1.

OCCURRENCE OF THE UNIVERSITIES

With the rapid development of handicrafts and trade in 12th century, towns are intensively developing.
The more material and cultural they rise, the stronger is their independence from feudal and papal
power. In them the natural replaces the commodity-money economy, thus highlighting the first forms of
capitalistic production.Тhere is city office which is made up of merchants, craftsmen and lumpy
proletarians (serpents who fled to cities and were without property).At the same time an unusual rise
and huge interest occurs for intellectual and cultural uplift in general. As is rare in any other age, the
thirst for knowledge and learning is great. It is a true Renaissance of the Middle Ages, the vanguard of
the Renaissance of the 16th century. As a result, there is an increase in the number of higher schools
that have been opened to students from other cities. Those schools that succeeded in separating
themselves from the authority of the local bishop were less dependent on him. They were taught by
worldly people and they felt the breath of the new education system being born. With this change in
school life, a new school organization that was not familiar with the earlier periods of human history had
to come. As early as the first half of the 12th century, three such schools emerged: Paris, as a
philosophical-theological school, Bologna, with its law studies, and Salerno, with medical studies. From
these schools were born the first and oldest European universities. The word "university" in the
beginning does not mean a particular educational institution where professors teach various sciences
and many students listen (what we mean by this term today), but rather a group of individuals. The
word universitas is synonymous with societas. It is also used in the sense of corporation of craft
companies, associations or any other group. Until the end of the 12th and early 13th century this word is
used to denote a corporation of teachers and students. And this again has to do with the socio-
economic relations that ruled the cities of that time. The corporate system flourishes in all fields of
public activity. To protect their interests, people of the same business associate with corporations,
traders in guilds, craftsmen in shells. Corporations were closed associations with specific rules and rights
and duties of members. Membership was followed by a ritual. And the teachers' association follows this
spirit of cooperativity. To ensure their livelihoods and their rights and to successfully fight against the
emergence of unqualified and unscrupulous teachers they had to be organized in the same way. No one
could give lectures until that right was recognized by the teacher with whom he had studied for many
years. Acquiring the right to teach, to lecture, according to an old custom was followed by certain
ceremonies. This act of acceptance in the teachers' corporation was called inceptio (beginning). Just as
the master gave his caliph the right to enter into his guild, as there was a ceremony for the entry of the
corporation of the knights, so the teaching work which was considered intellectual knighthood could
only be carried out when the master teacher obtained a license docendi. (right to lecture). Only with the
obtained licentia docendi the young man could enter the teachers' corporation, ie. to be released on the
inceptio. Thus licentia and inceptio represent two degrees that had to be acquired to obtain the right to
teach. The appearance of the University of Paris is also associated with the name of the gifted 12th-
century scholastic Pierre Abellar. Taking part in the sport of nominalists and realists, Abelar quickly
stood out for his remarkable teaching and speaking abilities. He raised the voice of the Paris School and
attracted numerous students from various parts of France, England and Germany, and even Rome sent
their listeners. Due to the large influx of students, the number of teachers in the Cathedral School of the
Mother of God had to increase. Since the premises were insufficient at that time, individual teachers
also lectured in private homes, on the island or on the Seine bridge, and Abelar himself taught on the
coast of St. Yeneyev where the Pantheon is today. In this struggle, the reputation of universities, where
entire rivers of students flowed, diminished the reputation of the cathedral school. The large number of
teachers who remained after Abelar's death enabled the birth of the University of Paris. When they
succeeded to some extent in overthrowing the bishop's authority in the cathedral church, which was the
supreme authority at that school and issuing a licentia docendi, the professors sought to become
independent of the bishop. They entered in a federation, formed an association that became better
organized, and started a fight for the right to issue licentia docendi. The bishop opposed this, and on his
side was the king. The fight was fought for several years. Finally, the teachers turned to the Roman Pope
himself. Understanding the meaning of the corporation of teachers and students and looking at it in
perspective, he recognized their association as a university (universitas magistroum et scholarium) and
allowed professors to grant licentia docendi, but did not deprive the bishop of that right. However the
University of Paris had to fight for its independence against the bishopric over the next ten years. It was
not until the second half of the 13th century that the teaching body became virtually independent of the
bishop. But while helping to free him from episcopal authority, the pope oversaw the growth of the
university and sought to impose his views on organization and teaching. To partially paralyze the
influence of the University of Paris and the Albigene heresy, he founded a separate university in
Toulouse, in the area where this heresy was most prevalent. Later, however, the University of Paris
became an intellectual center of all of Europe, just as Rome was a religious center. The Paris University
diploma was recognized everywhere. It gave ubique docendi, the right to be taught anywhere.

The creation of the University of Bologna, which preceded the Paris one, is quite different. The
intellectual renaissance of the 12th century has never felt as alive as in the cities of Northern Italy. The
struggle for their independence was in full swing. They strived for the freedom and self-managment that
the cities of old Hellas had. It seems paradoxical, but historically true, that the papal influence here felt
less than in other countries. The traditions of Roman law were very so alive. The cities endured a strong
struggle for independence with German Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa. The emperor based his
prerogatives on the rights of the ancient Roman emperors. Thus a strong need for the study of Roman
law developed. Towards the end of the 11th century, students from all over the world gathered around
the Bologna Cathedral, where lawyers successfully taught civil and ecclesiastical law. At that time, two
professors acquired a European voice: Irenreus as a civil law teacher and Grazian as a canon law teacher.

Bologna also had other faculties. They were independent of each other and interconnected. That's the
difference between the universities of Paris and Bologna. The Bologna School is a remarkable creation of
medieval culture. Other universities in Italy, such as Ravenna, Modena, Padova, Vicenza and others,
have emerged following the reputation of this university or the migration of Bologna students.

As Bologna became famous in law, Salerno, a city in southern Italy, became famous for medical degree.
Medical traditions in southern Italy were very alive. Here the links with Greek culture were not
interrupted at all so the traditions of Greek medicine were very strong. In addition, interest in practical
medicine was heightened by contacts with the Arabs, as well as with the Normans and other peoples
who lived there during the Crusades.

The Salermo School of Medicine, for a time, is actually the first university in Europe. After its
arrangement the University of Salerno was something special.It was not a universitas scholarium like
Bologna, but rather approached the University of Paris. For almost two centuries it was the first medical
faculty in Europe.

2.ОРГАНИЗАЦИЈА

Medieval universities were unique in their organization. They were mainly modeled after the University
of Paris. But despite these similarities in spirit, teaching, and arrangement, quite naturally, each country
imposed certain specific traits on its universities.

In this unique system, as a special type, different from the Paris, stands out the University of Bologna, as
well as the other Italian universities organized according to its model.

The medieval university consisted of 4 faculties: artistic, theological, law and medical. The Faculty of Art,
as a general education school, was a condition for attending other faculties. So he would fit today's
gymnasium.He was visited by boys aged 13-14 and remained 6-7 years. Only then could they continue to
any of the other faculties.The word faculty has the same meaning as the word licentia. The expression
facultas ubique docendi signified the ability to teach anywhere. Later this expression begins to denote a
group of sciences. Initially the faculties were almost completely separated from each other in
independent corporations.But it soon became apparent that there was a need for a single entity that
would represent all faculties before city and church authorities. That person was the rector who was
elected by the congregation of professors and students for a short period of six months. Only in
Scotland, until the 19th century, did students have the right to participate in the rector's election. The
Rector represented the university as a corporation. He was an elder not only of all members of the
university, but also a judge of all disputes between professors and civilians. He also had executive
power. The rights of the rector were based on the statutes that the members voluntarily adopted. At the
French and English universities the rector was usually chosen from among the professors of the faculty
of art, as this faculty was the largest of the number of students and professors, though it was taught the
‘dialect’ which was considered the greatest science. Each faculty was headed by a dean who was
independent of the rector and often in conflict with him. In addition to the dean there was also a faculty
council made up of all teachers from the respective faculty. There was also a university council that
initially consisted of professors and students from all faculties, and later only professors. The University
Council passed the statutes which all members of the university were sworn to. The university seal was
kept locked in a casket with 4 keys, each of which had only one dean.

Apart from the faculties, students and teachers were also divided by nations. This is due to the fact that
universities have attracted a large number of students from different countries. Students from one
country formed a special group to protect their interests, provide accommodation and nutrition. These
organizations were called nationes. In Paris, division of nations existed only at the Faculty of Art. There
were 4: French, Picardy, Norman and English.The student first went to baccalaureate (which
corresponded to apprenticeship), then became a master (calf) and then a doctor. Signs of this last
degree gained after years of study were the doctor's hat and toga. The candidate was publicly and
officially declared a worthy member of the corporation with all rights and privileges.

Something different was the organization of the University of Bologna which had a monopoly on Roman
law teaching. Secular teaching has been a tradition here since ancient times and the clergy's influence
was weak and reduced to a kind of patronage. The students were divided into two groups: those on this
side of the Alps and ultramontans on that side of the Alps. Unlike other Parisian and other universities,
this university was a corporation of students-universitas scholarium. Law students were the only
organized and active corporation. Many of them have already overcome their first youth. They were
grouped into 15 nations that were divided into two federations. According to the rules of professional
associations, each of these federations had its own rector who was elected for two years. Over time, the
authority of the rector was strengthened and imposed on the teaching body.The rector was usually a
student. Not only the students but also the professors themselves swore to obey him. In their lectures,
they had to be guided by the regulations that posed students with the threat of punishment. Professors
were paid by the students themselves. The number of professors was very large and they in turn
organized themselves into professional unions - collegiums, as the workers' corporations in Italy were
called. Foreigners were not allowed to be professors in Bologna. Since the Faculty of Theology did not
exist, the Pope was not very interested in this university, so his influence was weak.

The following are some of the general features of Italian universities at this time:

1. Except Naples and Arezzo, almost all Italian universities were organized following the example of
Bologna;

2. Italian universities have taken law studies first, and medicine comes second. The exception is the
University of Salerno with its famous medical faculty.

3. Italian universities are by their nature urban, communal institutions. All but Bologna are founded on
the initiative of the city, independently of or in accordance with Bologna.At the basics of the
organization of medieval universities is the corporate system. Their internal and external structure is
actually a reflection of the socio-economic relations of city life at the time.

This internal autonomy was based on the privileges the universities received either from the Pope, or
from the monarch, or from the city administration itself. Accordingly, medieval universities can be
divided into 3 groups: urban (in Italy), ecclesiastical (in France and England) and monarchist (in
Germany). The privileges were that they issued diplomas, licenta docendi, chose their own teaching
staff, managed the faculties, organized the internal life of the universities, and had their own disciplinary
rules and their own judgment. When a student was punished by the city authorities, the university
demanded that he be released immediately, and the university then tried him on his own laws.
However, these penalties were also mild. In fact, all members of the university, both students and
professors, were liable only to the university court for their possible transgressions in or out of the
university. Therefore, they had some kind of immunity. The importance attached to these privileges is
also seen in the fact that there was a special person tasked with exceeding those privileges, bearing the
title 'guardian of privileges'.

4.THE LIFE OF THE STUDENTS IN MEDIVAL UNIVERSITIES

Мedieval universities in the beginning had no property, nor buildings. However, it was this
poverty that gave them some advantages. Thanks to these circumstances, the universities had a
special and original means in the struggle to preserve their autonomy with church or civil
authorities.It was a cessatio - a cessation of teaching. Unless satisfied, the university, as a freely
formed voluntary association, would disintegrate. Students and professors would divide, move
to another city or state. This was also possible because the teachers were without families.
Celibacy was in charge of teachers. It was the only serious obligation imposed on them by their
statute. When a teacher got married, he lost the right to his place (the exception was the
medical school where celibacy was not mandatory). Also, the student who got married lost the
right to student privileges. A married student who would take an exam for a college degree
would be an anomaly.

In addition, what facilitated the movement of students and teachers was the spiritual unity of
Western Europe. The Catholic Church succeeded in creating that unity by extending its
authority to all Western countries, even to the British Isles. Everywhere there was one religion -
Christian, one Church - Roman Catholic, one language - Latin, one Church head - the Roman
Pope, and most importantly, the same social order - feudalism.

Accordingly, the teaching of medieval universities was largely the same and was conducted in
Latin. The same spirit and generally the same organization ruled everywhere. Hence it was
much easier for a medieval student to transfer from one university to another than today. Latin
in particular has opened the door to all universities. Therefore, there could be close links and
intellectual solidarity between universities from different countries. The type of wandering
student who went from one university to another is well known. Thanks to these
circumstances, ideas quickly spread from one university to another. Books were easier to
spread from one country to another before the printing press was discovered than later when
nation-states were formed and Latin was eliminated as a language of instruction at
universities:"A copy of a lecture by a professor at Oxford University brought to Prague in the
luggage of a passenger would be immediately copied into the scripts of university writers and
would not have to wait for translation."

It follows that in the Middle Ages ideological movements were easily spread, precisely because
of the close links between the universities, and especially the wandering students. Also, thanks
to this mobility of students and professors, Renaissance ideas could spread from one university
to another relatively quickly.

When it comes to the lives of students in medieval universities, it should be mentioned the
institution of college, which had different character in different countries. Colleges arose as a
result of the need to accommodate foreign students. Often it was in community with
professors. These communities, called hospitia, initially had no official character, so little is
known about their organization. However, it is known that there were both rich and poor. At
medieval universities there were students of different classes and grades: there were sons of
wealthy nobles, who had servants who went before them and carried their heavy books, but
also sons of the poor who did various things so that they could study. There were some who
begged. Begging at that time was nothing short of humiliating and dishonest,that it was also
given a higher religious character by the two beggar ranks - the Franciscans and the
Dominicans.

Тo helpthe poor students, some wealthy people opened special boarding schools for them.
From these 13th century boarding schools came colleges. One of those colleges was founded by
Robert Sorbonne in 1257 at the Clini Monastery in Paris for poor theology students. Later, this
college expanded, and after that the entire Paris University was called the Sorbonne.

Тhe college system has expanded to other French, British and German universities, and later to
American universities. Here is the beginning of the French medieval boarding school.

Establishing colleges at medieval universities was democratic. The students chose the governor
themselves and obeyed the rules they had previously voluntarily adopted. The discipline was
very mild, both in colleges and in medieval universities in general.

Based on the harsh criticism against scholasticism, it has long been widely held thatin medieval
universities ruled cruel discipline. However, this opinion does not correspond to the historical
truth. Until the 15th century we find no traces of corporal punishment. University offenses
were punishable by excommunication or fines, but did not interfere with students' private lives.
The life of Parisian students shows what freedom and even splendor ruled in medieval
universities. In a 13th-century book entitled "De disciplina" one can read how the students
were treated. The teacher is advised to be strict but at the same time mild, and sometimes
even tolerate student arrogance. How far has fallen into submission is illustrated by the case of
one teacher mentioned in this book: because he could not cope with his students, he hanged
himself in despair.

Parisian medieval students are described as highly disillusioned and undisciplined leading to
riots, fights, and even injuries and killings of citizens. Students at the art faculty, a writer at the
time, said, "running around the streets armed with guns, knocking on doors, filling the courts
with their scandals." Especially during national holidays there were drunkenness and fights. In
general, intoxication was a common occurrence in medieval universities.

Strict discipline has been introduced since the beginning of the 16th century. Although
seemingly paradoxical, the cruel discipline attributed to the Middle Ages began only in the 16th
century, when asceticism was despised and the joy of life was preached. It was only then that
the whip was introduced into regular use, and the guilty student was flogged in the solemn hall
in the presence of all students. It is in fact a rough discipline based on the fear of punishment
that 16th-century humanists and 17th- and 18th-century pedagogues face.
Поттикнати од желбата за создавање современа средина за учење за своите деца,
родителите на учениците постојано се вклучувале во сите проекти за реновирање на
училиштето и за унапредување на наставата.Целосното реновирање, обновата на
дидактичките материјали и на училишниот мебел во училиштето биле изведени во
соработка со локалната заедница и со родителите. Родителите помогале и во
изведувањето на градежните работи – варосување, промена на прозорците, обновување
на подот и замена на старите радијатори.Примерите на оваа постојана соработка секоја
година се објавуваат во фотоброшура за соработка на училиштето со родителите. Ова е
добар начин да им се даде признание на сите кои соработуваат со училиштето.

Translation:

Driven by the desire to create modern learning enviorment for their children, student parents
were constantly involved in all projects for renovation of the school and promotion of the
teaching.Complete renovation, rebuilding of the didactic materials and school furniture in the
school were performed in collaboration with the local community and the parents.The parents
helped carry out construction activities – whitewash, changing windows and replacement of the
old radiators.Examples of this constant ongoing cooperation are published every year in a
photo brochure about the school’s collaboration with parents.This is a good way to give credit
to everyone who cooperate with the school.