HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN Prepared by, Udaya Kumar KS Assistant Professor MIT, Manipal.Geometric design deals with dimension and layout of features of Highway such as Alignment, Sight distance and Intersections. Objective is to provide Maximum Efficiency, Safety and Economy. It may be improvement of existing or planning of a new project keeping the view of future growth of traffic.Geometric design of highways includes 1. Cross section elements-Width of pavement, formation and land, surface characteristics and cross slope. 2. Sight distance 8. Horizontal and vertical curves- Super elevation, transition, Extra pavement width on horizontal curves, vertical curves in change of gradients. 4, Intersection elements- Traffic engineering. | Factors influencing are Topography, traffic and @ | vehicular characteristics and Speed and economy.DESIGN FACTORS 1. Design speed: Important and depends upon the class of the road and topography. Type of pavement surface, c/s of road, sight distance, super elevation, length of transition are all depends on design speed. 2. Topography: The terrains are classified based on the cross slope of the country as a)Plain rolling(0-10%) b)Rolling(10%-25%) c)Mountainous(25%-60%) d) Steep 60%) The design speed is different for different class of roads and terrain.8.Traffic factors: Depends on vehicular and human characteristics. To choose standard design vehicle considering mixed traffic flow 4.Design hourly volume and traffic: Traffic flow will fluctuates with time and reasonable value is considered for design called design hourly volume. 5.Environmental factors: Air pollution, noise pollution, other natural aesthetics should be given consideration.CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS The pavement surface depends on material available and funds, volume of traffic, subgrade and climatic conditions, construction facilities and cost. 1.Friction Operating speed , stopping and accelerating distance depends upon the friction between the pavement and the tyres. While negotiating the horizontal curves it is the lateral friction which counter acts the centrifugal force . @ |i Skid occurs when the path travelled along the road is more then the circumferential movement of wheels due to the rotation. Lateral skidding takes place when the vehicle while negotiating a horizontal curve if the centrifugal force is greater then the centripetal force and is dangerous as the vehicle may overturn or thrown away. The lateral skid coefficient is little higher then the forward skid coefficient in braking tests.reall]Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more then the longitudinal movement along the roads. Slipping occurs when the vehicle rapidly accelerates from rest or from slow speed, when the pavement is slippery or wet or with loose mud.FACTORS AFFECTING FRICTION OR SKID RESISTANCE 1.Pavement type(concrete or bitumen, WBM, earth surface) 2. Macrostructure of the pavement surface. 3. Conditions of pavement like wet or dry, smooth or rough, oil spilled, mud or sand on pavement. 4. Conditions of tyre. 5. Speed of vehicle. 6. Extent of brake application or brake efficiency. 7. Load and tyre pressure. 8. Temperature of tyre and pavement. 9. Type of skid.The type of aggregate used and mix design of pavement affect the skid resistance. When the surface is smooth or wet or when the temperature is more friction reduces. Smooth and worn out tyres offer higher resistance on dry pavement then with new tyres because of large area of contact , but new tyres with good treads give higher friction on wet pavement. This is because water which is entrapped between the tyres and pavement is escaped into the treads of new tyres. Hence new tyres are better in adverse conditions.Friction coefficient decreases with increasing speed and brake efficiency. For the calculation of stopping distance the friction coefficient is between 0.35 and 0.4 is recommended by the IRC depending on the speed. IRC recommends the lateral friction of 0.15 considering the worst possible conditions.2.PAVEMENT UNEVENNESS Speed increases on pavement with less undulations then with uneven or poor surface. Also operating cost of vehicle, comfort and safety is affected with uneven surface. Fuel consumption, wear and tear increases with increasing unevenness. Fatigue and accidents also increases with unevenness. Equipment used to measure the unevenness is called as Bump integrator which gives unevenness index. Unevenness which is sum all vertical undulations of the pavement surface per unit horizontal length of the road.RC gan et Nh Fe he Lig Seat) RLLow unevenness index is desirable. 150cm/km is good for high speed. 250cm/km is satisfactory up to a sped of 100kmph. >850cm/km is considered uncomfortable even for speed of 50kmph.CAUSES OF UNEVENNESS 1. Improper compaction of the filling, subgrade and pavement. i Un scientific method of construction 3. Inferior pavement materials. s. Improper drainage. 5. Improper construction machinery and poor maintenance.3.LIGHT REFLECTING CHARACTERISTICS Night visibility of the pavement depends upon the light reflecting characteristics of the surface. Light colored give good visibility at night during rains and the same will glare and gives eye strain during bright sunlight. Black top is poorly visible at night.CROSS SLOPE OR CAMBER Cross slope or camber is the slope provided on the road surface in transverse direction for the purpose of quick drainage. It is important to provide cross slope to prevent water entry in to the pavement, subgrade and soil which cause its detrition. Quick drainage also dries off the surface fast and increases the skid resistance.| i ! How it is provided? It is provided by raising the center of the road with respect to edges. At horizontal curves super elevation itself acts as rise to drain off the water from the pavement. The rate of camber is expressed as 1 in ‘n’ or in terms of percentage. Camber depends upon the Type of pavement surface Amount of rainfallSteeper cross slope is undesirable because 1. Transverse tilt of the vehicle causes uncomfortable side thrust on the steering and wheels of the edges causing unequal wear of tyres and edges of the pavement. 2. Discomfort causing throw of the vehicle when overtaking. 8. Toppling over of highly laden trucks. 4. Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water. 5. Tendency of the vehicle travelling along the @ center line.SHAPE OF CROSS SLOPE (b) Straight line camber PARABOLIC rnc STRarciyy fc) Combination of straight and parabolic skape » |© Straight line camber adopted for very flat slopes. The edge shape at crown produces inconvenience and is not used for steep slope. o In parabolic camber, the cross slope is in the shape of simple quadratic parabola. In this case, the ordinate Y varies as the square of abscissa X (simple parabola equation). Overtaking vehicle will not have jerks as the crown is curved. Difficulty in construction. It has steep slope at edges and create outward thrust to the vehicle and is generally and used o The composite camber facilitates more contact area of the wheel there by reducing the intensity of pressure. It will compensate the difficulty of other two and is normally used.Table 4.1 Recommended values of camber for different types of road surfaces a Range of camber in a ‘Types of road surface areas of rainfall range No. E Heavy to Light | 1. [Cement concrete and high type bituminous surface |1 in 50 (2.0%) to 1 in 60 (1.7 %)| . [Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 2.5%) to 1 in 50 (2.0 %)| Water bound macadam, and gravel pavement__{1 in 33(3.0%) to 1 in 40 2.5 %) [Earth 1 in 25 (4.0%) to | in 33The cross slope of shoulder is 0.5% steeper then the pavement, subjcet to a minimum of 8% and maximum of 5% for earthen roads. In case of parabolic camber of 1 inn, and width of pavement ‘W y= 2X2/nW| WIDTH OF PAVEMENT OR CARRIAGE WAY | Width of pavement depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes. | Traffic way intended for one line of beattic is called fie lane, Vor single lane 8.75mb is desirable assuming the © maximum vehicle width as 2.44mt. Vor two or more lane width of 8.5 mt for each lane is sufficient. Width of pavement is increased in case of horizontal curves.hos my 0-628 0.628 PAVEMENT SHOULDER $ E08 jp 3-78m —4 (a) SINGLE LANE PAVEMENT ——_4 (0) Two 1 ANE PAVEMENTTable 4.2 Width of Carriageway L Class of road Width of carriageway | (i) | Single lane 3.75 m (ii) | Two lanes, without raised kerbs 7.0m (iii) | Two lanes, with raised kerbs 75m (iy) | Intermediate carriageway (except on important roads) 5.5m (v) Multi-lane pavements 3.5 m per laneTraffic separators or medians Traffic separators are provided to prevent head on collision of vehicles on adjacent lines. It will also help to channelize the traffic, segregate slow traffic and protect pedestrians. It may be in the form of pavement markings, dividers or area separators. Area separators may be medians, dividing islands or parkway strip, width depends on the land. A minimum of 6mt is required to avoid opposite head light glare.IRC recommends minimum 3mt-5mt medians for rural highway. On long bridges it is 1.2mt-1.5mt. On urban Highway medians are 1.2mt-5mt and 1.2mt is minimum pedestrian refuge. Fig. 4.3 Kerb and Traffic SeparatorKerbs Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement and the shoulder or islands or footpath. | Kerbs are divided in to 1. Low or mountable kerbs- Height of this kerb is 10cm and can be mountable. Semi barrier kerbs- Provided where pedestrian traffic is high and is 15cm height with a batter | of 1:1 on the top 7.5em. Barrier kerbs- The height of the kerb is 20em with a batter of 0.25:1. @ | ’Road margins: The various elements in road margins are shoulder, parking lane, drive way, cycle track, footpath, guard rail and embankment slope. eer e icapl anol || [eel a5 BORDER FORMATION oR frecat-m transi app—"HOKO WRT! Pape pony mancin -oLZORBER | E -shouoer f7capraice- snourcer we 3 Ieee gal 2: we ¥, wile ss Bg Be iene g i g 2 zg lg lg a: BS é 3 5 3 a iB E & (a)- IN EMBANKMENTKet AO MARGIN ra—-AOAD Way moan MancN -42OROER 4 INTROLS | fp souoer 7 eanmce-ts SHOULOER 0 7 | zl ; : | 1 Hi Fy al yw | i it 3| fg, SB aie (b) LIN CUTTING *Shoulders: Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for vehicle to be taken off from the pavement and serve as service lanes for the vehicle which are broken down. The minimum shoulder width recommended by the IRC is 2.5mt. It should have sufficient bearing capacity to take the load of loaded truck in wet weather. The surface should be rougher and color should be different from that of pavement. Parking lanes: Parking lanes are provided in urban roads. Parallel parking is preferred then angular parking and a minimum width of 3mt is provided for parallel parking.Lay byes are provided for public conveniences and are minimum of 3mt width and length of 30mt and 15mt end tappers. Frontage roads: Frontage roads are provided to give access to properties along important roads such as express way with controlled access. Drive way connect the highway with fuel stations, service stations and should be away from the intersections. Radius should be more and width and length should be minimum to avoid cross walk. Cycle track are provided in urban roads when cycle traffic is more and with a minimum width of 2mt.Foot path are provided in urban areas when both vehicular and pedestrian traffic is more. Generally provided on either side of the road with a minimum width of 1.5mt with a smooth surface. Guard rails are provided at the edge of the shoulders on the fill to prevent the vehicle running off from the embankment when it high exceeds 3mt. Guard stones are provided with block and white paints on the edge of the shoulder at horizontal curves, embankment, lake sided etc., for better visibility at nights.Embankment slopes should be as flat. as possible from the stability view. Width of formation or road way: It is sum of width of pavement, including separators and shoulders. It is top width of the highway embankment or bottom width of highway cutting excluding drains.Table 4.3 .Width of Roadway of various classes of roads 7 Roadway width, m at : a Road classification Plain and | Mountainous and No. Rolling terrain | _Steep terrain 1. | National & State Highways (a) Single lane 12.0 6.25 (b) Two lane 12.0 8.80 2. | Major District Roads 1 (a) Single lane 9.0 4.75 (b) Two lanes 9.0 F 3. | Other District Roads | (a) Single 15 4.75 : (b) Two lanes 9.0 : . 4. | Village roads-single lane 15 4.00 | Notes (i) In multilane highways, roadway width should be adequate for the requisite number of traffic lanes besides shoulders and central median. (ii) The minimum roadway width on single lane bridge is 4.25 m.Right of way: Right of way is area of land acquired for the road along its alignment. The width of the land acquired is known as land width. It is governed by ; 1. Width of formation, type of road and road margins. 2. Height of embankment or depth of cutting. 3. Side slopes of embankment or cutting. i. Drainage system 5. Sight distance considerations on horizontal curves. At sharp curves desirable to have more width to avoid visibility. «Future development of roads. \BUILDING OR OTHER OBSTRUCTION Fig. 4.5 Obstructions to Visibility at Horizontal CurveBuilding activities should be disallowed beyond the land width for the future development up to building line on either side of the road. In addition nature of the building can be controlled by control lines.Table 4.4 (a) Recommended land width for different classes of rural roads (metre) Plain and rolling terrain Mountainous and steep terrain Fee Road classification Open Built-up | Open | Built-up areas areas areas | areas Normal] Range | Normal [Range [Normal] Normal T, [National and State Highways| 45 [30-60] 30 [30-60] 24 | 20 2. [Major District Roads 25_[25-30] 20 [15-25] 18 | 15 3. [Other District Roads 15_| 15-5 [15 [15-20] 15 | 12 4. [Village Roads 12_[12-18] 10 [10-15] 9 9Table 4.4 (b) Recommended standards for building lines and control lines Pian and Rolling terrain ‘Wountainous & stoop terain Open wee Baltap area Distance between bulding fine foat | “Ove width| Overall width | Distance between and rond boundry (et bac, m Classification | between butding | vetwean contol | bing ne end ond : foes, m fines, m_ | _baundary set-back), m | Openerexs | Butup areas INH 85H a0 150 3106 305 Tae MOR 30 100 3105 3105 305 fo.0.n 25130" 35 3005 3105 305 [UR 25 30 3105 3105 3t0$TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF ROADS ROAD way woth soso Bom PAVEMENT L300 Longiupinat { ay fot Fig. 4.6 Cross Section of VR or ODR in Embankment in Rural Area