distance is distance =
F d
The calculation of work is work = force x distance

Active Energy – energy which can be detected e.g. kinetic, heat, electrical, sound, light

Potential Energy – energy which is stored e.g. gravitational, elastic, chemical, nuclear

Chemical Energy – that part of the energy in a substance that can be released by a chemical
reaction

Gravitational Potential Energy – energy stored in an object as a result of its vertical

position/height
Gravitational Potential Energy = mass x gravity x height (gravity on earth = 10)

Electrical Energy - the energy created through the flow of power in a conductor

Heat (Thermal/Internal) Energy - energy that is transferred by a difference in temperature

Kinetic Energy – energy that a body possesses whilst moving

The calculation of mass is mass = 2( ) Ek

The calculation of velocity2 is velocity2 =
½ M V2
The calculation of kinetic energy is kinetic energy = ½ mass x velocity2

Elastic Potential (Strain) Energy – potential energy that is stored when a body is deformed (as in a
coiled spring).

The calculation of the spring constant is spring constant = 2( )

U
The calculation of the extension is extension =

The calculation of elastic energy is elastic energy = ½ spring constant x ½k x2

extension2
Power (Watt) – a measure of the rate at which energy is converted to another form

The calculation of power is power=

W
The calculation of time is time =

The calculation of work is work done = power x time taken

P t
Efficiency – the percentage of power that is useful

The calculation of efficiency is efficiency =

Energy Sources

Non-renewable Sources – once used up, it cannot replenish new energy

 Farming of Coal and Oil causes pollution and produce CO2 and SO2 and worsens the
formation of acid rain.
 Nuclear fuels such as Uranium-235 must be stored to last their half life so it does not
pollute the environment with nuclear waste.

Renewable Sources – can be reused to gain more energy

 Solar energy from Solar Panels, Solar Furnace and Solar Cells
 Wind Energy from Wind Turbines
 Tidal/Hydroelectric Energy from Dams
 Wave Energy
 Geothermal Energy
 Biomass from biofuels and biogas

Power Stations

Thermal Power Plant (Non-renewable) = Boiler or Heat Exchange  Steam Turbine 

Generator

Dam (Renewable) = High Level Reservoir  Water Turbine  Generator

Pressure

Pressure (Pa) – force per unit of area

The calculation of pressure is pressure = F

The calculation of area is area =
p A
The calculation of force is force = pressure x area
 Pressure in Liquids – in Liquids, their density does not change very much. This is because
liquids are not very compressible compared to gases. The pressure at one depth acts equally
in all directions.

The calculation of pressure in liquid is pressure = density x gravity x depth (height)

Atmospheric Pressure – the pressure exerted on the surface by the weight of air. At sea
level, atmospheric pressure is 1 x 105 Pa.

Measuring Pressure

The Mercury Barometer – used to measure atmospheric pressure. Mercury is used as it is

the densest liquid. As the atmospheric pressure increases the air applies a force to the
surface of the mercury and causes the mercury to rise up the tube (and vice versa).

Manometer – used to measure gas pressure. It consists of a U-tube containing mercury (or
water). When both ends of the tube are exposed to the same pressure, the heights are the
same. When one end is exposed to a different pressure this causes different heights (which
can be used in p = ρgh).

If one end is connected to a If one end is connected to a If one end is connected to a

gas supply equal to gas supply that is greater than gas supply that is smaller than
atmospheric pressure, the atmospheric pressure, the atmospheric pressure, the
heights of the liquid will be liquid goes lower on that end liquid goes higher on that end
equal on both ends of tube. and higher on the other. and lower on the other.

Gas Pressure = Atmospheric Gas Pressure = Height + Gas Pressure = Atmospheric

Pressure Atmospheric Pressure Pressure – Height
 Hydraulic Systems

Hydraulic Systems work by using liquids

under pressure. They use two properties of
liquids:

 Liquids are incompressible

 If pressure is applied to an enclosed
liquid, the pressure is transmitted
to all parts of the liquid
F1 F2
A2d2 = A1d1 and 
A1 A2

States of Matter

Solid Liquid Gas

Fixed shape and volume
Particles are held together
by relatively strong forces
Incompressible
Particles do not have free
movement but can vibrate
around fixed positions
No fixed shape, fixed volume
Particles have weaker forces
so are further apart
Slight compressibility
Particles can move
throughout bulk of liquid
No fixed shape or volume
Particles are very far apart
Compressible
Particles are very spread out
and move in random fashion

Temperature of a Gas

 Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the particles concerned

 As the particles are heated, their kinetic energy increases
 Gases have the highest level of kinetic energy and hence are higher temperature
 At absolute zero, molecular motion ceases and a substance has no kinetic energy

Pressure of a Gas

 The free moving particles of a gas will spread evenly within a container and collide
with the walls. This will exert a force on the wall when it bounces off.
 When this happens on a large scale (billions of particles) there is an average force
exerted on the wall. A pressure is created with the new force in Pressure =
 Evaporation

 When the molecules of a liquid are close to the surface of the liquid through
collisions and absorbing external energy, some of the molecules will have sufficient
kinetic energy to change state from liquid to gas and escape from the surface of the
liquid.
 This means that the average kinetic energy of the remaining particles is lower
causing a cooling effect
 Evaporation can occur at any temperature
 To increase evaporation you can increase the temperature or the surface area. A
draft will also increase the rate of evaporation

Gas Laws

 Gas laws show the relationship between Volume (in centimetres3/millilitres),

Pressure (in Pascals) and Temperature (in Kelvin). Kelvin is calculated by adding 273
to the degrees Celsius. -273°C/0K is absolute zero.
 Charles’ Law – If pressure is kept constant, the volume of a fixed mass is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature. . A temperature increase means the
particles have more kinetic energy and occupy more space, thus increasing volume
and the particles move faster.
 Pressure Law – If volume is constant, the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature. . A temperature increase means
the particles have more kinetic energy and the average speed of molecules increase,
thus having more frequent and violent collisions of molecules and increasing
pressure.
 Boyle’s Law – If temperature is constant, the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is
inversely proportional to its volume. P1V1 = P2V2. A volume decrease means the
number of molecules per unit of volume decreases and the number of collisions
increase, thus causing a pressure increase.
 Ideal Gas Law –
 Heat Measurement

Range – how far the scale can extend (dependant on their melting and boiling points)

Sensitivity – how much the property changes per unit of temperature

Linear – whether or not the change occurs as at a steady rate

Liquid in Glass Thermometer – liquids that expand and contract in a tube Vacuum
due to change in temperature. The expansion/contraction can be measured
Capillary
and give the temperature of an object. Mercury and coloured alcohol is Tube
often used for this due to their wide range, ability to contract and expand
easily, ability to not stick to the inside of the tube and their ease of visibility. Bulb

Thermocouple Thermometer – can measure the temperature using the thermoelectric

effect. There are two different types of wire connected together and the junctions are
placed in a hot and cold source. A voltage is generated which corresponds to the difference
in temperature between the two junctions.

Resistance Thermometer – uses the fact that the electrical resistance of a platinum wire
increases with temperature

Thermistor Thermometer – uses the change in the pressure of gas to measure temperatures
over a wide range

Thermochromic Liquids – these change colour with temperature and are limited to rtp.

Specific Heat Capacity

Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg°C)– the heat required to produce a 1°C rise in 1 kg.

Quantity of heat energy received/given out = mass x change in temp x specific heat capacity

Q = m x ΔT x C

Linear Expansivity (m) – the increase in length of 1m for a 1°C rise in temperature

Expansion = original length x linear expansivity x change in temperature

L = Lo x α x ΔT

Thermal Expansion – when two objects are made to touch they both eventually reach the
same temperature

Thermal Capacity (J/°C) – the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of the whole
body by 1°C

Thermal capacity = mass x specific heat capacity

 Specific Latent Heat
Gas
Vaporising
When the object is melting or vaporising, heat energy is
Liquid being added but the temperature is not changing. The
Melting average kinetic energy stays the same. Energy changes
to potential energy by separating.
Solid

Latent heat of Fusion – the energy that enables the molecules of a solid to overcome the
intermolecular forces that hold them in place. Vibration changes to a slightly greater range
of movement. Molecules’ potential energy increases but not their average kinetic energy.
There is no temperature rise.

Specific latent heat of fusion (J/kg) – the quantity of heat needed to change unit mass from
solid to liquid without temperature change.

Quantity of heat energy needed to change state = mass x specific latent heat of fusion

Q = m x lf

Latent heat of Vaporization – increases the total potential energy of the molecules but not
their kinetic energy. It also gives the molecules the energy required to push back the
surrounding atmosphere in the large expansion that occurs when liquid vaporises

Specific latent heat of vaporization (J/kg) – the quantity of heat needed to change unit mass
from liquid to vapour without change of temperature.

Quantity of heat needed to change state = mass x specific latent heat of vaporisation

Q = m x lv

Conduction

Conduction – the flow of heat through matter from places of higher temperature to places
of lower temperature without movement of the matter as a whole

Conduction and Kinetic Energy

 Metals have free electrons. When metals are heated, the free electrons move faster
and farther. As a result they collide more frequently and make atoms in cooler parts
vibrate more. This process is fast.
 The atoms themselves at the hot part make colder neighbouring atoms vibrate more
vigorously. This process is slow and occurs in metals and non-metals.
 Convection

Convection – the flow of heat through a fluid from places of higher temperature to places of
lower temperature by the movement of fluid itself. Fluid can be liquid or gas.

Principles of Convection

 Fluids will flow from high temperature to low temperature

 Fluids through flow from high pressure to low pressure
 As fluids are heated, they expand and become less dense. They will rise above the
more dense colder fluid and form convection currents.

Radiation

Radiation – the flow of heat from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves.
The rate of energy transfer by radiation is affected by surface temperature, colour and
texture of the surface, and surface area.

Infra-red Radiation – as it is an electromagnetic wave it will behave like light and can be
reflected.

Vacuum flask – will separate the inner and outer

layers with a cavity which is a vacuum. This
prevents transfer of thermal energy from one to
the other by conduction or convection. The inner
and outer surfaces of both layers will be coated
with a silver shiny layer to prevent the absorption
or reflection of infra-red energy. Little heat loss
occurs through conduction through the top/lid.
 Waves

Wave motion – the process in which energy is transferred from one point to another
without any transfer of matter between the points.

Mechanical Waves – produced by a vibrating object in a medium and are transmitted by the
particles of that medium

Electromagnetic Waves – waves that do not need a medium to travel

Longitudinal Waves – vibration is parallel to the direction of wave motion e.g. sound waves,
primary waves in earthquakes

Transverse Waves – vibration is perpendicular to the direction of the wave e.g.

electromagnetic rays, secondary waves in earthquakes
Wavelength

Crest
Amplitude

Medium

Trough

Wavelength (m) – length between two consecutive crests or compressions

Wave Velocity (m/s) – travelling speed; depends on medium.

Frequency (Hz) – number of waves passing any point per second/number of oscillations for
a point per second. Lower pitch = Lower Frequency.

Hertz – one oscillation per second

The calculation of wavelength is wavelength =

v
The calculation of frequency is frequency = λ f
The calculation of wave velocity is velocity = wavelength x frequency

Period (s) – time taken for one wavelength to pass any point/time for one point to complete
one oscillation. Period =

Phase – the relationship between two oscillations

 Reflection
Incident Ray Reflected Ray

ϴi ϴr

Laws of Reflection

 The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal are all in the same plane
 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

Total Internal Reflection – If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the
refracted ray disappears and all of the incident light is reflected inside the denser medium.

Critical Angle – the angle of incidence when angle of reflection is 90°

Refraction

Refraction – the change in direction of light when it passes from one medium to another.
Refraction happens because light is an electromagnetic wave and it travels at different
speeds in different media. Incident Ray

ϴi

ϴr

Refracted Ray

Laws of Refraction

 The incident and refracted rays are on opposite sides of the normal at the point of
incidence and all three are in the same plane
 The ratio of the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for a given pair of media:

Refractive Index – a measure of the speed of light in that medium. A bigger refractive index
refracts light more, has smaller angle of refraction, is more optically dense, and light travels
slower.

n1sinϴ1 = n2sinϴ2
 Images

Terms Used to Describe an Image Description of a Plane Mirror

Enlarged/Diminished/Same Same Size
Upright/Inverted Upright, Laterally Inverted
Real/Virtual Virtual
Relationship between the Di and Do Di = Do

Number of Images formed =

1. Incident rays parallel to principle axis are refracted through the focal point
2. Incident rays through the focal point are refracted parallel to the principle axis
3. Incident rays through the optical centre are unchanged
Object
Focal Point
Focal Point Image

Object Position Image Position Upright/Inverted Size

Beyond 2F Between 2F and F Real, Inverted Smaller
At 2F 2F Real, Inverted Same Size
Between 2F and F Beyond 2F Real, Inverted Larger
At F No Image - -
Less than F Behind object Virtual, Upright Larger

Sound

Sound waves – longitudinal, mechanical waves. Sound is created when particles vibrate.
When particles vibrate between 20-20000 Hz (limits of audibility) and they travel through a
medium to our ear we can hear them.

Echo – sound reflecting off of barriers and coming back to the origin

Reverberation – when the echo joins with the original sound

Characteristics of sound

 330-340 m/s in air; 1500 m/s in water; around 3000 m/s in most solids
 Speed of sound will increase with temperature
 Generally the higher the density, the higher the speed
 Increasing the amplitude, increases the volume of a sound
 Increasing the frequency will increase the pitch of a sound
 Lenses

Convex Lenses – converging lenses that will curve light towards the focal point. Rays of light
at right angles to the lens will pass through the focal point. Images further than the focal
point will be real images.

Short Sighted Short Sighted with Convex Lens

Retina Retina

Concave Lenses – diverging lenses that will cause parallel rays of light to spread out. The
image will be virtual, upright and reduced in size.

Long Sighted Long Sighted with Convex Lens

Retina

Dispersion

Prisms – refract light through two non-parallel boundary layers. Because different
frequencies (colours) of light refract different amounts (they travel at different speeds so
bend at different amounts) when they pass through a prism, they remain separated which
we see as a rainbow – or the spectrum of visible light. Red bends the least, violet bends the
most.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Monochromatic – one frequency

 Water Waves

Reflection in Water – water waves will reflect off objects or sides of a container. The normal
rules of reflection apply.

Wave front – the leading edge of a propagating wave. As a wave moves away from a source
it will usually spread out (propagate) meaning the wave front will get wider.

Refraction in Water – as the depth of water changes, waves will refract. Waves will travel
slower in shallow water. The direction of travel is bent towards the normal in shallow water

Diffraction in Water – waves diffract when they pass around barriers or pass through gaps.
The effect is maximised when the gap is the same size as the wavelength

Magnets

 Magnets have a north and south pole

 Like poles repel, opposite poles attract
 Magnets will create a field around them which will affect other magnets
 The spacing between the lines of a magnetic field shows the field strength

Ferrous Magnets – magnets formed from metals such as iron, steel and cobalt

Induced Magnetism – metals like iron and steel are attracted to magnets and will have a
magnetic field created in them (magnetism has been induced in them). When steel is pulled
away from a magnet, it keeps its magnetism (hard magnet). When iron is pulled away from
a magnet, it loses its magnetism (soft magnet).

Demagnetisation – when the crystal structure of the magnet

is shifts; dropping magnets causes them to lose their strength.
 Charge

Charge – a measure of the positive or negative particles that an object has. The standard
unit of charge is a Coloumb (C).

Conductor – a material which has free moving electrons which are able to flow when a
voltage is applied e.g. metals

Insulator – has no free electrons so will not allow a current to flow when a voltage is applied
e.g. non-metals, plastic

Electric Fields – a region where an electric charge will experience force. It is generated
around charged particles. They move towards negative charges and away from positive
charges.

Unlike charges will attract Like charges will repel

+ +

Static Charge – refers to a build up of charged particles. They are static because they do not
move or flow like convectional current. Static charge can be created by friction between two
surfaces.

Current – flow of charged particles. The circuit must be complete in order for current to
flow.

Ampere (A) – the unit of measurement of Current. One ampere = 600000000 electrons
passing a point in a circuit every second. It is measured with an ammeter.

The calculation of current is current =

Q
The calculation of number of seconds is time =

The calculation of charge is charge = current x time taken I t

Charge is also calculated in the formula charge =

Conventional Current – the flow of current from positive to negative, whereas electron flow
is negative to positive. This is used unless otherwise stated.
 Circuits

Circuit – the path which a current moves along.

Short Circuit – a circuit that allows current to travel on an unintended path.

Series Circuit – a circuit that has only one path for current to travel.

Parallel Circuit – a circuit that has more than one path for current to travel.

Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Current A1 = A2 A1 + A2
(Amps) Stays the same through all The sum of the currents equal
components. to the total.
Voltage V1 + V2 V1 = V2
(Volts) The sum of all voltages equal to Stays the same through all
the total. components.
Total Resistance R1 + R 2 R1 x R 2
(Ohms) The sum of all resistances equal R1 + R 2
to the total.

Potential Difference (Voltage) – a measure of the energy per unit of charge. It is measured in
volts.

The calculation of current is current = P

The calculation of voltage is voltage =
I V
The calculation of power is power = current x voltage
V
Voltage is also calculated in the formula Energy = Current x Voltage x time

Resistance – a measure of how difficult it is for current to flow through a component.

Ohm’s Law – the current flowing through a metal wire is proportional to the voltage across
it (provided the temperature remains constant)

The calculation of current is current = V

The calculation of resistance is resistance =
I R
The calculation of voltage is voltage = current x resistance

What affects resistance in a wire?

V
1. As length increases, resistance increases
2. As cross sectional area increases, resistance decreases
3. Type of wire (whether good conductor or bad conductor)
4. As temperature increases, resistance increases
 Components

Cell – device that produces electrical energy from chemicals.

Battery – device made from two or more cells

Filament Lamp – device that changes electricity into light

Fixed Resistor – device that restricts the flow of current

Variable Resistor – device with a resistance that can be changed

Rheostat – type of variable resistor that changes the current in a circuit

Potentiometer – type of variable resistor that changes the voltage applied to a device

Switch – device that turns a circuit on/off. (open) (closed)

Voltmeter – meter to measure the voltage difference between points, must be in parallel.
V
Ammeter – meter to measure electrical current. It must be connected in series. A

Diode – device that only lets current flow in one direction. If placed the wrong way, a
current will not flow. A voltage of -40V would damage a diode. Diodes are used as a
rectifier, to change A.C. to D.C.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) – devices that light when current flows through. If the current
entering it is reversed it will not light and will cause damage if it exceeds 5V. A resistor must
be in series with it to limit the current.

Thermistor – a device which is sensitive to change in temperature. As temperature

increases, the resistance will decrease.

Capacitors – a device that stores charge. There are two conducting plates
separated by a non-conducting layer. Electrons are pushed by a voltage towards
one plate where a negative charge builds and a positive charge builds on the other plate.
They will discharge over time. The capacitance (how much a capacitor can store) is
measured in farads (F). A capacitor blocks d.c. current but passes a.c. as the capacitor
charges and discharges continuously with the alternating current, despite no current
actually passing through the capacitor.

Relays – uses a small current flow to activate an electromagnetic switch for a large current
flow in another circuit or part of the circuit.

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) - devices that are sensitive to light. As light intensity
increases, resistance decreases
Transistors – a small, reliable, electrically operated switch which has no moving parts.
Current will only flow through the Collector to the Emitter when the current is above a
threshold point (0.6V) through the Base to Emitter. Collector

Base
Emitter
Solanoid – a cylindrical coil of wire acting as a magnet when carrying electric current.
To increase the magnetic field, you:

 Add an iron core

 Increase the current
 Increase the number of turns in the coil

Electromagnetic Effect

Electromagnets – temporary magnets that can be switched on and off. It has a core of soft
iron which is magnetized only when current flows in the surrounding coil. The strength of an
electromagnet increases if:

 Current in coil increases

 Number of turns on the coil increases
 The poles are moved closer together

Electromagnetism – when you pass a current through a wire it creates a magnetic field
around the wire.

Electric Motors – transfers electrical energy to kinetic energy. A motor is made up of a coil
which is positioned between two poles of the magnet. When the current flows through the
coil, it creates a magnetic field which interacts with the magnetic field produced by the two
permanent magnets. The combination of these two magnetic fields exerts a force, pushing
the wire at right angles to the permanent magnetic field. To increase the turning effect, you:

 Increase the current

 Use a stronger magnet
 Increase the number of turns on the coil
 Increase the area of the coil

Electromagnetic/Voltage Induction – when you move a wire/coil in a magnetic field it

induces a voltage that causes current to flow. The size of the induced voltage (and current
flow) can be increased by:

 Increased relative speed

 Increased magnetic field strength
 More coils of wire
Lenz’s Law – the direction of the induced current opposes the change causing it

Faraday’s Law - the size of the induced potential difference is directly proportional to the
rate at which the conductor cuts magnetic field lines

D.C. Motor – one side of the rectangular coil of wire will experience an upwards force and
the other a downwards force. These forces rotate the coil in a clockwise direction until it is
vertical. The brushes are then in line with the gaps in the commutator and the current stops.
However, because of inertia, the coil overshoots the vertical and the commutator halves
change contact from one brush to the other. This reverses the current through the coil and
so also the directions of the forces on its sides, therefore causing the coil to continue
rotating clockwise.

D.C. Generators – in a direct current, the electrons flow in one direction only. An a.c.
generator becomes a d.c. generator if the slip rings are replaced with a commutator. The
brushes are arranged so that as the coil goes through the vertical, changeover of contact
occurs from one half of the split ring of the commutator to the other. In this position the
voltage induced in the coil reverses and so one brush is always positive and the other
negative.

A.C. Generator – in an alternating current, the direction of the flow reverses regularly. An
a.c. generator consists of a rectangular coil between poles of a C-shaped magnet. The ends
of the coil are joined to two slip rings on the axle and against which carbon brushes press.
When the coil is rotated it cuts the field lines and a voltage is induced in it. As the coil moves
through the vertical position with one side uppermost, the two sides are moving along the
field lines and no cutting occurs, thus an induced voltage of zero. The next 180 degrees
rotation then reverses the current
 Logic Gates

Digital – discrete; a binary code is digital – values of 0 (low voltage) or 1 (high voltage) only.

Analogue – continuous

NOT Gates – an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its
output.

Input Output Output

Input
1 0
0 1

OR Gate – an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one of its inputs are high.

Input A Input B Output Input A

Output
0 0 0 Input B
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NOR Gate – an electronic circuit that gives a low output (0) if any of the inputs are high (1).

Input A Input B Output Input A

Output
0 0 1 Input B
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

AND Gate – an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all the inputs are high.

Input A Input B Output Input A

Output
0 0 0 Input B
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

NAND Gate – an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if any of the inputs are low (0).

Input A Input B Output Input A

Output
0 0 1 Input B
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
 Transformers

Mutual Induction – when coils are magnetically linked so that changing current in one coil
causes an induced electromagnetic force in the other.

Transformers – transforms the voltage from one coil to another.

Simple Transformer:

 Alternating current flows through

the primary coil. This sets up an
altering magnetic field in the core
 Coils of the secondary coil ‘cut’
the altering magnetic field, thus
inducing an alternating voltage in
the output of the coil


Step-Up Transformers – where voltage is

increased from the primary coil to the
secondary coil. The number of output coils is greater than the number of input coils. This is
used next to generators, to increase the voltage of electricity travelling along power lines so
they reduce the current flow and thus reduce the energy loss due to heating the lines.

Step-Down Transformers – where voltage is decreased from primary coil to the secondary
coil. The number of output coils is less than the number of input coils. This is used to turn
the high voltage from power lines to a small voltage of 240V as they go into houses.

Power in Transformers

 Input = Output (Transformers are 100% efficient)


 Input Voltage x Input Current = Output Voltage x Output Current

Electrical Safety

 Damaged insulation can lead to a short circuit which can cause a fire. It can also
shock a person if they come into contact with a bare wire
 Overheating of cables can cause a fire and also damage insulation
 Damp conditions increase the risk of shocks as current can flow through water
 Household Wiring

The Live Wire – connected between the mains supply and the appliance needing to be
supplied. It will carry the voltage to the appliance and touching it will result in a shock. If
there is a fuse in the socket it will be connected in series with the live wire.

Neutral Wire – connected from the appliance to the mains supply. As the voltage has
been used by the appliance, the neutral wire should have 0 Voltage.

The Earth Wire – if an appliance has a metal body, they will connect that metal body to
the earth wire so that if there is a fault in the appliance and the body becomes
connected to the live wire, the current will flow through the earth wire. This usually
results in the fuse blowing as the current load will exceed the capacity of the fuse.

Fuses – a thin section of wire. Fuses will be made to carry up to a specific level of
current. When this level is exceeded the wire becomes hot and breaks, which breaks the
circuit. They are connected to the live wire so that no more voltage is supplied to the
appliance.

Circuit Breakers – measure the level of current through the circuit and when the level
exceeds their safety point they switch off the circuit. It acts in the same way as a fuse
but can be reset rather than having to replace a section of blown fuse.

Right Hand Rules

Magnetic Field Around A Wire Current Around A Solanoid

Current in Electromagnetic Induction Force on a Current Carrying Wire

Motion Current

Magnetic Magnetic
Field Field
Current Force
 Cathode Rays

Cathode Ray – thermionic emission of electrons

Thermionic emission – the process of emitting electrons from a metal filament by heating.
There is a certain minimum threshold energy which the electrons must have to escape. The
higher the temperature of the metal, the greater the number of electrons emitted. The
electrons are attracted to the positive anode and are able to reach it because there is a
vacuum in the bulb.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope – this contains a cathode ray tube with three parts: the electron
gun, the deflecting plates and the fluorescent screen

Electron Gun – this consists of a

heater, cathode, grid and
(possibly multiple) anodes. The
grid is at a negative voltage with
respect to the Cathode and
controls the number of electrons
passing through its central hole.
The anodes are at high positive
voltages relative to the Cathode; they accelerate
the electrons along the highly evacuated tube and
also focus them into a narrow beam.

Deflection Plates – potential differences can be Y-input 0 A.C. D.C.

applied to two pairs of deflecting plates; horizontal
Y-plates which deflect the beam vertically, and
vertical X-plates which deflect the beam
horizontally.
Time Base On: Y-input 0 A.C. D.C.
Fluorescent Screen – a bright spot of light is produced on the screen where a beam hits it.
 Atoms

Nuclide Notation – a standard way of representing information about an atom. The same
method is used for emitted particles.

X
A A = Mass Number
Z = Atomic Number
Z X = Atom or Particle

The Atomic Number is the number of Protons and Electrons unless it is an ion. (Protons = Electrons)

The Mass (Nucleon) Number is the number of Protons + Number of Neutrons. To work out the
number of neutrons you must calculate: Mass Number - Atomic Number = Number of Neutrons

Particle Relative Mass Charge Location

Proton 1836 +e In Nucleus
Neutron 1839 0 In Nucleus
Electron 1 -e Outside Nucleus

Isotope – an element that occupies the same place in periodic table but has a different
number of neutrons. The number of protons and electrons are the same.
E.g. Hydrogen has three isotopes: Protium (0 Neutrons), Deuterium (1 Neutron), Tritium (2
Neutrons)

Rutherford’s Experiment – Rutherford fired alpha particles at a thin gold foil.

Observations Deduction
1. Most of the alpha Most of the atom is
particles pass empty space
straight through
with little or no
deflection
2. Some angles The nucleus of an
were deflected atom is positively
through big charged
angles
3. A few particles Evidence for the
bounced back existence of nucleus
 Radioactive Decay

Radiation – the random and spontaneous process of an unstable nucleus decaying. The
process releases energy in the form of either a particle or a wave, and sometimes both.

Alpha Decay – an alpha particle is a helium nucleus having 2 neutrons and 2 protons. When
an atom decays, its nucleon number decreases by 4 and it’s proton number by 2.
222
e.g. Ra 
226
88 86 Rn + 42 He
Beta Decay (β-) – In beta decay a neutron changes to a proton and an electron. The proton
remains in the nucleus and the electron is emitted as a beta particle. The new nucleus has
the same nucleon number but its proton number increases by one.

e.g. C
14
6
14
7
N + -10e
Positrons (β+) can also be emitted in beta decay. They are subatomic particles with the same
mass as an electron but with an opposite (positive) charge.

Gamma Emission – after alpha or beta emission, some nuclei are left in an ‘excited’ state.
Rearrangement of the protons and neutrons occurs and a burst of gamma rays is released.

Property Alpha Beta Gamma

Type Helium Nucleus High Energy High frequency
Electrons electromagnetic ray
Speed Slow (10% Light Speed) Fast (90% Light Very Fast (Light
Speed) Speed)
In an Electric Field Deflected to Negative Deflected to Positive Not Deflected
In a Magnetic Field Deflected Slightly Deflected Not Deflected
Stopped By Paper, Skin Thin Aluminium Thick Lead/Concrete
Mass 4u Negligible Zero
Charge Positive Negative No Charge
Distance in Air Few centimetres A few metres Infinite
Ionising Ability Strong Weak Very Weak

Geiger Muller Tube – when an alpha , beta or gamma radiation enters the tube it produces
ions in the gas. The ions created in the gas enable the tube to conduct. A current produces a
voltage pulse. Each voltage pulse corresponds to one ionising radiation entering the GM
tube. The voltage pulse is amplified and counted.

Background Radiation – naturally occurring radioactive decay of isotopes. Examples of

sources of background radiation includes cosmic rays, earth minerals, nuclear power plants,
medical and dental x-rays.
 Nuclear Stability Stability Line

For Stable Nuclides:

100
i. N = Z for the lightest nuclides Regions of
Instability N=Z

Number of Neutrons (N)

ii. N > Z for the heaviest nuclides
iii. Most nuclides have even N and

80
Z, implying that the alpha
particle combination of two

60
neutrons and two protons is
likely to be particularly stable

40
For Unstable Nuclides:

i. Disintegration tends to produce 20

new nuclides nearer the stability
0 20 40 60 80 100
line and continues until a stable
Number of Protons (Z)
nuclide is formed
ii. A nuclide above the stability line decays by β- emission so that the N/Z ratio decreases
iii. A nuclide below the stability line decays by B+ emission so that the N/Z ratio increases
iv. Nuclei with more than 82 protons usually emits an α-particle when they decay

Half Life

Half-Life – a measure of the time it will take for half of the source to decay.

Quantity of a Substance = Original Amount x ½ number of half-lifes

E.g. the half life for this graph is 2 days.

 Uses of Radioactivity

Carbon Dating – all living organisms have absorbed some Carbon-14 from the atmosphere.
When they die the Carbon-14 level in their body decays with a half-life of 5700 years so the
levels of radioactivity will decrease. This can be used on a half-life graph to determine when
an organism dies.

Treating Cancer –cancer cells are so busy replicating that they are easier to kill than health
cells. Radiotherapy localises the exposure of radioactivity to the area of the cancer growth.
Chemotherapy is a whole body exposure to radioactivity. The idea with both systems is to
kill cancer cells faster than killing healthy cells.

Medical Tracers – the radioactive substance is injected into the body and it will migrate to
the area doctors are investigating and then they use detectors to investigate activity at the
site of interest.

Thickness Gauge – if a radioisotope is placed on one side of a moving sheet of material, and
a GM tube on the other, the count-rate decreases if thickness increases. Because of their
range, beta emitters are suitable, but gamma emitters would be used for thicker materials.
Flaws in a material can also be detected as the count rate increases when a flaw is present.

Sterilization – Gamma rays are used to sterilise medical instruments and food by killing
bacteria. They are safe to use as no radioactive material goes into the food or instruments.

Dangers of Radioactivity

 As alpha is the largest charge and attracts electrons, it has the largest ionising effect.
 For beta to ionise an atom it must pass close enough to an electron and repel the
electron away from its atom. This is less likely so the effect is a less ionising particle. This
is also why it can penetrate further.
 Gamma is the least ionising because it has no charge. To ionise it must pass its energy to
an electron and excite it enough for it to break from its atom.
 Because living cells are constructed from atoms bonded together it is possible to disrupt
their structure and function by stripping off electrons, which is what ionising particles do
to cells. Thus precautions for different sources has to be taken.
 Alpha emitters will need little shielding
 Beta emitters will need thin lead or thick aluminium