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    Leah Clovis

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    of 31
    Divisibility 8 2-2 Sundry Defi itrary integer and 4 an arbitrary ‘ab, we s2Y th tions q non-zero integer. Then if there is Let ¢ be hat a divides c, a isa divisor of c, a an integer b such se by a, of that ¢ 88 multiple of a. Symbolicaly, Safeco a r aicvides 0. ObvOSY. Hf 2 SNIGES C.F doss we write ale to denote HET © Ty snceger &, we may write a { c. For ex. Sor a divisor of 12 and 7 —a divide c. If th 7.0, we say that 3 isa ample, since 12 3-4and0=7-", put 5 12 since there is no integer b a | is 12, 7/0, e I aivisr of zero; that i 3112+ 71 Oe and —1 are divisors. of every a 2 — 5 b. It will be note - : Bs a multiple of every non-zero integer. Every integer a integer ani is divisible by L —La, and —a._ By et mean the mumerieal value ofa. Thus I= 2.1-5\= 5, 0] = 0. That is, lal = 4 ifa=0, and |a| = —aif a <0. Note that the following properties? readily follow: () [al > 0 ita #0, and lal = Oifa ) [a] = |—ak: (iii) |ab| = lal: Ibls (iv) ja + | Ela + [Ol (v) [al — ll Sia + A prime number, ot simply a prime, is an integer p greater than one havifig only the two distinct positive integral divisors 1 and p. A composite umber, on the other hand, is an integer_” greater than one having more than the two distinct positive divisors 1 and, For example, 2 and 5 are prime numbers, 2 =0; and 4 and 21 are composite numbers. We note that 5 has the positive divisors 1 and 5, and 21 has the positive divisors 1, 3, 7, 21. The integers 1 and —1, which are the only integers dividing every integer, are pealled units: — An even integer. is one having the factor 2; an odd integer is one which does not have the factor 2. For example, 6 and 0 are even integers, while 15 is an odd integer. If two integers are both odd or both even, they are said to have the same parity; otherwise, opposite parity. For example, 7 and 3 or —4 and 6 are of the same parity, while 3 and 8 are of opposite parity An integer which divides each of two or more integers is said to be a common divisor of these integers. For example, 3 is a common divisor of 9 and —12, 7 is a common divisor of —21, 0, and 35. 2-3 Elementary Theorems oT) i i ae 71. (i) Every non-zero integer a divides itself; that is, aja il ‘Some Fundamental Principles 9 (ii) Every non-zero integer a which divides ¢ ivi i ry also divid ‘of ¢; that is, if ale, then for every k, alke. ee Gil) Tf @ divides c and if ¢ divides d, then a divides d; that is, i Borer ic , a divides d; that is, if alc and Gy) Ifa divides both ¢ and d, then a divides the sum of any multiple of ¢and any multiple of d; that is, if ajc and ald, then for all integers m and n (positive, negative, or zero) al(me + nd). (y) Ife 4 0 and if ale, then |a| _ (vi) If two integers divide each other, they are numerically equal; that is, if ale and cla, then Ja] = |c\. Proofs Nowa = a-1. From the statement c — ab, it follows that ke= (ab) = a(bk). Hence (i) and (ii) are obviously true. If in addition to ¢ = ab we have d = ce, then d = (ab)e = a(be); thus (iii) follows. Also, if c= ab and d=af, then me + nd = mab + naf = a(mb + nf). Thus (iv) is true. We see that if c= ab 0, then |c| = |a|-|b| and c| = |a|. This establishes (v). Moreover, if alc and if cla, then by (v), Jal = |c| and also |c| = al; consequently |a| = |c\. 2-4 Some Fundamental Principles We shall assume, and use in the sequel, the following properties’ of integers and sets of integers: I Every set of positive integers which is not empty contains a smallest . integer (The Well-ordering Principle). I(a) Every non-empty set of integers positive or zero contains a smallest integer. 0 II If a set of positive integers contains the integer a, and also contains. _ the integer n + 1 whenever it contains the integer n, then this set contains all the positive integers greater than or equal to a (The Principle of Mathe- matical Induction). Il(a) If a set of positive integers contains the integer a, and if it also contains the integer 1 + 1 whenever it contains all integers greater than or equal to @ and less than or equal to n, then the set contains all integers greater than or equal to a (The Principle of Complete Mathematical Induc- tion). III If 7 is an arbitrary positive integer, a non-empty set of positive in- tegers not greater than n contains a greatest integer. IV For positive integers a and b there exists a positive integer such that na > b (Archimedes’ Principle applied to positive integers). Divisibitiy 10 2-5 Basic Theorem ‘The following basic theorem is arbitrary integer and if a #0, there exist unique hecondition that b= aq +r, where O 0, r — jal = ye ep maya atiniat0) lel — 6 +o = b — @ — a Hence, r — |a| is less than r and therefore negative. Thus r satisfi ee rer Maree only one such pair of value se: reece a(eisetord pair g, and r, such’ in ee Tien since ag t+; a, MG 4) =n — r- Hotes, r)— ris 4 multiple of « which fea" ly than aj, and therefore r, — r must be zero. ersten r,=randg,=q. Consider a few exampl + Corollary If b is arbitrary and if @ is non-zero, there ex ist unique in i : i 2 Ae , i que inte: b—aq+r, where —}lal0, and qq, 1 if Pee tient <1 <0 ae é as two such re} i eae sip Tepresentations: b = a = aq’ pe pn By Subject to the given on, A sat WaT Since, however, 0 =< aa 7 WOssr! — 7 <|al al Induction ‘iy # — risa multiple of lal, y’ — esentation is unique. 0. Then, too, ¢ — q’ = 0, and 2-3. Every number greater than one has a prime factor. of Let us assume that there is have a prime factor. Conseque! st S.of such integers, et Shas a least cleme nym, where an integer greater than 1 that does. ntly, since there is then a non-empty We see that by the Fundamental Principle I, the nt, 7 say. Thus n isnot a prime and we can write and 7, are each less than n and have no prime fac- ince their prime factors would be prime factors of n. This con- dicts the fact than » is the least number greater than 1 which does have a prime factor. Consequently, every number greater than 1 s have a prime factor. rem 2-4. The square of every odd integer is one greater than a Itiple of 8. example, the square of the odd number 5 is S? = 25 — 8-3 + 1; pri? = 121 = 8-15 +1. _ Proof From Euclid’s Theorem 2-2 above, we see that a number b can be written b = 2q + r, where 0 < 2. But, since b is odd, r must be one: b=2q+1. Then b= (2g + 1P = 424 4g 4+ 1 = 49(g + 1)'+ 1. Ifq iseven, 4q isa multiple of 8; if q is odd, g + 1 "ig even and 4(q + 1) is a multiple of 8. Consequently, the theorem is - established. Mathematical Induction method of proof by mathematical induction (Principle Il) is fre- antly useful in the theory of numbers. Familiarity with this type of argu- is essential to subsequent work. Let us now consider an example of this hod of proof, mple 1 Show that if n is a positive integer, 1+ 3-+5+...+ . hi We = i i is iously true when n= 1: 1= 1. oof First, this statement is obvious| : S ee Jet us assume the statement to be true for a specific value of , k, say: that is, we assume that Reset aera 1 (2k = lic Divisibinty = 2k + 1 t0 each side of this equa Seat) b= K+ 2k + 1 = 1) + 2+ I— = (+1). 4, precisely what the statement of the is pt 4p 1. Hence, we have proved that of, it must also be true for n= k + | Gtive integral values of 1 for which the the set 0! saris this set contains an arbitrary positive a whoa for n= 1. If we take k=1 in the statement 1S if it is true for 2 = 1, it must be true for ment, we se° tha! WT” We have now established the truth — 2; that is, for age We we next take k = 2, we sce that, =1 ae be true for the next higher value of since it is true for n {= 3. Thus we have established the truth of rs that is fort@=2 4” proceeding in the same fashion, step by the result for #— 1% Om the result for n — N, an arbitrary positive step, We Se eats ave applied Principle II directly to the set integer. We could, S to obtain our result. statement integer N. The above argu! n=1+1 of the result for 7 Show that for positive or zero values of n, 5” + 24n — 1 ig ‘ = 5% + 24n — 1. Since f(0) = 0 and f(1) ape ee n= and for n= 1. Assume the statement to este for n= &; thats, assume that f(k) = 5* + 24% — 1 is divisible by 48, Then i+ 1) = 7 + 28k + 23 — S* — 24k +1 = 5% (5? — 1) + 24 \ fe Ky sald , oc = 24((5") Bis He, odd, Since the square of an odd number is of the form 8M + 1, we have, on transposing —/(k): 1) Sk + 1) = fk) + 24{8M + 2}. Since /(f) is, by hypothesis, divisible by 48, the right member of this last equation is divisible by 48, Consequently, f(k + 1) is divisible by 48. There- fore, if the statement is true for a value n = k, then it must be true for n # + J, But, since it is true when we take n = 1, it must be true also for-n ently, the statement is now t Bivaltie Of & to be 2, wo see that in Ht j hat the statement must be true = 3. Hence, employing. Mathematical induction, we see that 4s true for the set of all positive and sere integers n, proof could be modified slightly as follows, T= 257k) = 545% 4 24K 4 93 24(—24k + 2), 25(5* + 24k — 1) 3 Sk + 1) = 257 (Kk) 4 48(1 — 12K), k) is by hypothesis divisible by iber of this equation is divi fore. 48, 25/(k) is also, and therefore the ble by 48. The induction now pro- Solution For n= 0, the result i — bis a factor of a” — 6". Then et 24n— 1 — (52) 1 + 24, = 25" — 1" + 24n CeCe Sack eee 25°11) eae BAO Sears 2572. 25+ 1 +n. y let m be even: n = 2r. Since (251 4 25-24... 4.95 4 1) is the an even number of odd integers, it must be even, 2K say, Hence, the member becomes 24{2K + 2r} — 48(K + r}. Thus f(n) is divisible by ie let m — 2s + I. Since 25-1 + 25-24. 4°95 is the sum of number of odd integers, it must be even, 2L say. Hence 25" +... + 25) + 1} + 24n = 24(21 + 1} + 240s + 1), = 48(L + s) + 48. in) is divisible by 48. It is to be noted that this latter proof does not mathematical induction. is obvious. For n 1, we note 2-7 Problems m is an arbitrary integer, show that all numbers of the form 7m are multiples of six. n= 0, show that 16 divides 83" — 2.97" + 1. ow that 14 divides 5°! + 3*"** when n = ove that for a non-negative integer , 2" — | is divisible by 15. Divisibsity (d) (11 i ; ® came (237012), and (50107).- scale of 8, add 2 ue In the a iply (751) by ( © mite se? id (10625), by (64 b) In o In the scale of 7, 2-10 Common Divisors S teger disa common divisor of a.and b if d divides « An intes ‘DeFINtTi0? ‘ and if d divides b. ; i 1on divisor of @ and 6, so is —d. We note that. Tea common divisor je numerically not greater than the smaller o; every such comm i ya finite number of positive = y non-zero integer has only a nber of e ie ornare finite number of positive common divisors of a and ), divisors, there is provided that not both a: is to be noted that if both @ and i tha and bare zero. It is to cs, Ce non-zero integer would divide both. Hence, on the as b were rs are zero,-among the positive common di Seer Pe eenees cae iSunity) there isa greatest (by Principle IID. This is called the greatest common divisor of a and b or the highest common factor of a and b, The abbreviations G. C.D. and H.C. F. are commonly used. We denote the G. C. D. of a and b by the symbol («. 5) For example, (21, 15) = 3, (0, 6) = 6, (15, 28) = 1. Consider, then, two integers a and 6, not both zero. The set S of num bers ax + by with x and y ranging independently of each other over .i| “Tntegers, includes the integer a (for x = 1, y = 0) and the integer b (fo = 0, y= 1), This set S also includes positive integers, since at lexst one 4, —4, b, —b is positive. Then let ny denote the least positive integer in the set of all positive integers contained in the set S (using Principle 1); that is N= aX + byo, Divide an arbitrary integer n = ax +. by of the set S by the integer 1,: if ab = 0, "=mgtr 0 by’) _ Therefore md|D. Consequently, D = md. ollary 1 If a= kay and b = kby, then (a,b) = \k| (ao, bo) ollary 2. If d = (a, b) and a — da, and b = dby, then dy and by are ely prime: (ao, bo) = |. : heorem 2-8 Ifa and b are each relatively prime tom, then ab is tela- Divisibitity 18 : i 1 =ax4 i re integers x and y such that Ee ¢ eee fy. Thus a divisor of both ab and m OF ee Tice b are relatively prime. Hence must divide 6. (ab, m) = 1. + Corollary If each of @, 4» «a, is relatively prime to ™- (kb) = 1 and if klab, then Kia: ‘and y such that 1 = kx + by; conse- b= ke. Then a = K(ax + cy); that is, ever, m and a, is relatively prime to m, then a,a, + Theorem 2-9 If Proof There exist integers * quently a = akx + aby. Let al kia. If p is a prime dividing neither a nor 6, then p does not + Corollary 1 | | divide ab. + Corollary 2. If not divide the product of the a’s. Proof If p were to divide a,23-. it must, by Theorem 2-9, divide a.as it must divide aa,...a,. Consequently, a, This, however, is a contradiction. a,, then p does ‘pis a prime dividing none of ai, div. a, then, since p does not divide a,, 4d, Since it does not divide a,, it must ultimately divide | « Corollary 3. An integer n divisible by two relatively prime integers, a | and b, is divisible by their product ab. Proof Setting n= an, we see that, where (a,b) = 1, blam. Hence, by Theorem 2-9, bj; that is, n = abn,. 2-11 Euclid’s Algorithm Consider two integers a and b, not both zero. If one of these integers is zero, the greatest common divisor of a and b is obviously the numerical value of the other. Since a negative integer has the same divisors as its numerical value, we may assume without loss of generality that both a and , The method to be described derives bare positive integers with, say, a = from Euclid and is known as Evclid’s Algorithm. Divide a by b, obtaining the quotient q, and the remainder r,. Then, if n # 0, divide b by r, obtaining the quotient g, and the remainder r,. Then, if r, % 0, we repeat the process and divide r, by r,, obtaining the iuctient 6 Ps the remainder r,. This process, or “algorithm,” is repeated until we be ee en zero. Thus, applying this process we obtain the tine Equations 19 a=by +n, O 0 and 12 —2t>0. That is, 0O= 1=5. This yields the following pairs of values of x, y: 1, 12; 4, 10; 7, 8; 10, 6; 13, 4; 16, 2. Example 5 If a and 6 are relatively prime integers, we wish to find the greatest common divisor of a* + Banda + b. Let D = (a + b*,a + b)..Now a* + b* = (a + b)(@ — b) + 26°. Every possible prime factor of D must divide 2b?. Because a and b are relatively prime, this prime factor cannot divide b* (since then it would divide b as well as a + b, and hence divide their difference, a). Consequently, the only possible prime factor of D is 2. Since a and b are relatively prime, D could not have the factor 27, Thus D = | or 2. If a and b are both odd, D = 2; otherwise, D = 1. ‘2-13. Problems 1. (a) Find the G.C. D. of 819 and 1430. (b) Find the G. C. D. of 227 and 659. (c) Find the G. C. D. of 584 and 1606. 2. Solve completely the following Diophantin (a) 2x + lly = 5; (b) 8x + 12y = 6; (c) 18x — 2ly = 15. e equations: Divisibitity 22 3. IF (a, b) = 1, find possible values of the G.C.D. of a + ie and a? — p Illustrate each possibility by giving specific values for a and b. 4, If (a 6) = 1, find the G.C.D. of a? +b and a? us 5, Find the numbers a and 6 and also their G.C.D. if a + 6* = 3505678 and a — b = 6908. 6. If (m,n) = 1, find the G.C.D, of m + 1 and m — n’. 7. If (m,n) = 1, find the G.C.D, of m? — 7? and nP — 1°. 8. If (m,n) = 1, find the G.C.D. of m +- kn and nm + 9. 9. Given that (m,n) = 1, find the G.C.D. of m? + n? and n? + n° if: (a) m and n are both odd; (b) m and 7 are of opposite parity. 10. Show that for integral values of m, m? — m+ 1 and 3m? ++ m 4 m + 2 are relatively prime. : 11. Show that 7»? + 3n +1 and 71 + 18? —n—2 are relatively prime. 12. If (m,n) = 1, show that the G.C.D. of 7m-+ 3n and 2m —n is either 1 or 13, — m+ 4m + 2 is 13. Show that the G.C.D. of m? + m+ 2 and Sm? even, and that it is 14 if and only if m = 7k + 3, 14. Show that the G.C.D, of m+ 3m? — 4m and 5m* — m + m+ 7m + 6 is a multiple of 6. 15. Prove that 4/2 is irrational. 16. Find all positive integral solutions x, y, and z of x! 4+ y! = z1, 17. If |st| # 1, show that 5* + 4¢* cannot be a prime number, 2-14 Greatest Common Divisor and Least Common Multiple +4, are zero, let a, be non-zero, Con- _ Sider the set of all Positive integers which simultaneously divide a, Me. a, Each member of this non-empty set of positive integers < la,|. Hence there 18 a greatest integer of this Set of positive divisors (Principle Ill), If not all the integers a, Gay DEFINITION Tf not all ONG ay... , +4, (where n = 2) are Zero, the greatest Positive integer which simultaneously divides 4s Qs... a, i8 called the greatest co, ivi : : j mmon divisor fay, a,.,, +4, In symbols, we denote it by (aa... a,). jon Divisor and Least Common Multiple 23 st common divisor is the integer one, g ne EQ are said to be relatively prime: (ar a nes a +n Gyo.) = 1, that we have our former definiti S elinition of the greatest common divisor a of the integers a,,a,,..., a,, Where n = 2, has the greatest eet a si say that i, Gz, ..., a, ate relatively prime in pairs. gers are relatively prime in pairs, they are relatively prime, but not ly. As examples, note that the three numbers 6, 14, and 21 are ly prime, but they are not relatively prime in pairs; on the other hand, nul bers: 6, 25, 77 are relatively prime in Pairs and consequently are prime. ) r the set of positive integers which are multiples of each of the zero integers ;,4,,...,a,, where n = 2. One such positive integer is a,|. ‘Then (by Principle I) there is a smallest positive integer of this fe call it the least common multiple of a,,a,,...,a,, abbreviated to . of a;,@,,...,a,. For example, the L.C.M. of 6, 14, and 21 is 42. L.C.M. divides every multiple of each of a,,a;,...,a,. For, if the M. is denoted by L, and if M is an arbitrary multiple of each of these then dividing M by L, we get a quotient q and a remainder r satisfying gL, +7r,0=r Pn the integer es is infinite. ose there is a /ast prime, Po be all the existing primes. Consider In in- N=piP2--- Pat 1. must be divisible by a prime. It can- Now N, being greater than one, P,. Moreover, ae be asks since it is larger than the greatest prime. is not divisible by any-existing prime. For, if prime p, ‘divides N, the a > en. i p, must divide N — p\Pr--+ Pr-++ Pa = I This is a contradiction, sin i : , since a prime cannot divi ay . jot divide ere is no greatest prime, and the number of aa Second Proof’ ielt} i oof’ (from T.J. Stieltjes) Assuming p, to be the | A ie largest prime, express the product of the (distinct) existing primes p,, P2,..- 5 Ps Pp ( ) ig as a product of two factors in any way whatever. Since h of oduct A-B of f 5 each o! 1 of Primes Infinite distinct primes p,, p,, e B), A+B is not wever, since 4 4. B + Pn divides ej divisible iat : »» the largest - Note that if 4 — 1, we ) As before, le + 5. Now, _ where ay PP... Were IDs rs tye ete Sei eee arid MP2" Pr Since + 44451 ig rational number N/D is greater _ than one. Consequently, the numerator N, being greater than the de- “fominator, is itself Sreater than one and therefore has a prime factor. However, no prime p; divides N, for P; divides every term in the sum F for N except the term p,p,_.. ae eee Consequently, N must _have a prime factor greater than p,, the greatést prime. Thus, again, there must be an infinite number of primes, | Fourth Proof? (from E. Kummer _ increasing order of magnitude, I P2 --., Dp, the greatest prime be- . ing p,, where n > 2. Since every integer greater than one has a prime factor p,, the only positive integer less than D — PiPr... P, which is ‘telatively prime to D is the number one. However, D — | than one and less than D, has no prime factor i Nn common with D. For, P, divides both D and D — 1, it divides their difference one—an im- ity. Hence, there are now at least two positive numbers less than and relatively prime to D: namely, | and D — 1. This contradicts above result that | is the only positive number of this character. ice the supposition that there is a greatest prime is false. Fifth Proof!’ A direct proof of the existence of an infinite num- of primes may be given as follows. First, we know that every num- r greater than one has a prime factor. Consider the following infinite equence of numbers n(i = 1, 2,...):m, = 2,m =n, + Wee ny M+ Mm iis t+ 1,-2.2. Mis) = ym + laa Since each n, is divisible by a prime and since no two 1’s have the same prime factor they are relatively prime to each other), the number of a be at least as great as the number of n’s; that is, the number o s must be infinite. ae ie Diviaitsility 26 2-16 Sieve of Eratosthenes Eratosthenes (fi. c. 230 8.c.) employed # obtaining all primes not exceeding a positive i icibesaltveiaticmets 1, 2)0<- 7. Passing over}, we prime of this sequence. that is, the numbers 2- Which is not struck out is 3, this 3 is t strike out every third number after 3; that is, t! after 3 not struck out is the pri fh number after 5. We proceed in this fashion until hat whose multiples were struck out is gx one which remain are primes. T# for a simple bat useful device nteger n. Consider the sequence note that 2 is the & Let us now stri Deas &.... Ss the next pri he numbers 2-3 = ime 5. We ne: next remaining number after tl than s/n. The numbers exceeding e prim stent tables of primes have been constructed by modification of this process For example, let n = 30. Consider the sequence: 123458753 30 11 19 13 M8 YS 16 17 Ye 19 WO 2 22 23 UA 29 26 27 28 29° FE Gclete the multiples of 2: 4, 6,8, ..., 30. Next, we delete the mull 4: 6, 9, 12,..., 30. Then we delete the multiples of 5: 10, 15, 20 The next remaining number after 5 is the prime 7. However, since 7 excescs 4/30, the multiples of 7 (greater than 7 itself) have already been de ‘Consequently, the numbers (greater than unity) retained in this sequen all the primes < 30. These primes are: 2, 3, 5,7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29. adaptation of this sieve method of Eratosthenes has been applied to Jem of estimating the number of integers in a specified interval hav ‘tain divisibility properties with regard to a designated set of primes. 2-17. Unique Factorization + Theorem 2-14 Every integer greater than unity is either i a ec y is either a prime or a Proof Consider the positive integer n > 1. To prove the existence of such a representation of n, we shall proceed by complete mathema‘ induetion on 7. Forn= 2 the theorem is true since n is then a pri aes the existence of such a representation for the integers 2 fd ie ‘we shall show that there is such a representation for the ie pee ee ie itself a prime, the theorem is established fo L a pearteaiias kt 1 = mn, where | < n, < fey l * — pe (mod y**), where s = 0, } eee a” = be Proof The theorem is obvious! i true for s = k = 0; qr = po ibe ef te 0. Assume the theorem 2 Bra sey, Fe ; that is, at — por rik Raise both members Of the equation to the power p: mae » (a) = (po + Mptty ee ei tl FT (OY Mprs 4. Pp - D (Bey age persae Ling tee + Mi(prity. If, however, (k, m) is greater than 1, we tor k: for example, although 2. 5=2. 3 Consider the following examples. Given that 6-7 see that here exponents of the powers of p, namel 5 yr+k+ 1,2 , pr + pk are each =r + k + 1, we have he a? = bP" (mod p'*#*), quently, if the theorem is true for s = k, it must be + true also for | ia 1. The theorem then follows by mathematical induction on s. applications of this theorem, p is frequently a prime. 1 Show that for numbers written in the denary scale, the num- d the sum of its digits differ by a multiple of 9. (This leads to known as “casting out nines.”) Let the number N in the scale of 10 be N=(a,a,-;. - - @:@o)i0= Bea, ,10"7'+... + a,10? + a,10 + a. Since 10=1 (mod 9), = 1 (mod 9). By part (vi) of Theorem 3-2, Salo = Dae: 1 (mod 9). . since the left member of this congruence is N, N=a,+a,,+... +4, + a (mod 9). nce, the difference between N and the sum of its digits (in the scale of a multiple of 9. For example 3741 = 3-10°+7-10°+4- 10+ 1; mi —(34+7+4 + 1) = 3726, which is divisible by 9. ple 2 Show that every number of the form n’ — 3n° + 2n is di- by 6 ifn is odd, and by 24 if n is even. Solution Let i — 372 + 2n = n(n? — 3n + 2) = (n — 2)(n — In. ‘odd, (n — 1) is even, and (n — 2)(n — 1)nis then divisible by 2. If n n, nis double an odd number or double an even number: thus, n = b1)= 4k + 2 or n= 2(2k) = 4k. If n= 4k + 2,n—2 = 4k; 1 Oe 2 = 4k — 2= 2(2k — 1). In either case, (n — 2)n is divisibl ince n must be of one of the forms n = 3¢ + 0, 3t + 1, 3¢ + 2, on sn — 2,n — 1,n must always be divisible by 3. Hence, f(r) = (in — 1)n is always divisible by 3. Thus, if n is odd, f(x) is divisib = 6; if n is even, f(n) is divisible by 8 - 3 = 24. a Solution For n= —1,0,1,2 the statement is obviously tru ‘the statement to be true for n = k; that is, assume that f(k) is « 6 when k is odd, and by 24 when k is even. Since f(k + 2) , we have fik + 2) Ef Gate 6k2, We note that k — Dee Congrue < ve see (by in iti re see (by it k-+2 all have the same parity. If is positive ae mee ee ar Se een ane be ‘ine a statement is true for n — Eos tive and even, we see likewise that the mE 24k 1 Bre k42.... Since fk —2)— fl) = ees that | oe og) 6 + 2k — 1). Thus (by inductio' ti fk — 2) = fk) — 6 + ess, it is true for n= — . the statement is true for i LLLlLl_7LLeeeeeeeee is tive and odd, the statement 1S_ 1... Moreover, fk is non-positive and even, the statement is erue for ca 4... kk —2,.... By mathematical induction, a POE kk — 2... the statement is true for all integral values of 7. 3-4 Problems 1. Show that all numbers of the form 2m + 7m are multiples of 3. 2. Show that a* — b? is divisible by 4 if a and b are both even, and is divisible by 8 if both a and b are odd. © “he care odd v > aVicow Z peice , 3. Show that every numberof the form 3n(n + SO) Raiysible by 6. 4. Show that if a number n greater than one is both a uth power and a vth power, then n = (p{'p*’ --- pf’), where the p, are the distinct prime factors of n, the k, positive integers, and ¢ the least common multiple of u and v, a Maa 5. (a) Show that every integer which is both a square and cube must be of one of the four forms: 36m, 36m + 1, 36m + 9, 36m + 28. (b) Obtain at least one such integer (which is both a Square and a cube) of each of these four forms. 6. Show that no cube has the form.9m + 2,9m + 3, or 9m +4. Te (@) Show that if a number is both a Square and a cube, it cannot be of either of the forms 5m + 2 or 5m + 3. (b) Show by examples that there are numbers of the forms Sm, Sm-+-1, 5m + 4 which are both a square and a cube. 8 (a) If an integer is simultaneous! ; ‘ ly a fourth power and a fifth power, tes it must be of one of the forms 40m, 40m + 1, 40m + 16, or = (b) Determine whether there exist s uch numbers and a fifth Power) of each of these forms. at “? 9. (a) If a number is simultan F eously a cy v ait ma gta. it i ; ube and a fourth Power, show Show by examples that th : Mien, oct ere are numbers of each of the forms + I which are both a Cube and a fourth power. 35 1 and a> 1, prove that o an integer. i 1 that if p, denotes the ith prime, 3 can never be an integer 's ¢-Function For a positive integer m, $m) is defined as the nwnber of gers not exceeding m which are relatively prime to m function 4(m), E. Prouhet proposed (in 1845) the term indicator; s| (in 1879) introduced the term fofient, Bor example, for m — | nly one positive integer (namely, unity itself) not exceeding one and prime to one; hence ¢(1) = 1. For m= 2, there is likewise only e integer (unity itself) not exceeding 2 and relatively prime to 2 = I. Also, (3) = $(4) = $(6) = 2 and (5) — 4 ‘acomplete set of residues, modulo m, we delete those which are ely prime to m, there will remain a set of b(t) numbers each of elatively prime tom, We call such a set of (7m) numbers a reduced idues, modulo m. If, for example, from the complete set of residues m, modulo m, we delete those which have a common factor with unity,we obtain $(m) numbers which form a reduced set of lulo m. Obviously, if m isa prime p, then 1, 2,....? { form et of residues, modulo p. We note then that (p) = p — | m3-5 If pisa prime and ¢ > 0, 4(p') — p’ (rp — ') " ple, #22) = 242 — 1) = 4, The numbers in the set 1, A elatively prime to 8 are the numbers I, 3, 5, fi Those numbers of the set of p’ numbers 1, 2,... 2? + ih, iy 3p,... p> p which have a factor in common with p® are =! numbers p, 2p, 3p,... p’'- p- Hence by the definition of Hy) =p — pt = (9 —') rl r) Congruences 36 Ifa and b are relatively prime positive integers, gab) = $a). =4. For example, $(12) = $(3)6(4) = 2-2 = It is obviously true. As. it is equal to one, the resu roe nd b= 1. Arrange the ab numbers frm 1 to ab in b rows sume a of @ numbers each, as in the following array: + Theorem 3-6 Ez, bi & a ee a+2 a eater 2a atl 2a+2 2a+3--- aan >-- 3a Dat! —Ia+2 —at3--- G—Vatr--- ba We see that each row in this array exhibits a complete set of residues, modulo a, and each column a complete set of residues, modulo b. For, in considering the row of a integers: gqa+l1,qa+2,...,ga+a, we see that, if two of these integers were congruent, modulo a, then ga +s =ga + t (mod a); thus, s = t (mod a). This, however, is im- possible if s and # are distinct. Similarly, a column of 6 integers, ratr,da+r,...,(b—la+r, va +r (mod 6), ua=va (mod 6); then, since (a,b) = 1, iv — (mod 6). Again, this is impossible if w and v are distinct. © Now ga +r, where 0 0 and s = 0,d (—s)6(m) = rm — 1) and a - d-*#™) = gr-») (mod ‘m). Since, by Theorem 3-9, a") =1 (mod m), a =1 (mod m). Since 1 = 0 and r =0,d+ (—r) * (m— 1) = sm); and, since a - g-"%m-1 =a’? (mod m), a! 1 (mod m). Again, this is a contradiction. Hence m must be a prime. . Theorem 311 If d,,...,d, are all the distinct positive divisors of the Positive integer n, then $(d,) +... 4 Hd,) =n. and Euler's Generaratization “7 GOP) = — pp ling i u noting cancellations on the right, we get EAP) HE). + By — P*, the desired result. Next, let ‘written in the canonical form, n Pi... pr. In view of the case dy treated, we know that PUSH) + $0) +... + 699; Bee ees Then WD) dP) + $608) +... + sony x * (8) + be) +... + $08} x (6) + $(p,) + $0) +... + (97) = Pips... pr=n r, since the p, are distinct primes, gives the expansion of the left mem- 2 $(d) = n, mm the summation is extended over all positive divisors d of n. ond Proof Since 1 = $(1), the theorem is obvi ume that n > 1. Suppose m to be any Then (m,n) — d, say. We may then write m = md, n= nod, where MM) = 1 and, since m=

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