Chapter 3:

3. Social Learning
Learning, Perception and Attribution
 The process of observing the
I. Learning – relatively permanent change behaviour of others, recognizing its
in behaviour/knowledge due to consequences and altering behaviour
experience. as a result.

A change in behaviour happens due to: How social learning is Achieved:

1. Learning 1. By observing what happens to other

2. Other causes such as drugs, injury, people.
disease and maturation. 2. By being told about something
3. And through direct experience
 A change behaviour is manifested by
outward actions like yawning.
 Behavioural change starts with the mind II. Perception- the process by which people
when it accepts new knowledge. select, organize, interpret, retrieve and
 Sometimes the mind “orders” the body to respond to information from their
show some sign of behaviour that is environment. Recognition of things
different from previous one. Sometimes the using our senses.
mind just plain contented with the new Factors Influencing Perception
knowledge and do not make attempts to
“order” the body. 1. The perceiver
2. The target
THEORIES OF LEARNING 3. The situation
1. Classical Conditioning Perceiver- the person who perceives the target.
 Ivan Pavlov
 Type of learning in which a stimulus His perception is influenced by factors:
acquire the capacity to evoke a
1. His past experiences
response that was originally evoked
2. His needs and motives
by another stimulus.
3. His personality
 Stimulus is something that incites
4. His values and attitudes
action.
 Involves adjustment to events (or
stimuli, whether conditioned or
otherwise) over which the concerned
person has no control. Target- person, object or event that is perceived by
another person.
2. Operant Conditioning
Perception may be modified by factors which are
 B.F. Skinner
typical characteristics of targets:
 Type of learning where people learn
to repeat behaviors that bring them 1. Contrast
pleasurable outcomes to avoid 2. Intensity
behaviours that lead to 3. Figure-ground separation
uncomfortable outcomes. 4. Size
 Involves adjustment to situations in 5. Motion
which the actions of the person 6. Repetition or novelty
determines what happens to him.
Situation- perception is also affected by the 1. Selective perception
surrounding environment. 2. Halo effect
3. Contrast effects
Situational factors that affect perception:
4. Projection
1. Time 5. Stereotyping
2. Work
Selective Perception- happens when a person
3. Setting
selectively interprets what he sees on the basis of
4. Social-setting
his interest, experience and attitudes.
Halo Effect- occurs when one attribute of a person
III. Attribution- the process by which or situation is used to develop an overall impression
people ascribe causes to the behaviour of the person/situation.
they perceive.
Contrast Effects- oftentimes lead to inaccurate
Common attribution factors: evaluation of a person’s character and ability.

These errors may be classified into the Projection- attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings
following types: or motives to another.

1. The fundamental attribution errors Stereotyping- judging someone on the basis of

2. The self-serving bias ones perception of the group to which that person
belongs.
Fundamental Attribution Errors
- The tendency to underestimate the influence
of external factors and overestimate the
influence of internal factors in the behaviour
Chapter 4:
of others.
Values, Attitudes and Job Satisfaction
The Self-serving Bias
 Job Satisfaction is an important concern for
- People tend to attribute their achievements
both employer and employee because of the
to their good inner qualities, whereas they
benefits it brings to both.
attribute their failures to adverse factors
 Values generally influence attitudes and
within the environment.
behaviour.
Factors that Influence Attribution:  Attitudes form the basis for determining
1. Distinctiveness how satisfied people are with their jobs.
2. Consensus I.Values
3. Consistency
- refers to the importance a person attaches to things
Distinctiveness- how consistent a person’s or ideas that serves as guide to action.
behaviour is across different situations.
- Guidelines and beliefs that a person uses when
Consensus- refers to the likelihood that all those confronted with a situation in which a choice must
facing the same situation will have similar be made.
responses.
How people learn values:
Consistency- refers to the measure of whether an
individual responds the same way across time. 1. Modeling
2. Communication of Attitudes
Shortcuts used in forming impressions of 3. Unstated but implied Attitudes
others: 4. Religion
Modeling- parents, teachers, friends and other 1. Terminal Values- represent the goals that a
people oftentimes become model to persons who person would like to achieve in his/her
would later exhibit a good behaviour in the lifetime.
workplace. 2. Instrumental Values- refer to preferable
modes of behaviour/ means of achieving the
Communication of Attitudes- when a person
terminal values.
often hears from acquaintances the risk of buying
products imported from a certain country, the
person may develop negative values about that
country.
Unstated but Implied Attitudes- values may also
be affected by attitudes that are not stated but are Instrumental Values:
implied by way of action.
1. Ambition
TYPES OF VALUES: 2. Affection
3. Courage
1. Achievement- getting things done
4. Cleanliness
2. Helping & concern for others- the persons
5. Competence
concern with other people & providing
6. Cheerfulness
assistance to those who need help.
7. Forgiving Nature
3. Honesty- person’s concern for telling the
8. Honesty
truth and doing right.
9. Helpfulness
4. Fairness- person’s concern for impartiality
10. Independence
& fairness for all concerned.
11. Intelligence
Individual vs. Organizational Values 12. Imagination
13. Obedience
- There is value incongruence if the
14. Open-mindedness
individual’s value is not in agreement with
15. Politeness
the organization’s value.
16. Rationality
Organizational Values when congruent with 17. Responsibility
the Individual’s values = Positive Feelings 18. Self-sufficiency
19. Self-control
Terminal Values:
Organizational Values when incongruent with
the Individual’s values = Conflicts 1. Achievement
2. Beauty in art & nature
3. Equality
Espoused vs. Enacted Values 4. Exciting, active life
5. Freedom
Espoused Values- values are what members of 6. Friendship
the organization say they value. 7. Family Security
Enacted Values- those that are reflected in the 8. Happiness
actual behaviour of the individual members of 9. Inner peace
the organization. 10. Mature love
11. National Security
Another Classification of Values: 12. Pleasure
13. Prosperity
14. Self-respect
 15. Salvation
16. Social Respect
17. Wisdom
18. World peace
II. Attitudes
- Are feelings and beliefs that largely
determine how employees will perceive their
environment.
- Linked with perception, learning, emotion
and motivation.
Main Components of Attitudes
1. Cognitive Component- refers to the
opinion/ belief segment of an attitude.
2. Affective Component- refers to the
emotional/ feeling segment.
3. Behavioral Component- refers to the
intention to behave in a certain way toward
someone/something.
Differences in Personal Disposition
 Positive Affectivity- refers to personal
characteristic of employees that inclines
them to be predisposed to be satisfied at
work.
 Negative Affectivity- personal characteristic
of employees that inclines them to be
predisposed to be dissatisfied at work.
HOW ATTITUDES ARE FORMED
(THROUGH LEARNING)
2 Methods:
1. Direct Experience
2. Indirect means of Social Learning
MOST IMPORTANT ATTITUDES IN THE
WORKPLACE:
1. JOB SATISFACTION
2. JOB INVOLVEMENT
3. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
EFFECTS OF EMPLOYEE ATTITUDE:
1. POSITIVE JOB ATTITUDES
2. NEGATIVE JOB ATTITUDES
Positive Job Attitudes
- Indicate job satisfaction and re useful in
predicting constructive behaviours like
serving customers beyond official working
hours.
Negative Job Attitudes
- Useful in predicting undesirable behaviour.
- Concerning job dissatisfaction, lack of job
involvement, low commitment to the
organization.
- When employees are dissatisfied with their
jobs, they will have a strong tendency to
engage in:
o Psychological Withdrawal
o Physical Withdrawal
o Aggression
Job Satisfaction- attitude people have about their
jobs. Refers to the positive feeling about one’s job
resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics.
Benefits:
1. Higher productivity
2. A stronger tendency to achieve customer
loyalty
3. Loyalty to the company
4. Low absenteeism and turnover
5. Less job stress & burnout
6. Better safety performance
7. Better life satisfaction
Factors Associated with Job Satisfaction
1. Salary
2. Work itself
3. Promotion Opportunity
4. Quality of Supervision
5. Relationship with co-workers
6. Working conditions
7. Job security
Ways of Measuring Job Satisfaction
1. Single Global Rating Method
- An approach where individuals are asked to
respond to a single question such as “How
satisfied are you with your job?”
2. Summation Score Method
- An approach where individuals indicate their
feelings regarding each key factors of their
job.
Job Involvement- refers to the degree to which a
person identifies with the job.
Organizational Commitment- refers to the degree
to which an employee identifies with a particular
organization and its goals and wishes to maintain
membership in the organization. Three
Dimensions:
1. Affective Commitment- refers to the
employee’s emotional attachment to the
organization and belief in its values.
2. Continuance Commitment- refers to the
employee’s tendency to remain in an
organization because he cannot afford to
leave.
3. Normative Commitment- refers to an
obligation to remain with the company for
moral or ethical reason.
Chapter 5: MOTIVATION
Job performance is a given requirement in any
organization. It is possible, however, if the
following conditions are met:
1. The capacity to perform
- Relates to the degree to which the employee
possesses skills, abilities, knowledge and
experiences.
2. The opportunity to perform
- Will depend on the work environment
provided to the employee.
3. The willingness to perform
- Relates to the degree in which an employee
desires and is willing to exert effort to
achieve the goals assigned to him.
MOTIVATION
- the process of activating behaviour
sustaining it and directing it towards a
particular goal.
- Moves people to act and accomplish.
- (In the workplace) the set of internal and
external forces that cause a worker or
employee to choose a course of action and
engage in a certain behaviour.
Key Elements of Motivation
1. Intensity
2. Direction
3. Persistence
Intensity- refers to the level of effort provided by
the employee in the attempt to achieve the goal
assigned to him.
Direction- relates to what an individual chooses to
do when he is confronted with a number possible
choices.
Persistence- a dimension of motivation which
measures how long a person can maintain effort to
achieve the organization’s goals.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
There are various theories related to motivation.
They may be classified as either (1) content or (2)
process theories.
Content Theories- focus on analysing the wants
and needs of an individual.
1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory of Abraham
Maslow
2. ERG Theory of Clayton Alderfer
 3. Acquired Needs Theory of David L. 3. Needs for power- desire to control others,
McClelland to influence their behaviour/ to be
4. Two-factor Theory of Frederick Herzberg responsible for others.
Process Theories- explain how people act in TWO-FACTOR THEORY
response to the wants and needs that they have.
- Developed by Frederick Herzberg
1. Expectancy Theory of Victory Vroom - Identifies job context as a source of job
2. Equity Theory of J. Stacey Adams dissatisfaction and job content as the source
3. Goal Setting Theory of Edwin A. Locke of job satisfaction.
THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY
1. Physiological needs- include hunger, thirst,
shelter, sex & other bodily needs.
2. Safety Needs- includes safety & security
3. Social Needs- include affection,
belongingness, acceptance and friendship.
4. Esteem Needs- include internal esteem
factors such as self-respect, achievement and
external esteem factors.
5. Self-actualization- refers to the drive to
become what one is capable of becoming,
which includes growth, achieving one’s
potential and self-fulfilment.
THE ERG THEORY
- A need hierarchy theory of motivation that
was developed by Clayton Alderfer.
- 3 sets of needs:
1. Existence- satisfied by food, air, water, and
pay and working conditions.
2. Relatedness- satisfied by meaningful social
& interpersonal relationship; &
3. Growth- satisfied by an individual making
creative/ productive contributions.
ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY
- PROGRESSION
- “ Today is better than yesterday”
- Developed by David McClelland
- They found out that managers are motivated
by 3 fundamental needs

1. Need for achievement- desire to do

something better/ more efficiently.
2. Need for affiliation- desire to establish and
maintain friendly & warm relations with
others