Food Research International 33 (2000) 719±724

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Combined industrial processes with irradiation to assure innocuity

and preservation of food products Ð a review
M. Lacroix *, B. Ouattara
Canadian Irradiation Center (CIC), Research Center in Microbiology and Biotechnology, INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier, 531 Boul. des Prairies,
Laval, QueÂbec, Canada H7V 1B7

Received 15 December 1999; accepted 31 March 2000

Abstract
The desire to assure food safety for consumption requires better food preservation techniques. The presence of parasites, insects,
mites, and micro-organisms, is an important source of problems. In this regard, irradiation is an interesting alternative to be con-
sidered to satisfy quarantine requirements, to control severe losses during transportation and commercialization, and to insure food
safety. This paper reviews some potential applications of irradiation for preserving food products. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All
rights reserved.
Keywords: Industrial processes; Irradiation; Food safety; Food preservation

1. Introduction has come to ®nd ways to reduce losses in food products,

At the present time, many procedures such as freezing,
smoking and heating are used alone or in combination to
preserve food products, but manufacturers are still
faced with heavy losses (Farkas, 1990; 1999). Yearly,
losses during storage have been estimated to be 10% for
cereal, 40% for vegetable and fruits, 75% for peas and
beans, and much more for meats, poultry and ®sh due
to their particular sensitivity to enzymatic and microbial
attacks. These losses are being shouldered by the customers
who are faced with price increases for the said products.
Furthermore, society has to cope with many food-borne
diseases as a result of the development of pathogenic
micro-organisms such as E. coli O157:H7, Campylobacter,
Listeria, Toxoplasma, Trichinella etc. and production of
toxic substances like enterotoxin, mycotoxin and histamin
(Cassin, Lammerding, Todd, Ross & McColl, 1998;
IFT-Expert Panel, 1988). According to the United
Nations report in 1995, over 30% of the mortality rate
world-wide is caused by alimentary diseases. The time
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-450-687-5010 ext. 4489; fax: +1-
450-687-5792.
E-mail address: monique.lacroix@iaf.uquebec.ca (M. Lacroix).
0963-9969/00/$ - see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0963-9969(00)00085-5
enhance their shelf life and assure their innocuousness.
Irradiation technology is the answer to these expecta-
tions, since it creates the possibility of putting foods on
the market that are ``glowing with freshness, and
exempt of pathogens. This technology was approved in
1981 by the FAO/IAEA/WHO joint committee on the
wholesomeness of irradiated food. It was stated that,
irradiation of food at doses up to 10 kGy introduced no
special nutritional problem. Currently, more than 26
countries are using the process on a commercial scale
(Stevenson, 1994). When irradiation is used in combi-
nation with other preservation methods such as mild
heat treatments, addition of spices and plant extracts,
the global eciency is reinforced through synergistic
action, and the irradiation doses can be reduced without
a€ecting the product quality (Farkas, 1990; Mahrour,
Lacroix, Nketsa-Tabiri, Calderon & Gagnon, 1998a).
The irradiation of food products is a physical treatment
involving direct exposure to electron or electromagnetic
rays, for their long time preservation and improvement
of safety and quality (Urbain, 1986). 60Cobalt produces
electromagnetic g-rays which are similar to light but
with much higher energy. This source of energy is being
used for deinsectization, slowing the fruit ripening,
elimination of pathogenic bacteria and parasites, and
destruction of micro-organisms. During irradiation
720 M. Lacroix, B. Ouattara / Food Research International 33 (2000) 719±724
treatment, DNA molecules undergo swelling and break
alongside the chain, preventing them from functioning
normally. As a result, the micro-organisms and parasites
that have been a€ected are no longer capable of reprodu-
cing themselves and die (Urbain, 1986). Irradiation can
be performed at ambient or lower temperatures which
guarantees better preservation of nutritive values and
physico-chemical properties of foods. Such advantages
make irradiation treatment a viable technology for pre-
servation of various food products. The focus of this
review is the use of gamma-irradiation for food pre-
servation and the development of new products for
edible/biodegradable packaging application.
2. Irradiation of fruits and vegetables
Radiation treatment for extension of the shelf life of
fresh fruits and vegetables have been widely studied
(Farkas, 1990; Gagnon, Lacroix, Pringsulaka, Latreille,
Jobin, Nouchpranool, et al., 1993; Lacroix, Jobin,
Latreille, Lapointe & Gagnon, 1991; Lacroix, Gagnon,
Pringsulaka, Jobin, Latreille, Nouchpramool et al.,
1993; Thomas, 1986). The application of irradiation, using
doses less than 1 kGy or 100 krad (radiation absorbed
dose) for vegetables and fruits, inhibits germination,
slows ripening of fruits and eliminates insect infestation.
Doses between 1 and 3 kGy might eliminate mold.
When used on cereal products, it allows the elimination
of insects (doses 41 kGy), reduces and eliminates bacteria
(doses 52 kGy) and reduces cooking time (vegetable
proteins). Most fruits and vegetables tolerate irradiation
treatments at a minimal dose of 0.25 kGy, without
undergoing a change in their quality. A dose of 2.25
kGy is usually the optimal dose that fruits and vege-
tables may tolerate to keep their quality intact (loss of
®rmness, change in ¯avour/taste, physilogical breakage,
accelerated ripening). Strawberries, for instance, may
tolerate doses as high as 3 kGy. At this dose, the infection
of fruits is eliminated and the quality of the strawberries
is untouched for a period of 14 days if kept at 5 C.
Doses as weak as 0.04 to 0.74 kGy may inhibit the ger-
mination of onions. The use of irradiation as a sole
treatment for postharvest desease control seems to be
limited to only a few commodities, because the doses
required for e€ective control of fungal spoilage frequently
result in undesirable changes such as tissue or skin
damages, or changes in ¯avour or texture or by a€ecting
the appearance and normal ripening of fruits (Mahrour
et al., 1998b). The tolerance to irradiation varies among
species and varieties and is in¯uenced by ripeness at the
time of treatment. Several investigations have demon-
strated, however, the usefulness of mild treatment prior
to low-dose irradiation in extending the shelf life of
certain fresh fruits without a€ecting their normal quality
attributes. The heat treatment employed in these
experiments was mostly a hot water dip (Gagnon et al.,
1993). With fresh fruits and vegetables, it is important
to establish the exact parameters such as proper ripen-
ing stage, proper pre-treatment, post-treatment and
transport conditions yielding optimum results.
Combined treatment (low heat with a weak dose of
irradiation) can slow down ripening and reduce losses in
fruits. Attempts have been made in our laboratories, to
evaluate the possibility of using ionizing radiation in
combination with hot water dip treatment to achieve
longer shelf life of fresh mangoes (Gagnon et al., 1993;
Lacroix et al., 1991; 1993). The results showed that after
30 days of storage, the percentages of rotten fruits were
100% for controls, 80%, for samples irradiated at 1
kGy, and 20% for samples treated by hot water dip
combined with irradiation at 1 kGy. The combined
treatment also delayed the development of ripe skin
color. In this study, the hot water treatment and/or the
gamma irradiation of mangoes had no adverse e€ects
on nutritional and chemical qualities of the mangoes.
Di€erent studies on Moroccan citrus fruits were also
undertaken at the Canadian Irradiation Center. Results
obtained from this research demonstrated that washing
with warm water and waxing are treatments that cause a
signi®cant loss in fruits during storage. In contrast,
clementines irradiated at 0.3 kGy, and stored at 3 C for
a period of 8 weeks, showed <11% losses (Abdellaoui,
Lacroix, Jobin, Boubekri & Gagnon, 1995).
We also observed that throughout the entire pre-
servation period, the quantity of vitamin C content in
the irradiated clementines was signi®cantly higher.
Moreover, results of the sensorial evaluation showed
that the organoleptic quality was maintained through-
out the entire storing period, especially in irradiated
fruits. According to the sensorial evaluators, the taste of
the irradiated fruits was sweeter than in non-irradiated
fruits (Abdellaoui et al., 1995).
The e€ect of waxing, hot water dipping and irradia-
tion, on the phenol content and the colour of the oran-
ges was also veri®ed. These assays demonstrated that
irradiation and storage at 20 C favors the synthesis of
phenolic compounds, such as the ¯avonoids. The research
demonstrated that the combined treatment stimulated
the synthesis of these compounds (Oufedjikh, Mahrouz,
Amiot & Lacroix, 2000). This phenomenon is related to
a decrease in intensity of the red colouring in favor of a
more yellowish one. Waxing, however, maintains the
colour and the concentration of phenolic compounds in
oranges (unpublished data).
Among the essential oils in oranges, (D)-limonene
seems to be the major compound in the fruit skin. A
dose of 2 kGy stimulated the (D)-limonene synthesis
(Moussaid, Lacroix, Nketsia-Tabiri & Boubekri, 2000).
The control in the concentration of the compounds is
important for oranges, as the appearance of brown
spots in fruits is related to their presence in the tissues in
 M. Lacroix, B. Ouattara / Food Research International 33 (2000) 719±724
an appreciable amount. These studies showed that
waxing had a protective e€ect on the quality of the
oranges during irradiation. Moreover, a irradiation
dose up to 1 kGy ensured the innocuity of the product
did not, in any way, a€ect its essential oil content.
Mushrooms are a popular food products in the world.
However, the level of loss during marketing could be as
high as 40%. The loss of mushroom quality is marked
by brown coloration of its surface, cap opening, stipe
elongation, cap diameter increase, weight loss and tex-
ture changes. The enzyme, polyphenol oxidase (PPO)
present in the mushroom cells causes browning when
they are subjected to forces that can disrupt cellular
integrity, such as vibrations, rough handling, and ageing.
PPO oxidizes phenolic compounds present in the mush-
room such as tyrosine to quinones which condense to
form the brown melanin pigments (Beaulieu, BeÂliveau,
D'Aprano & Lacroix, 1999). In addition, bacterial
infection (Pseudomonas tolaasii; Mycogone perniciosa
magnus) could cause the brown coloration. A low irra-
diation dose in combination with a controlled storage
(temperature and relative humidity) is very e€ective in
controlling the deterioration of fresh mushrooms caused
by senescence and microbial activity. The elimination of
pathogenic bacteria such as Pseudomonas tolaasii and
Mycogone perniciosa can be achieved with 2 kGy dose
and increase shelf life from 2 to 8 days when stored at
10 C (Skou, Beett & Lundsten, 1974). The irradiation
treatment at 1 kGy could extend the shelf life from 2 to
4 days at 10 C by reduction of the micro¯ora, slowing
the respiration and the morphological transformation,
and lowering PPO activity and browning reaction. A
dose of 2 kGy appears to be necessary for satisfactory
prolongation of the shelf life of mushrooms at 10 C.
However, this can also a€ect some of the physical
characteristics viz. hyphes contraction and discolora-
tion. Based on these results, treatment at a dose of 2
kGy and at dose rates of 4.5 kGy/h (Iÿ) and 32 kGy/h
(I+) have been studied to evaluate their e€ects on the
overall quality of the mushrooms (Beaulieu et al., 1999).
Both the dose rates were e€ective in lowering the number
of yeasts, molds, and bacteria and extend the shelf life
by 6 days (Beaulieu, Lacroix, Charbonneau, Laberge &
Gagnon, 1992). However, based on mushrooms whiteness,
I+ and Iÿ showed a respective 2 and 4 days shelf life
increase. After a storage of 9 days, the I+ treated mush-
rooms were signi®cantly (P40.05) darker, and a higher
L value (whiteness color) was observed in Iÿ. In treated
mushrooms, at both dose rates, the PPO activity was
signi®cantly lower (P40.05) as compared to the con-
trol. However, the content of total phenolic compounds
throughout the storage, was signi®cantly higher
(P40.05) only in case of Iÿ, as compared to I+ and
control samples. This greater phenolic accumulation is
in accordance with the better preserved coloration
observed in Iÿ indicated a diminished oxidation rate in
721
this sample. In Iÿ, the higher phenols concentration and
the better preservation of whiteness throughout the storage
period can be explained by diminished activity of poly-
phenols oxidases. However, that hypothesis could not
explain the higher degree of coloration and browning
found in I+ samples. This e€ect was explained by the
electronic microscopy of the cellular membranes which
revealed a better preserved integrity in Iÿ than in I+.
The thickening of the membranes observed in I+ which
causes a stress to the cell, alters the cell permeability.
This alteration allows the release of vacuolar phenolic
compounds and the entry of molecular oxygen into the
cell cytoplasm which creates a synergistic e€ect of
enzymatic and non-enzymatic phenols oxidation. This
theory explains the browning e€ect and the smaller
concentration of total phenolic compounds observed in
I+. This study has shown that the right dose rate should
be applied for each product. A lower dose rate (2 kGy /
h) should be applied for fresh mushrooms (Beaulieu et
al., 1999).
3. Irradiation of proteinic sources
The application of irradiation in meats, poultry and
®sh, at doses less than 1 kGy, eliminates parasites (Gir-
oux & Lacroix, 1998). The intermediate doses of 1±10
kGy eliminates pathogenic bacteria and reduces the
number of micro-organisms. Signi®cant progress has
been made in this respect by using irradiation doses
lower than 10 kGy to control the growth of pathogenic
and spoilage bacteria on meat and meat products, such
as Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella typhimurium,
Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Yersinia enterocolitica
(Fu, Sebranek & Murano, 1995a, b). Although irradiation
might have some e€ects on lipids, proteins or vitamins,
its bene®cial outcome on protection of food quality
outweighs the former. However, meats are generally
susceptible to oxidative deterioration principally due to
oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids present in the
phospholipids. This results in the development of unde-
sirable ¯avours in irradiated meats (Giroux & Lacroix,
1998). Since polyunsaturated fatty acids are oxidized
rapidly, precautions must be taken during the irradia-
tion treatment. Oxidative and non oxidative changes in
lipids can be observed. Ionizing radiation causes the
radiolysis of water which is present to a great extent in
meat. This generates free radicals such as .OHÿ, hydrated
electron and H+, all of which react with the food con-
stituents (Merritt, Angelini & Graham, 1978). The most
susceptible site for free radical attack in a lipid molecule
is adjacent to the double bonds. The most a€ected lipids
during irradiation are thus the polyunsaturated fatty
acids that bear two or more double bonds.
Similar to lipids, protein damage due to irradiation is
catalyzed by free radicals formed by the radiolysis of
722 M. Lacroix, B. Ouattara / Food Research International 33 (2000) 719±724
water. Sulfur containing amino acids along with aromatic
amino acids are also susceptible to irradiation damage.
The products formed from sulfur-containing amino
acids in proteins include methyl or ethyl mercaptan,
dimethyl disul®de, carbonyl sul®de or hydrogen sul®de.
When sulfur compounds are submitted to radiation in
the absence of oxygen, hydrogen sul®de and other sul®des
are formed in large amounts. In the presence of oxygen,
the production of ammonia and sulfuric acid also
increases (Giroux & Lacroix, 1998). The most radiation
sensitive amino acids are in fact the ones bearing sulfur
notably cystine, methionine and tryptophan. Desulfur-
ization must thus be considered as one of the principal
e€ects of ionizing radiation on amino acids and pro-
teins (Singh, Lacroix & Gagnon, 1991). Partmann and
Keskin (1979) showed that the majority of the amino
acids in minced lean beef or pork and chicken breast
muscle are stable up to a dose of 5 kGy. Josephson,
Thomas and Calhoum (1978) indicated that there was
no signi®cant destruction of cystine, methionine and
tryptophan up to a dose of 71 kGy. It is also note-
worthy that there was no loss of lysine by irradiation at
70 kGy and even an increase is detected (Ley, Bleby,
Coates & Patterson, 1969). In comparison, cooking can
generate up to 40% loss of the essential amino acid
lysine (Harris, 1983).
The minimum irradiation dose (threshold dose) above
which o€-¯avors are detected in irradiated meats was
reported to be 2.5 kGy for poultry and beef (Hanis,
Jelen, Klir, Mnukova, Perez & Pesek, 1989). However,
doses higher than 2.5 kGy may be required for complete
elimination of Salmonella on chicken (Mahrour et al.,
1998b). Natural antioxidants from spices could be
employed to stabilize fats and control oxidative dete-
rioration of foods during irradiation. The e€ect of the
combination of irradiation and marinating with rosemary
and thyme extract on the sensitivity of Salmonella and
organoleptic characteristics of poultry has also been
investigated in our laboratory (Mahrour et al., 1998a,
b). The shelf life of chicken irradiated in air, under
vacuum and in combination with marinating was,
respectively, 10, 11 and 15 days when irradiated at a
dose of 3 kGy. This increased to more than 15 days for
all samples when irradiated at a dose of 5 kGy. Irradia-
tion of fresh chicken pieces with a dose of 3 kGy
appears to be able to extend the microbiological shelf
life by a factor of 2 if stored at 4 C. When the chicken is
marinated or when irradiated at 5 kGy, the micro-
biological shelf life was extended by a factor of 7±8. Our
results demonstrated that the use of marination before
irradiation reduced the dose necessary to eliminate Sal-
monella in poultry from 5 to 3 kGy.
The analysis of fatty acid demonstrated that the mar-
ination treatment has a better protection e€ect on linoleic
acid (18:2), linolenic acid (C18:3) and arachidonic acid
(C20:4) derived from phospholipids.
A number of studies reported that free radicals generated
by irradiation can also react with myoglobin or hemo-
globin resulting in undesirable color (Kamarei, Karel &
Wierbicki, 1979). The color stabilization would be more
improved if meat and meat products could be incorpo-
rated with food additives possessing radical scavenging
properties before irradiation. Furthermore, ascorbic
acid like many other edible short chain fatty acids has
been reported to inhibit the growth of many meat-borne
pathogenic and spoilage bacteria (Ouattara, Simard,
Holley, Piette & BeÂgin, 1997). Hence, a study was
undertaken in our laboratory in which ascorbic acid
(0.5%, w/w) was incorporated in half-lean ground beef
before irradiating at 1±4 kGy in order to evaluate the
combined e€ect of these on microbial characteristics
and color parameters of the meat product. Results
showed that irradiation treatment at a dose of 1 kGy
resulted in signi®cant (p40.05) reduction of total aero-
bic plate counts compared to unirradiated samples dur-
ing the entire experimental period (10 days). Increasing
irradiation dose led to subsequent improvement of
antibacterial e€ect. Complete inhibition of microbial
growth occurred during a period of 3 and 5 days,
respectively, in samples treated at 3 and 4 kGy. The shelf
life was respectively 1, 5, 7 and 10 days for samples
treated at 0, 1, 2 and 3 kGy. Samples treated at 4 kGy
were still good after 10 days of storage. The results also
con®rmed the high sensitivity of Enterobacteriaceae to
irradiation doses. The observation is of great interest
since this group contained many bacteria involved in
meat borne diseases like E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella
typhimurium, Yersinia enterocolitica. The results of color
analysis showed higher a values and lower hue angle
values in samples containing ascorbic acid, which are
indicative of more red color. Results of sensorial eva-
luation also demonstrated that incorporation of the
antioxidant in ground beef before irradiation had no
detrimental e€ect on its odor and taste.
4. Irradiation and development of edible coatings
Edible coating is a new technology that has been
introduced in food processing in order to obtain products
with longer shelf life. Several applications for meat,
poultry, and seafoods have been reviewed by Gennadios,
Hanna and Kurth (1997) with particular emphasis on
the reduction of lipid oxidation, weight loss, moisture
loss, microbial load, and volatil ¯avor loss. Studies
made in our laboratories on calcium caseinate-based
solutions demonstrated that gamma irradiation improved
edible coating development via the production of cross-
links between protein molecules (Brault, D'Aprano &
Lacroix, 1997; Ressouany, Vachon & Lacroix, 1998).
Based on these results and those obtained for gamma
irradiated foods, studies were undertaken to evaluate
 M. Lacroix, B. Ouattara / Food Research International 33 (2000) 719±724
the e€ect of combining gamma irradiation of fresh
strawberries, beef or prepared foods (pizza) and coating
with unirradiated and irradiated (cross-linked) edible
solutions. Strawberry decay resulting from mold growth
is a common problem during fruit storage. Rot caused by
Rhizopus sp. and Aspergillus sp. are mainly accountable
for the fruit loss. Because strawberries are especially
sensitive to mold growth, its shelf life is of 2 days when
stored at 15 C. In order to control fruit decay and losses,
many studies have been carried out in order to develop
new preservation methods. Among those tested, gamma
irradiation treatments have proven e€ective in reducing
the number of micro-organisms on fresh strawberries
and were used in combination with hot-water dip treat-
ments to inhibit yeasts and increase the storage stability
of strawberry yoghurt (Kiss, 1975). We have combined
gamma irradiation with the use of an edible coating in
order to improve the shelf life of fresh strawberries.
Fresh unirradiated and irradiated strawberries were
coated with two types of protein solutions (with or
without cross-linking). The results showed that coating
de®nitively delayed mold growth as did gamma irradiation.
Also, for the unirradiated strawberries, the cross-linked
coating was more e€ective than the uncross-linked one.
Almost 50% of the uncoated control strawberries were
rejected after 8 days while an equal amount of rejected
fruits was obtained on day 9 for the coated unirradiated
control fruits. The self life increased to 11 days for the
coated control fruits with an irradiated formulation.
Good results were obtained for all types of irradiated
strawberries. In comparison, 50% fruit loss was
obtained after 11 days for irradiated strawberries coated
with an unirradiated coating and after 13 days for the
irradiated strawberries without coating or coated with
an irradiated solution. On that basis, the shelf life of
fresh strawberries was extended by 5 days by applica-
tion of a cross-linked edible coating or by irradiation
treatment. No synergistic e€ect was noted between
gamma irradiation and coating. However, the use of a
cross-linked coating was found to be almost as e€ective
as gamma irradiation for preventing mold growth. Fol-
lowing these results, we have submitted these formula-
tions to a sensorial analysis to see if the coatings altered
in any way the organoleptic properties of the fruits.
Statistical analysis con®rmed that the coated strawberries
were not signi®cantly di€erent (P>0.05) from the
uncoated fruits in terms of their texture or taste. Further-
more, the coated strawberries were shinier than the
uncoated ones throughout the storage period. These,
thus clearly demonstrated that edible coatings could be
applied on strawberries in order to extend their shelf life
without altering their organoleptic properties.
Another interest is consumption of oven-ready meals
such as pizzas. Pizza consumption has dramatically
escalated in recent years. An inherent problem with
pizza is the contrasting nature of its ingredients (crisp
723
and ®rm bread base with soft moist topping of cheese,
sauce and selected meats and/or vegetables) which
makes it more dicult to keep for long periods under
refrigeration. For example, ingredients such as pork
sausage and pepperoni are highly susceptible to oxida-
tion and spoilage by psychrotrophic bacteria such as
Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter. Also, ¯avor loss may
occur in both storage and in cooking process. We have
examined the combined e€ect of irradiation and coating
with milk protein solutions on the shelf life of pizza
under refrigeration. Based on microbiological status,
the shelf life of control samples was 5 days, compared to
14 and 16 days for samples irradiated at 1 and 2 kGy,
respectively. When pizzas were coated before irradiation
treatment, only 1 kGy was necessary to obtain shelf life
of 21 days. That was expected since gamma irradiation
is known to increase the cohesive strength in protein
solution by formation of cross-links (Brault et al., 1997;
Mezgheni, D'Aprano & Lacroix, 1998; Ressouany et al.,
1998), which in turn reduced water vapor and oxygen
barriers properties (unpublished data). Therefore, aerobic
spoilage microorganism are more inhibited and the
initiation of oxidation activity is delayed. Also, sensorial
evaluation experiments showed that coated and irra-
diated samples had better odor and taste properties
compared to control samples and samples irradiated
only, suggesting that the coating process reduces loss of
¯avor during storage and cooking.
5. Conclusion
Gamma irradiation can be used for many applications
related to food science. Low dose of irradiation can be
used to prolong the shelf life of many fruits and vege-
tables by reducing microbial spoilage, reducing the rate
of respiration and delayed ripening. The use of com-
bined treatment with irradiation had a synergistic e€ect
reducing the microorganisms load and the irradiation
dose, required to eliminate pathogenic bacteria and also
reducing the rate of unsaturated fatty acid oxidation.
The use of edible coating in combination with gamma
irradiation has been proven e€ective for increasing the
shelf life of many foods. Our recent research clearly
showed the e€ectiveness of the use of gamma irradiation
to generate cross-linked edible coating or biodegradable
packaging. These biodegradable packagings could be
customized for each speci®c product. We also believe
that these promising ®lms of cross-linking by gamma
irradiation might ®nd application as a support for
immobilization of active compounds like ¯avors, anti-
microbial or antioxidant compounds. Moreover, the
cross-linked ®lms could be used as a support for con-
trolled release of these compounds from the ®lm to the
food. The combination of irradiation with coating is a
promising path that must be developed in the future.
724 M. Lacroix, B. Ouattara / Food Research International 33 (2000) 719±724
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