Geosynthetics Applications

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May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted
CHAPTER 4
GEOSYNTHETICS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
The advent of geosynthetic products of various kinds and their dramatic entry in the field of geotechnical
engineering has been the most significant event in the history of geotechnical engineering in the last few
decades. It has virtually revolutionised the practice of this branch of civil engineering to a scale unprecedented
in its history. It was therefore thought fitting to devote a chapter to this subject in this book which will attempt
to present its diverse uses with case histories wherever possible.
Geosynthetics are ‘inclusions’ and they – and among them geotextiles in particular – play a number of
roles such as separation, drainage, filtration and reinforcement, as already explained by this author in (Kurian,
2005: Sec. 14.8) which the reader is advised to go through as an introduction to the subject before embarking
on the material covered in this chapter.
There are a large number of manufacturers of geosynthetic products the world over. Hence, as in chapters 3
and 5 in particular, a manufacturer-wise coverage is attempted based essentially on the technical literature
brought out by these firms, which endows an air of authenticity to their claims as can be seen from the
examples of their uses in different parts of the world. This in no way should mean as promoting their work
or endorsing their products. The aim is only to present the subject as seen by these major players in a field
which is dominated by them.
Among geosynthetics, the chapter mainly covers geotextiles – both synthetic and natural – followed by
design guidelines for their various applications.
4.1 GEOSYNTHETICS – AN OVERVIEW

Historic application of the concept dates back to 3000 B.C. in Iraq (Ziggurat), and China (Great Wall of
China). An early application (1926) with natural material was the use of heavy cotton fabric as a separator
to stabilise roads in South Carolina, U.S.A. An event of particular significance in the history of geotextiles,
under U.S. or applicable copyright law.
involving some 10 million m2 of the material, was for coastal protection in the Dutch Delta Works scheme
in 1956.
Woven geotextiles (see two examples – Fig. 4.1) came into existence in the early 1960s. A notable example
of its use as a separator and filter material, in place of granular filters, was in Memphis (1962) by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers. 1960s saw the development of new geotextile products such as geotextile nets
(geonets), geogrids, etc. mainly in the U.K., for soil reinforcement applications.
The first nonwoven needle-punched geotextile was produced by a company in France. Subsequently
Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) in UK produced their range of heat-bonded nonwoven geotextiles. Chemie
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4.2 Geosynthetics and their Applications in Geotechnical Engineering
Copyright © 2013. Alpha Science Internation Limited. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted
Fig. 4.1 Woven Geotextiles – Two Types (Loke, 1997)
Linz in Austria was one of the early leaders in geotextile technology producing needle-punched nonwoven
geotextiles under the trade name Polyfelt.
The growth of geotextiles was reflected in several International, Regional and National Conferences,
culminating in the formation of the International Geotextiles Society (IGS). A Geosynthetics Research
Institute (GRI) was established in Drexel, USA.

The six basic functions of geotextiles are: 1) Separation, 2) Filtration, 3) Drainage, 4) Reinforcement,
5) Waterproofing, and 6) as protective layer. Figure 4.2 illustrates these functions schematically. Table 4.1
shows the roles of geotextiles against various applications.
Geotextiles and related products are manufactured from four synthetic polymers, which, in the order
of development, are 1) Polyethylene – PE (1931) 2) Polyamide – PA (1935), 3) Polyester – PES (1941),
and 4) Polypropylene – PP (1954). The yarn used to produce a woven geotextile may be monofilament or
multifilament or their combinations. However, slit film tapes have recently become the most common from
of yarn used in the manufacture of woven geotextiles.
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Geosynthetics – An Overview 4.3
Fig. 4.2 Geotextile Functions – Schematic [Courtesy: POLYFELT]
Nonwoven geotextiles are produced by 1) needle-punching (mechanical bonding – see Kurian 2005:
Sec. 14.8.2) 2) thermal bonding (by heat – see Fig. 4.3) or 3) chemical bonding, the last being the least
common method.
4.1.1 Tests on Geotextiles
Initially some of the test methods – if not specifications – were borrowed from the textile industry. Some
of these tests are listed below with the Standard Designation and the country concerned. They are mainly
ASTM (USA), BS (UK) and DIN (Germany).
Physical properties
Mass per unit area – ASTM D 3776, ASTM D 5261, DIN 53855/3
Nominal thickness – ASTM D 1777, ASTM D 5199, DIN 53855
Apparent pore size – ASTM D 4751, BS 6906/2
Mechanical properties
Tensile test (wide width) – ASTM D 4594, BS 6906/1

Breaking force and elongation (strip) – ASTM D 5035
Puncture strength – ASTM D 4833, BS 6906/3, DIN 54307
Trapezoidal tear – ASTM D 4533
Coefficient of friction (direct shear) – ASTM D 5321
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Table 4.1 Relative Importance of the Basic Geotextile Functions in Various Applications (After John)
(Loke, 1997)
Application Function
Separation Fluid Reinforcement Filtration
transmission
(drainage)
Unpaved roads
Coastal and river protection
Areas of granular fill
Retaining wall drains
Below geomembranes
Nearly horizontal drains
Embankment basal reinforcement
Reinforced soil walls
Embankment piles
Rockfall nets
Encapsulated hydraulic fill
Erosion control
Flexible formwork
Trench drains
dominant function minor function
Hydraulic properties
Water permeability – ASTM D 4491, BS 6906/3

Constant head hydraulic transmissivity – ASTM D 4716, BS 6906/7

Gradient ratio – ASTM D 5101
4.1.2 Geotextile as Filter
A major function of geotextile is its ability to serve as a filter. This aspect of geotextile function has gained
wide acceptance in coastal and riverbank erosion protection works to replace conventional graded filters.
The two main criteria for selecting an appropriate geotextile to serve as filter are related to soil retention
and permeability. The soil retention criterion places an upper limit on the geotextile pore size, whereas the
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Geosynthetics – An Overview 4.5
Fig. 4.3 Non-woven Geotextiles made by (a) Needle-punching (b) Thermal bonding (Loke, 1997) [Courtesy: Intl.
Geotextile Society]
permeability criterion places a lower limit on the pore size. The latter must be sufficiently small to retain the
soil, but at the same time, big enough to maintain sufficient permeability (Loke and Wee, 1992).
Loke et al. (1994) in an effort to evaluate the long term performance of needle punched nonwoven
geotextiles used as filter on marine clays, exhumed the geotextiles from two coastal project sites in Malaysia
after more than five years of performance. The filtration and mechanical properties of the exhumed geo-
textiles were determined by tests on samples to establish appropriate long term geotextiles filter design
criteria.
4.1.3 Reinforced Earth as Retaining Structure
In the design of reinforced earth wall as a retaining structure, two groups of stability criteria arise, viz.,
external stability and internal stability. The design criteria for external stability are the same as those applying
to conventional gravity retaining structures, viz. overturning, sliding and base pressure (see Kurian, 2005,
Sec. 6.2.4). Internal stability, on the other hand, pertains to reinforcement pull-out due to inadequate interface
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friction between the reinforcement and the backfill soil, and failure of the reinforcing strip in tension due to
inadequate tensile strength (Sec. 3.1).
As regards the use of geotextile for reinforcement in reinforced earth, while the behaviour of sand with inex-
tensible inclusion is consistent with the concept of reinforced earth proposed by Vidal, sand reinforced with
extensible inclusions (in the form of reinforcement), however, does not comply with the concept (Loke, 1997).
Since nonwoven geotextiles provide good in-plane drainage, use of poorly draining backfills with non-
woven geotextiles provides an attractive option, in view of the high cost and low availability of granular
material for the backfill.∗ The latter may contribute to 40–60% of the overall cost of reinforced earth
retaining structures. It is however interesting to note in this connection that the first geotextile reinforced
wall, constructed in 1971 by the French Highway Administration in Rouen, used poorly draining cohesive
soil as backfill material.
In the case of clay, however, the uncertainty about contact friction, particularly if the soil is wet, together
with the concern regarding corrosion, do not make metallic reinforcements strong candidates in such soils.
Poorly draining backfills are conventionally avoided in reinforced earth. Chew and Loke (1996) make an
effort to accurately assess the design requirements for using such backfills in regions where good quality
free draining backfills are not readily available.
4.2 POLYFELT GEOTEXTILES AND THEIR USES

4.2.1 Subgrade Stabilisation
Geotextiles such as Polyfelt continuous filament, needle-punched, nonwoven types, in addition to allowing
free drainage of the subgrade in the vertical direction, allows lateral in-plane drainage unlike heat bonded
and woven geotextiles, which do not have the ability to drain laterally.
To reduce the possibility of geotextile clogging, its range of openings must be compatible with the grain
size of the subgrade to be filtered.
All geotextiles degrade when exposed to sunlight over extended periods of time. Polyfelt geotextiles
are produced from polymers specially formulated with Hindered Amine Light Stabilisers (HALS) to give
optimum ultraviolet light resistance.
4.2.2 Drainage and Filtration
Clogging of the drainage path is the greatest menace that can occur to a drainage system leading to a fast
disruption of its functioning. Geotextiles can perform a pro-active role in preventing clogging, leading to
efficient uninterrupted functioning of the drainage system, by playing a dual role as filter and separator. The
geotextile layer covering the gravel layer of the subsurface drain shown in Fig. 4.4 retains the natural soil
in place while allowing the water to pass into the drainage system. For this, the gradation of the soil to be
filtered must be compatible with the pore size distribution of the geotextile. Mechanically bonded continuous
filament, needle-punched, nonwoven geotextiles generally exhibit better performance in this regard. They
also provide superior installation flexibility by contouring themselves to different soil profiles.
∗
Looked at as a ‘ground improvement method,’ there is net saving in the present case only if the saving from reduction
in thickness of the pavement structure more than offsets the extra due to the cost of placing the geotextile. This makes the
relative cost a function of the local cost of materials, and that too at a specific point of time.
In fact, in all ground improvement methods, any benefit on account of one aspect is at the cost of another aspect, as
obvious in the above instance. Indeed no method is worth the effort if the cost outweighs the benefit, which only a detailed
benefit-cost analysis can reveal.
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Polyfelt Geotextiles and their Uses 4.7
Fig. 4.4 Roadside Drain with Geotextile [Courtesy: POLYFELT]
Table 4.2 Comparative pH Resistance of Common Geotextile Polymers [Courtesy:

POLYFELT]
Polymers
Polypropylene∗ Polyethylene∗ Polyester
Properties
Resistant against:
Acids, diluted
Acids, concentrated
Alkali, diluted
Alkali, concentrated
Micro-organisms
Hydrolysis (humidity
and high temperature
Sunlight
∗ U.V. stabilised
Excellent Requires assessment
Very good Not achieved
Good Not advised
4.2.3 Reinforcement of Slopes and Embankments
Multiple layers of geotextiles placed on a slope during construction or re-construction provide increased
slope stability by reinforcing the soil. Such reinforcing allows the construction of steeper slopes of the order
of 1V: 1H. Reduction of seepage forces due to improved drainage adds to the stability. On the durability side,
Table 4.2 shows the comparative pH resistance of polymers used in making geotextiles.
Design of geotextile reinforcement must evaluate the interface friction between soil and the geotextile to
ensure effective transfer of load from the soil to the reinforcement. Table 4.3 gives soil–soil and soil–geotextile
interface friction.
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Table 4.3 Soil/Soil, Geotextile/Soil Interface Friction Angle – Degrees [Courtesy:

POLYFELT]
ASTM D3080 Clayey Silty Clay Sandy Angular Rounded

(100 mm Box) silt clay clay sand sand
Soil to soil 34 38 30 22 40 36
Geotextile to soil 32 32 30 22 30 26
Fig. 4.5 Bamboo Mat Platform (Loke et al., 1997) Fig. 4.6 Geotextile on Bamboo Mat (Loke et al.,
[Courtesy: POLYFELT] 1997) [Courtesy: POLYFELT]
4.2.4 Soft Soil Stabilisation using Geotextile with Bamboo
Presence of extremely soft clay and peat (CBR < 1) is a common feature encountered in many Asian
countries. In a development pioneered by Polyfelt, a bamboo mat is laid on the soft soil (Fig. 4.5) to serve as
a strong working platform. Over this mat is laid the geotextile (Fig. 4.6) over which is placed the fill. Among
the numerous successful projects employing this technique may be mentioned the reclamation of 20 m deep
mine tailing ponds in Malaysia with a soil shear strength of 1–5 kN/m2 .
Loke, et al. (1997) describe their experience of using geotextile and bamboo fascine mattress – the former
as separator and the latter as reinforcement – in stabilising very soft soil deposites such as peat, marine clays
and mine slime tailings found extensively in Malaysia.
Peat is found mainly in low-lying poorly drained basins in the coastal areas and covers 8% of the total
land area in Malaysia. The State of Sarawak accounts for a sizeable part of it. It has a high and variable water
content ranging from 200 to 2000%, low bulk density of the order 10 kN/m3 and low shear strength in the
range of 5–10 kN/m2 . Soft marine clays, with shear strengths in the range of 8–15 kN/m2 are found throughout
the coastal plains of that country. Slime, which is mostly unconsolidated silty clay sediments, are the end
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results of tin mining∗ activity. They prevail in Ipoh and Kuala Lumpur due to extensive mining activities in
these areas in the past. They are characterised by very low shear strength rarely exceeding 5 kN/m2 .
In projects such as road construction, it is not possible to lay embankments on such soils without causing
failure of the subgrades. The stabilisation of the subgrade was achieved by laying bamboo poles horizontally
over the subgrade and tied in a criss-cross direction to form a rigid and secure frame forming a working
platform to lay the geotextile separator over it. When the fill is placed on the geotextile, the bamboo mattres
provides both bending and tensile reinforcement effect while the geotextile acts as a separator and filter
between the fill material and the subgrade. It prevents intermixing and contamination of the fill by the soft
subgrade allowing effective distribution of traffic load through the fill. At the same time it eliminates loss of
fill into the soft subgrade and maintains the design thickness of the fill.
The first application of the use of geotextile with bamboo mattress was the stabilisation of a 3000 m2
slime pond at Sungei Besi in Kuala Lumpur, in 1991. The thickness of the slime was about 20 m with an
undisturbed vane shear strength of 5 kN/m2 . The geotextile used was continuous filament needle-punched
nonwoven type with a low tensile strength of 18 kN/m (width). It was the presence of the bamboo which
permitted the use of nonwoven geotextile with relatively low tensile strength. This composite construction
proved to be the most cost-effective, which, but for bamboo, would have needed high strength geotextile.
4.2.5 Railway Engineering
Track failures are not uncommon due to loss of

integrity of the ballast. Geotextile installed as a sep-
arator between the subgrade and the ballast prevents
the upward pumping of fines and contamination
of the ballast, and at the same time, its loss into
the soft subgrade, thereby maintaining its integrity.
Figure 4.7 shows a picture of track rehabilitation
work for a section of the Malaysian Railways.
4.2.6 Geomembrane Protection
Geomembrance liners find application in areas

such as waste containment systems, treatment
ponds, water reservoirs, basement waterproofing,
etc., Polyfelt geotextiles are found to significantly
enhance the performance of geomembrane liners
when used in conjunction with them by acting as a
protective cushion layer against static and dynamic

puncture stresses, besides effectively dissipating
gas in soils with high gaseous content.
Fig. 4.7 Track Rehabilitation using Geotextile in
Geotextiles of the Polyfelt type do not deteri-
Malaysian Railways [Courtesy: POLYFELT]
orate in soils due to microbial attack. They are
resistant to long-term exposure to acid and alkali
solutions in the pH range 2–13. They do not hydrolyse when exposed to tropical climate conditions. The
thermal bonding of overlaps ensures strong and effective seams.
∗
Malaysia was the world’s leader in tin mining, besides rubber production.
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Fig. 4.8 Polymer Rockstrata Geogrid [Courtesy: POLYFELT]
4.2.7 Polyfelt ‘Rock Strata’ Geogrids
Polyfelt has come out with an open polymer grid structure which they have named ‘Rock Strata’ geogrid
(Fig. 4.8), designed to interact specifically with grannular soils, in a wide variety of civil engineering
applications. It is a high tenacity polyester, with high strength-weight ratio, engineered for extended service
life.
As reinforcement, particularly in granular soils, it takes up high tensile forces at low elongations.
By reinforcing the backfill soil behind a retaining structure, it creates a stable gravity mass.
Polyfelt offers a comprehensive software package called STRATAWALL along with STRATASLOPE,
which is the most advanced design software available for reinforced earth slopes.
4.2.8 Design of Geotextile-Stabilised Earth Structures over Soft Soils
Sub-base construction over soft saturated subgrade generally involves a loss of part of the sub-base material
into the subgrade (Fig. 4.9), which calls for additional material to compenstate for the loss and make up the
full design thickness. Figure 4.10 attempts to quantify this loss. Placement of a suitable geotextile layer at
the interface between the soft subgrade and the sub-base layer prevents this loss, resulting in the sub-base
layer maintaining the integrity to resist traffic loads as envisaged in the design. This is depicted in Fig. 4.11.
The reinforcing effect of the geotextile plays a minor role, if any, in resisting the wheel loads (see Fig. 4.12).
In the case of high embankments or bridge approaches, however, the geotextile contributes to stability of
slopes against a possible slip failure.
4.2.9 Drainage and Filtration
An additional function of the geotextile placed as above as a drainage layer, providing both in-plane
and cross-plane drainage of the saturated soil below, is preventing the build-up of pore water pressure by
effectively dissipating it. This is only possible with dimensionally thick nonwoven needle-punched geotextiles
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Fig. 4.9 Loss of Aggregate into Subgrade Fig. 4.10 Range of Aggregate Thickness Loss vs.
[Courtesy: POLYFELT] Subgrade Strength (FHWA, 1989) [Courtesy:
Federal Highway Administration, U. S. A.]
Fig. 4.11 Geotextile as Separator preventing Intermix- Fig. 4.12 Relative Contribution of Geotextile to
ing of Aggregate and Subgrade [Courtesy: Load Bearing Capacity of Subgrade by
POLUFELT] Reinforcement and Separation Functions

[Courtesy: POLYFELT]
and not thin woven, or heat-bonded nonwovens, which, on the other hand, become, in course of time, an
impermeable barrier of fines, impeding filtration and consequently drainage.
Figure 4.13 shows three types of failure of an embankment, viz., ‘base failure’ (in bearing capacity),
‘toe failure’ (in slope stability) and ‘spreading failure’ (mechanical
spread of material). Figure 4.14 demar-
cates base failure and toe failure as a function of the Bh and Dh ratios. In the case of base failure, the
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Fig. 4.13 Embankment Failure Modes [Courtesy: POLYFELT]
Fig. 4.14 Base and Toe Failures as Functions of (B/h) and (D/h) Ratios [Courtesy: POLYFELT]
primary function of geotextile is separation, whereas in toe and spreading failures, its primary function is
reinforcement followed by separation.
As stated earlier, as a filter, the pore size
of the geotextile must be small enough to
retain the soil fines and at the same time have
sufficient permeability to allow drainage and
dissipation of pore pressure.
As regards reinforcement, Fig. 4.15
depicts the gain in factor of safety due to the
placement of the geotextile.
Loke (1993) gives design examples of
paved and unpaved roads using geotextiles
and the cost saving in each case resulting

from the use of the latter.
4.2.10 Construction
Practical experience has shown that the

ability of a geotextile to survive construc-
tion stresses is the most critical aspect of
its performance in any geotextile design Fig. 4.15 Contribution of Geotextile to Factor of Safety of
evaluation. Slope [Courtesy: POLYFELT]
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Even in the case of geotextiles which are strong and robust, it is recommended to remove objects protruding
by more than 100 mm, before laying the geotextile.
The sheets can be joined by overlapping, sewing together, or heat welding, depending upon site
conditions.
In the case of extremely soft soils (CBR < 1) bamboo mat (Fig. 4.5) serves as a working platform
for laying geotextiles and for subsequent operations. Polyfelt, who pioneered this system, have used it
successfully in numerous projects such as reclamation of 20 m deep soft mine tailing ponds in Malaysia with
soil shear strength in the range of 1–5 kPa.
Loke (1993) closes with Guideline Specifications for geotextiles in road construction which also lists
properties to be determined along with the relevant ISO Standards. A useful chart is provided to guide the
user on problems and their geotextile solutions.
4.2.11 Riverbank and Coastal Erosion
Beaches, riverbanks, earth berms etc.,

constantly exposed to wave action, turbulent water
currents and fluctuating water levels, are con-
stantly subject to the threat of soil erosion. Con-
ventional practice recommends layered granular
aggregate filters∗ above the subsoil, to be protected
by stone armour or concrete block rivetments
placed above the filter.
It has been found that the layered granular filters Fig. 4.16 Geotechnical (Inverted) Filter
can be replaced by geotextile filters to gain cost
advantage by reducing the number and thickness
of granular filter layers. The entry of geotextiles in this field has indeed revolutionised the modern practice
of erosion control.
4.2.12 Filtration and Permeability Criteria
As already stated (See. 4.1.2) the two main criteria for evaluating geotextile filter characteristics are those
relating to ‘soil retention’ and ‘permeability’.
Cohesionlers soils
For uniformly graded soils the pore size is reduced and for well graded soil it is increased.
∗
A ‘filter’ is a geotechnical structure, which consists of layers of granular material or aggregates of different particle
sizes placed in the direction of flow of water where it emerges from the soil (Fig. 4.16). The seepage force caused by
water flowing through the soil tend to dislodge the soil particles progressively, leading to the phenomenon of ‘piping’.
The design of the layers must be such that the material in the layer below will not move up and fill the void space in
the layers above thereby clogging the void space and preventing the free flow of water. When the layers maintain their
integrity in this manner, the system remains intact and free-draining without loss of material from any part of the system.
In a normal filter, like for example, a stack sieves, if the flow of material is downwards the coarsest filter (sieve) is placed
at the top and the sieve opening decreases in the direction of flow. In the present case, since the particle sizes increase in
the direction of flow, geotechnical filters are dubiously called ‘inverted filters’.
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The following equation has been cited for the coefficient of permeability of the geotextile:
tg · ks
kg ≥ (4.1)
5 · d50
where k is the coefficient of permeability, (the subscripts g and s are for geotextile and soil, respectively),
t is thickness and d50 is the grain size of the soil at which 50% by weight are finer.
Cohesive soils
In the case of cohesive soils, the required opening size is influenced by cohesion.
As regards permeability, it has been established:
kg ≥ 100ks (4.2)
Clogging
If soil particles get embedded in the fabric it gets clogged shutting off the further flow of water. If this
likelihood is expected, it is advisable to place a 100 mm thick sand filter between the subsoil and the geotextile.
In this case the sand acts as the primary filter for the subsoil and the geotextile acts as a secondary filter
serving the sand filter below.
Figure 4.17 shows a geotextile filter system
under primary and secondary armours.
Since all polymer-based geotextiles are vulner-
able to U.V. degradation after a period of exposure
to direct sunlight, it is recommended that the geo-
textile is covered immediately by the rivetment
(armour) system.
For determining the armour stone size,
Fig. 4.18, which distinguishes ‘erosion’ ‘suspen-
Fig. 4.17 Geotextile Filter System under Primary and
sion’ and ‘sedimentation,’ is useful.
Secondary Armours [Courtesy: POLYFELT]
Fig. 4.18 Susceptibility of Soil Particles to Erosion [Courtesy: POLYFELT]
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Huesker Geotextiles 4.15
Loke (1992) gives design examples and guide-

line specifications for geotextile hydraulic filters
which include a list of tests and the corresponding
standards.
Rock-filled gabions (Sec. 3.6) can be used in place
of stone armour in the construction of irrigation
canals and flood-control channels (Fig. 4.19), with
the geotextile placed behind performing the separa-
tion and filtration functions. The major advantage
is, they permit easier installation under water flow
conditions.
4.3 HUESKER GEOTEXTILES

(Germany)
Fig. 4.19 Geotextile under Protective Gabions
Huesker is a leading manufacturer of geotex- for Canals and Channels [Courtesy:
tiles in Germany. This section starts with a few POLYFELT]
notable examples of the use of geotextiles in projects
executed by them.
4.3.1 Examples
(1) A retaining wall 40 m long and 5 m high

was constructed around an apartment complex in
Unterägeri in Switzerland, using a “noise protec-
tion planted retaining wall” system developed by
LS-Lärmschutzban AG in Zug (Fig. 4.20).
It is made of pressure-impregnated Swiss beach-
wood pieces laid on the slope on a geogrid to hold
in place the loamy backfill material. To provide a
pleasing green cover, 4 to 5 plants per sq.metre were
planted on the face.
(2) Figure 4.21 shows a steep slope in Pineville,
North Corolina, U.S.A., reinforced with geogrids
and faced by ‘Keystone’ modular blocks (Sec. 7.35)
with a set-back of 20 mm per metre height of wall.
The design incorporated a 300 mm wide drainage
course behind the wall with a perforated collector

pipe system at the base (Fig. 4.22).
(3) For a road overbridge crossing a railway line
Fig. 4.20 Slope Stabilisation by Planted Retain-
below (Fig. 4.23) the Danish State Railways opted
ing Wall with Fortrac Geogrids [Courtesy:
for reinforced soil abutments over a glacial clay
HUESKER]
subsoil.
The fill material consists of a gravel-sand mixture
compacted to 100% Proctor density which was reinforced with Huesker’s Fortrac geogrid at a vertical spacing
of 500 mm which enabled a frontal inclination of 81◦ – i.e. nearly vertical.
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Fig. 4.21 Keystone Modular Block Fig. 4.22 Geogrid-Reinforced Keystone Wall [Courtesy: HUESKER]
Wall with Fortrac Geogrids
[Courtesy: HUESKER]
Fig. 4.23 Bridge Abutment with Fortrac Geogrid Wrap–Round [Courtesy: HUESKER]
Measurements showed that, while the subsoil settled by 40–50 mm, the reinforced soil abutments settled
only by about 2 mm.
(4) Asphalt overlays over pavement concrete in airport runways need considerable thickness to prevent
the onset of reflective cracking at the surface. This can be avoided by incorporation of reinforcing geogrids
which allows lower thicknesses of the overlay (typically 150 to 100 mm – see Fig. 4.24).
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High modulus and low creep are the ideal proper-

ties of a material for reinforcing pavement asphalt
layers. Polyester materials posses these properties.
They also have low shrinkage and excellent tem-
perature resistance up to 190◦ C. ‘HaTelit’ – a grid
developed by Huesker for this use – is made of high-
modulus polyester filaments. They are coated with
a bituminous material which ensures good adhesion
with asphalt and which ensures that the reinforcing
grid is in a position to accept and distribute tensile
stresses. The grid mesh size should be larger than the
biggest aggregate size by a factor of 2–2.5.
(5) A two-layer woven geotextile mattress filled
with impermeable concrete was used to restore an
existing asphalt sealing layer on a canal embankanent
near Bamberg in Germany (Fig. 4.25). The concrete
used in this case was made of sand and a slow-
hardening furnace cement, with a w/c ratio of 0.5, Fig. 4.24 Runway Asphalt Surfacing with Geotextile
which allowed excellent pumpability of the mix. [Courtesy: HUESKER]
Huesker used ‘Incomat’ mattress consisting of
two layers of fabric, woven from high tenacity polyamide and polyethylene yarns. The two fabric layers
were jointed by sewing, the spacing of which determined the thickness of the mattress.
(6) ‘Incomat’ mattress was also used to protect the synthetic liner of a landfill (Sec. 7.29) at Damsdorf in
Germany. The original lining system consisted of a 2.5 mm thick HDPE base liner, protected by a 500 g/m2
HDPE nonwoven geotextile, which was covered by a 150mm thick lean–mix concrete. The mattress solution
was highly adaptable on the 1:1.5 (34◦ ) slopes.
(7) ‘NaBento’ geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) is a composite in which the bentonite is sandwiched between
two layers of stich-bonded fabric (Fig. 4.26). The low permeability of bentonite contributes to making the
in-situ soil less permeable. It is a sodium (Na)-activated calcium bentonite with montomorillonite content of
more than 70%.
The ‘NaBento’ GCL can also be used for the encapsulation of contaminated areas or for capping of landfill
sites (Sec. 7.27).
Fig. 4.25 Canal Bank Sealing with ‘Incomat’ Concrete Mattress [Courtesy: HUESKER]
Account: s6670599
Fig. 4.26 ‘NaBento’ Geosynthetic Clay Liner Fig. 4.27 ‘Stabilenka’ Woven Geotextile (a) Con-
[Courtesy: HUESKER] ventional weave (b) Straight–warp–weave
[Courtesy: HUESKER]
They can be used in water retention ponds. In one example near Yorkshire in U.K., it was placed over an
aggregate drainage layer of 0.5 m depth, covered by a 1 m thick compacted cohesive layer.
Huesker describes interesting application of geotextile lining systems for landfills in Lüdenscheid –
Kleinleifringhausen and Augsburg in Germany.
(8) Huesker’s ‘Stabilenka’ woven geotextile, used for reinforcement, is a high quality woven fabric
made with polyester yarns in the longitudinal (warp) direction and polyamide, or optionally polyester, in
the transverse (weft) direction. It is produced in a patented straight warp process (as different from the
conventional process) – Fig. 4.27, thanks to which it can develop high tensile stresses at low elongation. The
high modulus polyester multifilament yarn of which it is made has low creep potential, limiting the creep
strain to 1% after two years.
Huesker Synthetic offers a wide range of synthetic wovens and nonwovens, geogrids and geocomposites,
as well as knitted fabrics from raw materials such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, polyester and
aramid.
(9) ‘Comtrac’ is manufactured from
high-modulus polyester yarn by a knitting
process. Figure 4.28 shows the yarns in their
tied-up positions which is different from
the interlayering obtained in the normal
weaving process.
It can also be combined with nonwovens
to form geocomposites. Fig. 4.28 ‘Comtrac’ Knitted Geotextile [Courtesy: HUESKER]
‘Comtrac’ is manufactured using a revo-

lutionary new type of production process. In this the transverse yarns are laid on top of the longitudinal yarns
and the two are locked together with a knitting yarn (Fig. 4.29).
(10) ‘Incomat’ is an economic alternative to conventional slope and bed protection systems using geo-
textiles and rock fill. It consists of two very strong synthetic fabric plies, specially linked with each other as
the formwork which is filled with impermeable high-strength mortar/concrete prepared with sand, cement
and water (Fig. 4.30). The mixing plant with the concrete pump is installed either on land or on a floating
platform. The fabric formwork is laid and filled with concrete by continuous pumping through the hoses.
Account: s6670599
Fig. 4.29 ‘Comtrac’ Knitting Process [Courtesy: HUESKER]
Fig. 4.30 ‘Incomat’ Standard Mattress [Courtesy: HUESKER]

Fig. 4.31 Incomat ‘Flex’ [Courtesy: HUESKER] Fig. 4.32 Incomat ‘Crib’ [Courtesy: HUESKER]
The product has different variants such as Incomat flex (Fig. 4.31), Incomat crib (Fig. 4.32), Incomat slab
(Fig. 4.33), Incomat tube (Fig. 4.34), etc. Among them, the Incomat crib consists of openings which are
filled with the top soil that can be seeded/planted.
Account: s6670599
Fig. 4.33 Incomat ‘Slab’ [Courtesy: HUESKER]
Fig. 4.34 Incomat ‘Tube’ [Courtesy: HUESKER]

Fig. 4.35 ‘HaTelit’ Geogrid (also see inset) [Courtesy: HUESKER]
Account: s6670599
Fig. 4.36 Reinforcing New Wearing Course (to prevent reflective cracking) (also see inset) [Courtesy: HUESKER]
(11) ‘HaTelit’ is a reinforcing grid (Fig. 4.35, inset) from Huesker – who developed it in 1986, coated
with a bituminous material which ensures good bond with asphalt layers with which they come in contact.
Figure 4.36 (also see inset) shows how HaTelit prevents cracks from base and binder courses reflecting into
the wearing course.
‘HaTelit’ is equally useful in airport pavements (runways, taxiways and aprons) to prevent reflection
cracking in the asphalt overlays. (It is worthwhile noting in this connection how cracking in an unreinforced
slab is controlled by the placement of reinforcement grids in the slabs.) It is recommended that the reinforcing
grid should be placed flat and without folds by means of a tensioning device before laying the mix.
4.3.2 Geotextiles in Landfill Construction
The need for isolating the landfill from the environment is highlighted in Sec. 7.29. This is efficiently
achieved in modern landfills by the ‘multibarrier’ concept which requires several impermeable barrier
layers which can effectively incorporate geotexitles and geomembranes. Geotextiles have indeed become an
indispensable part of these sealing systems. For example, they separate the mineral sealing layer from the
Account: s6670599
subgrade (Fig. 4.37), or protect geomembranes from

damage. They can serve as filters between the refuse and
the drainage layer. They reinforce surface sealing and steep
embankments.
High density polyethylene (HDPE) geotextiles may be
used without reservation for resistance to chemicals. A land-
fill’s base sealing course is specially important because it
constitutes the most essential barrier for the protection of
groundwater.
Nonwovens should be preferred for separation. Rein-
forced nonwovens provide more effective protection for
geomembanes. The reinforcement can be either by fabric
or by laying a grid on top.
‘Fortrac’ geogrids are made from polyester yarns that
are similar to those extensively used in car tyres, seat belts
and similar products where faultless functioning is vital.
The applied PVC coating gives them additional protection
against UV and mechanical damage. Their high bond with
the surrounding soil results in small anchorage lengths.
It is a product of the joint venture between Huesker
Synthetics and Akzo.
4.3.3 Hydraulic Engineering
‘HaTelit’ sandbags, made of high-strength synthetic fab-

rics have consistently proved their value in emergency
operations. Fig. 4.37 Geotextiles in Landfills [Courtesy:
Formwork for hydraulic engineering needs, made of HUESKER]
duplex fabrics dressed with a colloidal mortar called ‘col-
crete’, is found to be ideal as an underwater construction element. Sea carpet and mattresses (Fig. 4.38) are
used to stabilise the subsoil for the construction of groynes, dykes and the like (Fig. 4.39) and protect river
and sea beds and banks.
Fig. 4.38 Sea Carpets [Courtesy: HUESKER] Fig. 4.39 Groyne Protection [Courtesy: HUESKER]
Account: s6670599
Netlon – Products and Uses 4.23
4.4 NETLON (U.K.) – PRODUCTS AND USES

The flexibility of the net (geogrid) allows close identification with ground contours.
4.4.1 Properties
Mesh Size: 60 × 60 mm (nominal)

Weight : 5.5 N/m2
Yield strength (longitudinal direction): 4.82 kN/m
Yield strength (transverse direction): 5.33 kN/m
Flexural modulus – 112 kN/m2
It contains additives in the form of finely divided carbon black which give resistance to UV degradation
for a half life∗ of over 15 years.
4.4.2 Railway Track Bed Stabilisation with Geogrids
Geogrids are high strength polymer meshes or grids with integrally fused joints having high dimensional
stability and junction strength. These high modulus products develop much of their tensile strength within 2
to 4 per cent of their elongation unlike geotextiles. Manufactured from high density polyethylene (HDPE),
geogrids are immune to corrosion and chemical and biological attack in the soils. These are also protected
against environmental and ultraviolet degradation and are stable over a temperature range of −60◦ C to
+100◦ C. These characteristics enable engineers to design geogrid reinforced soil structures satisfactorily
with long term durability and survivability.
Geogrids provide positive interlock of ballast into grid openings thereby preventing ballast loss and
mud pumping. The latter is caused by mud which is sucked up as a result of stones moving apart. Under
dynamic loading also these ballast particles which interlock into the geogrid openings provide containment
and restraint against induced oscillatory lateral movements thereby resisting pumping action.
A major part of track maintenance costs arises on account deformation of soil subgrade below the formation
level of the track. Heavier loads and increased traffic speeds have accentuated this problem. The inclusion
of geogrid reinforcement under the ballast reduces track settlements considerably, prevents mud pumping
and loss of ballast into soft subgrades, drastically reducing track attention and maintenance of line and level.
Geogrids eliminate conventional use of deep sand layer or moorum blanket, which comes as a direct saving
in cost.
The grids form a separator layer effecting confinement of the ballast and preventing its intermixing with
and loss into the soft subgrade soil, thus increasing life expectancy of the track as a whole.
4.4.3 Drainage
Successful long term drainage is the key to solving many a civil engineering problem. This involves both
surface and subsurface drainage.
∗
“Half life,” by definition, is the period of time it takes for the amount of a substance undergoing decay to decrease
by half. The original term, dating to 1907 was “half life period” which was later shortened to “half life” in the early
1950s. Half lives are generally used to describe quantities undergoing exponential decay (see Kurian, 2005: App. E 10).
However, it can also be defined for a non–exponential decay processes.
Account: s6670599
Fig. 4.40 Perforated Pipe [Courtesy: NETLON] Fig. 4.41 Geocomposite [Courtesy: NETLON]
Fig. 4.42 Drainage along Roads [Courtesy: NETLON]

Fig. 4.43 Drinage for Retaining Walls [Courtesy: Fig. 4.44 Slope Drainage using Core Drainage Lami-
NETLON] nates [Courtesy: NETLON]
Netlon drainage products include perforated rigid or flexible pipes (Fig. 4.40) and geocomposites in sheet
form (Fig. 4.41) which combine geonets, geotextiles and/or geomembranes. Figures 4.42 and 4.43 show the
use of geocomposites for drainage along major roads and drainage to a retaining wall, respectively. In both
Account: s6670599
Netlon – Products and Uses 4.25
cases the vertical geocomposite starting at the surface terminates in drain pipes laid at the bottom. Figure 4.44
shows how a slope is drained using core drainage laminates.
4.4.4 Geogrids for Slope Protection
High slopes of embankments as well as cuttings for roads and railways, slopes of river banks, reservoirs
and hill slopes often cause consternation in the mind of civil engineers on account of the erosion of soil from
the slope surface during rains and the consequent instability often leading to failure.
Providing geogrids on slope surfaces will, in the first place, prevent soil erosion by retarding the velocity
of water run-off and allows water percolation which promotes the growth and development of natural grass.
Once the natural grass is established on the slope surface, the grid acts as a permanent reinforcing medium
for the grass by allowing the intertwining of their roots in the meshes.
Natural vegetation is indeed a proven choice for sustained erosion control for which it requires the help of
external reinforcement for holding its root matrix together. Geogrids on slope form a permanent reinforcement
serving this purpose. It accelerates vegetation growth resulting in a permanent protective cover to earth
slopes (Fig. 4.45). Figure 4.46 shows how geogrids protect rock slopes and cliff faces from the effect of
Fig. 4.45 Slope Protection with Geogrids [Courtesy: NETLON]

Fig. 4.46 Cliff Protection with Geogrids [Courtesy: NETLON]
Account: s6670599
dislodgement produced by weathering. Spikes in the form of rock bolts secure the grids against the rock
faces.
4.4.5 Reinforced Grass
2D meshes came into existence in the early 1970s, which, subsequently was followed by 3D meshes. 2D
meshes arrived in the Indian scenario in the late 1980s.
The reinforced grass system used for erosion control is similar to an armoured layer which protects soil
in a similar way as rip rap or mattresses.
4.4.6 Waterfront Protection
The traditional technique of constructing rigid, impermeable reinforced or mass concrete works in the
form of rivetments for water front protection, is slowly giving way to lower-cost flexible protection schemes
and techniques which absorb wave energy rather than deflect it and cause less erosive damage. They recover
from dynamic loads and impact caused by wave action and excessive currents during floods. A form of flexible
armoured rivetment consists of gabions and mattresses in cages made of light-weight high-tensile strength
geogrids. Use of smaller stones and locally available fill materials producing better effects without adverse
environmental impact and faster method of installation are some of the unique advantages of employing
geogrids in maritime and waterway works. Figure 4.47 shows a water front being protected by gabions
and mattresses. It provides protection to shallow slopes from the sea waves which dissipate their energy by
breaking and in the subsequent slope run-up.
Figure 4.48 shows a breakwater incorporating geocell and geogrid serving as core reinforcement.
Fig. 4.47 Shallow Slope – Mattress Rivetment [Courtesy: NETLON]

Fig. 4.48 Breakwater with Geocell Mattress and Geogrid Reinforcement [Courtesy: NETLON]
Account: s6670599
Fibertex Geotextiles 4.27
Fig. 4.49 (a) Needle punching (b) Geotextile functions [Courtesy: FIBERTEX]
4.5 FIBERTEX (Denmark) GEOTEXTILES

‘Fibertex’ is a leading manufacturer of nonwoven geotextiles based in Aalborg st in Denmark. These
geotextiles are made of polypropylene fibres needle-punched (Kurian, 2005: Sec. 14.8.2) into strong pliable
nonwoven textiles with excellent elongation properties enabling it to serve its function of protection (Fig. 4.49)
besides separation, filtration and drainage. The former is due to its ability to resist considerable local stresses
by undergoing the necessary elongation.
Needle-punching protects the geotextiles from delaminating when exposed to the action of, e.g., traffic
loads. They maintain their integrity and strength in both wet and dry conditions. They are not attacked by
fungus and do not rot. Resistant to both acids and alkalis, they are not-toxic and free from chemicals or
binders. They are produced in a variety of thicknesses, weights and surface textures to suit diverse functions.
The products carry ISO certification.
4.6 NYLEX (Malaysia) DRAINS

NYLEX (Malaysia) Sdn. Bhd., based in Shah
Alam, Selangor, manufactures geotextile drains of
various types. Their ‘Cordrain’ (Fig. 4.50) com-
prises of a cuspated plastic core, assisting easy
horizontal drainage flow with a geotextile filter fabric
bonded to one side, with the other side held against
retaining wall, basement wall, etc. It is lightweight,
flexible, easy to install, biologically inert and resis-
tant to chemical attacks likely to be encountered in

soils. Fig. 4.50 ‘Cordrain’ for Horizontal Drainage [Cour-
Their ‘Flodrain’ is a wick type of vertical drain tesy: NYLEX]
used to accelerate the consolidation of saturated com-
pressible soils such as clays and silty clays. The
application areas include reclaimed mining ponds, reclaimed coastal areas, storage tank farms, bridge
approaches over swampy land, highways, railways, airfields etc.
Account: s6670599
Fig. 4.51 ‘Flodrain’ for Vertical Drainage – Original and Settled Positions [Courtesy: NYLEX]
It is essentially a geocomposite which consists of a cuspated plastic water channeling core wrapped all
round with a geotextile filter fabric. It comes in bands which has a typical section of 100 × 4 mm. A wick
drain, it continues to perform drainage even when bent due to progressive consolidation settlement of the
soil (Fig. 4.51). It is installed using an anchor plate and mandrel (Fig. 4.52). The anchor plate with the wick
drain tied to it is held in the mandrel and the mandrel is driven down pushing the anchor plate and wick along
with it. When the required depth is reached, the mandrel is withdrawn leaving the wick and anchor plate in
place. The wick, fed in bands from a roll, is cut at the required height at the surface.
Nylex also produces a ‘Stripdrain’ of the above type laid horizontally in sheets. They are useful also for
smaller projects such as gardens, play grounds, golf courses, etc.
Nylex products also include geomembranes which can be put to a variety of uses such as in sanitary
landfills, aquaculture ponds, canals, landscaping, industrial lining needs, etc.
Fig. 4.52 Installation of Flodrain [Courtesy: NYLEX]
Account: s6670599
Vinidex Drains 4.29
4.7 VINIDEX DRAINS

Vinidex ‘Draincoil’ is an HDPE corrugated slotted
subsoil drainage pipe (Fig. 4.53) which is an efficient
alternative to perforated PVC pipes (see. Kurian, 2005:
Sec. 14.8.3b). The corrugated profile provides superior
resistance to external loads while the slots, which are in
the valleys of the corrugation profiles, ensure better flow
than the perforations in the latter.
Fig. 4.53 Draincoil Profile [Courtesy: VINIDEX]
4.8 FORTRAC GEOGRIDS
Fortrac Geogrids produced by Akzo Nobel Geosynthetics based in Arnhem, The Netherlands, are made of
high modulus polyester yarns, which act as the structural elements covered by a PVC coating. An optimum
quantity of carbon black is incorporated in the PVC to give it ultraviolet stability. It is inert to all chemicals
naturally found in soils. Since neither polyester nor PVC is nutrient for micro-organisms, it is also biologically
stable.
4.9 TECHFAB INDIA–GEOSYNTHETICS

Techfab India is a leading manufacture of geosynthetics in India since its inception in 2003. Their
products range includes woven and nonwoven geotextiles, high strength geogrids, geodrains and gabions,
covering applications in subgrade stabilisation and transportation, filtration, soil reinforcement, pavement
rehabilitation, marine structures, environmental and other areas.
4.9.1 Geogrids
Geogrids are planar polymeric structures consisting of a regular open network of integrally connected
tensile elements, which may be linked by extrusion, bonding or interlacing, whose openings are larger than
the constituents.
The first geogrid was produced in the early 1980s by extruding a sheet of polyethylene or polypropylene,
punching a regular pattern of holes and then strenghthening the sheets. Such extruded and oriented geogrids
are called ‘stiff’ geogrids. Another class of geogrids – the ‘flexible’ or textile grids – comprising a woven or
knitted structure of high tenacity polyester filament yarn coated with a polymeric (mostly PVC) compound,
were introduced in the middle of the 1980s.
‘Techgrid’ geogrids, the first geogrid manufactured in India, are knitted and polymeric coated polyester
geogrids. Superior grades of high tenacity, high molecular weight and low carboxyl end group polyester yarns
are formed into a grid structure using a highly sophisticated warp-knitting process and coated by a formulated
polymeric compound resulting in a strong, flexible, tough, dimensionally stable and durable geogrid.
4.9.2 ‘TechDrain’ – Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD)
Prefabricated vertical drains (commonly called PVD, ‘band drains’ or ‘wick drains’) were introduced in
the early 1970s for the purpose of accelerating the consolidation of fine grained soils.
It is a two-piece composite grain consisting of an inner polymer core and an outer nonworen filter
fabric (Fig. 4.54). The inner core of ‘TechDrain’ is made of polypropylene material by continuous extrusion
technology. The extruded corrugated or fin-shaped profiles on both sides of the core provide multiple channels
Account: s6670599
Fig. 4.54 ‘TechDrain’ [Courtesy: TECHFAB]
for large hydraulic flow in the longitudinal direction of the core even when distorted under high pressures,
vertical settlements or lateral displacements. The ‘TechDrain’ core is tightly wrapped in a geotextile filter
jacket of spun-bonded polypropylene or polyester, selected to have high water permeability and filtration
properties. It is not subjected to clogging and ensures a free drainage path.
Installing TechDrain
As in the case of installing Flodrain (See. 4.6), the TechDrain is enclosed in a tubular steel mandrel of
rectangular section (like the drain) of size 50 × 125 mm. A sacrificial anchor plate, slightly bigger than the
mandrel, is attached to the drain at the bottom. The mandrel with the drain is now driven down, by a static
or vibratory rig up to the required depth. The mandrel is now withdrawn, leaving the drain in the soil with
the anchor plate at the bottom. The drain is cut off when the mandrel is fully extracted (Fig. 4.52). The
process is now repeated at another location. Band drains installed in this manner can reach depths exceeding
65 m. They are usually placed in a square or triangular configuration 1 to 1.5 m apart. Typically, upwards of
5,000 m of drain can be installed in a day.
4.9.3 ‘TechBox’ Gabions
The ‘TechBox’ gabion (see Sec. 3.6) is a metal wire mesh (MWM) product made up of a double-twisted
hexagonally woven steel wire mesh, which is zinc-galvanised and PVC coated, made into compartmented
baskets forming rectangular boxes.
Apart from serving as gabions, the MWM is ideal for use as netting (Sec. 3.6.2) preventing the rock
fragments and debris from falling from the rock faces into roads and railways running through the foot of
the slopes. The double twist of the mesh does not unravel should some wires break.
The gabion technique has its origin in antiquity, the earliest known instance being the use of systems
consisting of baskets of woven reeds for bank protection along the Nile River thousands of years ago. From
such a primitive state characterised by the use of natural materials and empirical knowledge, the idea has
evolved into a sophisticated technology involving modern materials and a scientific approach to design and
construction.
Their properties of large mass, flexibility, permeability and energy dissipation capacity have enabled them
to extend their application to erosion control and scour protection works, from their traditional use as gravity
retaining structures.
Account: s6670599
Strata Geosystems 4.31
4.10 STRATA GEOSYSTEMS (India)

Strata Geosystems (India) Pvt. Ltd., established in 2004, is a joint venture with Strata Systems Inc.,
U.S.A., which is part of the 130-year old Glen Raven group of companies.
4.10.1 Products
Strata products include ‘knitted’ geogrids (Fig. 4.55) with facing blocks (Fig. 4.56), wall panel units
with an attractive stripe design (see inset – Fig. 4.57) forming a Reinforced Earth system using geogrids for
reinforcement (Fig. 4.57). (Note the resemblance to Anchored Earth wall – Sec. 3.2.)
Fig. 4.55 (Knitted) ‘StrataGrid’ [Courtesy: Fig. 4.56 Facing Block – RE System [Courtesy: STRATA]
STRATA]
Fig. 4.57 Reinforced Earth with RC Wall Panel and StrataGrid (also see inset) [Courtesy: STRATA]
Account: s6670599
Fig. 4.58 ‘StrataWeb’ Expandable Fig. 4.59 Increase in Bearing Capacity by Confinement of Soil in
Cellular System [Courtesy: Geocells [Courtesy: STRATA]
STRATA]
A special product is the ‘Strata Web’ which is a

3-dimensional cellular confinement system, made of
ultrasonically welded HDPE strips that are expandable
on site to form a honeycomb-like structure (Fig. 4.58)
which is to be infilled with soil. In bearing (see
Fig. 4.59) it resembles the principle of ‘skirted foot-
ings’ (Sec. 7.1) leading to significant increase in bear-
ing capacity. It is very effective for use in soil retention
(see Fig. 4.60), slope protection, etc.
Fig. 4.60 StrataWeb for Retaining Wall [Courtesy:
4.10.2 Soil Encapsulation STRATA]
Arresting the ingress of moisture into or its loss from expansive soils is one way of stabilising it thereby
preventing it from exerting its undesirable influences. Datye (1985) suggests the use of geomembranes as a
medium for encapsulating such soils. Kurian (1982: Sec. 11.1.10) mentions the earlier method, i.e. before
the arrival of geomembranes, of using bituminous membranes, as water barriers for stabilising subgrade
layers of pavements.
4.11 GEOTEXTILES IN NATURAL FIBRES

Under ‘natural fibres’ we consider ‘jute’ and ‘coir’. Readers will do well to go through Kurian (2005:
Sec. 14.8.4) before continuing with this section.

Natural fibres can be sourced from animals (e.g. wool and silk) or from plants (vegetable fibres). The
limited quantity of animal fibres has well defined apparel end uses and are beyond reckoning as raw material
for geotextiles.
Vegetable fibres can be grouped into three classes, viz. ‘bast’ fibres (e.g. jute, hemp) ‘leaf’ fibres (e.g.
sisal) and ‘seed’/‘fruit’ fibres (e.g. cotton, coir). Among them cotton, mostly used for apparels, has the
highest commercial value and its production is the highest among all the fibres mentioned above. While coir
enjoys diversified use, jute is mainly used in sacking and carpeting. Both coir and jute enjoy widespread use
in geotextiles.
Account: s6670599
Geotextiles in Natural Fibres 4.33
4.11.1 Geotextiles in Jute
Jute fabrics, constituting one variety of textile material, have been investigated to some extent by textile
technologists. They have thrown some light on aspects such as chemical constituents of jute and micro-
structutal changes leading to its bio-degradation. However, very little is learned about the civil engineering
behviour of jute geotextiles, even though the same has been in use for quite sometime. The need for the jute
industry to interact with civil engineers for mutual advantages is indeed obvious. An immediate concern is
the bio-degradability characteristic of jute under different environmental and soil conditions in the country.
Jansen Consultants of Geneva and Manstock Geotechnical Services of Manchester have received U.N.
funding for promoting the use of jute. Promotional trials for the application of jute geotextiles have been
under the active consideration of UNCTAD/GATT and the International Trade Centre. In India some trials
are in progress at the Indian Jute Industries Research Association (IJIRA) in Calcutta.
Erosion control
In a tropical country like India, hill slopes, embankment slopes and even the plains experience surface
erosion due mainly to rain water, assisted by wind. Such erosion causes loss of huge amounts of the fertile
topsoil. Besides, it damages road and railway embankments, dams, canal slopes and endangers even natural
slopes and river banks. It has been found that land erosions can be effectively controlled by using geotextiles
in conjunction with the promotion of the growth or re-establishment of vegetation cover.
Rao and Balan (1994) briefly describe the early use of jute and coir geotextiles, mainly in and around
Calcutta. (Most of the jute produced in India comes from the State of West Bengal.) They also report
the results of the preliminary studies conducted at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi, on jute
geotextiles and fibre drains supplied by IJIRA.
Pandey (1989) has reported that bio-degradability can be resisted to a considerable extent by treatment
of jute with oxides and hydroxides of cobalt and maganese with copper pyroborate, which can be made
permanent by incorporation of a suitable resin.
Geotextiles made purely of jute fibres – called ‘geojute’ – have been in use since the 1950s, as an open-
meshed woven fabric, in Europe and USA to cover exposed soil surfaces, with a view to promoting growth of
vegetation thereby arresting soil erosion. This fabric, known as ‘Soil Saver’ is till date the only commercially
available jute geotextile. Coir, the other natural fibre, even though a late starter in this field, has proven
its worth in filtration. Tests conducted in Germany over a prolonged period of time in a highly fertile soil,
maintained at high humidity (90%) and moderate temperature (27◦ C) revealed that,
1) while cotton degrades totally in six weeks and jute in eight weeks, coir retained 20% of its strength after
one year,
2) it takes coir 15 times longer than cotton and 7 times longer than jute to degrade.
In the early 1940s the British established a jute mill in Calcutta (The Ludlow Jute Mills), one unit of
which was reserved to produce jute mesh, now known as ‘soil saver’. Since the beginning it was an export
item – mainly to UK – but now there are quite a few mills in Calcutta which continue to produce this item
and export to overseas destinations.
Jute has made a foray into USA for erosion control works. They were used in the construction of Kingsway
Road in Dundee, Scotland, for erosion control along the cutting slopes.
No erosion control material has been around as long as the jute. The best reason to use jute mesh is that its
performance has been proven for nearly three decades in USA, Canada, Europe and Asia as well. Landscape
architects, re-vegetation contractors, highway administrators and others trust and use jute because they know
what to expect of a quality product that gets the job done under a wide range of environmental conditions.
Account: s6670599
Soil Saver
Soil Saver is a heavy woven jute mesh (mulch) that

stays put holding seed and soil intact on slopes and
other areas of concentrated water flow preventing soil
erosion during heavy rainstorms. As a natural vegetable
fibre, it decomposes in time adding rich organic matter
to the soil. Soil and seed are held in place while water
flows over them. Because of its mesh construction, the
opening between the strands (see Fig. 4.61) gives the
grass plenty of growing space. It gives freedom to select
any variety of grass or ground cover that best fits the
local soil and climatic conditions.
Aekta Limited, (6, Little Russel Street, Kolkata –
700 071, India) owners of Ludlow Jute Mills, one of the
leading manufacturers of jute geotextiles, have issued
detailed specifications on the use of their product, cove- Fig. 4.61 ‘Soil Saver’ – Jute Geotextile [Courtesy:
ring such phases as soil preparation, seeding, laying Aekta Ltd.]
soil saver, stapling, compaction, inspection, etc.
4.11.2 Geotextiles in Coir
Coir, which is 100% organic, is a strong cellulose fibre with high lignin content. It is naturally resistant
to rot, moulds and moisture. It does not require any preservative chemical treatment. The fibre decomposes
slowly. It provides good support on slopes for close to five years, thus allowing ample time for the natural
vegetation to grow sufficiently to take over the stabilising action. When the coir geotextile eventually disin-
tegrates, it leaves only humus. Its use under water is to be specially recommended thanks to its considerably
slower degradation in water.
A 1993 market survey of erosion control materials revealed that nearly 60% of them comprise of natural
materials. As India contributes about 66 and 44 percent of the world production of coir and jute fibres
respectively, India should occupy a pre-eminent position, not only in the production, but in the international
marketing and promotion of natural fibre geotextiles. Generally speaking, coir yarn is tougher and more
durable than jute yarn.
In erosion control, eventually by vegetation, natural geotextiles perform this task until they degrade
by absorbing water, when the seeds would have grown into plants to take on the task. This means, natural
geotextiles are to be preferred, sourced and used where vegetation is considered to be the long term answer to
slope protection and erosion control. This prime property of the geotextile gives them an edge over synthetic
geotextiles in the matter of erosion control.

Among their inherent additional advantages, Balan and Rao (1996) quote the following:
1) they give protection against rain-splash erosion,
2) they have the capacity to absorb water even up to 5 times their own weight,
3) they reduce the velocity and thus the erosive effect of run-off,
4) they maintain humidity in the soil and atmosphere,
5) they mitigate the extremes of temperature,
6) they bio-degrade, adding useful mulch to the soil, and
7) they keep seeds and other plant material in place on even steep terrain.
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Geotextiles in Natural Fibres 4.35
Coir-based geotextiles provide both the advantages of bio-degradability and the longevity required where
plant establishment might be slow. Coir-based geotextiles, which have a clear advantage in this regard, have
shown to persist in the upland conditions in UK for at least three years and to retain their erosion control
functions.
Balan and Rao (1996) quote a number of case studies from the states of Colorado, Ohio and Mississippi
in USA, Australia and Germany, ending with field trials at Pullangode Plantation Area, near Nilambur, in the
Malappuram district of Kerala in India. Mattings of coir geotextiles, having different densities and aperture
size, manufactured by Aspinwall & Co. (Travancore) Ltd., Alleppey, Kerala, were used in these studies.
The first attempt to develop prefabricated drains was made
by Walter Kjellman in 1939. The cardboard wick drain devel-
oped by Kjellman is the forerunner of all modern band drains
available in the market. It was made of three cardboard strips
glued together, the strip in the middle being split up to form
longitudinal drainage channels. The cardboard wick drain
came into use a mere five years after the traditional sand
drains (Fig. 5.44) appeared on the scene.
There are two main types of prefabricated drains. The
more common type consists of a thin geotextile filter sleeve
which prevents fine soil particles from entering inside, but
allows, at the same time, easy entry of pore water into the
central core which acts as the drainage channel. The other
type has simple unitised continuous drain holes within the
thin geotextile cover.
On the property side, jute fibre gives moderately high
modulus and tenacity and very low elongation at break. Coir
fibre, on the other hand, has low modulus and tenacity and
high elongation at break. Thus they behave in exactly the
opposite manner which leads Banerjee (1996) to conclude
that they form ideal partners for a blended product. Thus a
blend of much finer jute fibres with appropriate coir fibres
would lead to a yarn that should be much finer than the usual
coir yarn. Such a blended product, called ‘Brecodrain’, which
is a triaxially braided eco-friedly prefabricated strip drain has
been developed at IIT, Delhi (Fig. 4.62). Strip drains combine Fig. 4.62 Jute–Coir Strip Drain (Rao and
two functions, viz. filtration of soil particles (by the sleeve) Balan, 1994) [Courtesy: IIT Delhi]
and drainage of pore water (by the core).
In India, Coir Board (set up by the Government of India, under the Ministry of Industry) (address : Coir
House, M.G. Road, Kochi – 682 016, Kerala) is the official body entrusted with the task of development,
diversification and innovative applications of coir.
The world consumption of coir geotextiles was 1400 million m2 in 2000. Geotextiles in natural fibres
account for less than 5% of the entire geotextile production, the other 95% being synthetic. Looking at
the Indian scenario, one finds that there is a large untapped potential for coir geotextiles. They were first
promoted by the firm DEKOWE of Germany in 1985.
Nonwoven geotextiles represent 70% of the total geotextile market.
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Fig. 4.63 Coir Geotextiles [Courtesy: Coir Board]
The most established type of coir geotextile is the coir mesh matting of different mesh sizes (Fig. 4.63).
Nonwoven mats are mostly made from loose fibres, which are interlocked by needling or rubberising (as in
coir mattresses).
At present coir geotextiles are produced mainly in Kerala, but the markets are mostly distributed in the
northern and eastern parts of India. This represents a geographical disadvantage in terms of the need for long
distance transport.
DEKOWE of Germany are marketing their product under the brand name “Geocoir”. Nearer home,
RoLanka International of Srilanka uses the brand name “Bio D-Mat” for marketing their product. One feels
it is high time the Indian coir geotextile manufacturers adopt suitable brand names to project their image.
4.12 DESIGN WITH GEOTEXTILES

‘A Geotextiles Design Guide’ gives useful guidelines for those engaged in design with geotextiles and to
a lesser extent, geogrids.
It deals with the role of geotextiles in 1) unpaved roads, 2) paved roads, 3) railways, 4) drainage, 5) erosion
control and 6) soil reinforcement. Under reinforcement it covers embankments on soft ground, walls and
slopes besides remedial slope works. An attractive feature of the book is, each section gives a detailed
exposition of the design theory, followed by worked examples.
4.12.1 Unpaved Roads
These are roads in which the pavement material is unbound. It also includes paved surface whose laying
was preceded by unbound granular subbase which was trafficked. Unpaved roads may also be purpose-built
to give temporary or permanent access to specific locations.
The remoulded undrained shear strength, cu of a clay is related to its remoulded CBR-Value as
cu (kN/m2 ) = 23 × CBR(%) (4.3)
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Design with Geotextiles 4.37
When a geotextile is introduced a the interface of the subgrade and the fill above (see Figs. 4.9 and 4.11),
beneficial effects accrue in three distinct ways.
1) The geotextile acts as a separator helping to maintain the integrity and original thickness of the granular
fill. Without the geotextile the effective fill thickness will be reduced by intermixing and punching of
the granular fill material into the formation soil under the action of the wheel load.
2) The geotextile will absorb, either fully or in part, all the outward horizontal shear stress without letting
it to be transmitted to the formation.
3) The ‘membrane action’ of the geotextile under a rut produces an upward tensile component which
partially compensates the downward pressure at the formation due to transmission of the wheel load.
4.12.2 Paved Roads
Paved roads consist of ‘flexible’ or ‘rigid’ pavements, flexible being the most common. It is a ‘layered
system’ of bituminous bound materials, whereas the latter is a flexural system made up in the form of a
plain or RC slab. Both are constructed on an unbound granular subbase laid above the prepared formation
level of the natural subgrade. Sometimes a rigid pavement is capped with a bituminous course in the form
of an ‘overlay’. Geotextiles offer scope for incorporation in three distinct ways 1) at the formation-subbase
interface to prevent migration, 2) within the pavement, between the base course and surfacing, to extend
the fatigue life of the pavement and 3) on the surface of the pavement before laying the asphaltic overlay,
to extend the life of the overlay, besides making it impermeable by controlling cracking by functioning as a
reinforcement.
Geotextile in position 1
It has been established that pavement life is

related to its deflection by an inverse power function.
In this position (Fig. 4.64) the geotextile would

arrest reflective cracking and thus extend the service Fig. 4.64 Geotextile Location for Arresting Reflec-
life of the pavement. tive Cracking (Geotex Des. Guide, 1992)
[Courtesy: Don & Low Ltd.]
It prevents the migration of cracks from old pavement to the surface overlay.
A tack coat is first applied to the existing road surface before laying the geotextile for improved bonding.
4.12.3 Railways
Geotextiles play similar roles in highways and railways the predominant among them being serving as
‘anti-contaminant layers’ preventing migration of ballast into the soil or soil into the ballast. ‘Contamination’
here refers to the ballast getting mixed with soil. This problem, however, tends to be more severe in railways
than in roads.
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Fig. 4.65 Geomembrane and Sand Blanket under Ballast (Geotex. Des. Guide, 1992) [Courtesy: Don & Low Ltd.]
The ballast used in railway track tends to be uniformly graded with a maximum particle size of 50 mm.
Penetration of the ballast by a slurry of fine particles and water leads to a condition called “pumping”. This
slurry filling the void space causes a reduction in the dynamic modulus of the track bed leading to large
permanent strains developing under the dynamic loads. Ballast cleaning and replacement may sometimes
need realignment of the track which is expensive. Erosion pumping which emanates from the interface
between ballast and a silty/clayey subgrade is best controlled by providing a sand blanket above the sub-
grade. Although this solution is known to be suitable to control erosion pumping it does not prevent a bearing
capacity failure which arises in cohesive subgrades following the ingress of rain water. The solution adopted
by British Rail for this problem is to incorporate a geomembrane at the middle plane of the sand blanket
(Fig. 4.65).
For geotextiles used as separators at the subgrade level needle-punched filament type nonwoven
geotextiles are preferred to wovens.
4.12.4 Drainage
Figure 4.66 shows typical grain size distribution curves for different soils, with the chart below indicating
the range of the coefficient of permeability with grain size.
In the design of filters it needs be ensured that kg > 5ks , the subscripts g and s standing for geotextile
and soil.
The essence of filter design is selecting layers of aggregates such that permeability is maintained and
ensuring at the same time that there is no loss of fines which eventually leads to ‘piping’.∗ Incorporation of
geotextiles can achieve this end result more efficiently and economically.
Woven geotextiles comprise two elements, a ‘weft’ element along the width of the fabric and a ‘warp’
element running along the length. When the weave is not square the mesh opening is rectangular. In this case
the smaller dimension is taken as the mesh opening.
Nonwovens are produced either by 1) ‘melt-bonding’ or 2) ‘needle-punching’. In the first case thin
continuous filaments are first laid to form a loose web. On rolling and heating, the filaments get fused
together at their points of contact which gives the fabric its integrity. In the second case short staples of
fibres are initially laid down as loose web which are penetrated by a bank of reciprocating barbed needles
(Kurian, 2005: Sec. 14.8.2). The needling action causes mechanical entanglement of the fibers giving the
∗
The author specifically chose this topic for this note since he has found most filters – particularly granular filters –
becoming non-functional after an initial phase. He laments that adequate emphasis is lacking even at the level of teaching
these topics, with graduates leaving with little awareness of the field realities awaiting them!
Those, like this author, who believe in the paramountcy of teaching, would wish to see model set-ups, actually
demonstrating phenomena of the above kind which would convey a clear and lasting impression in the minds of students
which will stand them in good stead in dealing with these issues in their professional career.
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Fig. 4.66 Typical Particle Size Distribution Curves and Coefficient of Permeability for Different Soils (Geotex. Des.
Guide, 1992) [Courtesy: Don & Low Ltd.]
fabric a degree of integrity. The product is generally finished by rolling to give it a comparatively smooth
surface.
The pore sizes of a woven geotextile are comparatively uniform whereas those of nonwoven vary over a
wide range.
The filter mechanism described below assumes a hydraulic regime of steady state unidirectional laminar
flow.
In woven geotextiles coarser soil particles bridge over the mesh openings allowing the finer soil particles
immediately in contact with the geotextile to pass through the mesh openings and to be flushed away by
the flow of water. The system stabilises fast enough leaving no change in the soil structure remote from the
soil-geotextile interface. As long as the hydraulic regime described above remains unchanged, the bridging
network remains stable once it has been established, as described above.
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A similar bridging network mechanism is

attributed to nonwoven∗ fabrics as well, with the dif-
ference, however, that a “filter cake” or filter zone
develops immediately upstream of the bridging zone
(Fig. 4.67). This zone comprises a band of coarser soil
particles and finer material which has migrated from
further upstream in the soil. This zone admittedly has
lower permeability.
Compared to wovens, the nonwovens, understand-
ably exhibit a greater tendency to get clogged which
is due to the soil particles getting lodged in the pore
space, arresting – fully or partially – the free flow of
water. This is different from ‘blocking’ which is the
phenomenon of soil particles either projecting over,
or seating in, the mesh opening, which is more typical Fig. 4.67 Filter Cake and Bridging Zone (Geotex.
of wovens. Des. Guide, 1992) [Courtesy: Don & Low
Ltd.]
4.12.5 Erosion Control
Water is indeed the most aggressive agent causing soil erosion. The damage caused by erosion vary with
the erosive power of water (rainfall erosivity) and the erodibility of the soil under attack. Figure 4.68 is
revealing in as much as it relates erosion with particle size and current velocity. Erosion is undoubtedly a
natural process which erosion control measures presume to modify. Geotextile offers great prospects for
erosion control by due intervention in the system (Fig. 4.69).
Fig. 4.68 Erosion as a Function of Current Velocity Fig. 4.69 Geotextiles for Erosion Control (Geotex. Des.
and Particle Size (Read and Watson, 1962) Guide, 1992) [Courtesy: Don & Low Ltd.]
[Courtesy: Don & Low Ltd.]
∗
Even though digressive, attention may be invited to the fact that words such as ‘geo-textile,’ ‘non-woven,’ etc. are
strictly speaking hyphenated words, in a literary and grammatical sense. The practice of removing the hyphen and merging
the two parts as one, like ‘geotextile’ and’ nonwoven’ seems to have assumed a kind of technical approval for use in
technical literature.
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Note must however be made of the fact, that because of the alternating flow condition, there is often no
possibility of the formation of a bridging network, explained in Sec. 4.12.4, adjacent to the geotextile. As a
result the soil cannot generate a stable filtering configuration within its structure.
4.12.6 Soil Reinforcement
Use of geotextiles and geogrids to reinforce soil has now become a well established practice. Three major
applications can be cited where reinforcement plays a key role.
1) Vertical walls and steep-sided fill slopes (slopes made with fills),
2) Embankments over soft ground, and
3) Reinstatement of slips that have occurred in embankments or cuttings.
(1) Walls and slopes
The design life of a structure (wall/slope) may be a few months or years if it is a temporary structure,
or as much as 120 years, if the structure is permanent. However, the tensile forces required to be resisted
by the reinforcement remain constant irrespective of the life of the structure. In this respect it differs from
reinforcement used under embankments.
(2) Embankments on soft ground
While the short term stability of an embankment on soft soil is governed by the undrained shear strength
of the foundation soil, its long term stability depends upon the drained shear strength which corresponds to
the end of consolidation. As a result the factor of safety is higher in the long term than in the short term.
(Note that both undrained and drained strengths are
measured in the laboratory on specimens – extracted
from the soft soil before construction – on which the
embankment is laid.) If the short term and long term
values of F (factor of safety) are 0.8 and 1.4, respec-
tively, the shortfall in F in the short and intermediate
terms can be adequately compensated by the basal
reinforcement introduced between the embankment
and the soft foundation soil.
(3) Slope remediation

Figure 4.70 shows how the slip debris is reused

to recreate the original slope by reinforcing the fill
using geotextile and employing the wrap-around
technique (Fig. 3.9). However since the available
bond length space is limited, geogrids may prove
to be more suitable because of the higher bond Fig. 4.70 Reuse of Slip Debris to Recreate Slope (a, b)
manifested in the form of higher pull-out resistance. Without geotextile (c, d) With geotextile
On the theoretical side, the interface friction (Geotex. Des. Guide, 1992) [Courtesy: Don &
between the reinforcement and the soil is the agency Low Ltd.]
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through which the soil is reinforced by the inclusion (reinforcement). If the soil and the inclusion can be
visualised as one unit, it is easy to realise that the reinforcement reduces the tensile strain in the soil and
increases its strength. The compatibility of soil and reinforcement strains is the basis of design of any
reinforced soil structure.
4.12.7 Stability
(1) Walls and slopes
As regards internal stability, adequate margins of safety must be ensured against failure by, i) tensile
failure (rupture) of the reinforcement, ii) bond or pull-out failure of the reinforcement. In addition there will
be a serviceability requirement which limits the strain in the reinforcement and the deflection of the wall or
slope.
If the fill is a cohesionless soil, its peak strength, defined by φ, the effective angle of shearing resistance,
will be fully mobilised at lateral strains of the order of 1%. If the lateral strain exceeds this value, the mobilised
strength of the fill decreases until it reaches a constant minimum value known as the ‘constant-volume angle
of shearing resistance’, φcv . This strength will be available even at large lateral strains.
In contrast, the tensile strain at which polymeric reinforcement such as geotextiles or geogrids will be
typically in excess of 10%, i.e. about 10 times the strain at which the fill mobilises its peak strength.
Consequently when considering the tensile failure of the reinforcement one may calculate design forces in
the fill using φcv .
(2) Embankment
The embankment is ‘reinforced’ using a full width based layer of geotextile at the base level of the
embankment.
Internal stability
Analysis is carried out using, Øcv the angle of shearing resistance at constant volume.
The reinforcement layer may prove to be a plane of weakness if the angle of soil-geotextile interface
friction, δ, is substantially less than Øcv . However, if δ > (2/3)Øcv , failure along the soil-geotextile interface
is generally not critical.
Lateral stability
Under this two aspects need to be considered:

(a) Lateral sliding of the fill (embankment) over the geotextile. This is resisted by the interface friction
which subjects the geotextile to tension,
(b) Lateral extrusion of the weak foundation soil due to its vertical compression under the embankment
load.
Deep seated rotational stability
The stability analysis of the slope is advantageously modified to the extent of the tension in the geotextile
(see Fig. 4.15). The geotextile used as basal reinforcement must satisfy two criteria:
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Slope Protection 4.43
(1) There must be no tensile failure,

(2) The forces required for stability must be mobilised at geotextile strains compatible with embankment
serviceability limits.
(3) Soil reinforcement
The active thrust Ka γ H 2 /2 is shown as acting on

the unit consisting of the facing skin, reinforcements
and the backfill (Fig. 4.71). It pushes this block and
in turn is resisted by the friction mobilised around
the reinforcement (Sec. 3.1).
Geotextile reinforced wall with wrap-round
facing is not to be attempted when the loading at
the top has a horizontal component. In systems with
wrap-around facing, the spacing of reinforcement is
limited to 500 mm.
The length of the reinforcement, L, normally
provided as a rule of thumb is 0.8H . In theory,
use can be made of a variable L (with depth); in
practice, however, it is simplest and in the long run
Fig. 4.71 Geotextile Reinforced Earth (Geotex. Des.
cheapest and safest to stick to the above value and
Guide, 1992) [Courtesy: Don & Low Ltd.]
keep it constant with depth. The tensile strength of
polymeric reinforcement decreases with time. The
Guide ends with a table showing the effects of various chemicals on polypropylene normally used to make
geotextiles.
4.13 SLOPE PROTECTION

4.13.1 Coastal Slope Protection by Anchored Geosynthetics
Coastal landforms such as beaches essentially con-

sist of cohesionless sandy material which, on account
of the absence of cohesion, offer little resistance to par-
ticle detachment and displacement. This makes them
vulnerable to surficial erosion when subjected to wind,
wave and seepage forces. Coastal slopes are generally
unstable due to wave action, current scour and exfiltrat-
ing ground water. In place of the more traditional ‘hard

armour’ system normally used for shore protection, a
‘soft armour’ system can be attempted with anchored
geosynthetics. Fig. 4.72 Anchored Geosynthetic for Slope Stabi-
Geosynthetic materials such as geotextiles, geonets lisation (Ghiassian et al., 1997) [Courtesy:
and geogrids can be used for this purpose (Fig. 4.72). ASCE]
Openings are made in the fabric at predetermined loca-
tions and the fabric is strengthened around these holes by suitably reinforcing it. Rod anchors are driven
through these openings at the chosen intervals. The anchor rods are threaded at the exposed driving ends to
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which the fabric is secured using washer and nut. The entire assembly is now driven to the final design lengths.
The end of driving leaves the fabric in tension and puts the soil below in compression. It is this increase
in confining stress (compression) which contributes to the added stability of the slopes. The geosynthetic
must be fine enough to function as a filter and prevent the soil beneath from washing out through the
openings. Alternatively, a geotextile filter cloth can be placed beneath the geosynthetic to prevent the washout.
A slope protection measure of this kind is less visually and physically intrusive than the ‘hard armour’
system.
Detailed theoretical and experimental studies carried out by Ghiassian et al. (1997) establish the feasibility
of this technique for coastal protection.
4.13.2 Slope Protection by Reinforcing with Geotextile – Case History
A catastrophic slope failure in Malaysia triggered the collapse of a structure called ‘Highland Tower’
resulting in the loss of 45 lives. This tragedy highlighted the need for the proper appraisal of the stability
of cut and fill slopes in hillside development projects. Reinforcing the slope with geotextiles layes has
been found to be an efficient means to enhancing its stability. Lee et al. (1994) recommend a procedure
for the design of such reinforced slopes. It involves the ‘external stability’ which applies to all slopes
(ensuring adequate factors of safety against sliding, overturning, bearing and deep seated global stabi-
lity – Fig. 4.73) and ‘internal stability’ against failure by tension, pull-out and sliding at the interface
(Fig. 4.74).
Fig. 4.73 Reinforced Slope – External Stability (Lee et al., 1994) [Courtesy: Univ. of Malaya]
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Geotextiles for Hillside Development 4.45
Fig. 4.74 Reinforced Slope – Internal Stability (Lee et al., 1994) [Courtesy: Univ. of Malaya]
4.14 GEOTEXTILES FOR HILLSIDE

DEVELOPMENT
Hillside development invariably involves the
assessment of the stability of existing slopes
which may necessitate creation of new slopes
having the requisite stability against failure.
Reinforced Earth using geotextiles as reinforce-
ment is an ideal solution for stabilising such
slopes.
Lee et al. (1994) explain the case history of a
project involving the construction of a high rise
structure on a hill top. In order to provide access
to the excavated foundation pit (Fig. 4.75) the
existing slope had to be cut open. However, the
slopes needed to be reinstated to the original steep
gradient to a height of 17 m after the completion
of the foundation works (Fig. 4.76). The geotex-
tile used was Polywoven PW70 which is a slit film
woven geotextile made from polypropylene. The
conventional wrap around of the geotextile at the
facing was omitted. The backfill was compacted
to 95% standard Proctor density. The slopes,
trimmed to the design slopes, were eventually
turfed.
The design was carried out using the charts
given by Jewell et al. (1989) for pull-out and Fig. 4.75 Excavated Slope – Plan (Lee et al., 1994)
sliding. Analysis for internal stability was sup- [Courtesy: Univ. of Malaya]
plemented by a global stability analysis based on
Bishop’s slip circles, using the program STABGM (Duncan et al. 1985).
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Fig. 4.76 Reinstated Slope – Section (Lee et al., 1994) [Courtesy: Univ. of Malaya]
4.15 NEHEMIAH CASE HISTORIES (From Malaysia)

If the embankments are of large width, instead of using common reinforcements going from one wall
to the other, two sets of reinforcements are laid each terminating at its own anchor block (Fig. 4.77). (see
Sec. 3.2.)
Fig. 4.77 Back-to-Back Walls with Individual Rein- Fig. 4.78 AE Wall with Embossed Hexagonal Units
forcements [Courtesy: NEHEMIAH] under Construction [Courtesy: NEHEMIAH]
Figure 4.78 shows a Nehemiah AE wall under construction and Fig. 4.79 a finished wall. In casting the
facing panels, the centre of each hexagonal unit is made to project by a short width (embossed) which adds
considerably to the aesthetics of the wall by breaking the monotony, as seen in the figure.
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Nehemiah Case Histories 4.47
Figure 4.80 shows an AE (Anchored Earth) wall (Sec. 3.2) incorporating drainage blankets under a slope
by the side of a road. The example of Fig. 4.81 shows the drainage blanket below HWL provided behind a
wall where water is present on one side.
Fig. 4.79 AE Wall with Embossed Hexagonal Fig. 4.80 AE Wall with Drainage Blanket under a
Facing Blocks [Courtesy: NEHEMIAH] Slope [Courtesy: NEHEMIAH]
Fig. 4.81 AE Wall with Stone Drainage Blanket [Courtesy: NEHEMIAH]
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Even when the width is small, Nehemiah prefers overlap-

ping tendons (Fig. 4.82) each terminating at its respective
anchor block. By way of specifications by Nehemiah, the
facing panels are separated by joint fillers and cushion pads
to make the wall water-tight. The reinforcing tendons shall
be mild steel bars or high yield strength bars with a minimum
tensile strength of 250 MN/m2 or 460 MN/m2 , respectively.
(I MN/m2 = 1 N/mm2 ) The hot-dipped galvanisation should
have a minimum thickness of 70 μm (1 μm = 10−6 m = Fig. 4.82 Back-to-back AE Wall with
1/1000 mm). In addition to galvanisation, the connections Overlapping Tendons [Courtesy:
are further coated with anti-corrosive tar epoxy to a minimum NEHEMIAH]
thickness of 75 μm. The panel joint fillers are flexible open
cell polyurethene foam strips of 40 mm square section. The erection of panels on the plain concrete footing
can start only after a minimum of 24 hours after casting the footing.
As regards backfill, each lift of fill should not exceed a compacted height of 375 mm. The vehicles for
spreading and compacting the fill should only move parallel to the wall alignment all the time. However,
for a width of 1.5 m from the rear face of the panel, compaction should be effected only through a vibratory
plate compactor.
Subsoil drainage shall be by 100 mm dia. perforated PVC pipes.
Reinforced Earth is reported to have been used extensively in Turkey for retaining walls, sea walls bridge
abutments, railways, storage facilities, industrial structures and military and civil installations.
4.16 GREEN MUR

‘Green Mur’ is a trade name given by Nehemiah for a green solution to slope protection. It involves
horizontally placed geotextile layers serving as reinforcement and steel fabric facing panels held on the
incline by counterford hooks (Fig. 4.83). The facing panel is covered by ‘geojute’ (woven jute fabric, which
is bio-degradable) serving as a base for close turfing. Apart from contributing to aesthetics with its greenery,
the roots protect the slope from soil erosion (Sec. 4.4.4). Figure 4.84 shows a Green Mur slope with houses
above and a road below.
Fig. 4.83 ‘Green Mur’ – Repetitive Sections [Courtesy: NEHEMIAH]
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‘Rockmur’ for Slope Stabilisation 4.49
Fig. 4.84 Finished Green Mur Slope [Courtesy: NEHEMIAH]
4.17 ‘ROCKMUR’ FOR SLOPE STABILISATION

‘RockMur’ is a reinforced soil structure provided as a buttress at the toe of a slope for its stability.
Lee and Oh (1997) explain the design and construction of a RockMur at the foot of a slope (Fig. 4.85)
in Pahang , Malaysia, after its failure during the monsoon of December 1994. Such slope failures are of
common occurrence in Malaysia, brought about by the poor drainage of pore water.
Fig. 4.85 ‘RockMur’ – Section (Lee and Oh, 1997) [Courtesy: Univ. Tek. Malaysia]
The geotextile used was a composite material made of a high strength woven polyester yarn on which
is bonded a nonwoven continuous filament needle-punched geotextile, belonging to the Polyfelt NH series.
The woven part provides the high tensile strength needed to serve as reinforcement whereas the nonwoven
component serves as a medium facilitating in-plane drainage. The backfill material consists of cohesive-
frictional lateritic soil. The facing is of rock stones loosely placed within steel fabric panels, hot-dipped and
Account: s6670599
galvanised to prevent corrosion. The technique is described as a cost effective and a quick solution to slope
failure problems.
REFERENCES
A Geotextiles Design Guide (2nd edn. 1989, revised 1992), Don & Low Ltd. Angus, Scotland, 64 pp.
Balan, K. and Rao, G. V. (1996), “Erosion control with natural geotextiles,” Environmental Geotechnology
with Geosynthetics, (Ed. Rao, G. V. and Banerjee, P. K.), ASEG, New Delhi, pp. 317–334.
Bannerjee, P. K. (1996), “Development of new geosynthetic products through blends of natural fibres,”
Environmental Geotechnology with Geosynthetics (Ed. Rao, G. V. and Banerjee, P. K.) ASEG,
New Delhi, pp. 337–346.
Chew, S. H. and Loke, K. H. (1996), “Design criteria for reinforced soil structures using poorly drain-
ing backfills,” Proc. 12th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Kuala Lumpur, May 1996,
pp. 137–145.
COIR – Organic Fibre GEOTEXTILES for Soil Erosion Control, Pamphlet from Coir Board, India, Kochi,
Kerala.
Datye, K. R. (1985), “Application of geomembranes and geofabrics,” Proc. Worshop on Geomembranes and
Geofabrics, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Delhi, Sept. 1985, pp. 91–113.
Duncan, J. M., Low, B. K. and Schaefer, V. R. (1985), “STABGM: A Computer Program for slope stability
analysis of reinforced embankments and slopes,” Virginia Tech Geotechnical Engineering Research
Report.
FHWA (1989), Geotextile Design Examples, Geoservices Inc. Report to the Federal Highway Administration,
Washington D.C.
Ghiassian, H., Gray, D. H. and Hryciw, R. D. (1997), “Stabilisation of coastal slopes by anchored geosynthetic
systems,” ASCE – Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Aug. 1997, vol. 123,
No. 8, pp. 736–743.
Hai, L. C., Hooi, L. K. and Ching, O. Y. (1994), “Design and construction of slopes reinforced with
geotextile,” Forum on Geology and Hillside Development, Univ. of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, July 1994,
pp. 2.1–2.7.
Heerten, G. (1986), “Functional design of filters using geotextiles,” Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. on Geotextiles,
Vienna, Vol. 4, pp. 1191–1196.
Jewell, R. A. (1989), “Application of the revised design charts for steep reinforced slopes,” Reinforced
Embankments: Theory and Practice in British Isles, Symposium at Cambridge University, Sep. 1989,
39 pp. (Proceedings published by Thomas Telford, London, 1990)
Koerner, R. M. (1986), Designing with Geosynthetics, (2nd edn.), Prentice Hall.
Kurian, N. P. (1982), Modern Foundations – Introduction to Advanced Techniques, Tata McGraw-Hill Publ.
Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 1982, 464 pp.
Lee, C. H., Loke, K. H. and Oh, Y. C. (1994), “Design and construction of slopes reinforced with geotextiles,”
Forum on Geology and Hillside Development, 22 July 1994, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
pp. 21–27.
Lee, C. H. and Oh, Y. C. (1997), “Rockmur for slope rehabilitation,” Geotechnical Engineering Developments
in Asia, Proc 4th Regional Conference in Geotechnical–Engineering Geotropika 97, Johor Bahru,
Malaysia, Nov. 1997, pp. 433–440.
Account: s6670599
References 4.51
Loke, K. H. (1992) Design of geotextile rivetment filters for riverbank and coastal erosion protection, Polyfelt,
July 1992, 14 pp.
Loke, K. H. (1993), “Design of geotextile stabilised earth structures over soft soils,” Polyfelt, Nov. 1993,
27 pp.
Loke, K. H. (1997), “Overview of geosynthetics – Functions and applications,” Short Course on
‘Geosynthetics and their Applications in Civil Engineering,’ IKRAM, Selangor, Malaysia, Nov. 1997,
14 pp.
Loke, K. H. (1997), “Soil stabilisation and reinforcement using geotextiles for steep slope (wall) con-
struction”, Short Course∗ on “Geosynthetics and their Applications in Civil Engineering” IKRAM,
Selangor, Malaysia, Nov. 1997, 37 pp.
Loke, K. H., Lee, C. H., Lim, C. H. and Chin, P. W. (1994), “Performance of nonwoven geotextile in coastal
protection works with marine clays,” Proc. 5th International Conference on Geotextiles, Geomembranes
and Related Products, Singapore, Sept. 1994, pp. 647–650.
Loke, K. H., Toh, C. T. and Chee, S. K. (1997), “Geotextile-bamboo composite construction – Malaysian
experience of an economic method of stabilisation and reclamation of soft soils,” Short Course on
‘Geosynthetics and their Applications in Civil Engineering’, IKRAM, Selangor, Malaysia, Nov. 1997,
14 pp.
Loke, K.H. and Wee, S.H. (1992), “The use of nonwoven needle-punched geotextile filters in coastal
and riverbank erosion protection,” Proc. International Symposium on Applications of Geosynthetic
Technology, Jakarta, Indonesia, Nov. 1992, 7 pp.
Pandey, S. N. (1989), “Potential for use of natural fibres in civil engineering,” Use of Geosynthetics in India –
Experiences and Potential (Eds. Rao, G. V., and Saxena, R. K.) Publication No. 209, CBIP, New Delhi,
pp. 400–410.
Rao, G. V. and Balan, K. (1994), “Application potential of jute as geotextile,” National Workshop on
Production and Use of Jute Geotextile, UNDP Jute Development Program, New Delhi, Feb. 1994,
19 pp.
Rao, G. V. and Balan, K (1994), “Design and development of a natural fibre strip drain,” Proc. Intl. Symposium
on Biocomposites and Blends based on Jute and Allied Fibres, UNDP/IJIRA, New Delhi, pp. 87–95.
Read, H. M. and Watson, J. (1962), Introduction to Geology, Vol. 1, McMillan & Co., London.
Reference has been made to the following pamphlets issued by leading geosymthetic product manufacturers.
At the heart of geosynthetic activity, Techfab India, Mumbai 2010

Engineering with geosynthetics, HUESKER
Fibertex nonwovens, FIBERTEX
Nylex Cordrain, NYLEX
Stratagrid – Quality speaks for itself, STRATA Geosystems (India) Pvt. Ltd.
The Geogrid story, NETLON
The whole world builds on Polyfelt, Geotextile solutions to civil engineering problems, POLYFELT
Group
Vinidex draincoil, VINIDEX
∗
The short courses cited in this book, conducted at IKRAM, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia, were organised by this
author during his tenure at ILPK, Kumpulan Ikram, as principal consultant, during 1997–98.
Account: s6670599

Geosynthetics Applications

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GEOSYNTHETICS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN

4.1 GEOSYNTHETICS – AN OVERVIEW

Fig. 4.1 Woven Geotextiles – Two Types (Loke, 1997)

Institute (GRI) was established in Drexel, USA.

Fig. 4.2 Geotextile Functions – Schematic [Courtesy: POLYFELT]

4.1.1 Tests on Geotextiles

Tensile test (wide width) – ASTM D 4594, BS 6906/1

dominant function minor function

Water permeability – ASTM D 4491, BS 6906/3

Constant head hydraulic transmissivity – ASTM D 4716, BS 6906/7

4.1.2 Geotextile as Filter

4.1.3 Reinforced Earth as Retaining Structure

4.2 POLYFELT GEOTEXTILES AND THEIR USES

4.2.2 Drainage and Filtration

Fig. 4.4 Roadside Drain with Geotextile [Courtesy: POLYFELT]

Table 4.2 Comparative pH Resistance of Common Geotextile Polymers [Courtesy:

4.2.3 Reinforcement of Slopes and Embankments

Table 4.3 Soil/Soil, Geotextile/Soil Interface Friction Angle – Degrees [Courtesy:

ASTM D3080 Clayey Silty Clay Sandy Angular Rounded

4.2.4 Soft Soil Stabilisation using Geotextile with Bamboo

4.2.5 Railway Engineering

Track failures are not uncommon due to loss of

4.2.6 Geomembrane Protection

Geomembrance liners find application in areas

protective cushion layer against static and dynamic

Fig. 4.8 Polymer Rockstrata Geogrid [Courtesy: POLYFELT]

4.2.7 Polyfelt ‘Rock Strata’ Geogrids

4.2.8 Design of Geotextile-Stabilised Earth Structures over Soft Soils

4.2.9 Drainage and Filtration

POLUFELT] Reinforcement and Separation Functions

Fig. 4.13 Embankment Failure Modes [Courtesy: POLYFELT]

and the cost saving in each case resulting

Practical experience has shown that the

4.2.11 Riverbank and Coastal Erosion

Beaches, riverbanks, earth berms etc.,

4.2.12 Filtration and Permeability Criteria

Fig. 4.18 Susceptibility of Soil Particles to Erosion [Courtesy: POLYFELT]

Loke (1992) gives design examples and guide-

4.3 HUESKER GEOTEXTILES

(1) A retaining wall 40 m long and 5 m high

course behind the wall with a perforated collector

High modulus and low creep are the ideal proper-

‘Comtrac’ is manufactured using a revo-

Fig. 4.29 ‘Comtrac’ Knitting Process [Courtesy: HUESKER]

Fig. 4.30 ‘Incomat’ Standard Mattress [Courtesy: HUESKER]

Fig. 4.33 Incomat ‘Slab’ [Courtesy: HUESKER]

Fig. 4.34 Incomat ‘Tube’ [Courtesy: HUESKER]

Fig. 4.35 ‘HaTelit’ Geogrid (also see inset) [Courtesy: HUESKER]

4.3.2 Geotextiles in Landfill Construction

subgrade (Fig. 4.37), or protect geomembranes from

4.3.3 Hydraulic Engineering

‘HaTelit’ sandbags, made of high-strength synthetic fab-

4.4 NETLON (U.K.) – PRODUCTS AND USES

Mesh Size: 60 × 60 mm (nominal)

4.4.2 Railway Track Bed Stabilisation with Geogrids

Fig. 4.42 Drainage along Roads [Courtesy: NETLON]

4.4.4 Geogrids for Slope Protection

Fig. 4.45 Slope Protection with Geogrids [Courtesy: NETLON]

Fig. 4.46 Cliff Protection with Geogrids [Courtesy: NETLON]

4.4.5 Reinforced Grass

4.4.6 Waterfront Protection

Fig. 4.47 Shallow Slope – Mattress Rivetment [Courtesy: NETLON]