UAE Liquid Agitation Reprinted with special permission from CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Cet Mca oe New York, N.Y,Defining the problem ts the first step in applying turbine agitators for mixing in which the continuous phase is a liquid. Developing an orderly procedure will enable the design engineer to specify an agitation system meeting the hydraulic, capital and cost requirements. How to select the optimum (7 An engineer today attempting to evaluate the re- quirements for turbine agitators has little information available for converting theory into sound practice. Our purpose in this series will be to present design informa- tion and a design procedure covering size selection, mechanical design and cost estimation for process ap- plications of turbine agitators. ‘These techniques will enable an engineer to make: () preliminary estimates of turbine-agitator size and Cost fora proposed new proces, (2) provide a basis for analyzing existing agitation equipment in a plant modernization study, or (3) provide a bai for ape. ing turbine agitation equipment, ‘The following listing of major copies uttnes he subject matter to be covered for the proper application OF turbine agitators pepeepe © Design procedure: organization and logic. ™ Fundamental concepts. © Design procedure applied to blending-and-motion, solids-suspension, and gas-dispersion problems. Mechanical design, § Economic evaluation and optimization. A turbine agitator is a mechanical device that pro- duces motion in a fluid through the rotary action of impellers. The turbine impeller consists of fixed-angle blades attached to a hub dfiven by the agitator shaft. ‘Turbine impellers are characterized by the type of flow produced, Axial-low turbines move the fluid par- 2 —GHRTCAL ERCINEERING DECENOER Ss Lewis E, Gates, Terry T. Henley 7 allel to the axis of the agitator shaft, while radial-low turbines discharge the fluid from the impeller region perpendicular to this axis, ‘The most common axialflow turbine, the 45° pitched-blade turbine, is shown together with its basic flow pattern in Fig. 1. Although there is a slight radial ‘component to the flow, this pattern is primarily axial flow. A typical radial-low turbine, a flat-blade impel- ler, is also shown in Fig. 1 along with its representative flow pattern. The fiat blades can be mounted on a hub, as shown in Fig. 1, or on a disk if flexibility in the number of blades or impeller diameter is desired. The design problem for turbine agitators Design of most types of process equipment generally involves defining and meeting a well-understood proc ess objective. For example, the design of a distillation column would begin with’ a statement of the desired degree of separation. Process conditions and number of theoretical trays would then be established. The equipment designer would calculate diameter and height of the fractionation column and the number of trays by using established correlations for hydraulic performance and tray efficiency.ead John Tene, Ohemineer, Tne Tn agitation equipment, a comparable procedure for specifying and designing has not been established in the published literature. ‘The reasons for this include the wide range of applications for which agitators are used, the lack of agreed-upon criteria for agitation performance, and the relative complexity of many agi tation applications in the chemical process industries (cep. Because of these difficulties, a specification as written for an agitator often includes such imprecise statements regarding the degree of agitation as: Provide sufficient agitation to promote reaction. Promote contact of solid and liquid Blend two liquids to uniformity. Disperse gas to promote reaction. Provide (mild, medium, violent, vigorous) agita- tion. With such vague criteria for performance, a precise selection of an agitator is not possible. ‘The function of the design procedure to be presented in this series is to provide a technique for improving communication of agitation requirements, as well as describing how this information can be converted into the proper hardware. In order to understand the various technologies re ‘CHEMICAT ERREERING DEEN Blade pitch establishes type of flow for turbines quired for the design of turbine agitators, we will ana- tyze the organization and logic presented in the flow chart of Fig. 2. The principal sections of this logic, as noted on the extreme left of Fig. 2, will serve as head- ings for the following discussion. Classification of the agitation problem Applications of turbine agitators in the CPI ‘one or more of the following objectives: Bulk mizing—Combining process liquids of dissim Jar composition and properties 8 Chenical eaction—Distributing reactants and prod: ucts to promote desired reactions ‘Heat trensfo—Increasing convective motion adja- cent to the transport surfaces 1 Mass tansfer—Promoting contact between separate phases and different compositions, 1 Phase interaction—Suspending solids or dispersing {gates and immiscible liquids. ‘Analysis of these process objectives indicates the re- quirement fr generating fluid motion to contact li uids, solids or gases in a liquid phase that is continu. ‘ous. The phases present in the liquid to be agitated permit the first major organization of the design proce: lure into the categories of blending and motion, solids suspension, and gas dispersion. Referring to Fig. 2, we can easly see that the blend- ing-and-motion design category should be used if only a 3oN rhe re imegianonliquid phases are present, the solid-suspension category if only solids and liquids are present, and the gas dispersion category if only gases and liquids are in the system. Although combinations of these categories may bbe encountered in many processes, separate treatment of them will normally establish the most diffieult, and therefore contolling, problem in terms of equipment selection, Magnitude of the agitation problem “The magnitude of the agitation problem isa function cof how much material is to be agitated, how difficult itis to agitate, and the intensity or degree of agitation, required. Size and difically The mass of the phases present is fan important indicator of magnitude. Due to the CPL convention of stating agitation problems in terms of volume, an equivalent volume Vj., will be defined in the following equation as the product of specific grav- ity, S,, and actual volume, V, gal: Veg = SV @ is definition has the advantage of retaining the units of volume but also of being proportional to the ‘mass of the phates present “The variables that are used to define the degree of difficulty of agitation are: viscosity in blending and motion, solid-ettling velocity in solide suspension, and gas-flow velocity in gas dispersion. These terms will be referred to in the design procedure as primary variables. ‘The effect of an increase in either the equivalent volume ora primary variable is an increase in the magnitude of the agitation, problem. Required process reult—After defining the quantity of material to be agitated as well as the primary variable, an examination of the desired process resul is necessary A process result of fuid agitation can be described by a wide range of chemical engineering terms having quantitative meaning, such as heat-transfer rate, mass- transfor rate, blend time, degree of blending, reaction rate and yield. It would be very desirable to design the turbine agitator to directly produce this result, As pre- viously noted, it is often impossible to state the desired result with precision, However, the designer should attempt to define the desired process result to the extent that itis possible. Requivad dynamic response —IE the process result can not be defined, what can be said about the degree of agita tion desired? To specify the degree of agitation, we will adopt a new term called dynamic response. Dynamic response describes the resulting agitation in purely physical terms. Dynamic responses for blending and motion, solids suspension, and gas dispersion in procedure are bulk fluid velocity, level of solids suspen sion, and degree of gas dispersion, respectively. To illustrate this concept, a low level of dynamic response for blending and motion would be a very minimal velocity throughout the agitated fluid, whereas 2 high level of dynamic response would be very high velocities, Tn solids suspension, a ow level of dynamic response ‘would correspond to Solids just minimally in motion on the bottom of the vessel, while a high level of dy- namic response would be sol throughout the fluid, ‘A minimal level of dynamic response in gas disper- sion would be relatively large gas bubbles rising rapidly to the liquid surface and poorly distributed throughout the liquid phase. A high level of dynamic response would be gas bubbles finely dispersed and distributed throughout the process veseel As a convenient approach to design, the dynamic response has been related to a scale of agitation that varies from 1 to 10 for the majority of practical appli- cations for turbine agitators. This scale serves as a com munication tool to indicate the level of dynamic re- sponse desired, uniformly dispersed Equipment selection for dynamic response Up to this point in our procedure, we have empha sized the process requirements and the associated dy- namic response. The purpose of the procedure, however, is not fulfilled until industrial equipment that will meet the process requirements has been designed and se- lected. Agitator drive—Specification of a turbine agitator so that detailed mechanical design can take place requires definition of (1) prime-mover power, (2) rotational speed of turbine (ie., shaft speed), and (3) number, type, size and location of the turbines. Since rotation of the. impellers in the fluid produces the dynamic response, it would be logical to first define the impeller system and its rotation speed. The power required to acsomplish the rotation of the impellers ‘would then be determined, However, mechanical design fonstraints (including shaft design, standardization of prime movers and drives, and economic considerations) limit the number of combinations of power (for prime mover) and speed (for impeller rotation) that are available. It is more Convenient to prepare selection tables in which practical combinations of power and rotational speed are tabu lated asa single function of equivalent volume, primary variable and dynamic response. Inpeller system Design of the impeller system inside the process vessel requires specifying the type, number, location and size of the turbine or turbines. The appl cation establishes the impeller type. Pitched-blade tur- bines should be chosen for blending-and-motion and solids-suspension applications and flat-blade turbines for gas dispersion. Selection of the number and location of the turbines begins with a calculation of the Z/T ratio where Z is the liquid depth and Tis the tank diameter, as shown in Fig. 3, nd continues with finding the number of impellers and their position in the fluid in order to control that geometry. Specific design recommendations for the number and location of the impellers as a function of system geome try will be made in future articles of this series. Caleu tion of the impeller diameter, D, to fully use the eapa- bility of the prime mover and drive, is perhaps the most critical element of design for the impeller system. The theory and practice of the required calculations will be covered in future articles dealing with fundamentals and applications. ‘Shafts and seals After the system geometry has been —GERTCAL EROINTRTING BEER TE 5Design begins with analysis of vessel and impeller geometties for the agitated system analyzed and the number and location of impellers has been fixed in the process fluid, the calculation of total shaft length, L, and turbine spacing, S, can be com- pleted. Proper mechanical design of an agitator shalt 's extremely important. Structurally, the shaft must be of sufficient size to transmit the rotational load, com- bined with bending loads generated by random hy- draulicimbalances, acting on the impellers. In addition, an analysis of the natural vibration frequencies of the shaft and impellers must be made in order to assure that these frequencies are sufficiently far from the ‘operating frequency. Operation of the shaft and im- peiler system at their natural vibration frequency ean ‘reate forces that are destructive to the equipment. The complete theory and application of that theory to shaft analysis will be coyered in articles discussing ‘mechanical design. The practical implication of the shaft analysis i that for a given power and shalt speed, there is a total shaft length that cannot be safely ex: casded. Because chemical process equipment commonly op: erates at clevated temperatures and pressures, one of the key clements in rotating equipment is seal design Future articles in this series dealing with mechanical design will amphasize shaft seals ranging from common lip seals and stufing boxes to complex mechanical seals Seal design will logically occur after shaft design be- cause of the variability in seal design with changes in shaft diameter Economic evaluation Engineered equipment is usually a careful balance of performance and cost. Therefore, any design proce. dure that does not provide for cost estimation would bbe of limited value, Extensive cost-estimating proce- dures for turbine agitators will be featured in later articles. Normally, alternative designs for turbine agitators are mechanically feasible, and any one of them will achieve the desired agitation. The concept of a single answer for the power required to solve an agitation problem is incorrect. In most applications, several different combinations of power, speed and impeller system can be used to give the same result. The choice then becomes an economic one in which eapital cost for equipment and operating costs are significant. In creasing cost and availability of energy must also be luded in the evaluation, The articles to follow in this series will allow (a) analysis of the required performance, (b) selection of the prime mover and drive to give that performance, and (c) complete mechanical design; cost and opti- mization for an agitator. The next article of this series will appear in the issue of Jan. 5, 1976, and will deal with velocity and dimensional analysis, flow patterns, power correlations and blending ‘The authors ss mn ot gpieatign engine fr the Agitator BEST eminent, BO Bee 1123, Dayion, OH S50, He ana BS ad se hts la ehemicl ening fom repre’ Prokaioal cgiee in Ohi, “fled master’s Gear progr in ‘echanical engineering atthe Scien of Bayon Sek ee ip Ine Hle shed vera far th the ie eh ise ces ea inkenity Hees ter FE Taree Ge'vorking in rasareh and icons eth 6 CHEN ENNIS BEER TEoO Dimensional analysis for fluid agitation systems Dimensional analysis converts a large number of geometrical, operational and physical variables into a small number of significant groups that form the basis for design methods. David 8. Dickey and John G. Fenic, Chemineer, Ine Ci The fundamental concepts of liquid motion and ‘other transport phenomena establish a framework for agitator design. The design procedure, outlined in Part I of this series (/] uses the results of fundamental analysis along with practical experience to determine agitator requirements. ‘Our intent is to create an engineering awareness of the concepts behind agitation before presenting details of the design procedure. The articles on fundamentals Are not intended to present an exhaustive survey of the literature on agitation since other sources are available [23], Instead, our emphasis will be on fundamental information that forms the basis for design methods to bbe described in future articles. Dimensional analysis Dimensional analysis reduces the number of inde- pendently variable quantities that describe a problem by combining the variables into dimensionless groups Although fluid agitation involves a large number of ‘geometrical, operation and physical variables, a rela- tively small number of physically significant, dimen- sionless groups can be established. ‘One method of dimensional analysis collects all of the seemingly relevant variables, and systematically arranges these variables into dimensionless groups. A better method, and the one used here, establishes mathematical model that describes the important phys- ical phenomena and then rewrites the resulting equa- tions in dimensionless form (f] Analysis of a model significantly reduces the chanées of overlooking an important variable, and also provides considerable insight into the physical significance of the dimensionless groups. The groups that we will discuss in this article are summarized in Table 1 Navier-Stokes equation Fluid motion in an agitated system must obey the laws of conservation of mass and momentum, These laws can be written as an equation of motion that describes the velocity and pressure distributions within the fluid For a constant-density, Newtonian liquid, the Navier-Stokes equation for a mass-and-momentum balance in terms of local presture and velocity (5) is Do Wt PDE = TEP + HU + Og “ RRTARYS TE 7Cara Dimensionless variables that are a ratio of the actual variable to a characteristic quantity will be substituted into Eq. 1 Characteristic quantities are selected to represent the principal dimensions of length, time and mass. The characteristic length used in agitation is the impeller diameter, D. Characteristic time is the reciprocal of the agitator rotational speed, 1/N. Characteristic mast is the product of liquid density, , and the cube of the impeller diameter, D3, Characteristic velocity can be derived from the length dimension and time dimension by using the product of impeller diameter and agitator speed. Dimensionless lengths and dimensionless time are defined as: = x/D @ in ‘The differential operators can be made dimensionless by combinations of the characteristic length and time. Dimensionless velocity is the ratio of actual velocity to characteristic velocity: vt = o/ND @) Dimensionless pressure can be defined from the char- acteristic quantities for length, time and mass, and the gravitational conversion factor, g,! @ = Pose Ne? ’ @) where the reference pressure, fy, is selected to simplify boundary conditions on the model. Substituting these dimensionless variables into Eq. (2), and rearranging coefficients, yields a dimensionless form of the Navier-Stokes equation, which is descriptive of an agitated liquid: Dot _ pape H Dears [sé Be P+ Ls] + In Eq, (5), two dimensionless groups appear as pa- rameters. The Reynolds number for agitation, D2Np/, appears in reciprocal form as the coefficient for the viscous dissipation term. This Reynolds number repre- sents the ratio of inertial to viscous forces. The second ‘dimensionless parameter is the Froude number for agi- tation, DN?/¢. This represents the ratio of inertial to {gravitational forces. Analysis of Eq. (5} also indicates the basic relation ships for velocity and pressure. For a given set of initial and boundary conditions, which implies geomettc simi- larity, the velocity and pressure distributions ean be ex Ifo pressed as functions of the Reynolds and Froude numbers: 254.45") = SWae Nee) © PN 99) = S (Nae Np) a Where the liquid surface is essentially fat, such as in fully baffled tanks, gravitational effects can be elimi nated. Velocity and pressure distribution are then de- 8 ——SHEUCAL NONREERE ROS termined solely by the magnitude of the Reynolds number: v5 "6 0) = F(Nae) ® PM EN) = fps) ® These results show how four. sccmingly independent variables—diameter, rotational speed, density and vis- cosity—are combined in the Reynolds number to sim- plify the functions for dimensionless velocity and pres- sure distributions Other dimensionless relationships Mathematical relationships can be written for other transport phenomena in agitation. An energy balance describes the temperature distribution within a uid, assuming constant properties for density, heat capacity and thermal conductivity. When this relationship is written in dimensionless form, a new paraineter ap- pears: Dee [ 1 Det UN aN, ‘This parameter is the product of Reynolds and Prandtl numbers, and is known as the Peclet number for heat transfer (Table 1). The Prandtl number represents the ratio of momentum to thermal diffusivity and involves only liquid properties, Establishing initial and boundary conditions for both the equation of motion and. the energy balance, Eq, (8) and Eq, (10), and neglecting gravitational effects, yields a dimensionless temperature distribution that is 2 function of only the Reynolds and Prandt! numbers: “SNe Nor) a) Exq, (11) simplifies the parametric investigation of heat transfer in an agitated liquid. Mass transfer can be analyzed by writing a compo- nent mass balance for the individual chemical spedics. ‘The dimensionless form of the equation is analogous to Eq. (10), except that temperature is replaced by dimensionless concentration, x,*, and the Prandtl number is replaced by the Schmidt number (Fable 1, ‘The Schmidt number represents the ratio of momen- tum to molecular diffusivity Analysis of the mass-transfer equation establishes the dimensionless concentration distribution as a function of Reynolds and Schmidt numbers: £47519 "5 4%) = S(Nee Nae) (12) Eq, (8), (9), (11) and (12) describe the general behav- ior of velocity, pressure, temperature and concentration in an agitated vessel. In subsequent discussions dealing with power, velocity, blending, and heat and mass transfer, we will show how to apply these conclusions to practical. problems. Agitator power Pressure distribution throughout an agitated vesse! cannot be applied directly to design, but one portion of the pressure distribution along the face of an impeller blade can be related to the power requirements of the agitator. his relationship comes from a description of the Jeo (io) O38 41%)Nomenclature D/Ot Substantial time derivative (ie, derivative =o ; Dimensionless pressure in Eq. (4) Dimensionless pressure in Eq. (21) Power Pumping capacity Blend time Dimensionless time Dimensionless blend time Tank diameter imensionless temperature ocity Dimensionless velocity Dimensionless concentration Dimensions of position W Impeller blade width Viscosity & ensity Vector differential operator V2 Laplacian operater physical system, Power is the product of rotational speed and applied torque. Torque is determined by integrating the pressure distribution over the surface of a flat-blade turbine. Therefore, the relationship be- tween fluid pressure adjacent to the blade and power ( — Podsage © P/ND® a3) Substituting Eq, (13) into the definition of dimen- sionless pressure, Eq, (4), yields an important rela- Conship between dimensionless pressure and power: pre: (Ge) aie Poe iD’) awa? = GNADE The expression on the right-hand side of Bq, (14) is the power number (6). Substituting the power number into Eq. (7) shows that it must be a function of the Reynolds and Froude numbers: (14) Wee Ney} aed ‘The power number relates imposed forces to inet forces ‘When gravitational effects are not a factor, the power number of Eq. (14) may be substituted into Eq. (9): i pags = 1M) a) 2q,(16) is normally uted a basi forcoveatng data fo agitator power The limiting cases ‘The limiting cases for agitator-power requirements involve large and small values for the independent parameter, the Reynolds number. Large values of the Reynolds number indicate turbu- lent agitation where inertial forces dominate viscous forces. Neglecting terms in the Navier-Stokes equation, Eq, (1), for viscous and gravitational forces gives an expression for fluid motion known as Euler's equation [5]. This can be written in dimensionless form as: Dot _ pays pe = 0p a ‘Since the Reynolds number is no longer a parameter, the pressure and velocity distributions are fixed for this limiting case. A fixed, dimensionless pressure distribu- tion along the impelier blade means that the power number is a constant at high Reynolds numbers: Pg constant A airigs = connant (18) Rewriting Eq. (18), we find that Pee pN*D® 19) ‘This limiting case is typical cations of turbine agitators. ‘The other limiting case corresponds to small values of Reynolds numbers. A viscous or laminar form of the Navier-Stokes equation neglects terms for inertial and gravitational forces, and results in an equality between Pressure and viscous forces: aX p = pV 0) Analysis of Eq, (20) is done with a different form of dimensionles pressure, The characteristic pressure it related to viscous force per unit area, since momentum hhas been rieglected such that (= Polte f aN en Substituting the dimensionless pressure into Eq. (20) reduces it to n a majority of appli- o Deptt = Vetee (22) ‘The Reynolds number has again been eliminated as STS 9PaO Povier number i vious ee | Reynolds eumber, N/a — \ “Transition a. Power numbor | | | ! | | \ 1 i { "Difnensionles velocity, 9/ND-— STREET IT Transition ‘Turbulent Reynelds number, 02M fb — Pumoing nimber, Q/ND3— > Reynotda number, D°No)i= |e Pumping eurmber |. A Reynolds number correlates dimensionless parameters for the Fig. analysis of turbine-agitator systems 10 2 parameter, and the dimensionless velocity and pres- sure distributions are constant. Substituting the rela~ tionship of Eq. (13) into Eq. (21) gives: ce (2) fe x Phe wre (ioe) = avaos a “The group on the right side of Bq. (28) ean be con- sideced a “viscous power number” (Table 1) Since it is a constant in the viscous range: Pee pN*D? en From the relation for power number, Eq. (16), and the limiting cases for high and low Reynolds numnber, the general form of the relationship between power number and Reynolds number can be plotted on loga- Fithmie coordinates, as shown in Fig, 1a. The general shape of this curve can be derived directly from basic fluid dynamics without reference to specific experi ‘mental data. Power correlation Extensive experimental investigations have shown that power number is a function of Reynolds number for geometrically similar systems [2], as predicted by dimensional analysis, Eq. (16). A single relationship between Reynolds number and power number corre: lates the effects of density, viscosity, rotational specd nd diameter. The power number correlation has been determined for numerous impeller geometries [2,5,7- 104, Since the power number was developed from an expression [such as Eq, (13)] for the pressure distribu- tion along the impeller blade, it is not surprising that the correlation depends primarily on the impelicr con- figuration. Correlations of experimental data for four turbines are shown in Fig. 2 [7}. The turbines vary in the method of mounting the blades to the shaft, the blade angle, and the ratio of blade width, M, to im- peller diameter, D. For high Reynolds numbers, the turbine with disk- mounted blades has a slightly higher power number than that with hub-mounted blades, as seen by the difference between Curves 1 and 2 in Fig. 2. A signifi cant effect on power number is observed for turbines having different width blades, Curves 2 and 3 in Fig 2. Finally, the pitch or angie of the turbine blades affects the correlation between power number and Rey- nnolds number, Curves 3 and 4, The vertical projected height is used as the blade width for the pitched-blade turbine, Other geometric variables also have an influence on power, They are generally less significant than the ge- fometry of the impeller itself. Such variables include impeller clearance from the bottom of the tank, ratio of impeller diameter to tank diameter, impeller spacing in multiple-impeller systems, and number and size of baffles. The effects of these variables are discussed else where (2) ‘The power correlations in Fig. 2 indicate three ranges of liquid motion: turbulent, transition and viscous Fully turbulent agitation occurs above a Reynolds number of approximately 10,000. The viscous or lami- nar range occurs below a Reynolds number of about‘Turbine design affects power requi 20. The range between these limits can best be de scribed as transition flow since flow patterns change depending on the Reynolds numbers. In agitation, transition flow occurs over a broader range of Reynolds numbers than is typical of flow in pipes The correlation in Fig. 2 shows that the power num ber for any particular geometry becomes constant in baffied tanks. This confirms the limiting case discussed in dimensional analysis for high Reynolds number. The turbulent range is important for agitator design, since nearly all low- and medium-viscosity applications of ustrial equipment operate in this range. In the viscous range, the expected result of power number being inversely proportional to Reynolds num- ber is also confirmed by experimental data, For each of the turbines in Fig. 2, a logarithmic plot of the relation between power number and Reynolds number has a slope of —1 in the viscous range. Fluid velocity Understanding the behavior of fluid velocity in an agitated vessel is as important as understanding power, since by definition agitation is the fluid motion pro- duced by impeller rotation. This point is frequently misunderstood. The use of power, or power consumed per unit of volume, is often applied to characterize the degree of agitation. In this and subsequent articles, we will explain why the same degree of uid motion can be achieved with different power levels in the same vessel, and why less power per unit volume is required sments for agitated systems for equivalent motion in large vessels as compared 10 smnall ones. The limiting cases Behavior of velocity distribution for the limiting cases of turbulent and viscous flow can be established in a manner analogous to the development of these cases for power. Referring to simplified forins of the Nav Stokes equation for turbulent and viscous conditions, Eq, (17) and (22), we find that the dimensionless veloc. ity distribution is independent of Reynolds number. Thus, velocity distibution is constant at very low Reynolds numbers, and is also constant at very high Reynolds numbers, for a particular set of initial and boundary conditions. We can represent this conclusion graphically, as shown in Fig. tb. In the viscous range, dimensionless velocity, v/ND, has a smaller magnitude than it has in the turbulent range. This is physically reasonable because for a given value of the product of rotational speed and impeller diameter (ic, ND), it would be expected that actual velocity would be less in the vise cous range than in the turbulent range. Flow patterns in agitated vessels In fluid agitation, the direction as well as the magni- tude of the velocity is important. The directions of the velocity vectors throughout an agitated vessel are, by definition, the flow pattern Since the velocity distibi- tion is constant in the vitcous and turbulent ranges, the —SHRACAL TRGIRFRRING TINTARY Se io‘4. Axia-flow pattern ‘with pitched Blade », Raga fow pattern vith fat blade Blade pitch determines flow pattern Fig.3 flow pattern in an agitated vessel is fixed, Flow patterns at high Reynolds numbers have particular practical importance “The flow pattern produced by a pitched-blade tur- bine in a typical industrial unit is shown in Fig. 3. Although there is a smail radial component to the discharge velocity from the turbine, the flow is primar- ily axial. This fow pattern is significant in solids sus- pension, where the dircetion of flow tends to sweep solids off the bottom of the vessel. As the Reynolds number is reduced into the transition range, the radial component of flow increases. At still lower Reynolds numbers (approaching the viscous-low region), the radial component is reduced and the flow pattern again becomes predominantly axial ‘The turbulent flow pattern of a typical flat-blade turbine is also shown in Fig. 3. The predominantly radial discharge of this turbine is particularly effective in gas-dispersion applications. Velocity and pumping Measurements of velocity have been summarized in the literature (2/7). In many of these investigations, velocities have been measured in order to develop cor. relations for pumping capacities of turbines The conclusions regarding velocity behavior in an ‘agitated vessel can be applied directly to. pumping capacity. If the relationship developed for velocity bee havior In Bq, (@) 8 applied to an average velocity, the result is: Paay/ND = f(Npe) (25) The relationship between average velocity across an area and pumping capacity through that area is: Oayg = Be 'a0 = B 6) Substituting this relationship into Eq, (25) yields @by)_ a _ ND 7 Np? =/(Nee) en The behavior of the pumping number, Q/ND’, would be expected to parallel velocity behavior, includ- ing the limiting cases of low and high Reynolds num- her, as represented in Fig. le These concepts of velocity and pumping will be ap- plied to blending-and-motion problemsin a later article of this series. The form of the dimensionless velocity and pumping-number curves in the low-Reynolds- number region is of little practical importance for tur- bine agitators, but the characteristics of the curves in the transition and turbulent regions provide the basis for blending-and-motion design. Blending and blend time mn a discussion of blending and blend time, a distine- tion must be made among the terms: blending, mixing agitation. Blending refers to the intermingling of imiscible fluids to produce some de¥ree of uniformity. Mixing involves the production of uniformity between materials that may oF may not be miscible. (For miscible liquids, mixing and blending are synonymous.) Agita- tion isthe most general term, involving the production ‘of uid motion for blending, mixing, heat transfer, mass wansfer, etc, “The process of blending on a microscopic scale is not Methods for determining blend time Table I! 12 —GHERIEAT ENGINEERING TARTARwell understood, although much fundamental work has been done. The chapter by Brodkey in Ref. 2 provides, excellent background on this subject. However, in agi- tated vessels, the developments in microscopic mixing hhave had limited application to, practical design be: cause most blending applications are controlled by bulk. mixing rather than by microscopic processes. Characterization of blending in agitated vessels is usually by means of blend time. This is the time re- quired to achieve some specified degree of uniformity afier introduction of a tracer. The various techniques are summarized in Table Il. Each technique measures, a different degree of uniformity so that the time re- quired for blending may vary from one method to the next. However, the principles of correlating blend time, as derived from dimensional analysis of the relevant twansport equations, arc applicable to all techniques. Correlation method for blend time ‘The result of the analysis for equations of motion and mass transfer can be applied directly to the corre- lation of blend time. For negiigible gravitational effects and fixed initial and boundary conditions, we find from Eq, (12) that the concentration distribution within a vessel is a function of time, Reynolds number and Schmidt number. Experimental measurements for blending are not made of the concentration distribution itself but of the time required to reach a particular concentration distribution. Dimensionless blend time, tp", becomes the dependent variable in such a case, and Eg, (12) may be restated as (NresNsc) (28) Although molecular diffusion is the final step neces- sary to complete the blending of miscible fluids, it is not significant relative to convective effects in det mining blend time. This eliminates the Schmidt num ber as a correlating variable. Therefore: fy" =S pe) @) In a manner completely analogous to our previous discussions for power and velocity, we can show that dimensionless blend time is a constant at high and low values of the Reynolds number. The general form of this relationship is shown in Fig. 1d. Blend-time correlation Itis commen to combine some geometric effects the dimensionless blend time. Typically, for a given type of impeller, the ratio of impeller diameter to tank. diameter is raised to some constant exponent, The em- pitical correlation has the form: WD/T! = S(Naw) 0) ‘The Froude number has been included in some car. relations of blend-time data. However, where no density differences ate present and the liquid surface is fat, this is not justified. Gray [2] has summarized much of the literature on blending and blend time, For pitched-blade turbines, the correlation of blend time (as measured by the acid-base indicator technique) is as shown in Fig. 4 [/2]. At Reynolds numbers above approximately 100,000, dimensionless blend time be- Plched blade atines Blend time measures the concen distribution in an agitated system comes constant. The degree of uniformity attained at the blend time can be considered as within 1% of the final, totally uniform concentration of a tracer that is added at time zero. ‘The next article in this series will appear in the issue of Feb. 2, 1976, and will cover the fundamentals dealing with heat and mass transfer, non-Newtonian fluids, solids suspension, gas dispersion, and scaleup. References . Gag L, Henley, TL and Fei J. Gy Ohm. Bag, Dee. 8, 1973, pine Un, ¥. Wand Gray JB 09 ‘Academie Pra, Noor 8, 8. Nagata S, "Mining, Penile and Application! Haled Pres, key, New Vent 1975." Pee 8 Arwl 4 Churchi’S. “The Inerrttion and Ue of Kate Daa: The Rote Goaepi,* Sepia Puishing, MeCinw Fil, New York, 197 5 ed, RB, Stewac, W- Ean Light, EN, "Transpor Phnome ‘whe Ne Yor 100 1 White, AM. and Beemer, Tie. ACRE, Vo. 90, S85 (94), 7 Bate RL, Ponty, PL and Carpcn, RR, nd Boy Cn Pa Feo ane Pace” Vo inn Dip, Wat'2 No. 4510 aah 1 Rushon] Hi Conch EW. and Evra Jy hen. By. Pg, Aa Tain hoe Sopp. aan 9. Holland, FA ad Chapman, S. Ligid Mixing and Procoing in Sra Tani Rethel, New Von, 196, 10, Py, R.H. and Chilo, CoH, “Chenical Eagncos Handbcok,* 4th ea, McGraw-Hill, New Vork, 1568; 3h ad, 1978 1, Nagata 8 and other, Alem Rac Fag yn Vo 21, 260 (859) 12 Reale, Gand Fondy, FL, peed Ansa Meeting of AICKE, inne Gy Be 190, ‘The authors David 8, Dickey senor develope tar fr Chemis, ine PO. om “Bojgon, OF do4il Hee ‘i Seen at is oe seein re os wt iy ee ene eer ey ‘Jn eto gy ae Grecinsiyn, 13Fundamentals of agitation The principles of heat transfer and mass transfer are useful in evaluating turbine-agitator performance even though proper design depends on principles of fluid motion, David S, Dickey and Richard W. Hicks, Chemincer, In Cl This article reviews the several correlations of heat id mass transfer for liquid-liquid, gas-liquid and solid liquid systems that are to be agitated. Also discussed will be heat transfer through a jacket or coil; fluid particle dynamics and settling velocities for solids; gas dispersion, including bubble breakup and surface areas and the effects of non-Newtonian fluids on agitator performance Heat transfer Liquid motion produced by a turbine agitator can be used to increase the effective rate of heat transfer. Heat ‘may be added to or removed from the process fluid by contact with a heated or cooled surface. The surface configuration and the agitator operation both influence the rate of heat transfer Heatransfer surfaces commonly used in agitated vessels are shown in Fig. 1. Either the tank walls or immersed tubes provide the surface area to contact the process liquid. An appropriate heat-transfer fluid is supplied to the jacket or tube in order to control the process temperature. ‘The tank jacket (Fig. 1a) may cover just the sides, or both the sides and the bottom of the tank. This jacket ‘can be a complete second shell on the tank, or a coil integrated into the tank wall. The helical-coil configu- ration (Fig. 1b) involves one or more oils of tubing mounted coaxially to the agitator shaft. Tube baffles (Fig. 1c) serve a dual purpose as the heat-transfer sur- face and as tank baffles, Numerous experimental con: figurations similar to industrial equipment have been investigated and reported [2]. Heat flow into an agitated vessel is determined by the temperature difference between the process liquid and heat-transfer fluid, (2, — #)), the heat-transfer area, Aj, and the overall heat-transfer coefficient, Uy As, ~ 9) 0) ‘Temperature difference in Eq, (1) is controlled pri- marily by process conditions. The heat-ansfer area in contact with the process liquid depends on the geo- metric configuration of the heat-transfer surface. The overall heat-transfer coefficient, Uj, is influenced by geometric and operating parameters. If fouling is ne- glected [3], contributions of the operating variables can he separated into three heat-transfer resistances: a= Yep Ti? nN) + GCA) In Eq, (2), the insice-film coefficient, fy, is inside with respect to the tank, or on the processiiquid side of the surface. The determination of this coefficient will be emphasized in the following discussion because it is usually the limiting resistance and is affected by agita- tor operation. Also in Eq. (2), the second term involves conduction through the walls of the tank or tubes, and the third term is the outside-flm heat-transfer coeffi cient. Dimensional analysis of the coefficient ‘The inside heat-transfer coefficient, fy, lumps to- gether convective and conductive effects in the uid 4 SETA EERE TERROR isHeat tansterf | _Hesicat eo 1 Hast transfer modiue medi Jacket (second set) Tube battes Heat-transfer surfaces in agitated tanks may be the actual walls of the vessel or immersed tubes Fig. film immediately adjacent to the heat-transfey surface. ‘This film coefficient is defined in terms of the total heat flow, 4, divided by the heat-transfer area, 4,, and the ‘temperature difference between the inside wall and the bulk of the liquid, (46), 4 A (MB), @) A sound basis for understanding and correlating the heat-transfer coefficient can be established by dimen- sional analysis of a physical model. The heat flow in Eq, (3) can be expressed in terms of the temperature gradi- ent at the inside wall of the vessel [4] = ffevelas eSferoa, ‘Combining Eq, (3) and (4) in dimensionless form by using Ad, and impeller diameter, D, as the characteristic temperature and length, respectively, yields “Pe five The dimensionless group on the left side of Eq. (5) is 2 Nusselt number for heat transfer in an agitated tank, From dimensional analysis of the energy-balance equation (discussed in the previous article [/]), the dimensionless temperature distribution, 0°, was found to be a function of Reynolds and Prandtl numbers: 6 (ah yh at A) = SNe Nor) 6) For given initial and boundary conditions, we can express the Nusselt number as a simple funetion of the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers by combining Eq. (5) and (6): a ©) Nya =S(N pepe) a Correlations for heat transfer ‘The Nusselt numbers in agitated vessels involve the product of Reynolds and Prand:! numbers each taken to different exponents (2,3,5]. Hence, the simple fune- tional relationship of Eq, (7) becomes: Naw = (Np Np)” ® For turbulent agitation in baffied tanks, the exponent B = 2/3 and the expongnt y = 1/3. This is consistent With similar correlations for flow in pipes. ‘When the temperature difference between the bulk liquid and the tank or tube wall causes a significant variation in viscosity, the ratio of bulk viscosity to viscosity at the wall, taken to an exponent, can be included in the correlation. The exponent for the viseos- ity factor has been found by various investigators to have a value between 0 and 0.4 Heat-transfer correlations for agitated tanks rarely use the impeller diameter as the length dimension in the Nusselt number [2,5], For geometrically similar systems, selection of the characteristic length is arbitrary and a matter of convenience. However, intuition says that the length dimension appearing in the Nusselt. number should be representative of the heat-transfer film thick- ness. For a jacketed tank, this thickness is some fraction of the tank diameter. ‘The same basic correlation for turbine agitation of a Jacketed tank wasestablished in three separate investiga~ tions [6,78] CF) Impeller diameter Duy Diffusion coefficient | |g" Panidle diameter |G ube diameter | A Drag force | e° — Acotleration of gravity (magnitude) | fe Gravitational conversion factor | AE Heattranster cotieient for helical coil (process side) 4 Tesi (proces side) hea-transfercooficient 4, Heateransfercoeficient for tank jacket (proc: es side) ‘hy Outside (transfer-fiui side) area of heat-trans fer surface sh, Hleatetransfer coefficient for tube baffes (proc: cs side) K Constant, Eq. (20) Thermal conductivity of liquid 4h, Liquid flm mass-transfer coeficient i Thermal conductivity of wall Length M > Masttransfer rate per unit volume mm Constant of proportionality for power-law fluid, Eq. (28) N Agitator rotational speed Nye Nusselt number, Eq. (5) Np Prandtl number Nps Reynolds number peg) Particle Reynolds number Max” Sherwood number, Eq, (19) Weber number, Ba. (22) | Nwe 1" Exponent for powerlawefsid, Eq (28) ty Number of tuber bales B Actual power requirement in gasied agitator 2, Agitator power requirement (without gas prox | en) 4. Rate of heat transfer &, Valumeaie Row of gas So Surface area i 5+ Dimensionless surface area | 1 Tanke diameter | {5 Dimensionless time U, Overall heattransfercoeficient ty) Realive velocity between particle and uid Superficial gas velocity, Ba. (23) Terminal setting velocity ' Weocity | 4 Concentration in the lid at gas interface 2 Concentration in liguid phase XE Gencentration in the liquid st solid interface Dimensionless position components Liquid level Arbitrary coefficients and exponents Heat-transfer-surface wall thickness Temperature difference between wall and process liquid Temperature of process liquid ‘Temperature of heat-transfer fuid Dimensionless temperature Vis00 Viscosity at wall conditions Density Particle density 1 Surface tension Shear stress Differential operator Dimensionless differential operator e pore ae ‘A more general relation can be written for the jacket ‘Nusselt number (7,¢]: (oo) ")" aren Correlations have also been developed for helical-coil configurations (2). Adding a coil of tubing for heat transfer drastically increases the problems of maintain- ing geomettic similarity. In addition to the length di- mensions associated with the tank and turbine, there must be included the diameter of the coi, the diameter of the tube, the length of the tube, and the spacing between coils, One correlation for coil heat transfer was developed by Oldshue and Gretton [9]: (28) =a 22" arg o the Nusselt number for the coil heat-transfer coeffi tion developed by Dunlap and Rushton [/0] for rows of (2) = on 238)"(2)" aree” Eq, (12) includes the effects of geometric changes for the impeller-to-tank diameter, and changes in the number of baffles, but neglects effects due to changes in tube-to- tank diameter. 16 —SHRRTOAT EROREERINE FEBRUARY =Design aspects for heat transfer Heat-transfer correlations are only as accurate as the physical and operational properties can be determined, Accurate information about fluid properties is not al- ‘ways available, or properties may change during opera- tion of the process. Thus, some degree of conservatism is required in estimating heat-transfer coefficients. In ad~ dition, the procoss-side heat-transfer coefficients deter- mine only a portion of the overall heat-transfer rate. Heat transfer by conduction through the tank or tube walls and the film coefficient in the jacket or coils must also be determined. Typical tank-wall or tube-wall thicknesses and film coefficients for condensing steam have relatively little effect on the overall coefficient. Overall heat-transfer to cooling water is somewhat more sensitive to the conditions in the jacket or coils. Addi- tional resistance to heat transfer caused by deposits and fouling must also be considered. Although the heat-transfer coefficient depends on the degree of agitation, sizing an agitator to achieve a specificheat-transfer coefficient isimpractical. The coeff- cient is relatively independent of agitator speed. For example, doubling this speed will increase the heat- transfer coefficient by a factor of 1.58 (ie., 2) but Power requirements will increase by a factor of 8 (ie, 2) A reasonable approach to design isto select an agita- tor that provides adequate bulk-liquid motion, and then to alter the heat-transfer area, temperature driv- ing-force, or other process conditions to give the desired e= Suspension of solids The problem of solids suspension is considerably mare complex than that involving single-phase liquid motion, since a second phase is moving in the tank. ‘When the solids are small and approximately the same density as the liquid, the particles move as part of the liquid, and the mixture behaves essentially as a single- hase liquid. However, when the solids settle more Partial suspension bs. Complete suspension «Unite suspension (some slid rext on Bottom (all solis are off the bottom) (solids supandsd ‘of the tank for short period) throughout tho tank) Suspension of solids in a liquid phase will depend on process requirements and properties of the solids Fig. 2 rapidly, sufficient agitation must be supplied to keep them suspended. ‘Agitation requirements in solids suspension vary, depending upon the process requirements. In some cases, the solids need only to be swept from the bottom Of the vessel to prevent them from accumulating. In other cases, a relatively uniform slurry is desired. When solids dissolve into the liquid phase, or when 2 solid- liquid reaction occurs, mass transfer must take place between the solid particles and the bulk liqui Development of design logie for selecting an agitator to provide a given degree of solids suspension requires some knowledge and understanding of fuid-particle dynamics. The additional degree of complexity, intro- duced by the presence of a second phase, limits the usefulness of the dimensional-analysis approach for the physical model, although this has been used for liquid motion. However, we can obtain some insight into this problem by examining solids behavior in a flow field First, we will look at the problem of a solid settling in a stagnant fluid, and then we will consider the com- plicating effects of agitation. Settling velocity Any solid particle moving relative to a surrounding fluid is acted upon by a drag force. The magnitude of this force can be computed from: Fy = OAs Pte as) ‘The dimensionless drag coefficient, Cy, in Eq. (13) is somewhat analogous to the agitatér power number. ‘The value of Cy is a function of the particle Reynolds number—Nagi) = dy tp /tt. This value has been*deter- ‘mined empirically for spherical particles and other sim ple geometries [3] For values of Npyg) less than 0.3, the flow around the particles essentially laminar and corresponds to the Stokes’-law region, where the drag coefficient: Ca = 24/Neagy (04) SCAT ENGINEERS PERROTT WwThis result for the drag coefficient is similar to the analysis of the power number under viscous conditions. ‘At high Reynolds numbers (1,000 < Ngrgy < 200,000), the particle wake is completely turbulent. For these conditions, the drag coefficient is @ constant, and is known as Newton’ law: Cy = 044 (as) Newton’s-law conditions apply when fluid inertial forces or form-drag dominate; these are similar to tur- bulent power numbers. The drag coefficient in the tran- sition range is a variable function of the Reynolds number[ 3) By using the drag coefficient, the terminal settling velocity can be calculated from Eq. (13), where the magnitude of the drag force is equal to the gravita- tional force resulting from a density difference between the solid and the liquid. In the Stokes"-law region, the value for drag coefi- cient in Eq. (14) leads to the following relation for terminal velocity 4 & a ey — 0/8 (16) Generally in the Stokes”-law range, the terminal veloci- ties for most, solids-suspension applications are slow ‘enough so that the fluid can be treated as a single phase for design purposes In the Newton’s-law region, use of the drag coefficient defined by Eq, (15) leads to a different relation for terminal velocity: 4 edt, — Oe an In the transition region (between the Stokes’. and Newton'slaw regions), calculation of settling velocity is an iterative process. Terminal velocities in the transi- tion and turbulent range will be handled by the solids- suspension design procedure. ‘The drag coefficient discussed here applies to spheri- ‘al particles. Correlations exist for drag coefficients of nonspherical geometries. These are of limited usefulness in design work, since detailed information on particle smetry is rarely available. Settling in an agitated vessel is more complex than setiling in a stagnant fluid, due to the presence of the turbulent-flow field. Attempts have been made to ana~ lyze the relative motion between a particle and an agitated liquid on the basis of turbulence theory, and some limited measurements have been made to deter- mine the slip velocity between the particle and the agitated liquid (1,12). ‘Although experimental results are limited, it appears that settling velocity is reduced, due to enhanced drag in the turbulent-flow field. However, no adequate de- sign correlation existing in the literature correlates the degree of suspension in terms of settling velocities under turbulent conditions Empirical correlations of agitation requirements for suspending solids exist [13]. Generally, these studies deal with measurements made in laboratory and pilot- scale equipment. By varying the solids size, density and concentration, and fluid viscosity and density, the ‘agitation required to achieve complete suspension ofthe solids is-determined. 18 ERICA RGIS PERAK Eo ‘Superficial velocity is a measure of surface area for mass transfer for dispersing gas in a liquid Design aspects of solids suspension ‘Typically, selecting an agitator for suspension of solids requires information about the physical proper- ties of the solids and the liquid. The degree of suspen- sion can range from (a) solids being periodically swept from the bottom of the vessel, (b) full off-bottom sas- pension, and (c) virtually uniform solids concentration throughout the vessel. These different levels of suapen- sion are depieted in Fig. 2 Mass transfer in solids suspension When the solids dissolve or react, mass transfer be- tween the solids and liquid must be considered. The rate of mass transfer, M, can be expressed as: M = ky ay (%, — 1) (18) ‘The convective mass-transfer coefficient, k, is analo- gous to the heat-transfer coefficient, hy, in Eq, (3). The driving force is a concentration difference, (x, — %;). Both transfer rate and surface area are expressed per unit volume. ‘When all the solids have been suspended, the effective surface area, ay becomes independent of agitation. Mass transfer can then be handled in the same way ‘as heat transfer. Therefore, the Sherwood number, Nyy for mass transfer can be derived in the same way as the ‘Nusselt number for heat transfer: Nox = by, D/Das aa) Dimensional analysis of the equation of motion and the component mass balance identifies Reynolds and Schmidt nusabers as important parameters (/]. There- fore, for geometric similarity, a correlation for the ‘mass-transfer coefficient should take the form: Ney =J Naw Neo) 20) Geometric similarity normally cannot be achieved in solids suspension. The particle size would have to be scaled up by the same factor as other linear dimensions ‘The approach of using particle diameter in the Sher- aeeeeet+. Flooded impeller Insufficient agitation during gas dispersion by # turbine impeller ereates a condition of flooding by, Moderate dispersion noatlooded) ‘wood number and impeller diameter in the Reynolds number is.often employed. But the arguments for this choice have limited validity Like the heat-transfer coefficient, the mass-transfer coefficient has been found to be relatively independent of the degree of agitation once total suspension is estab- lished. Changes in the liquid-film transfer coefficients are not a strong function of agitator operation. Gon- sequently, once the solids are suspended from the bot tom of the tank, the total surface area is exposed, To make a significant increase in the mass-transfer rate under this condition requires large power inputs for additional agitation, Gas dispersion Gas dispersion is normally done by injecting gas near the bottom of a tank below one or more turbine im- pellers. The object is to dissolve all or part of the gas in the liquid while maintaining a well-mixed liquid phase. In a sparged tank, the gas volume is small rela- tive to the liquid volume, when compared to tower-type operations. “Most problems involving gas dispersion are extremely complex. In addition to the gas being dissolved, cher’ cal reactions often take place in the liquid phase. Some reactions are biochemical, such as in fermentation, In order to design for the complicated processes tak- ing place, the basic mechanism of gas dispersion must be understood. The importance of the dispersion mech- anism becomes evident when the rate equation for mass transfer, M, is considered: M = hay (3, —%) 21) Although each of the separate factors in Eq. (21) depend on process conditions (and location in the agitated tank), the product of the mass-transfer coef cient, fy, and the surface area, ap, is controlled directly by agitator operation. However, like heat transfer, and ‘mass transfer in solids suspension, the liquid-phase transfer coefficient is relatively insensitive to the degree of agitation over a wide range of agitator operation ‘The purpose of agitation in gas dispersion is primarily ‘one of increasing the suiface area per unit volume. Bubble breakup and interfacial area ‘The best photographic evidence of the complex gas- dispersion mechanism is found in studies by van’t Riet and Smith [15], In these stadies, the investigators found that vortices form behind the blades of a radial-flow turbine. As the high circulation’ velocity in the vortex dissipates into the radial fiow of fluid, small gas bubbles are formed. Dissipation of energy as the vortex disinte- grates is a critical factor in forming gas bubbles. Dimensional analysis of bubble breakup in gas-liquid systems yields a dimensionless group known as the Weber number, Ny, = p0#L/o, which is a ratio of inertial forees to sutface-tension forces. In agitation, it is common to use » = ND and L = D to give a Weber number for agitation as: Ny, = N*D'p /o (22) Correlations for bubble size have been made in terms of the Weber number. An alternative approach using turbulence theory shows that bubble size is a function ‘of power per unit volume. Calderbank in Ref. [2] dis. cusses the various approaches in detail. The surface area produced for mass transfer is also a function of the rate of gas introduced into the system. It is common to use superficial velocity to characterize the gas flow: : ald ‘The reason for this approach can be understood from intuitive arguments and reference to Fig. 3. Two agi- tated vestels of different sizes are designed to produce cequal-size gas bubbles. If these bubbles rise at the same velocity, then the gas holdup and surface area per unit volume will be identical for the same superficial ve- locity. The dispersion in Fig. 3 is idealized, but does illustrate this relation graphically 23) —GENGAT ENONEERTG FERRUARY 7, WS 19Velocity gradient, own 'Non-Newtonian fluids have rheologies that depend on magnitude of the imposed stresses Flooding and power For any given superficial velocity of gas in a tank configuration, the impeller rotation must be greater than some minimum level in order to accomplish any dispersion. At rotational speeds below the mini levels, agitation is insufficient to provide effective dis persion ‘When gas rises through the impeller region without being dispersed, the condition is known as flooding, Flooded and nonfiooded conditions are shown in Fig, 4. In the design procedure for gas dispersion, the agita- tion required to prevent flooding is the minimum ac- ceptable degree of agitation for the problem. Power consumption of the agitator in gas dispersion rust take into account the reduction ineffective density ‘of the liquid phase in the impeller region. This causes substantial reduction in power over ungassed condi- tions. Where gas is introduced directly under the im- peller, the following correlation [16] has been used: P_{% ) (ioe eee However, this method does not successfully correlate all data taken over a wide range of conditions [17]. A correlation soundly based on physical principles has not been published. The approach described by Eq. (24) is sufficiently accurate for design purposes. In tall vessels, it is common to use a second, and sometimes a third, turbine to provide additional agita- tion in the upper part of the vessel. Since gas is not introduced directly into these turbines, the reduction in power due to gassing is less than at the bottom turbine, Asa frst approximation, the reduction in density due to {gas holdup allows an estimate of the power consurmp- tion of these turbines to be made. ‘Mass transfer and gas dispersion Measuring and correlating the mass-transfer cocfi- cient, fy, during gas dispersion is complicated because the interfacial area, ay, is strongly affected by the degree of agitation, Hence, fy and a, are commonly combined, and the product of the two quantities correlated. A typieal correlation is: hy ay & (NIDI*(u,)F 23) ‘The exponents, and B, depend on the particular range of conditions. ‘The term N3D# is approximately pro portional to power per volume for a given geometry. ‘Some attempts have been made to independently conelae interiaal area and mas-tranifr coeficent 2} Viscosity and agitation Soe gaat Ea ERSeRae PERE Stat cece centre eee Te See pemtes for pial proces Rud aly is defined os the enatant of proportionality relating shear stress to shear rate. Newton's law of vise cotty states tant the bear force per walt aren (hear trrag) proportional tothe negative of local velocity gradient (aber rate) e i = -1(2) 2s) “The direction of the shene fre i perpendicular to the dvonion of he velocity gadicat Most omogeae ous, nonpoyeri liquids are Newonian and behave in accordance with Ea, 29) It ie posible to visualize the effect of viscoiy in laminar Bow ag the resistance to slippage between adja- cont sreamlings, Velocity prosiea apie geometnat Gan be determined from “he relation beteen shear Stes and vel. gradient (Bq, (2), The complex geometry in an agate tank makes anaitialsohjont impossible, yet general fuid-flow mechanisms must still apply. In arbulent guid oton, random fc inthe velocity become more cidiett to visual terme ofloc! gradient, However, the effect of viscosity isl evident by the tendency of fuid motion t9 op then the applicd force i emoved Some ef the fide encountered in applications of turbine agtator are non-Newtonian, Te vaconiy of such Buide @ nat‘ coniant but hstead depends iocl velocity gradient or other factors. Mom ton New tonian behavior ean be destbed! by defng an “ape parent vbooty" A plot of shear res ve, vlooty fradient shows apparent visoy asthe dope of the Tealting curve oF unply the eal of Te i‘ ( i) ay i ‘The apparent-viscosity behavior for typical categories of fluid is shown in Fig. 5. By definition, a Newtonian fluid has a constant viscosity that plots as a straight line. A pseudoplastic fluid, also known as a shear-thinning fluid, shows a decreasing viscosity for larger-velocity gradients, A dilatant fluid exhibits somewhat opposite properties than a pseucoplastic. As the velocity gradient increases, the apparent viscosity of a dilatant fluid also ‘Another type of fuid behavior, shown in Fig. 5, is i 20 SIL RS RINTCrass called a Bingham plastic. A fixed shear stress, rp, must be applied to this type of fluid before movement begins, and isknown as the yield value, Above the yield stress, a true Bingham plastic will have a constant viscosity. Most real fiuids exhibit a stightly pseudoplastic behav- ior above the yield stress. ‘Some fluids have a time-dependent or elastic behav- for. And some time-dependent fluids break down as a result of applied stress, and are termed thixotropic. ‘Other fluids show an increase in viscosity with time, and are called rheopectic. Viscoelastic fluids tend to return partially co their original state after the applied shear stress is removed. Wohl [78] gives a list of references describing in more detail the rheology of non-Newtonian fluids, Power-law fluids ‘A convenient method for describing the relation be- tween shear stress and velocity gradient for a large class of non-Newtonian fluids ig known as the power-law relation; (28) Eq, (28) reduces to Eq, (26) for Newtonian fluids when the exponent, 2, equals 1. The coefficient, m, is a con- stant of proportionality, Fractional values for the exponent, m, are typical of pseudoplastic fluids. Exponent values greater than 1 can be used to characterize dilatant fluids, Combining Eq. (27) and (28), a definition for apparent viscosity of ‘a power‘law fluid can be determined: 3) Eq. (29), a relatively simple expression, adequately describes the behavior of most non-Newtonian fluids ‘encountered in applications of turbine agitators. Design considerations ‘The most frequently encountered non-Newtonian fluids are pscudoplasti. Fluids such as polymer melts or polymer solutions, and some easily-suspended, high-sol- {ds slurries, show a power-law dependence in the pseu- doplastic range. Since velocity distributions are a func- tion of the viscosity and the applied shear stress, itis no surprise that agitator performance alters as a fluid be- comes more non-Newtonian, Methods for handling non-Newtonian fluids in the design procedure involve a correction to the standard methods. “Shear rates in agitated tanks have been measured Aly [/9], and indirectly [20,21] by the use of power ‘measurements. Inthe vicinity of the impeller, shear rate has been found proportional to agitator speed: (dejds) = KN (30) Where the constant of proportionality, K = 10, ‘As the distance from the impeller increases, the shear rate rapidly declines, For a pseudoplastic fluid, a de- creasing shear rate causes an increase in the apparent viscosity. Hence, the fluid is more viscous away from the impeller than it is in the impeller region. Apparent viscosities remote from the impeller, especially those ‘near the tank wall, are higher than those predicted from power measurements, Viscosity measurements on fluids to be handled by a turbine agitator should be mace in the expected range of velocity gradients. An agitator speed of 68 rpm is typical of process applications for a turbine agitator. ‘The corresponding shear rate is approximately 10" ‘Viscosity measurements should cover conditions down to at least 1's“ to allow for lower shear rates at loca tions remote from the impeller. ‘The Brookfield viscometer is an appropriate instru- ment for measuring viscosities for this application. Typi- cal spindle speeds range from 0.9 to 100zpm. These rotational speeds correspond to shear rates of approxi- mately 0.1 to 205-1, depending on the value of the power-law exponent. Measurements made at three or four spindle speeds are usually adequate to define both the power-law exponent and the apparent viscosity over the range of velocity gradients in an agitated tank, ‘The next article in this series will appear in the issue of Mar. 15, 1976, and will deal with agitator design as, applied to blending and motion. Illustrative examples will show how to evaluate effects of batch size, viscosity and fiuid velocity in order to select an agitation system. References 1. Dicey, DS. sl Peni, J@., hem i, Jan 5, 1996, p38. > Reati, Re'ee S VOEIE BBE? Peeves” VoL 1 3 ry, RL and Chan, ©, He. “Chemical Bago’ Handbook Aint, eGratt, New Yor, 1868 hey Bird RB, Sonar WB. ar Light, EN, "Trassport Phenomena” fee Neu Var Ts 2 Seng Mes Pipl ad Aptian” Had Po, We, 6 Brot, © and Su, Cf, Cham Brg, Pr, Oc. 1938, 0.4, 7. Chapa, F'. Dalle Haee Halland A, Tae ho, Ba (Gono, VoL" F368 (6h, 8. Sue, F, Jaton lm Bg, Vl, 9, 55 (1968, 9. Otiine J. Ys and Green, A. Ty Clem Eg. Prgr, De 1954, p. 615 rr and Rao, JH, Ch Bag Pg Sp SW ,No 1, Seater HG. and Teybal, RE, nd Bg. Chm, Pel V7, Reine e dials Git by an Caconbuy RT at Ol Br (Lane, a ‘yeering T Ny hum Ege Vo 8, 24 (1958. (Gates, Henle, Land Fee, J Cle. Beg, Des 81973, 110 ver Rit, K. and Smith J. MG, Bn. Si Wa 2,103 (1879, (Oyama ¥ and Endoh. Ghem High Pabme (Tejo), Vo. 1, 21859. Mice B.Jvand Mite, 3, A AICAE J, Vol B, 262 (1982, 8. Web Chom, Eg eb 12, 18685, 150 19, Meaner, A.B. and Tylor. J. 8, AICHE J, Vol. 6, Ne. 1,108 (186. 20, Meter, AB. and Ovo, RE, AICAE J. Nal. 3, 1, 31857. 2. Gade A an Moo Yount, MB, Dat. st, Ce Bnd ‘The authors 2. Dox IEE Boconal la Fea. Sndmechanial design of turbine Spiutoe Hebaca Bra chem emerge Lalas Se Cicesiybnih aparece David §, Dicey Fer biography. see hom Beg Joh. 8, 1976.01 aHow to design agitators for desired process response Effective agitation of fluids for blending and motion requires a detailed analysis of capacity, viscosity and dynamic response for the fluid system, in order to find power and shaft speed of the agitator and corresponding size of the turbine impeller. ‘Richard W. Hicks, Jerry R. Morton and John G. Fenie, Chemineer, Inc. 11 Our purpose in this article will be to emphasize a design procedure for practical problems in the chemical process industries involving blending and motion. ‘The information presented here may be used for the design of turbine agitators in applications ranging from storage vessels requiring very little agitation to critical reactors needing a great deal of it. ‘To understand the need for an organized approach to design, we will follow the steps shown in the logie-fiow diagram of Fig. 1 in deciding on an agitator for blend- ing-and-motion problems. This illustration represents a portion of the overall logic-flow diagram originally presented in Part 1 of this series (Chom. Eng, Dec. 8, 1975, p. 112), We will review the mechanical design of drives, shafis and seals, and economic evaluations, in future articles of this series. Here, we will limit our discussion to procedures for blending and motion up to and including design of the impeller system. Classification of problem “The design procedare for blending and motion ap. plies to agitation problems where fluids behave as a fingle phase and where a. predictable level of uid motion must occur. For example, a typical blend problem may require the mixing 10 uniformity of fuide having dissimilar viscosity, density or concentration. On the other hand, a fluid‘notion problem may require improved convective heat-transfer coefficients to facil tate heat removal from a reacting fluid “The agitatordesign logic for blending and motion also applies to some two-phase ayatms that exhibit Single-phase behavior. An example would be fi ‘containing a very small concentration of solids having very slow settling velocities, : It is equally important to state where the blending and-motion logic is not applicable. The procedures in this article do not apply to problems such as immiscible liquid-liquid dispersion, or the blending of highly non- ‘Newtonian fluids. Following the design logic of Fig. 1, we will analyze ‘each of the three components under the heading “mag- nitude of the agitation problem.” Size and difficulty ‘The size of a blending-and-motion problem is indi- cated by the maximuin product of the specific gravity of the liquid, 5,, and the volume of the liquid, V, to be agitated. The product of these two quantities is termed the equivalent volume, Vig, and is a measure of the total mas of the system: Yq = 0 The severity of a blending-and-motion problem is indicated by the maximum viscosity, py of the liquid phase to be agitated. Liquid viscosity is the primary variable in ‘blending-and-motion problems involving the use of pitched-blade turbine agitators, Required process result The ultimate purpose of a turbine agitator is to achieve a desired process result. However, it is often ‘iffcult to sate the procest result with precision, or to relate that result to one specific agitator. Hence, the design logic begins with the seletion of an appropriate 22 SNA GREBlending and metion Equivalent volume Viscosity Blond time, heat tan act Bulk fu ‘System geometry Tempelerdonign ‘xi flove Design logic for blending-and-motion classification Fig, 1 Process requirements st degree of vi agitation for blending and motion eae But tht | Seale ot velocity, | tation feein Deveription j sae aed | ‘Aahation Aeritie of applications requiring mini- ‘um fluid velocities to achieve the process result. ‘Agitstors. capable of level 2 wil: ' Blond siseible fulds to uniformity «ira ite ts tour ‘ihe vray of the rom veo | ‘es3 than. 100 times that of the othe “Establish complete fluid-batch con fon " “Poe 9 tat but moving i ter green ‘alton Tovls 3 100 are charac: Terie of Aud Yoo I mes orn proce Indes sted “= Blond miscible uid to urformity TP apectleataity,liferneat ae less oa lds to uniformity “if the vsconty af the most viscous Jets thon 10,000 times that of the ee | Suspend ace voids (<2K) with “ening rates of 20.4 ftimin. rec wae eppig lover necetes “ Aalaign levels 70 10 are charac tarsi of applications requiring high “Tt specficgavty efron than 1.0. j {Blood mlebe Mald o uifreity A te veo of the ost vieous Is ‘8° © © BA less than 100,000 time thet of she | ‘other | 1 Suspend trace solide (<28) with | 10. 6D. sting cates of 4 to 6 ft/min. | | Provide surging surfaces at tow | wscodtes, dynamic response, followed by the design of agitators that will give that response, Required dynamic response The design basis for blending-and-motion systems is the correlation shown in Fig. 2 for pitched:blade tur bines. Here, the pumping number, Ng, is shown as a | function of Reynolds number for everai ratios of D/T, From the correlation of Fig. 2, we can calculate the cffective pumping capacity, Q, for a pitched-blade tur- bine. Dividing Q by the cross-sectional area of the tank having the geometry shown in Fig. 3 yields the bulk uid velocity. This is the fundamental dynamic re- sponse for blending and motion, It is this velocity that is characteristic of all the velocities in the agitated fluid ‘The fiuid velocity at the impeller tip does not repre- ive, impeller diameter to tank diameter, sent the velocities throughout the tank because it is SETI ERERNS ARTIC Ie 23pee Aippiignumbin N= Qin eam 2 4 Irnpller Reynolds number, Na, = 10.7 O2NS,/a 4 Pumping numbor is the basis for design procedures involving blending and motion / Ratio of impeller diameter to tank diameter ste kk ee Fig. 2 pin ncton of impeller tip speed. Likewise, Aid velocities a the tank wall are vey low and not Characteristic of velocities troughout the tank ‘Bulk hid velocity ranging from 6 to 60 fe/min characterizes the majority of applications of turbine agitators for blending and motion, Is convenient to Stati a To 10 eal to cover this veleiy range ad_| to establish turbine performance eiteria within tis ion factor for diameter of pitched-blade (ee Table V) D-Inpeller diameter, ia eller diameter for turbulent regime, in Hf, Prime-mover power, hp L" Shaft length, in 1 Shaft speed, «pm, No Purmping number Nge Impeller Reynolds number 1" Number of impellers Q Effective pumping eapacity, f/min S$ Impeller spacing, in S, Specific gravity e ¥ Vessel diameter, in Volume, gal Vg Equivalent volume (Bq, (1) ga ag” Bul fluid velocity, fin Z Fluid bate depth, in Viscosity, ep scale of agitation.* Table 1 is the result of such an analysis and defines problems involving blending and motion, Note that performance criteria are enumerated in terms of miscible-luid blending, low-viscosity surface activity, batch control, and other process results. ‘These scale levels are not intended to serve as design points; rather, they indicate capabilites of the various agita- tion intensities. While adjacent scale levels are distinctly different in dynamic response (bulk velocity differences of 6 ft/min), it may or may not be possible to distin: guish the process results that adjacent scale levels yield. Selection of the agitator drive Since prime-mover power and shaft speed are the most practical means for specifying turbine agitators, it js more convenient to compute these relations for vari= ous equivalent volumes and viscosities for the 10 scales of agitation in tabular form. Condensed examples of the agitator selection tables are shown as Tables Il and ITT. ‘Table IT comprises selections for fluids having viscosities of 5,000 ep; and Table IIL, viscosities of 25,000 ep. Caleulations done by the computer using a logic pro- gram generate Tables II and Ill For an analysis ofthe power/speed relations for turbine agitator, sce the ma~ terial in the accompanying box on the opposite page We can use Tables IT and ITI to make a fist approxi- mation of power and speed of a turbine agitator for fluids having viscosities other than 5,000 or 25,000 ep. Interpolation between these tables is posible The horsepowers and shaft speeds shown reflect in- Pr SHERTEAT ENGINTFRINS AREAnalysis of power/speed relationship for turbine agitators ‘A 5,000-gal reactor will be used to agitate a fuid that thas @ apecifc gravity of 1.0 and a viscosity of 5,000 ep. What is the size of the agitator-that will give a dynamic response corresponding to a bulk fluid velocity of 36 fi/min? What will be the required power and speed for such an agitator? Ect us start by assuming that the batch in the reactor ‘occupies a depth that is equal to the diameter of the Feactor. (This procedure is equally applicable to other bbateh shapes, We have chosen a batch whose liquid depth is the same ax the diameter of the tank because this isthe basis of Tables II and IIL) We calculate the tank (ie. reactor) diameter, liquid depth, Z, from the volume relation Va mrnyz Since Vis given as gal, we multiply the righthand side of the equation by 7.50 gal/ft® Since 7 must equal Z, we find: T, and 5,000 = 9(7/2}27(7.80) T=9a7 ‘Next, we calculate the horizontal cross-cectional area of de tan from 9(7/2)? and find it to be 704 £2. “To calculate the effective pumping capacity, Q, of the {impeller o 25 to generate a bulk fluid velocity of 36 fi/min in the vessel, we substitute in: Q=0A = 96 x 704 = 2,584 A4/mnin ‘This value of Qwill stay fixed throughout the calculation Te is now necessary to pick a D/T ratio (ie., turbine diameter to tank diameter). Typical values for this ratio range between 0.2 to 0.6. For this example, we pick a midrange value of 0.3. Hence, the impeller diameter be- D = 9.47(0.3)(12) = 34.09 in From Fig. 2, we must establish a pumping number, Ng, {for this geometry. Since we do not yet know the impellers rotative speod, we cannot calculate its Reynolds number "Therefore, we make another assumption that agitation ‘cozurs under fully turbulent conditions. From Fig. 2, we find Ng = 0.8 for D/T = 03. "To make the first trial calculation of the impeller speed, we substitute in the expression for the pumping number Ny = Q/NDS ‘where Q is effective pumping capacity, RY/min; N is ipeller speed, 1pm; D is impeller diameter, ft. Substitut- the appropriate values and rearranging, we find the impeller speed as N= 2534/(0.8)(4.09/12) We substitute into Bq, (3) in order to check the agree- ‘ment between the impellers Reynolds number and the pumping number: 1.0¥(198.2)(34,00} 5,000 2, we find that an Ng,of 344 does not match 138.2 pm, Ne = = 34 From Fi an Ng = 08 for a D/T ratio of 0.3, We must now make a Second tral calculation using revised assumptions Based on the previously ealoulated Ng = 344, we pick fan Ng = 0.5 for D/’ of impeller speed yields: . N = 2,834/(0.35)(34.09/12)9 = 201 rpm Fora speed of 20! rpm, the impeller’s Reynolds number Ddecomes: _ 10.7(1.0)¢201)(94.09)" = a = ‘Agreement between an Ng = 0.58 and an Nye for a D/T = 0.3 on Fig. 2 reasonable. Can it be im- proved with a third tial? ‘Using an Nyy = 500 from the second trial, we now pick an Ng = 0.60 from Fig. 2for a D/T = 0.3 The thie tral Calculation of impeller speed yields: N = 2534/(0.6) 3409/12) = 164.2 rpm. For a speed of 184.2 rpm, the impelle’s Reynolds num- ber becomes: _ 10.7(.0%184.2)(94.0932 = 5 000 Fora Reynolds number of 458 and D/T = 03, we find [Ng = 0.60 from Fig. 2. Agreement is good. Trial-and-error iterations ean stop. Since we have now established the speed at which a pitched-blade turbine must operate’Tor this example, we ‘must next determine the power necessary to rotate it. By using Eq. (2) and the data from Tublé V, we can compute the required hertepower. From Table V, we obtain the viscosity corretion factor, Cp, for an impeller Ne, = 458 as 0,085. Hence, the corrected turbine diameter, Dy, is ‘computed from Bq. (4) as: Dy = 3409/0.985 By substituting into Bq, (2) and rearranging, we caleu- late impeller power, Hy, as: (34.61/394)°1X (188.2)? = 32.7 hp, this application where a bulk fluid velocity of 36 ./min is specified, we need an agitator drive of 92.7 hy rotating the impeller shaft at 184.2 rpm for an initial assumed value of D/T = 0.3. Calculations at other D/T ratios will yield other tor speeds and the prime-mover power astociated with these speeds. The specds that result from these assump tions of D/T may or may not be AGMAS speeds (290,190, 155, 125, 100, 84, 68, 56, 45, 87 rpm, ete). The corre sponding he also may be or not be available a5 standards (10, 15, 20, 5, 30, 40 hp). It is normal engineer. ing practice (o select speeds and horsepowers closest to standard sizes, Thus, it is far more practical to begin with commercially available prime-mover ‘and speeds, and to calculate the bulk fluid velocity that will be pro- duced in various volumes and viscosities. These agitator selections can then be put into a volume, viscosity, bulk fuid-velocity matrix (Tables Il and If for ease of appli- 58 =M461%n SEAL ENGINE APRIL TE a 25Prime-mover power and shaft speed (hp/rpm) for blending and motion lviscosity ~ 8,000cp) Table 11 ——— svitation 600 7,000 2,000 5,000 10,000 ——«30,000 100,000 so0900 7 760 2/780 ano 2/100, 3184 78/84 — “20/100 75/128 an90 i100 5s (16/68 50/84 | 9137 10/85 30/45 25/37 20/37 2 21280 21190 an 5/128, S126 18/155 ee sore 180 an00 288 3184 584 woes” 20768 50/6, 154 3/68 3/68 7568 16/45 40/86, 28 218 545 10/37 30/37 3 290226 gee 75281885 (25/88 ayaa 125/68 1100186 15186 5/100 (10/86 20/68 Bore 100/56 saa 75/68 1545 40/56 75/45 3186 5/48, 10197 30/97 78/37 4 2136 26 5125 10786 2525 aoa 75/6. 20784 154 15/66 3168 7.5/68 2000 = 30/68 Orbs 200/68 3168 5148 10/45 25168 0/48 160/46 2148 337 75137 2013740197 126/37 6 ans 5/126 751% 15/100 20/688 eo = 128/68, 300/68 2B 388 sigs 10168. 18/68 50/68 100/66, 260/56 75/85 15/58, 406 75/48, 200/45 10137 3045 75/37 160/30 6 288, 5/100 18/186 5/125 20100 75/84 zoe 0/86 1556 3/68, 19/100 20/100 25/84 50/86 200/68, 350/48 86 75/84, 10/66 15/45 2037 150/86, 260/37 25 37" 75/37 25/90 125/48, 2200/30 7 area 75125 1084 (5/6. 40/84 7/68 300/100 475/68 18/56 30/68 e088 180/45 845 10/45 26/66 50/45 128/37 10197 20/45 40/37 100/30 8 N25 10/128 t0/e8— 0/100 s0/100-—s60/100 00769, 75/100 75I96 25/86 20137 100/68 260/88, 20768 200/48, 18/45 150/97 ° 75N85 1858 15/84 Gots = wuvee 5088 180/90 sii00 10/100 «10/58/1009 5o/ee 126/68 126/25 | 5184. 75184 75/48 aoe = 100/86. 100/20 30/48 78/45 10 10/185 ‘10/84 2085 0/100 78/100 200/68 00/56 75128 7.56/68 25/128 0784 50/68 75/37 360/48 20100 30/68 30/37 60/30 250/37 15/68 28/86 25/30 50/25 200/20 dustrially available turbine agitators. For example, the For blending and motion, the impeller type is a selection 10/84 indicates a 10-hp agitator at a shaft speed of 84 rpm. ‘The horsepowers are those far the standard prime-mover sizes. Shaft speeds are those for the commonly available prime-maver speeds (1,730 rpm, 1,150 rpm, ete.) in combination with standard American Gear Manufacturers Asin. (AGMA) gear ratios. We will use Tables II and II to demonstrate the design concept through sample-problem analysis, Impeller-system design To conectly apply the selections of turbine agitators from Tables II and TH, we must properly design the impeller system. This design includes the turbine type, numberof turbines, location in the batch, and diameter of the impeller. Correct baffling of the system is also 26 SEER NETFRRE pied te Tbe tee ommended ne finan sod tir aio ihe eh bre al tn Foetal, git igi ean iarien Sid cpandcmioeflid ethic ok Enoctrtd/ 1) ef on ube Ss Sata Ser 2) wi ent The pana afeng foe over wer cna ae Sahn ie ae fn SS bp" ne ee eel he oe Mier Mune Stes Ryle nn Se pan Ea 1) nue wes an pe soni damaon sf demaes, Bes a = (fi) where H, is prime-mover power, hp; 1 is number of 2)Prime-mover pow and shaft speed (hp/rpm) for blending and motion (viscosity = 25,000 ep) Table 111 Equivalent volume, gal | | 76168. 100/58.» 980/37 60/66 75/45 150/30. "00" 2.900 70,000. 30,000” 400,900 _so0000 fees ate’ ates Feria ee a8/i28 78/28 Ts0/i00 1/100. 18/84: 15/56 8/100. 10/100 20/100 50/84: 100/63. | see 7.5/68 15/68 30788 i } » 3186 mao 10820137 ' 2 BNO Brag 9/128 10/84 20/100 30/100 sores va568 | 21128 2184, 314 78/68. 16/68 25184 50/08 100/56 | 18/4 18)66 Sie 38.1088. 20/e8 40186 75/8 | ey A 37 toms elas 3008 77 | 3 sies 125 1/15 201100. 26/04 alms rasie8 200/08 | 2184 ‘5/84 75/08 16/68 20168 Soles’ = 100/66 ‘e078 | 15/58 3168 Blas, 10/48 14s < a0 T5148, 180/90. | | : “2, gor rea? 4097 g0g7 8a. 28a | 4 8/18. 7.5184 10/84 90/100 40/84 75168, 250/84 400/66" | | S100 siee 785 2afea 30/68 gare 200/68. Soo/as See ee Ques Solas sore (28037 | ee : doorway tans 0a | 8 Gags sites aariae.” 100 es aoorna sors ures | i 5/84. 191100 20/100, 60/155. 80/84 150/100 180/37 1 | joe Tefee 00. a0/BB 00a. 20137 | 7ee8 108. tae 30a 78la8 0080 | ois aes dae yee yoo soe soos | 7eiee 18128. tole soe 12868280786 1366 2886 as 100/88 ores | : z 10s. 20/87 2830 78/37 «180750 | 7 jets. 2885 aayves 781126 75/68. 180768 180/45 : 10/100 = 48ie | 30/100 Borba 0/86 75/90 Bren Sms BONN is | : : 20re8 4037 8 poles’ goles. Sovte5 7/100. t00/84 -- asoiee “above ol ‘s/s pene | aoN128.80re4 75186200108 50/48, | 201100 0/68 oo ts066 Bors? | AO/BE 125/46 200/30, i 1 a “28/155, 4011 65 75/84. 160/100 300/100 1 | 29/1268 30/126, ores 00/68. tg0ras | : 25/100 606 128/37 i | 100/90 : | F909 307086 aonnz6 vapt25 160/94 250/86 i i zoea 30/100 Yaort00 125/68. 200745 | | turbines; S, is fluid specific gravity; and N isshaft speed, rpm. Several power-draw correction factors such as prox- imity and impeller spacing are neglected in this exti- ‘mate because they are minor. However, it is necessary to correct for viscosity effects. To do so, we calculate the impeller Reynolds number from: ge = 10.75,ND*/p o where S, is fuid specific gravity, D is impeller diameter, in; and’ is viscosity, ep. "The correction factor, Cp, for the calculated Reyn- olds number is obtained from ‘Table V, and the cor- rected turbine diameter becomes: D=DyLy @) Baffle recommendations for systems requiring blend- ing and motion are listed in ‘Table VI Examples illustrate design analysis ‘The design logic to solve problems involving: blending and motion has now been described in ace cordance with the sequence of Fig. 1. By solving some practical agitation problems, we can analyze the steps necessary to arrive at a basic agitator selection, Example I—A 10,000-gal storage tank, as sketched in Fig. da, receives product from a series of batch reactors. ‘The product has a specific gravity of 1.05, with a maxi- mum variation of 0.05. Viscosity of product is 4,900 cp, and there is no significant viscosity variation between batches. The product is held in the storage tank for at least two days, Tank diameter is 11 f¢ 6 in, with a 12-ft straight side. The top head is flat, and the bottom head is ASME dished. The agitator will be mounted on 12-in channels. Select the agitator system for blending batches of miscible product delivered to the storage tank, PRTC aApproximate -“ecation of vy, Bulk fluid velocity 1s fundamental dynamic response for blending and motion Fig. 3 Number of impellers for blending and motion Table 1V Upto25,000 2 > 25,000 1 > 25,000 2 1h oz. eaz 16 ld apt; T= vase diameter, Viscosity correction factor for diametor of pitched:blade turbine Table V ‘Reynolds number, Faster, Reynolds number, Fector, Nre or Nae oF — T0050 “o- 500 099 100 01 400 088 80 090 300 097 70 089 200 0.98 60 oa 50 087 Recommended baffling for blending and motion ive Volume, Viscosity, al P Batfies* S1,000 | “E2500 “Gat a0", T/2 wiath, THD ethee 1000 > 2,600 Hone 1000 <€,000 4 at 90", T/12 width, 7772 offer > 1/000 >6,000 None +7 = verse sarnorer Sizes of process vessels, liquid depths, and related geometric dimensions for sample problems igPitched (az +55 128 iia Se ns 18 Summary of process requirements and selection procedures for typical examples of blending and motion Table VII Fig. db 6 Ase 16 36 150 ‘Asme 16 188 314 max. 314 min. 16max, 16 min, 4,686 imax, 2,682 mi, 160 max 84 min. 5,000 mex, 2,046 min. 176 mex. 100 min. 1189 max. 1.04 mia, 13 5,000 8500 Pieenod T= 32 wise 186 B BgNR Bae ished 96 Dished ine 2 ira.” Sac. 80 max, Bt max, 1082 max. 189 max 1,48 ma, 96 25,000 990 Pitched 71320 (iz =s9 38 9 11 88‘This problem requires a low level of dynamic re- sponse because it involves the blending of miscible fluids with small differences in specific gravity and no significant variations of viscosity. Table I indicates that a scale level of 1 to 2 is appropriate. Since no specific degree of uniformity has been stated and the residence time is long, we choose the minimum scale level of 1. ‘We now enter Table II and find that for a scale level ‘of 1 and an equivalent volume of 10,000 gal the appro- priate agitator unit is 3/84 (ie, 3 hp at 84 rpm). A single agitator selection does not indicate that there is only one power/speed combination that is appro, bbut rather that the choice of equivalent turbine agi tators is reduced for the smaller machine sizes. ‘We complete the design for the impeller in accordance with the previous discussion. ‘The results of this design are summarized in Table VIL Example 2—The waste product from a reaction has = specific gravity of 1.3 and a viscosity of 5,000 ep, and collects in a 5,000-gal vessel to a total depth of 100 in, ‘An acid stream having a specific gravity of 1.05 and 2 viscosity of I cp is then added to neutralize the waste. A total of 2,054 gal of acid is added to the waste. This raises the liquid level to the upper tangent line of the vessel, The tank is 96 in dia, and has a straight side of 150 in (sce sketch in Fig. 4b). The top and bottom heads are ASME dished. Select the agitator for this system Several points are to be made by this example, First, the equivalent volume is 6,500 gal (.e., 5,000 % 1.3) Since the selection tables go from 5,000 to 10,000 gal, interpolation is required when using Table IL. From Table I, we find that a scale of agitation of 3 should be adequate, However, a seale of 4 might be a logical alternative because the selections will be made for an ‘equivalent volume of 5,000 gal rather than for 6,500 gal. Hence, a degree of conservatism is realized because the acid phase will dilute the waste to a viscosity less than 5,000 ep, ‘Since the ratio of 2/T = 1.83, we find from Table [V that the system geometry will require the use of two pitched-blade turbines, We now enter Table Tat a scale level of 3 for an equivalent volume of 8,000 gal to select the four power/speed combinations, as listed in Table VIL. The estimated turbine diameters (Table VIL) for each of the four sclections are for a two-impeller system. While the requirement for baffles (see Table VI) is on the bordering, it has been assumed that the lov-viseos ity acid phase would thin the waste and make baffles advisable, In this example, four combinations of power and shaft speed are obtained. In a later article of this series, dealing with mechanical analysis, we will show that ‘wo of the four combinations will not be consistent with the shaft-extension requirements, Example 3—Let us make a preliminary analysis of the agitation requirements for a 1,000-gal bulk-polymeri- zation reactor, The reactor is 5 ft dia. by 8 ft straight side, with 8-in-deep vessel heads, and a 6-in-high nozzle on the top head (Fig. 4c). The vessel is equipped with a full straight-side and bottom-head cooling-water jacket. ‘The monomers to be polymerized have a maximum specific gravity of 0.95 and an initial viscosity of 10 cp. The monomers are charged to the reactor to a level of 30 89 in. Simultaneously charged with the monomers are 50 Ib of a finely divided catalyst. The exothermic po- Iymerization is initiated and reacts isothermally until batch viscosity reaches 25,000 ep. The reaction is then stopped, and polymer solution removed fiom reactor. ‘The data for the systemn geometry of this example are summarized in Table VII along with the variables that affect the fluid batch, Before attempting to select the agitator drive, an analysis of the batch characteristics and the resulting polymerization is necessary First, the presence of trace solids can be ignored because the 50 Ib of catalyst represent less than 2% by weight of the charge. And this catalyst will seule slowly—particularly as the batch viscosity increases with polymerization. Second, the primary variable to be used for design is the maxiinum viscosity to be reached of 25,000 cp, Third, at startup of polymerization, the viscosity will be low and the monomer will swirl rapidly without baffles. As the reaction proceeds, the viscosity builds up and the swirl diminishes. The impellers will then estal lish the desired flow pattern and batch control. Because the critical part of the reaction occurs during the high: Viscosity finishing step, no baffies are recommended Scale levels of 10 and 7 for agitation were selected fo: investigation because they bracket the range commonly associated with reactors of this type (Table 1), ‘The power/speed combinations appropriate to these scale levels are obtained from Table Ill, and listed in Table VII. A mechanical and economic analysis is necessary to select the optimum agitator for each scale level. A heat-transfer analysis of the resultant systems must then be made to assure that the exothermic polymerizatio: can proceed isothermally in the reactor. ‘The examples inthis article have been chosen to show the interaction between the magnitude of the agitation problem and equipment selection. The examples started with a 10,000-gal storage tank requiring a small dy- namic response and ended with a 1,000-gal polymerizer requiring a large response. Consequently, turbine agi- tators that satisfy the process requirements for each example became physically larger even though the re: quired volumes of the vessels became successively smaller ‘We have emphasized the rational selection of the scale of agitation in these examples. In a future article, we will explore more-sophisticated analyses of blend- ;and-motion problems by using criteria for heat transfer and blend time. ‘The authors ety. Mowton nel Sesion Bevtbpaent nines 2 Site Maagertor Ch FO, Bort Barter icin pcan from Oi Rida W. ks Polo, John G, Fone For bogaphy ae Bren icegs be 8 Sp TdSelecting agitator systems to suspend solids in liquids The settling velocity and equivalent volume are the fundamental relationships in determining the required dynamic response for suspending solids in liquids of low viscosity. Lewis E, Gates, Jerry R. Morton and Philip L. Fondy, Chemineer, In. C1 The presence of a two-phase, solids san agitation problem as a solids-suspension in such problems, the suspension of solid particles ing velocity greater than 0.5 ft/min wi ‘a continuous liquid phase is the purpose of the agita- tion. Examples of systems having slow settling velocities are slurries containing a high concentration of solid, and suspensions of solid particles in a liquid of appreci- able viscosity. These systems are treated by the blend- ing-and-motion procedures of the previous article [4] ‘The level of solids suspension is only one of several design criteria, Surface control, mass transfer and shear rate are other factors for applications involving dry- solids incorporation, solids dissolving, particle-size re- duction, leaching and crystallization. Thus, solids-sus- pension logie (Fig. 1) will provide guidance only in such cases Caution should be exercised in applying this solids- suspension procedure to processes where the solid parti- cles are easily suspended in the liquid phase. Typically, this occurs when the settling rate of the solid in the liquid phase is less than 0.5 ft/min, Size and difficulty ‘The size and difficulty ofa solidesuspension problem are indicated by the equivalent volume, Vay, and the settling rate of the solid particles, u,, respectively. The equivalent volume Sy)aY oO where Vis volume of slurry to be agitated, and (S,),. is specific gravity of the slurry. ‘The estimated terminal settling velocity, w, of spher- ical particles is shown in Fig. 2as a function of particle 386 125/37 350/90 17528 2108 76/25 16/84" 75/126. 100/68 400/100 160726 2156. 5/84 19/66 50/84 200/45 Ht : 7a7 S05 180/37 100/20 a188 586 25/125 gored 16/08 00/68 400/56 zo/io0 90/68“ 100/88 25088 «aEONAG ies 40/56 7545180207 toms 307. 78a7 17572820 75/168 18/185. aod 75/68. 76100 400/856 : 5/125, f000. 2/418 300/85 5100 78/e4 2068 as 280/37 3168 78/6888 aora7 200/30 75/25 s0/es e065 ton/e@ 280/04 conan see 4000. "75/66 200168 -—_—S00/eB 20788 10/45 50/68 25858 125157 i ons 4684 76/100. 150/68 400/100 751100, coyi2s.ras/es 380/88 as 80/100 100/86 200/45 » 40/84 ‘78146 160/37 15/165 0/165. 7/125 00/100 00166 tajioo 25/125 7/100 250184 300/68 zonoo—govae_——200/68 soe 180/86 The dynamic-response levels shown in Fig. 3a, 3b and | dure. Selection tables list the power/speed relation as a de would be characterized by scale levels of 1, 3 and 9, | function of equivalent volume, settling velocity of the respectively, These levels are specific visual descriptions | solids, and scale of agitation. Condensed versions of the for any settling velocity, and are not specific to the | drive-telection tables are included as Tables IIT and IV settling velocity of the material in the tank. for settling velocities of 10 ft/min and 25 ft/min, re- : : spectively. For an analysis of the power/speed relation Selection of agitator drive for turbine agitators handling solids-suspension prob- Prime-mover power and agitator shaft speed make | lems, see the material in the accompanying box on up the principal element for the agitatorsdesign proce- |p, 149. TGHRTCRTRROREERIRE WAT Te 35“The powers and shaft speeds in these tables reflect the use of standard, commercially available, turbine agita- tom. The prime-mover powers are for standard electr- cal motors; the shaft speeds are those obtained by using the speeds of standard motors in combination with standard AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Assn.) gear ratios. The notation 10/64 means a 10chp motor in combination with a shaft speed for the agitator of 84 zpm. Impeller-system design ‘After selecting suitable drives, the turbine agitators must be equipped with the correct impeller system. This system includes the type, number, batch location and diameter of all turbines, as well as an appropriate baf- fling system. The basic impeller for solids suspension is the pitched-blade turbine. This tuxbine and the axial-flow pattern it produces were previously described in Part 1 of this series [3] ‘The number and position of the pitched-blade ture biines for solids suspension are shown in Table V as a function of batch configuration. (Note that the turbine elevations are somewhat lower than those for blending and motion (#},) ‘To estimate the diameter of pitched-blade turbines for the desired dynamic response, we use fe) ® Icis not necessary to correct the diameter obtained from Eq. (3) for the Reynolds number because solids-suspen- sion agitation will not be applied to liquid phases at high viscosities. For solids suspension, four bales are positioned every {90° in the vessel, The baffles should have a width equal ‘to one-twelfth the vessel’s diameter, and should have an offset from the vessel wall equal to one seventy-second of the vesse’s diameter. ‘This gap between the vessel wall and the baffles prevents dead spots and solids acciumulations Dry-solids incorporation ‘A common problem encountered in the chemical process industries is the incorporation of dry solids into a liquid. The difficulty of the problem is influenced by (@) particle size and wetting characteristics ofthe solid, (b)rate and manner in which the dry solid is charged to the liquid surface, and (¢) amount and type of motion at the agitated surface If the dry solids are very fine, difficult to wet, or added at a very high rate, several techniques for pro- ‘moting solids makedown are available. A usual pro dure is to provide an additional pitched-blade turbine (near the liquid surface) than is ealled for by batch: geometry criteria, It is customary to locate this impeller at a distance equal to one-half the impeller diameter below the liquid surface. Removing baffles from the upper portion of the fluid batch creates a vortex that ccan_be of significant help to solids incorporation, The more difficult a dry solid is to make down into a slurry, the higher the scale of agitation. In some cases, | Design analysis for power and speed’ relations for solids suspension lect that will provide ree a seal ‘level We ‘galecul We bey Glee oe ow asi ie oithe vesiel’s phi ienetah cone ee of 8A, sae { ee | thie i ‘peed, rps Dis eo ee ei crn hint Rene 27 x 10" = WARS. [9)29/10 N= 14754 rom “We obtain the piine-mover power aspciated with this Ser Pr heeaine ne 0) sat ante folve ford: = amunsoVo4aa ae: ple are ndt available in commercial équipinent. Basen= Aially, we could epeat the preceding calculations at other - D/Tiatios in order wo obtain a standard power and speed éombiation, However, it mote convenient. ‘with commercially available equipment, and then alga ‘the pomer/speed combination a place im an equivalent: volume, seilingerate, scalelevel array such as the con ensed "Tables IT qnd TV of this arteCran makedown (not solids suspension) is the controlling factor in selecting a turbine agitator. Settled-solids resuspension ‘Another common problem occurs when the agitator must resuspend a settled bed of solids. The nature of the settled bed affects the ability o resuspend it Fine solids tend to settle very densely. Particle shape, chemical bonding, particle cohesion, and duration of the settled condition, can also influence the problem, When this ‘occurs, it can be difficult, if not impossible, to resuspend the paticles and to reestablish the original level of solids suspension, Resuspension problems may also re- quire higher scales of agitation than are needed to maintain the suspension. Example illustrates design analysis The problems associated with solids suspension, and the logic needed for selecting an agitator and its drive, have now been analyzed and evaluated in accordance with the sequence of Fig. 1. Let us now solve a typical problem involving solids suspension to illustrate the reviously described, by I4tt straightside surge vessel in a continuous-process plant requires an agitator. The ves- Sel has a standard, dished, bottom head, an open top, ‘and a IGin-high beam support for the agitator. The Dotiom head is 20 in deep and has a volume of 735 ga ‘The 30%-by-weight solids slurry has a specific gravity of 134. Fluid depth in the vessel will be a maximum of 163 in, The particles are 50 mesh and have a specific gravity of 2.6, while that of the liquid is 1.1. Liquid Viscosity is 1 ep. ‘The requited process result is to pro- vide a uniform efffuent concentration from the exit hozzle located near the lower tangent line of the veste, fas shown in the sketch: We calculate the equivalent volume of the slurry by first finding the capacity to which the vessel is filled The size of the fluid batch is found by adding the capacity of the straight side and the dished-bottom fend from: sy (18) Utz) C2 Y= 10816 gal By substituting into Ba, (1), we find pq = 1OB16(1-34) = 14499 We now calolate the termina seting velocity ofthe solide "The difence fa opeeitc gravity between the elite andthe sltdstree Hquid f (26— 11) = 1.5. ‘And, from Fig. 2, we find w, as 7.7 ft/min. From Table I, Mrobtan the corestion fein, j., as. Substating Inno Eg, @) yields the design seling velocity, Hy a8 10 ft/min. ‘Te required proces result ean be identified with a solids-suspension scale level of 3 from Table Il. For a uit of 3 and Ve, = 15,000 gal, we find the com: bination of power and shaft speed as 25/100, 20/68, 72y38 and 10/37 fom Table ML ‘These are the tur bine-agitator drives that are capable of solving the proces problem Since ato of 2/T = 163/144 = 1.13, we consul ‘Table V to Bnd that-one pitchedblade iempller i Fexuited having a botom clearance of 2/4 = 103/4 = 41 in, The overall shaft length, Z, is 163 in, For each of the agitator drives previously selected from Table I, wre deermine th estimated turbine diameter by wb Teng nt (3), For the power/apeed combination of 25/100, we find: disses eeu err p= sl aaarigl = Similar ealelations for the power/speed selections of 20/65, 15/56 and 10/47 yield mele ciametr of 3, 57.and 67 in, respectively ‘The mumber of bafles is 45 with a width of TAD = TH/12 = (in, alength of 6B in and a clea tice froma the tank wall of 7/72 = 144/72 = 2 in Selection of the optimum turbine agftator for thi serie will be bated'on completion of the mechanical design, followed by an economic evaluation, v 7.48) + 735 References 1. Pomp R; Hand Chilton, C11 e, "Chemical Baginee Handbock” Sth cd Retin 1 McGraw ily New Yor 1973 2, Dicky, DS and Hicks R, W, Chem Ee, Fe. 2, 1978, p 8 4 Gate i, Hele, Tt. and Fee. Oh Brg, De 8, 1975, p. 10 4 Hk Mon, J Roa Fel jG che Bs A 261578, ‘The authors Philip, Fandy Vi President and General Mager of te Astor Ds at (Ghemnee Ine, BO. Box 5, Dap Di G00. ihe CAE ndash jn cemiel engineerin inom Oho tate Univera tember of ATCKE. Lewis, Gates —Por biography seo Sion Eagan 8 igs di ‘ecsyR, Morton Uc ine, see aTHow to select turbine agitators for dispersing gas into liquids Sparging a gas into a liquid often involves chemical reaction. Turbine agitation of the batch creates large interfacial contact areas and increases the mass-transfer coefficients, Richard W. Hicks and Lewis E, Gates, Chemincer, In.* (1 Turbine-agitated gas-liquid systems are basically | liquid, 5,, and the volume of the ungassed liquid, P: contacting devices, which create large interfacial surface b a area between the gas and liquid phases. A common en = Sy application involves mass transfer ofa sparingly soluble | Difficulty is indicated by the superficial gas velocity, gasintoa liquid where a reaction may occur. A number of industrial applications have this requirement. For | example: © Oxidation of organic aromatics, such as eyclo- hexane to cyclohexanone. © Hydrogenation of unsaturated glycerides. 4 Fermentation under aerobic conditions for prod- uucts such as antibiotics, steroids and sitigle-cell proteins. ‘The fermentations require an adequate oxygen supply jn the liquid phase for proper cellular growth and respiration. ‘The design approach for gas dispersions will follow the logic sequence of Fig. 1, and parallel that previously developed for blending and motion in Part 4 of this series, and solids suspension in Part 5. { In order to apply the design procedure for gas disper: Gas dispersion Ee eS sion correctly itis necessary to understand the problems session that fit into this classification. The common denomina- ane tor is the need for a large interfacial contact area be- See daaaien tween the gas and liquid phases. This procedure for a turbine agitators establishes a predictable degree of gas, dispersion in a low-viscosity fluid, where the gas is ERE: sparged near the bottom of cylindrical vessels. Size and difficulty of gas dispersion ‘The major variables in submerged-gas-dispersion problems are the mass of the fluid (size), and the rate at ‘which the gas is sparged (iffculty) Problem size is indicated by the equivalent volume, Vrqp Which is the product of the specific gravity of the iki mom | ‘i plies of autos ee Cl. Bap Feb, 21975, 100 a Dre 8 pete ihe us farn this CE Reraeney: Patt es: 8, 1875, Pan 3 un 81976 p38; Pot 3 Fe 2, 16,6 98 Pare Ape 2B, {Seip Me? Par, ay at. 38 SarAT NCES TeCEE tig, Which is the velocity of the sparged gas if the volu» metric fow, Q,, is distributed uniformly over the cross-sectional area of the vessel, Ay: = a /604y ® ‘The presture and temperature for computing Q, are those existing atthe bottom of the vessel. The pressure is a combination of the vapor-space pressure and li head pressure: Pro het Pe © where iy = pressure at the vessel bottom, py = vapor space pressure, and p, = liquid-head pressure. Ifthe gassing rate is given at standard conditions, 0 ,, sefin (ft8/min at 32°F and | atm), a correction to actual conditions, Q.,, acm (fi!/min at the actual temperature and pressure) must be made. Let us solve a typical application to illustrate size and difficulty. Example I—In a \4-fedia by 18ft straightside vessel containing an initial liquid charge of 18,750 gal {S, = 1.05), gas will be sparged at 3,125 sci. ‘The vessel has dished heads (24-in deep, 1,200-gal capacity), and a straightside capacity of 96 gal/in. Operating conditions in the vapor space are 22 psia at 100°F. Let 1s calculate the problem size (Vi,) and the problem difficulty (x,) for these conditions By substituting into Eq, (1), we can find the magni tude of 7, as: Veg = 18,750(1.05) = 19,687 gal ‘We will use Bq. (2) to determine problem difficulty (ie. u,). To do s0, we must first calculate Q, and Ay. ‘The batch height and capacity are: Batch height, Capacity, in al Bottom head 2 1200 Straight side 183, 17550 Total 207 1750 To find the pressure at the vessel bottom, we substi- tute into Eq. (3): : 524 oo) = 99 pia pew 04 105( $2807 = 28 To convert Q, to actual conditions, Q,, we must apply the gas laws'as follows: = 4.195142) (459 + 190) = 4 955 actin a. = 9925 (ay5) (Saath ae) = 9 8 Since the cros-sectional area of the tank, m(14}2/4 = 153.9 fE2, we use Eq, (2) to get 4, =1,755/(60)(153.9) = 0.19 A/s tors for gas dispersions become larger with increasing problem size. However, there is a point increase in u, does not significantly influence the agitator size, because the additional gas flow contributes to increased agitation’ and interfacial area Process result for gas dispersion The process result desired in the applications previ- cusly cited is to develop large interfacial contact area. Nomenclature Ay Vessel cross-section area, ft Interfacial surface area per unit volume Impeller diameter, in Gat holdup in the liquid Liguid-film mast-transfer coefficient Shaft length, in Mase-transfer rate per unit volume Prime:mover power, hp Shaft speed, rpm Acration number Number of impellers ‘Actual power requirements for gassed agitator, hp Agitator power (without gas present), hp Liguid-head pressure Pressure at vessel bottom Vapor-space pressure Sparged-gus rate, acfm Sparged-gas rate, scfm Impeller spacing, in Vessel diameter, in Superficial gas velocity, ft/s Ungassed liquid volume, gal Equivalent volume, gal Concentration in liquid at gas interface Concentration in liquid phase Batch depth, in NES STF SOPET PERV ZEREME OS ‘The chemical or biochemical reactions for these systems would be mass-transfer limited without an adequate supply of the reactant from the gas phase. The most common applications for gas dispersion occur when mass transfer from the gas phase to the liquid phase becomes the overall rate-controlling step. The process result could be stated as a mass-transfer or reaction rate limited by a mass-transfer step. The rate equation for mass transfer in’ gasliquid systems was discussed in Part 3 of this series, and is M ately — 42) o In Eq. (4), the driving force, (x — x), is dependent oon the (otal pressure of the systert and relatively inde- pendent of agitation conditions. The liquid-phase transfer coeflicient, fy, is not very sensitive to degres of agitation over the typical range of agitator operation, In practice, the product of the film coefficient and area, kya, is the quantity used for design, because isolating the arca from the film coefficient is practically impossible in agitated gas-liquid systems. ‘The principal function of turbine agitators in gas- dispersion service is to promote large interfacial surface areas per unit volume, ay, of the gas-liquid system. Dynamic response for gas dispersion "The dynamic response is the degree of gas dispersion after emergence from the flooded conditions. As dy- namie response increases, gas bubbles become smaller and more uniformly distributed throughout the liquid, and holdup of gas in the liquid phase increases. “To fully understand the meaning of dynamic re- GTGAT GRFERG FORT TW 39Gas bubbles driven to wesel wall and below impaller the rotating speed of agitetor increases Fig. 2 sponse for gas dispersion, let us review the concepts of gas holdup in the liquid phase, and flooding, First, lt us imagine a iquid-batch config. uration in which the tank diameter, 7; equals the liquid height, Z. Gas at a fixed rate is sparged into the vessel through & sparge ring located just below a six-blade radialflow turbine. Initially, the turbine impeller is not rotated, and. the gas travels to the liquid surface in an expanding plume. The gas bubbles are relatively large and poorly distributed throughout the vessel—particu- larly in the lower portion, Since some interfacial area will be induced by the gas as it rises to the surface, some mass transfer is possible. However, the contents of the vessel would likely be nonuniformly mixed because the only agitation would be provided by the gas sparge. Holding the gas rate fixed, suppose we now start the turbine agitator and slowly inerease its rotational speed. Until some determined minimum speed is reached, the appearance of the gas dispersion will not significantly change. At some point, the speed will be sufficient so that bubbles begin to be dispersed radially by the im- peller, rather than rising up through it. ‘When the gas is aot dispersed radially by the impel- ler, a flooded condition exists, as shown in Fig. 2a. Flooding is overcome when an adequate rotational speed is achieved so that radial dispersion of the bubbles occurs, As the rotational speed is increased, bubbles are riven radially until they lightly impinge on the vessel ‘wall (Fig. 2b). Eventually, they are dispersed and force- fully driven to the wall and below the impeller (Fig. 2c) The fiooding-emengence point for a six-blade radially discharging turbine can be expresed as a function of D/T (ie, impeller dia. to vessel dia.), power per unit volume, and superficial gas velocity. Typical data for an air-water system are plotted in Fig. 3, For accurately predicting flooding in other gas-liquid systems, data specific to those systems would be required. The follow- ing example shows how these data are used: Example 2—Let us determine the prime-mover power required to prevent flooding in a vessel having a 12-ft dia, and containing a 12-ft-deep batch of water into which 475 acim of air will be sparged. We calculate the ungassed liquid volume as: V = (n/4X12)%(12)(7.48) = 10,182 gal Substituting gas velocity: to Eq. (2), we obtain the superficial 475 Sas = 007 His Baw AKIO Fory, = 0.07 fi/s, we obtain the minimum power per 1,000 gal from Fig. 3 for various D/T ratios, and then Process requirements set degree of agitation for gas dispersion : ‘| © Raiiation 9 BE ero naestey 9 Hooded ie lls Not eorrienea CP bree ee ae ‘SMart, iuextaeal ores ois eee dpe buble ten ple 40 SEAT ENTRRRAT TUDE ISCa Powor needed to overcome flooded impeller Fig. 3 ‘multiply each value to reflect the ungassed liquid vol- lume for this example. The results are: Prime-mover Prime-mover Ratio, power, power needed, DIT Inp/,000 gat hp 025, 347 382 03 247 250 04 147 49 05 100 102 Scale of agitation It is convenient to establish a gas-dispersion agitation scale that varies from 1 to 10. In gas dispersion, we define a scale of agitation of zero as any condition producing a flooded impeller. This is not recommended for chemical-process service because the agitation pro- vides little increase in mass transfer over spat Scale-of-agitation levels of 1 t0 10 are by definition not flooded and procuce increasing degrees of gas dis- persion with increasing scale levels, A seale level of 1 indicates low dynamic response, while a seale level of 10 indicates a very large dynamic response. ‘The practical tion of these numbers is that an agitator pro- ducing a scale level of { is a very small agitator for the ‘magnitude ofthe problem, while aa agitator producing a seale value of 10 is a very large unit, The type of gas dispersion that will be produced at various scale levels is shown in Table I. The information in this table is a qualitative description of the degree of gas dispersion. However, scale of agitation is related to fa, for mass transfer. As discussed in Part 3, fa, can be correlated to power per unit volume (NSD2) for'a given geometry and superficial gas velocity; faa, & NOD} (HP ° The scale of agitation for gas dispersion is also pro- portional to power per volume when conditions are far from flooding, Since both fa, and scale of agitation are funetions of power per volume at fixed gas rates, it follows that scale of agitation is approximately propor- tional to the mass-transfer coefficient. The scale of agi- tation is approximately proportional to ky, because the exponents in Eq. (5) vary with agitation intensity to some degree, as well as show variation between different gas-liquid systems. ‘The entire concept is compatible with the photo- graphs of Fig. 2 and qualitative descriptions of Table Because the A, term in ka, is relatively insensitive to agitation intensity, the area per volume is the primary ‘cause of the change in kya, In effect, a better dispersion of the gas to finer bubbles causes an improvement in the measured kya, Selection of agitator drive One of the most useful features of this procedure— tables for various levels of gas dispersion, superficial gas velocity, and equivalent volume—enables the selection of commercially available turbine agitators. Agitator drives are identified in terms of prime-mover power, Hl,» and shaft speed, N. Tables Il and If] are condensed versions listing turbine agitators capable of producing gasdispersion levels ranging from 1 to 10 in equiva- Tent-volume sizes ranging from 750 to 75,000 gal for gas velocities of 0.07 and 0.20 ft/s Prime-mover power in the tables reflects standard sizes of electric motors. Shaft speed results from the use of standard motor speeds in combination with AGMA (American Gear Manufacturets Assn.) ratios ‘At higher levels of gas dispersion, agitator selections become independent of superficial gas velocity and are a function only of equivalent volume. At lower levels, where proximity to flooding affects the degree of gas japersion, the selections are functions of both superfi- ial gas velocity and equivalent volume. ‘The basis for assigning agitator selections to a size- Face pressure, psi Fy Spring pressure, psi Sy Bearing span, in hy can Maximurn torque, io-lb Wr Aanpeller weight, Ib 1%, Blade weight, Ib W, Equivalent weight, Ib tw" Shaft weight, Ib/in 3 Damping ratio, dimensionless S, Static defection, in fm Density of other material, 1b /in? fy Density of ste), bin? &% Allowable shear stes, psi & Allowable tensile stra, ps ble stress values may be extended to other materials by the ratio of yield strengths. Natural frequency of vibration ‘The term natural frequency as applied to vibratory systems deseribes that frequency of vibration at which resonance occurs. The two basic elements of a vibratory system are a mass and a spring. The mass due to its Tocation can have potential energy and due to its veloc- ity can have kinetic energy, The spring is an element that can store energy from, and release it to, the mas Undamped resonance is that frequency of mation at which the total energy of the system is conserved be- tween the two elements, No energy escapes, and no outside energy input is required to sustain the motior “The implication of a two-element vibratory system is that a perpetual-motion machine could be created. Since this would violate the second law of thermody- namics, however, a third element must be introduced forreal systems. This element is referred to as a damper. Its primary funetion is to remove energy from the sys tem, Thenergy is adcied to a system in excess of that diss: pated by the damper, the amplitude of vibration will increase. If the energy addition continues for a period of ‘ime, the amplitude of vibration can exceed that deflee- tion, which brings a machine part to its yield stress. ‘The effect, of operating at or too near the natural frequency can be seen on a displacement/amplification graph: ‘Ampliteaton aio, K ‘ato of opuating to atu Frequency, A given force will produce a given system displace- ment under static conditions, If such a system were excited while approaching its natural frequency, the displacement would increase. The series of curves in the {graph represents different values of the damping ratio, 8. As N/N, approaches 1 along any damping line, K increases. At any N/N,, K increases as damping de- creases, For 8 = 0, K becomes infinite at N/N, = 1. If an agitator with a shaft and a single turbine were turned on its side and assumed to be rigidly supported, wwe could view the system as a cantilever spring with a mass at the free end: ‘Temporarily ignoring the mast of the shat, the static deflection due to gravity is represented by: Ay = WL/3ET © In Eq. (9), the elements that determine the natural frequency are: the magnitudes and locations of concen trated and distributed masses, the modulus of elasticity of the material, and the moment of inertia of the shaft The system will have greater deflection as W and L increase, and less deflection as E and I increase. Less deflection implies greater constraint and a higher natu- ral frequency. A rule of thumb in vibratory systems is that anything that increases the constraint of those clements affecting motion will increase the natural fre- quency. ‘The operating speed of the shaft must be sufficiently far from the system's natural frequency to prevent de- CHEMICAL ENGINEERING AUGUST TS 58fictions that exceed the yield stress. It is recommended that the operating speed of the agitator shaft not exceed 65% of the first lateral natiral frequency of the sys ‘tem—provided that the agitator shaft does not have a static runout greater than 0.003 in/ft, the impellers are statically balanced, the operating specd is less than 100 rpm, and a drive designed for agitator service is used. It is possible to add a stabilizer to @ turbine, as shown here: ‘The effect of the stabilizer is to increase system damping by providing a surface area that opposes the lateral motion of the shaft and turbine. An appropriate increase in damping (6, increased to 5,, a8 shown in the sgraph on p. 102) can keep vibratory displacement con- stant at a higher ratio of N/N,. If the agitator shaft meets the standards previously discussed and stabilizers are added, it is recommended that N not exceed 80% of the first lateral natural frequency. ‘The stabilizer does not provide damping unless the impeller is submerged in the process fluid. When oper- ated in air there is very litle damping, However, in air there are no hydraulic displacement forces. Calculating first lateral frequency To estimate the first lateral natural frequency of a top-entering agitator with an overhung shaft of con stant diameter, we use: N, 0,388 x 10%d?F,,) TVW VE +S In Bq, (6) the terms F, and W, require explanation, ay is a material-propertes factor that corrects Eq, (6) for properties other than those for carbon stecl, and is calculated from: Paby (een) a (2) ‘The term 1, ie the equivalent weight of all dst uted and concentrated weights of the shat and ime pellers, and is calculated from: ©) ome) Fe where Z’ is the distance from the bottom of the lowest turbine to the first bearing in the drive, and £, is the mows nll distance from the bottom of the upper turbines to the first bearing. The first choice of shaft diameter in a natural fre- quency analysis should be the minimum acceptable diameter based on strength calculations. If the natural frequency is too close to the operating speed, the fol- lowing design options are available: 1, Use a stabilizer. This permits operation closer to the system’s natural frequency. 2, Increase the shaft diameter. While this is com- monly done, there are limits to the size of the output shaft available for any agitator drive. 3. Remove unnecessary weight from the turbines. 4. Remove unnecessary shaft weight. Stepping the shaft in multiple-impeller applications, and using hol- low shafts, are common techniques. 5. Shorten the shaft. This is easy to do, but care must be taken not to compromise process performance. 6. Choose a lower horsepower/speed combination. ‘Make certain that scale of agitation is maintained 1. Use a bottom steady-bearing. This increases the system constraint and changes the mode of vibration. Estimating the weight of impellers Before the natural frequency can be calculated, we rust estimate the weight of the turbine impellers. ‘The three most common turbine-impeller styles are shown in Fig. 1. The pitched-blade turbine produces an axial flow pattern that is ideal for blending, motion, and solids suspension, The fla-blade turbines are ideal for gas dispersion, Most turbine impellers are made in these styles because ofthe ease of manufacture, and the availability of materials of construction—even in exotic alloys. For ease of installation, turbine impellers are normally of bolted-blade construction, with an impeller hub that is removable from and keyed to the shaft, a8 shown in Fig, Id. ‘The weight of carbon or stainless-steel turbines with four blades can be estimated by adding the hub weight and the blade weight. We obtain an estimated hub ‘weight from: Shaft Diameter, Hub Weight, in tb 13 10 20 2 25 2B 80 40 35 50 40 © 45 B 30 100 35. 125 60 150 70 200 a0 250 90 300 We caletlate the blade weight for the four blades from: Wy = (0.35D',/NYY* @ ‘Turbine weight for six-blade turbines can be esti- mated by multiplying four-blade turbine weight by 1.3, ‘Turbine weights obtained by this simplified procedure 54 STAT RGR ATT BEBoltedt-blade design facilitates the installation of turbine impellers in agitated vessels 1 are accurate to within 20% of actual weights for tur diameters ranging from 20 to 80 in, Example illustrates procedures Example 2 in Part 4 of this series showed how to select the power/speed combinations to meet a desired process response for pitched-blade turbine agitators ‘The resulting analysis yielded the following hp/xpm sel 7.5/125, 5/100, 5/84 and 3/56. Impeller diameters are 26, 27, 30 and 34 in, respectively. But two fof these combinations are not consistent with the shaft- extension requirements. The following discussion will ‘explain the feason for this: “The vessel, agitators and dimensional relationships for the example are sketched here: The bearing span, S,, and shaft length, L’, to the first bearing are 12in and’ 166 in, respectively. (The shaft length, L, of 156 in is the distance from the end of the shaft to the face of the mounting flange but is not used in this calculation.) We begin the calculations by using the 7.5-hp/125- pm selection, Each of the two turbines will draw one: half of the motor horsepower. Substituting into Eq, (1), we obtain the maximum torque ast Tog x EH68.025) 7.5(63,025) ‘Gimae) = 2125) 2125)" Tamas) = 3582 jnTb And substituting into Eq, (2), the maximum bending moment becomes: 7.5(19,000) Mnae = 3125}26) Myoe = 9546 inet (166 + 87) We now calculate the minimum shaft diameter for shear stress and tensile stress by substituting into Eq, (3) and Eq. (4), respectively, to get: ie VOTRE + OOF 1° arian 6007 J 16(5,546 + V@IB2P + 6.5407] o- (eeo RE OS 10,0007 = Latin To meet the shear and tensile requirements, a 2-in- dia, shaft would be recommended, For the 2-in shaft, wwe estimate the turbine weight by finding the hub weight from the table on p. 103, and the blade weight by substituting into Eq, (8). 201 095(26)%7.8/2) J 1% W = 20 4 14 = 34lb We now calculate the equivalent weight of the system by substituting into Bq. (8) ga( 87), 9.283, (2) W,= (87) , 0.283 , (2) = 76% ' ooo AZ) +8 (2Y'cse 6 Hub weight M, =4b ~~ GHENIGAT INGIRGERING AUGUST HT 55toverted cups Anmuler cup 8. Hydvaulie sat ‘Seals for agitator shafts retain the process environment the agitated vessel where 0.283 tb/in® is the density of steel. ‘The natural frequency of the system can be caleu- lated by substituting into Eq, ( 1 0588 x 10K) _ Oe T6676 V6 + 12 Since the natural frequency of 80 rpm for the shaft and impeller is less than the operating speed of 125 rpm, the 2-in shaft is not acceptable. Repeating these computations for the remaining three selections (5/100, 5/84 and 3/56) will show that a 2-in shaft will be adequate for all combinations from strength criteria. However, only the 3-hp/56-cpm unit will meet the natural frequency guidelines 80pm ‘The typical drive for the power/speed combinations aft diameter Analyses of the four combinations using a of 2, 2Yy-in-dia shaft will show that only the 5/04 and 3/56 units will meet the natural frequency requirements Shaft seals for agitators Shaft scals perform the basic function of isolating the process environment. The four common seal arrange- ments are hydraulic seals, ip seals, compression packing (stuffing box), and mechanical seals, as shown in Fig. 2. ‘These scal arrangements will be discussed in order of increasing cost and performance. ‘The hydraulic seal (Fig, 2a) isthe simplest and least 56. TGRGEAT ERONEERING AGU 90,1575Mee a eo \ S ve Balanced design reduces face pressure on seal Fig. 3 used agitator shaft-seal, An annular cup attached to the process vessel contains liquid that isin contact with an inverted cup attached to the rotating agitator shaft. As pressure builds in the vessel, a liquic-level differential develops. The hydraulic seal, being a noncontact type, has an advantage over other seals. However, this seal is limited to low temperatures and low pressures, and can only handle very small pressure fluctuations, A lip seal (Fig. 2b) can be used on a top-entering agitator as a dust or a vapor seal. The sealing element is a spring-loaded elastomer. Lip seals are relatively inex- pensive, take little space, and install easily. The flange holding the lip seal can be attached integrally to the agitator drive by means of a pedestal. Proper alignment of the agitator shaft and lip seal is necessary to provide an effective seal. The agitator shaft then rotates in continuous contact with the lip seal. Pressure limits of the seal are 2 to $ psi because it operates without lubri- cation. The temperatures must be compatible with the elastomers, In compression packing (Fig. 2c), the sealing element is a braided packing that is compressed between the housing and the agitator shaft by the gland plate and split gland. The lantern ring distributes compress forces and provides a path for lubricants ‘The arrangement shown in Fig. 2c has six rings of packing and is normally used for pressures up to 150 psig. A lighter-duty unit has only three rings of packing and no lantern ring, and handles process pres sures up to 30 psig, Packed seals can be used at high temperatures pro- vided that a compatible material is used. In very-high temperature applications, a cooling jacket around the SREMIEAL ENGINE AUCUST seal housing extends packing life. The flange shown in Fig. 2c is steel with an alloy face and core, which is, resistant to corrosive environments. ‘This assembly can bean integral part of the agitator drive, or an auxiliary seal as shown. Despite externally applied lubricants, and lubricants within the packing, both the packing and the agitator shaft will wear. Shaft wear is low at agitator speeds of les: than 200 rpin. It can be reduced by hard-surfacing and polishing the shaft in the seal Mechanical seals for shafts Mechanical seals are more costly than the other seals discussed for agitators. However, they offer a greatly reduced leakage rate to offset their higher cost, and have 2 maintenance frequency one-half to one-fourth that of compression packings. At pressures greater than 150 psig, a mechanical seal’s leakage and maintenance superiority is so great that the use of compression pack- ing is.rare on agitators. ‘The essential elements for an agitator mechanical scal are shown in Fig. 2d. The retainer contains the springs, primary seal and secondary seal. The retainer, held in place with set screws, rotates 2s a unit with the rotating sleeve. The secondary seal is a stationary sealing ele- ment at the sleeve. The spring along with hydraulic pressure pushes the primary seal ring against the sta- tionary mating ring. Mechanical seals are oriented so that the force of pressure pushes in the same direction as the springs ice the primary-seal ring and mating ring are per- pendicular to this force, the closing force increases as pressure increases. A lubricant provides a thin film TE oT|" Lower! presses SAE Na 100 SAC Ne. 3008 Ennten vet 50% sone syed 20% weer ae = = >moanzen| ryetine Unbalanced-seal prossure limits for Gf agitator shaft ee cnt SAE Ne. Dot SAE No, 200 Ethene cat ‘yethvan ve $eok water Water Giyontice Balanced-seal pressure limits for agitator shatt Fig. 6 between these faces to prevent premature wear, How- ever, if the closing pressure becomes too great, this lubricant can be squeezed from between the seal faces. For higher sealing pressures, the face pressure is re- duced by balancing the mechanical seal. Fig. 3 shows the primary seal against the mating ring for unbalanced and balanced seal arrangements. The balance, is the ratio (expressed as a percentage) of the hydraulic clos- ing area, a,, to the hydraulic opening area, a,. In an unbalanced seal, 6 2 100%, while in a balanced seal, 4 < 100% Seal balance affects face pressure, P, accord. ing to the following equation: F=(P,— Pb - H+ Py (10) For linear pressure drop across the faces, the pressure= gradient factor, &, equals 0.5. ‘The most common arrangement of mechanical seals for turbine agitators, as shown in Fig, 4, has iwo single seals mounted back to back. The lover seal (nearest to the process) is referred to as the inboard seal The upper seal is the outboard seal ‘The graphs of Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 give the pressure and temperature limitations for the mechanical seals shown in Fig. 4. Since face pressure is much higher for the ableant inlet Cartridge mechanical seal is proseurized Fig.7unbalanced seals, pressures are limited by the seal lu- bricant, lubricant temperature and seal size. For bal- anced seals, face pressure is sufficiently reduced so as to climinate the quality of the lubricant as a limiting factor. While the balancing of a inechanical seal will always reduce face pressure, the sleeve must also be stepped (Fig. 4b). The stepped sleeve as well as the balanced seal add significant cost to the agitator. Balanced and unbalanced mechanical seals are mounted in a seal housing (Fig. 7). An external supply of lubricant fills the housing, which is then pressurized from 15 to 25 psig in excess of the maximum process pressure. The inboard seal then seals a pressure differ ‘ence of only 15 to 25 psi, while the outboard seal han- des the total pressure from the atmosphere. This design has been used on turbine agitators for pressures ranging from full vacuum to 5,000 psig. The double-seal arrangement is used on agitators for several reasons: (1) agitator seals most often operate in the vapor space, which supplies no lubrication—this is in contrast with pump seals that are submerged in the process fluid; (2) the lubricant in the seal cavity is usually superior to the lubricating properties of most ‘The Benes ns, #0, Bo Sayan, OF a5401 ie hae a BS. ere eogpesing tom te Untvasty f Dapen, and irs menor process liquids; (3) hazardous materials in process ves- sels ‘can be safely handled because a double seal is pressurized to leak into the vessel rather than out of it A single inboard or outboard seal is sometimes used within an agitator seal housing for lower-pressure ap- plications. ‘Overhung shafts on agitators have dynamic runout. ‘This runout trasmitted up through the mechanical-seal ‘area causes the seal faces to run in 2 nonconcentrie pattern. To minimize this effect, a radial bearing is positioned immediately above the upper seal “The unitized assembly (Fig. 7) that can hold pressure without being installed in the agitator is commonly called a cartridge seal, With the cartridge design, the seal can be replaced without moving the drive or going into the vessel. After a cartridge seal has been removed, ‘a spare one cart be installed and put into operation. ‘The original unit can then have the mechanical seals re- paired or replaced. ‘The authors wish to express their appreciation to the Grane Packing Co., Morton Grove, IIL, for its coopera- tion in:providing design data for mechanical seals, and illustrative material for Fig. 2d, 3, 4, 5 and 6. authors 6. Zale it meshanial Grantors, ne Hea s Bn Gaweniy of ncn and an MBA from Raver Uniercy (Chcionat). GRRTEAL ENGINEERING ADGUET 0, 59@3 pial 8 Cost estimation for turbine agitators Power and speed are the primary factors affecting the cost of turbine agitators. But shaft seals, number of impellers and materials of construction also have a dominant effect on the estimated cost of complete systems. William S. Meyer and Donald. Kime, Chemineer, Inc C1 Cost estimation begins with those turbine agitators that meet acceptable process criteria and have adequate ‘mechanical design. Acceptable process criteria require turbine agitators to produce a scale of agitation consistent with the re- quired process result, size, and difficulty of the agitation problem. We covered these topics for the classifications of blending and motion, solids suspension and gas dis- persion in Parts 4, 5 and 6 of this series.* ‘Adequate mechanical design means that prime- mover power and shaft speed, impeller-system design, and the shaft and seal are mechanically sound and mu: tually compatible. Parts 7 and 8 covered the mechanical- design top The cost-estimation logic that we will follow is shown. in Fig. 1. The objective of this logic is to determine the turbine agitator’s comparative present value (CPV). ‘This will then be used as a measure of the total cost In order to obtain a realistic cost estimate for turbine agitators, we have prepared charts, shown as Fig. 2 and 3, for agitators having wetted parts made of carbon steel and ‘Type 316 stainless steel, respectively. These cost data are useful for determining preliminary esti- mates for turbine agitators, ‘The charts for Fig. 2 and 3 are based on complete units that include motor, drive, shat, stufing-box shaft seal, and turbine impellers. The electric motor sa totally enclosed fan-cooled unit (TEFC) of the appropriate horsepower. The drive unit selected meets the torque and speed requirements. The cost data cover a top- entering agitator configuration, as shown in Fig, 4d of ; rp a Pte Jy 19 "acs rep bs a ng 50H a Part 7. This is the most common top-entering arrange- iment when any type of shaft seal is zequired. Tn both Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, the data also reflect complete agitator units having a single turbine or dual turbines, respee- tively, of the pitched-blade type; and an appropriate shaft diameter and shaft length, Although turbine agitators in excess of 1,000 hp have been installed, our data are restricted to horsepowers of 450 and lest. These are the most frequently occuring applications of such a When cither a mechanical shaft seal or no shaft seal is hia 60 RAAT NTRS PEM,Caran ‘Carbon seo ‘Dual impairs Base index, f= 190.9 for agitators having wetter motor, drive, shaft, stutfing-box shaft ‘and impellers ‘of oarbon steel Include required, a cost addition or deduction is made. These cost adjustments are summarized in Table I In order to be useful, the estimated cost of a turbine agitator must be current. We will use the “equipment, machinery and supports” component of the GHEsIcat Enonsneninc Plant Cost Index* to adjust the data from Fig. 2, Fig. 3 and Table I. The following equation shows how to compute the current estimated cost of a turbine agitator by use of the index numbers: 2, = Rd /h) = RL /1983) “ where P, = current estimated cast of equipment, $5 B, = equipment cost for base period (ic., & = 193.3), $f; = current value of the equipment, machinery and supports component of the Plant Cost Index. Comparative present value ‘The comparative present value (GPY) of a turbine agitator is defined as: the sum of the estimated cost of the agitator, P,; discounted operating costs duc to elec- “this component ain every ie of Cont Eromeenne unde the beading of AN TT a‘Type 318 saines sts! us impeliers Base Index, f= 199.3 _ Bevindee p13, Sie ae Primemover poe, bp pS ee a can er emnereea oon NT 2 8 2 * tric prime-mover power, C,; and shipping, installation and startup costs, F, (OPV) = C++ %y 2 Defined in this manner, the comparative present value is not the true total cost for the agitation equipment. However, it provides a comparative measure of cost $0 that final economic equipment selection can be made. ‘Over 95% of the prime movers used for turbine agita- tors are electric motors, and the principal cost of oper- ating the agitators is the cost of electric power. We will e Co ‘use clectric-power costs as a measure of operating costs ‘To examine these electrie-power costs, we will com- pute the present worth of the yearly power costs, C,, that will be required to operate the agitator over @ period of T years ©, = FSy @ where F, is the discount factor for cash flow that will ‘occur uniformly over a period of T years due to prime- mover power costs, and S,, is the total cash flow for the Tayear period due to power costs.‘Adjustment of cost when stuffing box is oF cr centaced by rechanlo! seal Shnngenont 4) ‘Stuffing Bax replaced, Box inital by mechanical se speie ‘Ada, Stsinios | a ol 4,000 2,100 : aco 2am | camo | 10,700 | 13,900 | ‘The discount factor,* F,, is expressed by: Fos UhXl — 6%) @ where 7, = total number of years, and r= nominal annual interest rate. ‘The total cash flow is expressed by: Sy = TyYp 6 yearly cost of power, $/yr. sly cost of power can be calculated from: ¥, = 0.795440, 6) where 0.745 represents kW /hp; H, is motor horsepower, bhp; 4 is hours of usage, h/yr; and C, is cost of power, $/kWh. For comparative purposes, we will use the value for ‘current power costs, knowing that as this rate increases in future years, the value of C will correspondingly increase. ‘Combining Bq. (3), (#), (5) and (6), we obtain: Cy = O.745(1/Y0 = eFC, ” For example, let us assume a 3-shift/day chemical plant, operating 7,884 h/yr in Dayton, Ohio, where the resent cost of electrical power is 2.16/kWh. Let us calculate the present worth of the power for a 10-hp agitator over an LI-yr periad at an interest rate of 12% ‘The present worth of electric power over the 1!-yr period is obtained by substituting into Eq. (7): ©, = 0.745(1/0,12X 1 — e-©120V(10) x (7,884)(0.021) C, = 87,533 Tn this example, the present worth of electrical power is $753/hp. The same calculation, done for typical electrical rates at other U.S. locations, could be as high a8 $1,000/hp. ‘The third factor in Eq, (2) measures the influences of shipping, installation and startup costs, These costs are normally expected to be a fixed average percentage of where ¥, The y ‘Pet MS. and Timmy K_D, Pant Deg and Eennorie for Cheicl Bngioce” p17, Metin, Now Va, 168 the purchase price of agitators, and are usually about 10%, However, these costs may vary widely for different manufacturers, equipment configurations, and shaft seal designs. A careful engineering analysis of turbine agitators for their installation and maintenance se- quirements is therefore recammended. Example of cost estimation A 5-hp/84-rpm turbine agitator with dual impellers has been found satisfactory from a mechanical design standpoint. The system on which this agitator will be used requires Type 316 stainless steel for the wetted parts (ie,, shaft and impellers), and a cartridge-type mechanical seal. It is anticipated that this agitator will operate 7,884 hy/yr at present power costs of 2.1¢/kWh, ‘The economic evaluation period will be 11 yr; annual interest rate will be 12%; and the current equipment. ‘cost index, J}, at time of purchase will be 210.7. Let us estimate the cost of the complete unit for this service; calculate the discounted. operating costs; and evaluate the shipping, installation and startup costs Finally, let us find the comparative present value. The ‘several calculations and estimates for the 5- hp/8t-xpm dual-turbine agitator are summarized as follows: Estimated current cost Bstimated con (om Fig. 8) 38,800 (Base petiod Jy = 198.3) Shaftseal adjustment (Table D) 2600 ‘Total cost (base period) 3400 Agjustment to curent estimated cost, yh = 210.1/198, Batimated current cost, Py Eq (1) 956 Discounted operating costs, 3765 [Use Ea. (7)} Shipping, installation, startup, 7 ous (Assumed at 10% of F,) Comparative present value from Eq. (2) $13,897 The cost data presented in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 and ‘Table I of this article are useful in determining prelimi- nary estimates for the costs of turbine agitators. Fur- thermore, these data enable estimates to be made for complete agitator systems in cither carbon-steel or stainless-steel construction of the wetted parts ‘The charts of Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 also show how the cost of an agitator having a fixed horsepower decreases with increasing speed of rotation. The reason for this de- crease in cost is that torque is lower at the higher speeds, and the machine becomes progressively smaller. In con- trast, for a fixed rotative speed, the cost will increase with increasing horsepower. ‘The authors ed Sich Rs hs om irom erated a eoald L. Kener ography, ee Chri. Aug 2 8s ‘SHRTERL ENOINEERING SEPTEMBER 317 63CE pals How to use scale-up methods @ for turbine agitators Unusual agitation problems may require experimentation in a small-scale system followed by scale-up to process equipment. Also, proposed changes in process-size agitation systems are readily tested in small-scale units in order to determine final design. Robert R. Rautzen, Robert R. Corpstein and David S. Dickey, Chemineer, Te [1 Scalesup methods for agitation use the results of small-scale tests and duplicate the fluid behavior that is rnecesary 1o achieve equivalent process results in large scale equipment. Because of the diversity of processes requiting agitation scale-up, no single method can han. dle all types of problems Rules for scale-up are developed from various sources including fundamental concepts, dimensional analysis, empirical correlations, and process experience. Numer- ‘ous approaches to scale-up exist, and applying the cor- rect technical concepts «0 carefully chosen test condi- tions should lead to a satisfactory agitator selection i Tae Many of the fundamental concepts of agitation (de- Deoonine oe att veloped in Parts 2 and 5 of this sevies*) can be ap- T plied to scale-up problems. Dimensional analysis (Part 2) identifies ratios of variables that describe forms of similarity. Similarity concepts use physical and mathe ‘matical relationships for comparing the results of agita- tion in differentsize systems. However, similarity pro- vides only a partial answer to scale-up problems ‘Geometric similarity is the most important applica- tion ofthe similarity concept to agitation problems, and also the easiest to understand, When geometric similar- ity is applied to scale-up, the design af process equip: ment is based on the dimensions of a seale model. Ratios of length dimensions such as that for impeller to tanic diameter must be the same regardless of system size, Consequently a tank that is ten times the diameter of the model requives a turbine that is also ten times the Giameter of the original turbine Some of the most difficule problems to resolve in agitation are the specific effects of geometric changes Many uncertainties can be eliminated from scale-up problems by performing small-scale tests in a geomet: ‘Sele expen Cael agar spond Satin Oprrizaton| fine he CE Rarnewenn. Pay, Dec. 9, 19% a ih Baad fab SS pth Bares dp 36 pil Pac fan 81 Foro p ioe Par May 800996 pa Pan Jan 1906 ic av sign procedure for agitator seale-u i soppy By Pa Bug. 26 pit fa 9. Tova | | Design Procedure for agitator scale-up wi 64 TET EEFNomenclature Baffle width, in Clearance off bottom of impeller, in Impeller diameter, in ‘Motor horsepower, hp ‘Agitator speed, rpm Seale-up exponent ‘Agitator power requirement, hp, Scale ratio Specific gravity ‘Tank diameter, in “Tank volume, gal Impeller blade width, in Liquid level, in B c D 4, v P R NETS cally similar system, For this reason, we will use the scale-up procedure described in this article to design large-scale equipment that is based on the performance of a geometrically similar model Mechanical, thermal and chemical similarity can be considered in addition to geometrie simi these requires geometric similarity, and progressively more restritive requirements on ratios of time, forces, temperatures, compositions, ete. A more extensive dis. cussion of similarity can be found in Johnstone and ‘Thing, oF in Churchill? ‘The two most common forms of mechanical similar- ity, discussed in conjunetion with fluid systems, are kinematic and dynamic similarity. Since geometric similarity is assumed, kinematic similarity can be de- fined in terms of ratios of corresponding times or veloci- ‘whichever is more convenient. Dynamic i forces suc requires Axed ration of correspondin inertial, viscous or gravitational forces. In fluid systems, kinematic and dynamic similarity cannot always be achieved at the same time. The seeming conflict be- tween different forms of similarity is onc of the reasons that similarity concepts are often misinterpreted for the scale-up of agitation equipment. Similarity concepts vs. scale-up methods While similarity concepts deal with fixed ratios of quantities, scale-up requirements most often emphasize the actual magnitudes of variables. For instance, kine- matic similarity in agitation is normally defined in terms of ratios of corresponding velocities, This defini- tion is comparable to the dimensionless velocity disti- bution discussed in Part 2, Dimensionless velocity is a ratio with respect to a reference velocity, which is re- lated to the impeller rotation, However, agitator per- formance is more directly related to the actual magai- tude of a fiuid velocity rather than to dimensionless velocity. Thus, the dynamic response used to describe fluid-motion problems in agitation is bulk velocity. In turbulent agitation, the dimensionles-velocity ot nd Ting MW an, Mey oct Chea Erneta see one ‘Grerily SVs “The inept tod Un af Rae Dats The Rate ‘conga Ment, New Fore 14 len Laboratory unit will tst agitator systoms Fig. 2 distribution becomes constant, as shown by fundamen- tal and experimental analyses. A constant dimension- less-velocity distribution means fixed ratios exist be- tween corresponding velocities. Therefore, kinematic similarity occurs with geometric similarity in turbulent agitation. Ifa specific velocity magnitude is required for agitator performance, kinematic similarity is not suffi- ciently restrictive. In order to duplicate a velocity mag nitude within a kinematically similar system, one known velocity must be held constant, such as the tip speed of the impeller in an agitated system. Seale-up methods should not overemphasize arbi- trary forms of similarity. Kinematic or dynamic simi- laity is not essential, since the abjective of scale-up is to duplicate process results. By correctly identifying the uid behavior that is necessary to duplicate a process result, specific scale-up criteria can be established. Scale-up procedure ‘The scale-up procedure follows the steps shown in the flowsheet of Fig. 1. The object of the procedure is to ~ TERT NERC OCTOER TTS 65| ‘Small volume, Vi alent agitation performance Lerge volume, Va select industrially available agitation equipment, based ‘on laboratory or pilot-scale tests. Our discussion of the scale-up procedure will cover the steps leading to ‘equipment selection, ‘Equipment must be carefully selected for laboratory or pilot-scale tests, and must permit direct or indirect observation of the essential agitation effects. Based on the proces: involved, an agitation objective must be established. Typically, the amount of liquid motion, degree of solids suspension, or rate of mass transfer is used as the dynamic response. Pechaps the most important aspect of running a pilot-scale test is “hindsight.” If an agitator design is based on a pilot-scale test, scale-up should result in practical process equipment. Design and redé tions are frequently necessary to achieve this objective. Therefore, scale-up calculations must be performed along with the small-scale test. ‘The equipment for testing agitator requirements must be designed to provide maximum flexibility and accuracy (Fig. 2) A variable-speed drive and several sizes of turbine-impellers are necessary to investigate a range of operating conditions. Accurate measurement of speed and torque or power provides important test data, The vessels for these tests are normally glass or transparent plastic for direct observation of the fluid motion. If at all practical, the actual process liquids, solids and gases should be used. Geometrically similar equipment By definition, geometric similarity fixes the ratio of various lengehs within the agitated system. Such lengths include turbine diameter, tank diarheter, blade width, and liquid level such that the ratios in different scales are equal (see Fig. 3): Dy @ “Thereof geomet mia for eaeup is that a ings sale o,f defines the eatve magn tudes of ti ear monic bene the lage ad sual ae Dr th _ We, _ Be BROW 2 R ‘Turbine selection includes geometric similarity for the type of turbine, blade width, number of blades, impeller diameter, etc ‘Once the scale ratio has established the turbine di- ameter for the large scale, an appropriate “scale-up rule” must be used to determine the agitator speed required to duplicate small-scale results. Geometric similarity provides an important simplification because the speed of the large-scale agitator becomes the princi- pal variable. ‘The size of the large-scale equipment will affect the ‘magnitude of the speed dictated by scale-up. The factor used to adjust small-scale speed to large-scale operation is the scale ratio, as defined in Eq, (2), raised to an ‘exponent, 1 meneame ‘The value of the exponent, 1, is based on theoretical 66 ‘CHEMICAL ENGINEERING OCTOBER TEScale-up.exponent charactorizos the dosired type of agitation in order to determine speed-volume ratios Volume rato, VaiV, and empirical considerations, and depends on the type of agitation problem. ‘The power requirement for the large-scale agitator can now be determined from agitator speed, turbine diameter and fluid properties. Scaling up to standard equipment Almost without exception, scale-up of small-scale data gives nonstandard agitator speeds and nonstand- ard power requirements for the large-scale equipment. The procedure for obtaining standard equipment is to select the unit nearest that calculated directly from scale-up rules. The number of AGMA‘ agitator speeds and standard motor horsepowers is sufficient to closely approximate most levels of agitation, Rarely isthe level of agitation so rigorously defined that a nonstandard agitator is needed, ‘Once a horsepower-and-speed combination is identi fied for standard commercial equipment, the scale-up procedure follows mechanical and economic evalua- tions that are identical to those in Parts 7, 8 and 9 of this series. Scale-up rules ‘A specific scale-up problem can be handled by ap- plying the appropriate “rule.” This “rule” identifies a key agitation parameter that must be held constant Actually, the process result must be held constant, and the agitation parameter only acknowledges some aspect of fluid behavior. In seale-up as in design of agitation systems, dynamic response will be used a a general dessin of agitator behavior fra eategory of peor ‘As indicated in our discusion of the scale-up proce- “American eae Manuictare: An, dure, geometric similarity reduces the scale-up problem, to that of determining the appropriate large-scale speed [see Eq. (8)}. The scale-up rule will determine the scale-up exponent, which in turn reflects the process objectives being held constant. “The scale-up exponent eliminates some mistaken im- pressions often conveyed by other scale-up terminology. ‘Teéms such as “tip speed,” “power per volume” and “torque per volume” imply more generality than justified, These rules usually apply'to geometric sit larity or, at most, to a limited range of geometries Changes in geometric configuration should be han- dled separately from scale changes. Since equivalent volume has been used throughout the design procedure as a measure of the magnitude of the problem, it is convenient 10 use volume ratio 10 determine the scale change. The cube root of the vol- tume ratio is equivalent to the linear scale ratio for geometric similarity: R= (hy V"s @ ‘The ratios of equivalent volume and actual volume shouldbe the same since the density ratio is one, if the actual process materials are used in the small-scale test. For a given sealeaup exponent, the volume ratio can be related directly to a speed ratio. ‘The effects of vol ume ratio on speed ratio for several different exponents are shown in Fig. 4. In general, a decrease in speed with an inerease in volume is both reasonable and practical ‘The typical range for the scale-up exponent in agita- ion is between 2/3 and 1. Even within this relatively narrow range of exponents, fullscale design speeds may cover a wide range, especially with large volume changes. The effect of different scale-up rules will be demonstrated later in this article by an example. STENT ENOREERAG STORE 6Choosing a scale-up exponent ‘The selection of a scale-up exponent is similar to the classification of an agitation problem for the design procedure, Let us examine the significance of the seale- ‘up exponent, 1, in agitation aysteme for: 1 gual liquid motion (x = 1)—Liquid-blending prob- lems characteristic of singlesphate behavior can. nor- rnally be scaled-up on the basis of equivalent Kiquid motion, In an agitated tank, this means that the corre- sponding velocities are approximately equal in both seales 1 Bpual solids suspension (a = 3/4)}—Agitation for a desired level of solids suspension is based on an overall appearance ofthe solid-liquid system, Results of empir- ical correlations have been generalized to apply for most types of solids-uspension problems. Equal mass-srngfer rte (n= 2/3)—Not all scale-up probiems are based on visual observation of the a tion. Problems involving mass transfer between phases may be directly related to turbulence and liquid motion at the interface. Scale-up for the rate of dissolving of solide or mass transfer between liquid phases canbe handled by this rule The only exponent occasionally used for sealexup and not falling within the range between 2/3 and 1 is n= 1/2 for equal surface motion, Equal surface motion is related most often to the formation of a vortex, The depth of the vortex is related by geometric similaity and equal Froude number Equal blend time (1 = 0) is rarely used because ex cessively large equipment is required to hold speed constant in large-scale applications Analyzing the significance of the scale-up exponent for liquid motion (n = 1) will show that similar results, can be obtained if equal tip speed or torque per volume 68 2p a whe mefor Aprsenow, ae ‘Scaled-up horsepower/speed requirement for an agitator system is readily related to. indust is applied to geometrically similar agitation systems For demonstration purposes, equal power per volume with geometric similarity will be showa to be equivalent to a scale-up exponent of two-thirds (ie, m = 2/3) ‘Turbulent-power requirements (constant power num- ber) are proportional o the product of speed cubed and diameter to the fifth power Pa Nope Oo Because geometric similarity holds all length ratios constant, tank dimensions are a fixed multiple of tur- bine diameter. Thus, tank volume is proportional to turbine diameter cubed: va Ds 6 If power per volume, Eq, (7), [from Eq, (5) and (6)] i, held constant in two different size systems (Eq, (8), the agitator speed must change in relation to the turbine diameter: P/V ND? a (yD, = Wy wy Rearranging Eq, (8) demonstrates that this relation- ship is equivalent to a scale-up exponent of two-thieds: By" =nGy"e While small-scale agitator operations can be de- scribed in terms of turbine diameter and agitator speed process equipment is more conveniently specified by horsepower and speed. For most standard-turbine con- figurations, power-number corzelations are available to convert turbine diameter and agitator speed into @ horsepower value for given fluid properties, as discussed in Part 2 ofthis series. Some laboratory equipment (Fig Ny2) x dsigned to provide a torque measurement that can converted to horspower diety from thet cone dion Adjustments to large-scale agitator ‘As emphasized throughout the design procedure, standard specds and standard motor horsepowers are needed for industrially available selections. Normally, these selections provide sufficient diversity for agitation applications. P[denifying the nearest commercially available unit can be easily done by using Fig. 5. The horsepower and speed (calculated by these procedures) is represented by a point somewhere within this grid. Points of intersec tion between vertical and horizontal lines represent available equipment. The intersection nearest the cal- culated horsepower and speed will normally provide equivalent agitation. ‘Some engineering judgment can be used in making the selection of standard equipment since both eco- nomic factors and process results are involved. As an additional guide to making the adjustments for stand- ard equipment, equal torque will give equal liquid ‘motion oF solid suspension over a narrow range. (Equal torque is represented by diagonals running from lower left to upper right on the grids for available equipment in Fig. 5.) Thus, changes to higher speeds are accompa- ied by increased_horsepower requirements, Equal- torque changes rarely alter the size of the agitator drive since gear ratings are related to maximum torque. For equivalent mass transfer, equal power changes are xec- ommended. Final design of the agitator requires @ recheck of turbine diameter for proper loading of the drive motor (sce Part 4 of series), The diameter of a single, pitched Blade turbine under turbulent conditions ean be calew lated from: D; s06(sh He (10) A minor correction to turbine diameter resulting from this calculation will not affect process perform- The final aspect of agitator scale-up is an examina tion of economic alternatives. Advantages may exist for higher or lower speed-and-horsepower combinations Although scale-up of a pilot test gives only one power/ speed combination, rcrunning pilot tests with various size turbines has an equivalent effect to the multiple selections shown in the agitator-design tables (Parts 4, 5 and 6 of series. Design of agitation experiments Geometric similarity isthe starting point for scale-up. ‘Turbine geometry is extremely important, The size of the impeller, as i influences the ratio of impeller diam- eter to tank diameter, may also have a significant effect on performance-—especially with unusual fluids, Pilot- scale tests should not be run with a marine-style propel- ler if the full-scale equipment will be designed with pitched-blade turbine The final process requirements and restrictions must bbe considered! with respect to the tank. For instance, if the full-scale design calls for a 15,000-gal tank and the maximum allowable tank diameter is 12 ft, the liquid level will be about 18 ft, Pilot-scale tests should, there- fore, be run in a tank with a similar liquic-level to tank diameter ratio, ie, 2/T = 1.5. Process procedures should also be examined at the pilot scale. Liquid level applies not only to a full batch but also to a partial batch, For example, an agitator might be operated during either emptying or filing of a tank. Under such conditions, if air incorporation is a problem, the turbine location and shutoff level for the agitator might enter into design considerations ‘Whenever possible an estimate of the desired full- scale equipment should be made prior to testing. Scal- ing the full size down to the small size often reveals an excellent estimate of the initial agitator speed. This scale-down procedure is capable of verifying an agitator design based on either the scale-up or the design proce- dure. ‘The effects of scale can be demonstrated visually by the three turbines shown in Fig; 6a, The smallest tur- bine is the type used in a laboratory-scale test, ie, the equipment in Fig 6b having a capacity of about 5 gal ‘The intermediate size turbine would be used in pilot- scale equipment (Fig. 6c) of approximately 150 gal. A full-scale process tank such as Fig. 6d of approximately 4,000 gal might use the large turbine. Correspondingly larger turbines are used for larger tanks when geometric similarity is maintained. Example for scale-up design ‘The selection of agitation equipment based on scale up of a small unit requires engincering judgment for: # Determining satisfactory test results © Choosing a scale-up rule to duplicate the test per- formance in the large-seale unit ‘An analysis of the effects of different scale-up rules provides important guidance toward achieving rcason- able and economical process objectives Let us suppose that a small-scale tests ran in equip :ment similar to that shown in Fig. 2. Ifthe tank diame- ter and liquid level are both 12 in, the batch volume is approximately 6 gal. A 4+in impeller was found to provide sufficient agitation when operated at 450 rpm. ‘Typical values for the other geometric variables in Sare: ‘Small scale 2 2 6 gal t Bal 4 450 pm. All length dimensions ate in inches. Nz to be determined by scalewup rule ‘An agitator is to be selected 10 provide equivalent performance in a 10,000-gal tank. By using Eq, (4), we determine the scale-up ratio, R, to be about 12: Applying this scale-up ratio to all length dimensions gives the values shown in the preceding GENER ERONEERINS OOTORER DT Cy1, Relative size of turbine agitators ». Laboratory unit (Volume = 5 gal) ©. Pilotscale equipment (Volume ~ 150 gal) 4. Full-seate process tank (Volume * 4,000 gal) Effects of scale require that the size of pitched-blade turbine agitators ‘match the process vessel in which agitation of the fluid system occurs Fig. 6in Etfect of scale-up rules for problem Surface motion 130 2 10 et) ass taneter 88 ” 6 toe 218) Solide suspension 7 9 5 = sia) Liquid motion a8 14 a wen) For blensing-and.motion eiaitication in tovevscosty ‘Hod face Pare of verlehe Note: y= 450 ebm, A= 12. table for the large tank, Geometric similarity immedi- ately establishes the impeller diameter at 48 in. The next step involves applying a scale-up rule to determine the b-scale agitator speed. If equal blend time is selected as the criterion for scale-up, the scale-up exponent in Eq, (3) i¢ zero, and no change in speed occurs for the large-scale equipment. However, in order to operate the 48-in turbine at 450 rpm, a motor of nearly 2,500 hp would be required, ‘Obviously, the few seconds blend time in the small tank cannot be duplicated in practical large equipment For equal surface notion (v= 1/2), the large-scale speed would be 130 rpm, This speed requires about 59 hp. To put these conditions into perspective with the ‘other scale-up rules, a scale of agitation of 10 would be provided by this horsepower and speed for liquid mo- tion in a low-viscosity Aid. Scale-up for equal mass transfer (n = 2/3) requires £86 rpm, and about 17 hp. These conditions correspond 10 a scale of agitation of 6 for liquid motion. Equal solids suspension (n = 3/4) would require 9 hp ‘at 70 rpm based on the scale-up rule. A scale of agita- tion of 5 is provided with this size agitator. Finally, equal liquid motion (w= 1) simply applies the inverse of the scale ratio to the small-scale agitator speed. At 37.5 1pm, less than 14, hp is required co turn the 48-in turbine, and a scale of agitation of 3 is pro- vided. The le R Rate ee appnion ‘Ghemiee ne, FO, Boy 1123 Bayean OH WSi0h ie at w BS. ‘Univers, and na member af ANCA Helpwretyspecatng nnaeon {ejuncmene fre fa trocetng Asummary of the results for different scale-up rules is presented in Table I. ‘The diverging lines in Fig. 4 have a sizeable effect on the agitator selections as the scale change becomes large. Even within the typical scale-up exponents (0 = 2/3 ton = 1) significant differences in the cost and size of the agitator are common, Scale-up is not complete until an equipment selection can be made from test results. If this problem had involved suspending a granular solid material in a viscous liquid in order to dissolve it, liquid motion, suspension and mass-transfer processes are necessary. Liquid motion is required to blend the solute through our the tank, However, liquid motion is easily provided. in the large scale because both solids-suspension and mass-transfer scale-up will increase the level of liquid mation, Provided the rate of dissolving is not erucial, ‘equal mass transfer is not necessary and the solids-sus” pension rule can be applied Direct scale-up showed that the 48.in impeller should be rotated at 70 rpm for equal solids suspension. Motor power, H, can be estimated by rearranging Eq. (10) to give: Hi, = (Dy/394)5,N2 ‘Thus, for Dp = 48 in, S, H, =9 hp for the motor, "We now use the selection chart of Fig. 5 to plot the ‘9hp/70 rpm combination. The closest standard selection is 10 hp at 68 rpm, and this unit will most nearly duplicate the solids-suspension observed in the small- scale equipment. We now calculate the turbine diame- ter from Eq. (10) for the 10 hp/68 rpm unit, and find the actual diameter‘to be slightly greater than 49 in. ‘This minor adjustment to turbine diameter will satis- factorily load the standard equipment, The remaining calculations for shaft and seal selections follow the pro- cedures in Parts 7 and 8 of the series Although the final equipment selection appears rea- sonable for a moderate level of solids suspension, opti- mization might reduce the size and cost of the final ‘equipment. Reducing the off-bottom clearance, Cy, to 3 in. might reduce the size of the agitator required for the same degree of suspension. Also, a larger impeller- diameter to tank-diameter ratio, ic, Dy = 5, may re- duce overall equipment and operating costs. These changes arc readily tested in the small-scale equipment to determine an optima seléstion for dhe large ay 1 and N= 70 rpm, authors Rest R. Corpcin is manager of epee engine for Bech Seale Eikipment Cx lnidary of Chemincer, ea" Bt'haea Ch fom the Unset of Dayton, Me Conpacin rege poten exper a Oh | MEN neta of Aicke™ Davi. Dickey For Biosapy, se Chen Bag, Jan’, 1970, pH upial Applications analysis for turbine agitators | Step-by-step evaluation of a process using agitator-equipped vessels illustrates how to design equipment for increased capacity by using scale-up methods or the desired process response. ‘Richard W. Hicks and David S. Dickey, Chemineer, int. * D7 Analysis of similar applications often can determine the agitation requirements for a process. The details of a specific process rarcly affect the basic requirements for agitation. Thus, bulk-polymerization reactors, fer~ menters, lime-storage tanks, etc, can be treated as classes of agitation problems, The primary variable, scale of agitation, and other design criteria can be assigned to each class. ‘The process design engineer usually knows the most about the agitation level required for a given procest. ‘Understanding how to convert the information about previous experience into a design for new equipment can be valuable. Our emphasis in this article will be to discuss some of the methods for using process experience to design agitation equipment, Application analysis shows how to evaluate process and’ mechanical experience. Process evaluation in- cludes: general process-performance, fluid-properties and agitator-design characteristics. Mechanical evalus- tion includes the performance of: prime mover and drive, shaft-and-impeller system, and seals, as well as support or installation considerations. Other guidelines, however, should be weighed against previous process experience. Just because an existing agitator performs the process fuétion docs not mean that the design cannot be improved, Existing agitators should be compared to the selections indicated by the design procedure to determine the scale of agitation, Engineering judgmient is essential to evaluate such ‘comparisons and fo reassess the agitation requirements. ‘Since redesign of process equipment frequently in- volves increased capacity, scale-up techniques can be used. Also, the fundamental correlations provide com= paritons for process performance such as heat transfer and blend time. Applications analyals involves aspects of the agitator design procedure (Parts 4, 5, and 6 of this series), process scale-up (Part 10), and agitation fundamentals (Parts 2 and 3), Process evaluation of agitation “he ejetves ef prose salvation aero nprve ‘an existing process or develop new equipment for a similar process. However, existing equipment should be evaluated for process performance and economical pcuton ‘Atri quien eos eg toe the elnis) ld be nay oie determine possible improvements. Unfortunately, not all agitator systems perform at ‘optimum conditions. Frequently, minor changes in an. ‘agitator configuration can be made to improve process performance. Replacing or extending the blades on an Brdetoedl ater Secretly wince performance, Inadequate baffies or incorrect baffle placement can cause inefficient operation, ‘A variety of reasons may exist for the replacement of au boner Inne apes o Speco snow agit? ay bs ory inexpensive process change to improve overall perform- ance. Many chemical undergo an evolution- ary phase following initial design, Several minor process changes may accumulate until a major change in agita- tion level is necessary. ‘When a new process is being designed, an opportu- nity exists to examine alternatives and perform 4 degree of optimization, One of the first steps in rédesigning a given process should invalve @ thorough evaluation of Shit recess Applying the basic design methods described in Parts 4,5, and 6 of the series will always be helpful in devel- ing proper agitation for a new process, Even if the objective is to duplicate existing equipment, reevalua- tion of agitator design may reveal “underagitated or *etpne tenance Bh Hn ins Sa eateeratcs aS: 2 TSHNTAL RGNERNG ROVER TT