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    CD Introduction Intonaval Mechanical Engineering Dat PT Acreditare Kazahstan PDF

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    CONSTANTZA MARITIME UNIVERSITY INTRODUCTION INTO NAVAL-MECHANICAL ENGINEERING NAVAL ARCHITECT AND MARINE ENGINEER JORDAN NOVAC PH.D. 2011 CONTENTS 1. THE Basics 7 1a Genera 7 1.2 Buoyaney and Displacement 7 113 Defining the Snip Geomeny a 1.3.4 Detning the Length ° 182 Datning the Tansverse Section 10 1.33. Gootfeens of Fineness uM 14 eas and vowumes. 13 15 Moments “4 454 Second Moments 18 152. Moments of Volume 15 1.8 Approximate ntogration 18 17 Spreadsheots 19 118 Contes of Granty and Buoyancy 22 18.4 Conte of Gawty 22 4182 Conte of euoyancy 24 1.9 The Taio of Ofeots 25 2 RAUGHTS 2% 24 The Metscontie Diagram 25 22 Hyetostaie Curves 20 221 Tonnes Per Cantimate immersion (TPC) ra 2.22 Moment io Change Tim One Mats (MCT) 31 23 Woighs = 24 Finding a Ship's Oraughts 33 25. Fore and Aft Movement of Weight 4 25 Adding Weight 24 3. STABILITY 7 3.1 Wanaverse Stability, Smal Angles a 32 The Matacentie Bagram “0 33. Tanaveree Stbliy, Large Anges “0 34 Cross Cures of Stabity a1 35 The GZ Cure or Curve of Statea Siabity at 37 Suspendes Weignts “0 38 Liquid Foe Surfaces 44 38 Siabity when Docking 45 3.10 Stabity on Grounding 46 311 Longusinal Stay 46 8.12 The incining Experment ar 3.121 Precaution o Ensure an Accurate Result 48 3.13 Stebity Siandares 49 STRENGTH. st 41 Structure Falture 51 42 Skesses and Stainein a Stucture 43. —_Longtudnal Strength, Bencing inthe Vorteal Plane 44 Stestes trom the Bonding Momens 45 Superstuctres 4.5 Horizontal Bending 47 Torsional Svengt 48 Taneveree Sanath 49° Loca Svength 410 Stress Concentations and Buin Stresses 41 Fatgue 412° Fracture 413. High Tense Steals 414 In Service 416 Visation and Noise Beeeseebebaken 5. SAFETY or 51 General ot 52. Inlernaonal Martine Organization (MO) 2 53 National Bias 83 54 Sabily when Damages 63 55 Subdivision 87 5.0 Floossbe Lengtn| o7 537 Load Line Reguitione 58 58° Managing Risk sa 5.8.1 Formal Sally Assessment (FSA) 69 50. Fre 70 510 Lie-saving n 6 computers n 61 Genera! 7 62 Markime-Related Appications 73 63. Expert Systems m4 84 Communicating ntrmaton 74 7. DESIGN 6 7. Goneral Sip Perormance Requirements 7 72 Powerg 78 73. Seakoeping 78 74 Manoouvebiiy 0 ‘The Appoarance and Characters of Dilerent Ship Types a1 78 Container Ships 83 Glossary oF TERMS 85 BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS eo BIBLOGRAPHY 8 ‘SOLUTIONS TO THE SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 100 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT 105 APPENDIX 107 LEARNING OUTCOMES _Aitoc completing this chapter you wil have an understanding of + the conceps of buoyancy and cepiacement of freely Hoang ‘+ the means by which a ship form can be defined + some overall measure that give a general nscaton of he form characterises; and “+ how the buoyancy can be calculated andthe centre of toyancy and centre of graviy ofthe whale sip determined and ‘+ methods of approximate integration ‘A lump of seal placed ia bucket of water wil snk quick tothe bottom. How ‘sitihon ha a soe! ship can foal? Since 1 early does, other questions Tobe + Atwhat raughts wilt Hat? That i, how much ofthe ship wil be below + How wilh draughts change wih dierent casing constion of the sip? ship wil ot upg ins water? 1+ Walt overt in rough weather? These fundamental questions wil be dea with nthe fst few chapors of his BUOYANCY AND DISPLACEMENT 1. THE BASICS ody 3A GENERAL 4.006 water? 4.007 module 12 4.008 Iwas Archimedes who fst eases, an “eureka” moment, that a Body thats Immersed completly water wil caplace a volume of ater equa othe v0 lume oe Dody an that tne apparent weight af the body, when mmersed, wl be reauced by the woh of water cela he body wg ac he weight of volume of water equal tots own volume, then i wil nk become Immersed completely. It wil feat wth part of KS own volume abewe te water surface such that the weight ofthe displaced water equa the weight ofthe body. Thus a body eatng reey in water (se Figure 11), willbe acted upon by Tore duo tothe water pressure at each pont oft welled surace. 4-009 The resultant of hese fores willbe an upward forco equal to tho weight of the aor cgpiaced bythe body. Thi et bodys deplacement. oan cenated by ‘he symbol. tthe water deny sp then the pressure acing upon a smal ea {A abe phan the force wil be pbk. By nagrating over te ole othe ws tod surface tha total ove on the body i SpA = pV where Vs the voume of tho boay below water (eles the volume of cisplacement. This fatal ores Is \exmed te buoyancy free, o: simply the buoyancy. Fo equloium this orc must act voreally 28 any resutant Noraontal force would cause the body 0 ‘ove in tho direction ofthat resultant Also fx equbrum the buoyancy foxes ‘ust be equal and opposte tothe weight ofthe body. It were not the Body ould move up oF dawn. The two foess must act nthe same ine othaniss ‘here would exist a memant causing the body treat, Anoer way of ooking lal this isto consider the body removed ana replaced bya volume of ator, eu founded by a weights membrane ofthe same shape asthe body's dr {or form. The wale srtac wil be horizontal andthe fore en the membrane ‘il support the waigt of water wievn, 13 DEFINING THE stip GEOMETRY 4010 As wih any engineering product, precision s nacessary in defining the goome- tty of snp. In common wih most dscplines an ntematonaly recognised ter ‘minology has grown up over th years to ald this detiiion. Some of he terms wil be unamiirto those coming new to shipping. Oters wil be fair From ‘veryday usage but they may have avory presse meaning in navel araiectre, 4011 Achipshulis three dmencional and, aa is usually the case, itis assumed here to’ symmetical about ts micas Ine pane, Tha shape is delied by ts intr ‘soctons wih trae mutualyocthogonal panes. he intersections wth horzontl Blanes, known 36 watorplanes whether below or above water, are know’ a8 ‘water lines. Toco wh the sinva‘iships planes deine the tranaverse s6¢~ tions ofthe hull and planes paral to the mig ne pane lad ta wha are termed bow and buttock lines, which noip ho designer visuaige tne ow of warer Ino tne propatos ana rucder. These nersectons can be used "0 lp air the nul form. The hulls fair won athe navi Une ar fai and yaa aor ‘mutually compatbie. That is, the distances tom the centering plane are the Same in each view. The extemal hl shape can be detined by these stancas (Caled offsets) f the hl suace from tne oentaine plane al each varioverse Each ogo is normal to the centring plane Dofining the Length ‘Thor ae thre lengins common ered to + Length on the watering, Ly This wl vary withthe draught at which a ships floating bu unoss Stierwse specie, shouts be taken a8 the length on te design waterine, usualy the summer oad waterine. + Longin between perpendicular, Lge. The fore perpendicular is @ vert {alin atthe intersection of the bow itn the summer ied water, Th ‘er perpendicular s ating through some convenient point a, usualy through tne udder pint. The paint midway between he perpendlcuars un 3 amidships. ie Figure 1.2- Detiing the Ship Form 44013 The upper deck oten rises towards the ends a he ship to make the ship oir in waves. This rao is krown as sheer, 1.32 Defining the Transverse Section ‘utes, 4.014 Figure +5 shows typical crose-sections ofa ship near amides and near the ow. The main features ofa ansverse secon ao the beam and depth o ul ‘The beam sine maximum wiath of he ship st any pont along ts long, For ‘many purposes, tn figure quoted is the with on the cesign waterne at amc ships, thal is the mé:port between the fore and aft perpondiculars. The ‘extreme breadth is usualy greater and occurs at the upper cece The depth of the ship isthe vertical stance Detyeen the Kae and he Upper cack the main hl moulded beam o° pth are reared te, these cmensions wil be lo tho inside rather than he outside of the plating. Other fates To Be led in Fire 15 are “+ Tre upper, weather, decks curved go ha any water wl cain othe sides, ‘The amount by which the conte ofthe deck e above tha side le known ‘ne camber. Ovcke ultras the wester deck uu nave no came, ‘38 sot having one icles construction, 4015 4016 +The beam at the deck may be less than that at the waerine, The fence is termed the tumble home: he bear a he Gack roster than tat at the watering the diterence is eld be the re + Th botiom of the nut may fs fam the keel © the turn of ig. THs so |S alles he rie of loa. “+The dstance ofthe deck a sie above the watering is known asthe free- ‘board. Tho greater he treabear he great the our of he hul above vale Assuming tis volume fs wateright, It represents a reserve of ‘buoyancy shoul the ship ake on extra wags or lose buoyancy om he CCoaticlents of Fineness ‘Te overall dimension af length, breach ana craught determine whether a ship can use a given ary dock or nagotate a spociic canal or harbour Als a tae Clafsels can accurately detine the hl shape. However, neither el of data pro ‘vidos an immediate fel ofthe main charecersties of hel shape, Row “tur is. Tore aro some “coecients whieh canbe obaines lr te underwa ter hull which provide clues as tots general nature and ls taly behaviour a 0a. They are dorved by relating ceria areas and volumes to Melt eum: Sing rectangles or pgm. Ths costiiens are known as th coeticents of fineness I v Is the velume of displacement A Is the watorplana ara: Me Is he underaater area of he migehip sation and LB andT are th length, beam an eraught ‘Then the cooteions of fnenaes are defined as follows! Bek costco, Cy = vast Waterpane cootisent, Cie - AaB Massip area coeticent, Cy, - Ager Horizont prismatic cotfcent. Cy vg Vertcal prismatic cooiciont, yp = WAT so17 lowe 1.8 Coetcents of Finess In comparing values ofthese cetientsbelweon ship iis importante ensure thal ho same definitions of, Band are used. Usualy Ls he lengh between porpondiculars excopt forthe waterplane coatient whee the length on water linet taken. B is usualy te maximum beam which may be great: than Pa a the walerine amidships T usualy the mean draught between prpencculas ‘Also, usualy, an are taken ae detning the extemal hus Bl sometimes ‘moulded dimensions ae used, tal sto the inside ofthe plating. The external hull mensions nelp to golornie the bonavour of @ ship in vesponng fo the thrust ofthe props, fo wsves and othe movements of conto suteess, uh as rudars and stsbisers The moulded dmansions ait in oking the nal ‘volume avaiable for equipment. accommodation and cargo, EXAMPLE {A ship of ong 150 m and beam 18.m oats t 8 mean eraught of ‘7Smuhen in wator of density 1025 tnnesi Assuming er beck coafcient is 0.5 and her watorpane cooficlent of tneness & 06, Caleulate he ship's aisplacement and her approcmate caught when Itntore water of 1.015 tonnesin?. SOLUTION Volume of cicumserbing rectangular soud= 150% 18 7.520.250 n° Volume of esplacoment = 0.5 > 20250 = 10.125 m? Hence dspacoment = 10,125 x 1.025 = ‘The wntepinnn sens = 08 150% 18 10378 tonnes In the loss dense watsr the ship must csplace more water to produce & ‘buoyancy free equal to ts weight. "Now volume in he lass dense water = 10:578/%.015 = 10,225 mi ‘The ship wil sink nthe water to compensate forthe added volume Added volume = 10,226 ~ 10.128 = 100m? Sinkage = 1001620 ~ 6.17 em New draught is approximately 758 m SELFASSESSMENT QUESTION 1 A chip nasa lang of 158 m, a beam of 17 m anc a eraught of 6.75 witha dspacoment of 10,000 tonnes and an mmersed mship Soction area of 104 m®. Assuming a water donsty of 1.025 tonnes per {ubie metre, ne the Bleck, longtucnal prismatic and midship-scton oetiions, 1.4 AREAS AND VOLUMES 4-018 tis cloartnatio define ship's main fates, ts nocossary to calculate a num. ber of aroas and values. Mase are Needed also to culate to woh of ‘decks and bukhoads oo calculate the vlume of anks carving quid. These ‘fens or volumes may be symmetical about central ine oe plane, 9 which ‘ase he value o hal canbe calculated andthe answer dowoied o ive the ol fa7ea or volume, This device can simpy tha arthmate othe calculation 4019 Toke a shape, such as that shown in Figura 1.7. A genaral shape is shown, though ship type shapes wil tend to be more regula 4.000 402 18 088 “The area of th shaded laments yp ~ yx ‘Tho area within the curve is btained by uring al the elements between the ‘Ara = Sly, ~ yx the sum being over he stance x, 10 ‘This is simpy a convenient mathematical way of saying thatthe ota area is he sum oa eloronts such a tal shown shaded te gure. Lotus now considera typical ship waterpane. Genel it wil be symmetrical about tne ceietine ofthe ship. One ha of such a waterplane can be repre Senied by 8 sores of ordinates, y, normal to the cenfelne ae shown 1 Figure 18 — a I Fotoning tho ganeral area calculaon above, the aren defied by al the or- nates willbe given by a summation ofa lage eumber of shaded element ‘Area 36x, remomberng to double he result forthe whole waterplane ‘Volumes of a trse-dimonsional body can be calculated inthe same way except ‘atin this case a umber of slows are taken trough th Body tho aoa of 8 ices Aandisthekness i x, then the volums ol he die, epresened bythe ice, fA 8x and he total vokome of he body ls given Oy Volume = 3 Aix, where the summation is eared out over the range of x occu ed oy the booy. ‘Again this s merely stating thatthe total volume of @ body wil be the sum of & large number oft stews taxen though he bod, MOMENTS Besides te area of a plane feu, is necessary to estabish ts canis of sea. Ifthe pane area wore a uniorm tel pat, sty, tne cetie woul bo the one of grauay of te ite. to find ine canals raques the st orion Ot ‘7ea abou he wo principal axes, Ox nd Oy 4.008 4.005 4008 154 4027 12 4.008 4.028 16 Returning o Fig 17, the lavas forthe shaded area are x about Oy sn (ye #712 abot Ox. That i, the lover the cstance fom the ax ote can {feof he area, Hance, the fst moments of rea wl be About Ox = ye ~ ye * M2 ‘About Oy = ye ~ yx For the waterpiane in Figure 1.8, the feet moments of area for he half water Plane ae ‘About Ox = Sy(/2 ‘About Oy = Sy ‘The canto ofthe waterplane an be found by diving th otal mement about c25c8 aus by the area Fora waerpiane, this convo Is known as he centre of flotation (CF). Fora symnmeticl waterpane, the CF wal ie on Ine centiline For mest sp forms, the CF les af at aman. 12) 39° ax Second Moments “The second momentr, ae tis oten called hs neta of a warplane is needed in caleulatons to establish how slab a ship I. The second memont of area Is ‘btained by muliping th emai ares elements bythe square oft aver The Sens asked to aceept this and shoud a roo af th, and information on cal ‘xiating the second moment, be required relerence should Bo mad fo a ext oot on naval retest Moments of Volume ‘Moments of volume canbe calculated in a simiar way othe moments of ares. Ina sice dating ino coss-socton ofthe tres dimensional body i dtant x from the rau, the moment of he sce about the yan wl be Moment = Axe “The total moment ofthe Body about Oy i obisined by summation Total moment = be “Tho contol ofthe volume is obiines by diving the tial moment by the ta volume. In ganeral te define ie cenoié poston, thre distances ae mended — those rom the tse axes since we ar dealing wih a thre-amensional ad. [APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION ‘Te summation of smal slamentso produce a total ares, wokume ox moments ‘oom ag intgraton In practi ts enventen 10 use approximate methods of Integration, iat 6 summation, whch nave been develepes. The most common 4031 4.092 of hse are Simpson's Rules, which use evenly spaced ordinates 10 define & {ue wah an ornate at each end af the curv, These rules sat hat: the ares i ‘Area = hiy, ~ 4, +8 where his the spacing between ordinates, hat {She cune extonas over a stance 20 + forfour ovinates, the area i ‘rea = Shy, + yg + 9, + yg the area extending over a length 3h ‘+ when here are thee ordinates, yy, yg and yy the area between y, and ves ‘Area = 5p, + By ~ ysv¥2 Wile the vay of these nes can be estabishes mathematical, this i not appropriate for his module and the stucent is asked to accept tat ths possi. Tho numbers 1,1 ar 13.3.1 eto by which te ordinates (hey valves) fre mutipied in tec forma are nw aa Simpsons mutes (8) The Value of he constant mutipying "han be checked by applying the appropri formula to simple retangl. Thus, Ifthe rectangle is T hgh and 2 long {the mterval""DengL), the areas 2 andthe muliying aco sc where or the tate} BLT = oL(T + 4 +1) = 6c and hence © = 13 Inthe same way, applying tne §8,~1 sue ta ha he rectangle Ur ~ ol(ot + eT T= 12etT ange ~ Whe ‘Wath the fst two rules, the moments about an axis paral to the ornate can be cbiained by mulipiing each ornate by a lover reprasening ts astance ftemtne ais about wesen moments are neeced Inthe cage ofa wateplana, this is usually amisnips. For a symmetrical watrpiane, frst moments are not sed about a ore and at axa the central wil aon the centeine. Unie the fst two rules, the Ind cannot be use far moment. The corresponding ‘moment rulo sales tat when Here are three ontes, yyy and yy, the ‘moment ofthe area between ¥, andy abt ys Moment ~ ney, + 104, ~ 924 lew sometimes be necessary o combine wo of he Simpson rules depending ‘upon te numberof orinaas This can be dave by separate caleuatons. Often Shp type cures, for examplo sraterinas, have grater curvature towards the ‘ods and its desirabo to nvoduee itermedata ordinates fo dain ern more ‘accurately Ths ean be done by agusting to matipters to eu. Oten slo. braces, tho orinates detine the nu bawoon tha parpandlars (ace late) here wi bea small area of watepian a ofthe atermest ornate In such Eases, the main area and momen at calewated and then seaone mae for ‘he small adeona! area, 4.003 ‘These rues can bo extended to any odd or oven number of ordinates by suosessveappleations. Ths, or seven erates ho, +i 8 ‘Aes between yy andy, = yy + 4y4 +98 ‘rea between yo, andy, — Ys + AY + 98 Thus the total area is Ny, + AY, +215 + 45 12% + yg VV SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION 2 Extend the Simpson Resto cover 10 adnates using he 1,331 ul and dedies a ue forthe umber of ordinates for wn fan be ued, For thee ercnates apply the 8.8,~1 uot the areas between y, and Yy_ and thon othe area between y, and y, 1 show that he ttal area I cord wi he 1.4.1 Ful ‘Te samo principles can be applies to moment calculations. The calculations aro best done tabla form ae iutrated nthe flowing example EXAMPLE the area between the curve defined by the ordinates blon and tho saight ine forming the ax Find the fet moments of area about tho basaline Ox ana about etre ona (Oy). ive Che eee ft ce ym 2 8 4 45 4 9 2 Calculations are now catiog oui abu form in Table 1.1, ai ram | ww | we) 7 oo | of efi: |e | o | «| w | 2 2 [se [« [we | 2 |» | 10 | wo + [so fe |e [+ | % | 2 | re 8 “ao | 2 8 « 2.00 60 il [al | 2 le pe fo pe | — ] = m wes 4005 inti table: = Speen mute: Fh) = Funston fw The the nk is may 9 ata may of Sing tale nae ne so a elo oa F(A, = Futon lt mantra about Ox F(A, = Funct ft man of rea abot Oy 44086 Aon the Simpson le: ‘Aroa under curve = 2 x 62 x 1 = 124/9 = 41.39 mt “Tho figure 2 relat the fact that he orinates are 2m apart i. isthe sum ofthe valuos of F(A) and he 13 he Simson muti 2) tho 62 4097 4.038 4.039 17 4040 Fist moment of rea about Oy = 2 $72 % 13 = 248 a? Distance o eto rom Oy = 372162 = 6 m Its pradent o check thase answers wih what one would expect. The average Grdnate seems tobe about 38 so the area should be. about 1235 ~ 40.8. The aoe is symmatial aout the mide odnate so the canta should be hal way along, Distance of conto trom Ox = 112.5162 = 1.81 m Inthe above exampla, the area considered ay on one sie a the a-axis the Typical watonsane cacuaton, the ornates woul be Naf rdnaes represent. ing one ha o the waterplane Int ease, the fgures derives rom the table ‘would need fo be doubled fr the compote waterplane andthe total moment bout Ox wil be 2e°0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION 3 ‘A curve is deine by he flowing ordinates, y, spaced 3 mates apart eo) tc) eer ete ee arr ee ee eet 0) reo Fd he area between the curve and he xan by using Smpaons 1 £33, Tule to find the area rom x= Dax = 9, and he 1, tle oe the aren ftom x= tox = 2 Ie wil bo realised that any regular shape can be dudes y 8 stagh! ine and the areas and moments calculated foreach par of tne shape, en the wo ices ‘ofthe line, snd the resus combine, Volumes ofa body can be foun by sectioning the body a equa intra, ca culating the area of each section and than applying appronmst integration methods toting the volume from the areas, Fora ship's ul the walerplanes and te transverse sections provide conversent areas for caluling the volume of eplacement ‘SPREADSHEETS. ‘Most students wil be familiar wt the use of compute’ spreadsnees, probably term of heros Exc The Use of @spresashaa Is MMsated nN AMD below. Calezate the area ang the conte of Rotation of the wateriene ‘eles by he folowing hal ordinates, The ocinate are nubered liom he Bow af and are 10 males apa. od 1 2 3 4 85 6 7 8 9 wH 040 446 9.30 1248 1400 145 1422 13.54 1202 8.00 0.10 ‘SOLUTION 1 8 8 ceo) E F 2 Staton HallOrdy SM F(Avas) Lover ——FMoment) a a0 6 oS 950 a2 men eS re ere] om = 2am 3k 84 as 4 tsp 2 tt 7 5 wo 802d 2800 oars) igo ee atenanl a (c) (0.00 oF 20 2 bas 20a wo 8 1350 4 Sat 21082 ie py of oy 2 ese 2 0 00 4 = 8200412800 Bon om |} 050 35 Totals are 23.40 18 7 18 Ava 207146 19 3590.00 2 “2.008 4081 4082 4.089 In constucting the eolumas A.B, © and E would be tiled in manually onthe Excel shoe. The liguein Cal 03s obtainec by the nstuction "= BSCS", wih fut te quotas Othe cel in Column 0 falas The gure Gel Fla obtained bythe struction "= OS"ES" andthe other cats Columa F tolow. The laters B,C ete ate lop of he lable, and the numbers down the efchand ice of the able wl not be print out by the computer. ‘Once a tompate has been prosuced for ono st of ortnaes, it can easy bo tsed for oer sets without Raving oo trough the effort of seting out al the Insretions Felorring to Taio 1.2 ‘The tts area = 2 x 10% 31072 x 119 = 2071.5? “The 2 fo he two sides of he ship and he 10s the ordinate spacing Fist moment about midships = 2% 10 x 10 x (-8840) 1 = 5 560m “The second 10s invoduced because the arate has been simpiie in he tabla by using levers 1, 2,3 et ater than 10,20, 30 ete ‘The nagatve sign ndeates tha! he CF isa of amidships. Cente of otation rom amigships = 658012.071.5 = 268 m From syrnmety, i wa be onthe contratine, ‘The above cervations can also be cblained from a template by nominating an _approprate cl andthe coxesponding insivcton In ths table above th gues have boon placed in Calls F610 F20. ‘Suppose ere had been a smal aro of 10 square metres (ttl of two areas {each 5 square mates each sido of tho contreine) afte last ordnat with ts Centroid $m ft of telat ornate In that ease: ‘Total waorplane area = 2071.5 + 10 = 2,001.5 mé? ‘The contoid ofthe smal area ao amidships = 5 < 10+ 9 = 53m 6,090 m? ‘The CF of tls! WP af of amidships = 6,000/2.081.8 = 2.98 m Total moment at of amicships = 5,560 + 10 « 59 tw be note tet he smat area af hac a measurabe eect onthe CF poston. \Winere there are large numbers of ordinate, andthe calculations have to be done manual, the aint in tho table can singled by halving each ‘Simpson muti and ten dowsing th ral summations so ha A= NBR BY + Yp oo Bly + VOY Ad 18 4044 4.006 087 048 ‘A rough check onthe tigue obained should ensure thal the oubling has not been fxgoten.n al caleuatons of rea of waterlanca, is wise to chook the answer cblained by assessing an average beam and multpying by the engin oh the wstarin. I the utarplane is detines by Ral-orsnates tis must Bo Sioned ter ‘CENTRES OF GRAVITY AND BUOYANCY Fundamental to determining the draughs at which a ship wil lost, and its ‘abil, ia knowledge ofthe locations ofthe overall cones of gravy and ‘buoyancy To determine the conte of gravity (eq. tho ship Is spt ino alge ‘umber af indvidval weights, ho sum of which wil be is fal weight and hance {ha espiacement. The distance of the oy ofthe ship Wom ary ase (or plane) founa by acsing the moments of al the inde! woighs bout that 2x (erplane) and civing by tne otal weight in fe sare way, fin te cote of buayancy (6b). the otal spiced volume i split into a large numberof smal ‘olumecr he moments ofthese Indu! volumes abot any ans are obained ‘by multpying each by ts cistance from thal ax the moments are added Up and the sums dived by the tea volume Contre of Gravity Inthe simp case of two concentrated weights, wan, the combined conte ‘ot gravity (9) wl fe on the ine jening ne two weighs (ex more preisly tt 98) and ts distance fom w, wl be ge (4, + wi) whore sth cstance betwen the two weights ‘This can bo gonoralsed to give tho distance of the combined eg tom an rary potion the ine 98 gen by omy mgd Hm #9) where x, and xy aro the distances of he nav! weighs tom the arbitrary pot ‘The same principle canbe extended to cover any number of weighs in the same straight ina. Irth weight are nol ina singe ine tare in the same pane, te ‘veal og ean be found oiatve to a par of orhoganal axes by taking moments About hose axa. weights are sited in vee dmensine the moments ‘must be taken about tee arthogonal axes, Fora ship, the thee axes ar ton a5 vertical (ax) fore an alt x-axis) and traneverse (aus) wih an orignal the keel amideipe. Thus, the reaulant positon along the 2axs gues he vrtcal og the KG value, the cietance of the {9 above ha kel. Since the hulle syrmottzal about tha centres pane the ‘veri og must i aha plane I the ship 10 Rat upig. EXAMPLE ‘board weiging kg ie 4 m ong ane 2 m wide, Weighs of 2.9, 4, 5,6 and 7 kg are placed onthe boare such ha hor stances fom tho short odge aa 0.5, 1.0, 15,2.0,2.5 anc 3 m anc their distances trom the long edge a76 0.2, 0:4 08,08, 1.0 and 1.2m ropectvely. Fin th tla weight ofthe board with the weights added and he positon a the conve of gravy ofthe whale SOLUTION “The solion i bast eet oun tabular form, T Weight | bist trom | foment | st rom | Moment "is)" | Shor’ Edge About Short Long Edge |About Long om) age gsm) | (m) dg L ‘om 5 (eau) 2 wo | 50 “Total wight of aasemby = 52g “The centre of graye 6/92 = .053°m tom the shert eae, anc 27.4132 = 0.850 m 0m 16 ong e090 132 4040 ‘The distances of inviual weighs rom the edges ofthe Hoard ae veered 0 8 tor lovers fr tne purpose of taking momenta. ‘SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION ¢ ‘Abarge 50 m long by 8 m beam feats in water of density 1.025, ‘oanesin?. The entre of rant of he barge Rs on he conresne | emiships. Weights are acded atthe positions indicated inthe tabi. ‘Where must an addtional weght of 15 tonnes be added so thatthe barge wil sink booty without eel ori? Wat willbe the increase in drug? Wight Dist ronan of| Dist to Starboard of Yoonne ‘amiga () | eerie Contre of Buoyancy ‘Assisting the watorin wich ho ship is floating is uniform a dens the conte ‘et buoyancy (eb) wi be ate conte of volume ofthe water dspace hat of ‘he underwater nul frm. As atady expainod, nealing he cb postion, ths {otal volume is divded up io.a numberof stone and the volume and cans ‘of volume of eacn secon 's then calvied. The overal ce obtsined by tl ing maments as nthe caso tring ie overal eg ota group of weigh, ‘A sips puoyancy and ine pon srougn when acts depend eniy upon the ‘Geomaty ofthe underwater form ots watertight boundary. Ths Osh taken 19 4.082 letaly a the underwater hl shape and then allowance made fr any internal ‘olumes open tothe ea, “The waht of he water spiced, and hence the weight of ship Itcan suppot, [E'dependont on tho senaty of he water The denny of water depends upon temperature ond salinity bu for standaré elouatione, te usual 6 ake he Towing gues: Frosh water: donsiy = 1.000 tonnes per cubic mate Saltwater: donsiy = 1.025 tonnes per cubic mote Wiator can be regarded as incompressible so th wih pressure hat fs wih dopo water the dansy does not change ‘THE TABLE OF OFFSETS ‘Te external hull ofthe ship's three dimensional envelope which can be datined by tne estance of the envelope trom the cetrline lane at & argo rhunber of points. The dances are known as ofa. thas Been shown that the hu canbe defined by a settee of wtorplanes and vanaveresaectons. Is the intersections ef thse win each ofr which ara used asthe ots 10 ‘etine to Pu Thoy canbe arranged i tabular form a 2 table of offeets, esc folumn selining a watrpane and wach ro daring atranaveres eacton The tranoverse socons aro usualy akan at roguar ioral co that fees aro un formiy spaced along te length of tho ship. However, cue tothe relatively rap ‘changes in shape whic can cut right forward and ght at, actonal section (and offsets) may be inveducod in those regions to prvida great accuracy ‘Also, warplanes are usuly equally spaced 80 that afsts ar equal spaces Inthe depth of he ship, bul an addonal waterpane may be introduced low {un to Rep dein to tur afte ge (ha te lower ouboare comers of the hul) more accurately Walerplanes are gran for he Tl opt othe Ml 3 to dofne ine nul shape above anc below tne waterpane al whieh the ship intended oft tis important tet the upper part ofthe lich i nora fut of tho water, should also be fa. Ths wil ag constuction, appearance, ‘eauoe i resistane and reduce wave impact os, “2, DRAUGHTS LEARNING OUTCOMES ‘Atorcompleting this chapter, you wil have an understanding o: + Pow tn draughts at which a sip wil fea canbe determined: + the concept of a metacente: + bydrostatic curves: + Borjean cures: + how to caleulate the araughis for any gen ship condition: and + tha ofecs of ading weighs to or moving weighs around he shi, 24 THE METACENTRIC DIAGRAM 4.053 So fare ship has besa considered as lating ina state of equlbrum, upright ‘and at he dosgn dau tis now necessary to eansde departures fom is ‘Sata Frat lake tne cave when a ship is heeled trough a smal angle sin Fgute 21. The centre of buoyancy moves to a new postion Band the ‘buoyancy foc, which acs veraly thas. noma othe new wsterine, ats itvough a pom aon the ceiling. t's known asthe traneverse metacente, For anges of up 10 about 10 dagrees, Mcan be regarded ae a fed pont 4058 mans ‘The positions of 8 and M dapend only upon tho geometry of the ship an are ‘aed forthe eraught a which ts Hoang, The designar can rowdo rmaton ‘on B and M foreach mean draught, assuming the walerine is paral! tothe Sesion waleine: Small departures om th state ae ukay fo be significant ‘ah such a pit, known a8 a metacenite diagram, @ masiecan fed M and 8 forthe conan he ahip i Wie have seen now ne entre of buoyancy, the cent o the volume of the de Placed water, can be found. BM is gven by 1M = WV, where is the tranevere sacond moment, orinaria of he watarpane fan Vi the volume of ceplacement ‘A mathematical proto his relationship can be found in standard textbooks on ‘naval arcitocturo, Te student ie asked to accep ita to nto thal BM wl vary ‘recty wth tho square ofthe beam and invrsoly wih tho Taught. A lage beam and shalow draught would leas oa vory state ship = ono ict 1 a ‘over Homer, there would be disadvantages interme of rapid ling i waves ‘nd slamming (9 lator). Ako, the high angle slabily would be poor. The ‘esigner has to Dalence Up numberof facto in deccng upon he Gegres of ‘stably to bul info ashi. The concept of stabiy is adaresse in more deta Inthe net chapter. ‘There is coresponding longitudinal metacentre for ema changes in ange aout a tansverse aus. wil bo shown lar Tht he two matacantrs ae ot ical toa study ofa ship's stably. The poston of tne iontucnal metaconte is dbotine by BH, = NV, where | ste ongituns inert of he wateriane about a rane vote ate rough te conti of he aie ofthe nto. EXAMPLE Cursive unr rectangular sol angi L, 8am B and cept floating In wator with its long dimension hevizonta. Assuming the 01s donsity is k tos that of wator, discuss the form of the Ietaconire clagram for a range of k values. The second moment (orinerta) of octange abou ongtusinal axis is SUT2 SOLUTION “The soi wil at ata craughtT where: = KD Fora rectangular cross-section: KB = craughl2 = kD/2 “Thus fr this case KB Increases lineal th D and its pot wi be a _staight ine passing tweugh ie orgin ane wih lope tan” 1/2 Fora recangular watorplane:| = B5L42 (The student is asked to _0cept this) Now BM W = [BAL2)LBT ~ Bena = BEN2KO [BM wil be innit when kis zor and reduce ask increases. EXAMPLE Calculate, for 2 range of k values, the above metacantre cagram assuming B ~ 24 mand O = 10m In is case: KB = KOI? = 5x bu ~ Be2K0 (247112) 00 = 4.8% ‘tab can now be constructed as shown onthe flowing page 02 2 1 2 ea 04 4 a 12 4 6 a 8 " 6 4 “The metacenti agra can now be dann. AS kinereasos tho M curve wil approach ie B ine more closely Figure 24 ‘SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION 1 ‘A unocm donety body of tianguar cross-section, neghtD and base width 2D, foals wth taxis Ronzontl an the apex of tne wane ‘foun, Sketcn the form ofthe metacantie dlagram. Assuming he boas density is ktmes that of wratar find te vlus of wc il lead to nauval vanaveree stay, for wricn KG ~ KML. The canes of outa staity aseussed in paragraph 4.077 22 4.055 4057 4088 4.059 4.000 4061 HyoRosraric cunves: For a gvon Soscing condition the draugnis at which a sip wil oat are determined by 1+ ne geometry of he shi: “+ the itibution of woigntsvthin the ship: ane + the donsty of the water in whicn the ship Is Hoang, Standard mass Ganciles used are 1025 tonne for sl wale’ and 1000 ttn for freen wate nist the dstoution of weights is constant varying during ships sevice ‘he goomety shed bythe dosgn A very Use sa of curves canbe produced based on the hull form A sores of waterplanes paalel othe devign watorine fare taken, covering the ful dapth of th hull The area of asen waterpians nd is centre of Rotation (CF) canbe found CConsiasa smal weight place on he ship vertcaly above the CF. Th ship wal ‘Sk belly bya smal amount, say 37. The exra volume of water dsplaced [ABT wet A she ara of ns waterplane. The conve of buoyancy of sexta ‘nate wil bs above the CF proved tne waterpane shape siays the same a8 the ship sinks sight. Thus, the buoyancy force ofthe extra water wil ect ‘oppose the added weight with no momento cause the Ship Toi, {By dofniion, a he CF isthe centri of area ofthe warplane. he ares of wate plane forward ofthe CF equals tat af ofthe CI tne ep te through amas ‘ngle sbout a tansverse axis trough the CF, the volumes of emerged and ltmmerged wedges willbe equal ang ne overall dcpiacemnt remains unotanged. From te frm oth sip, the volume of displacement up to any waterpane, and tha coresponeing verte psiion ofthe corte of buoyancy (VCB) ean be el- Cuetec by using ne waterpiane areas and Simpgoris rule obtain the volume ‘ad taking moments abou the kel up to thal draught. In @ similar way, the immereod area of each franeverse secon up to each wterplane can be found By integrating along the length and talong moments ‘he volume of asplacement ana poston of the longitudinal care of buoyancy (C68) canbe found. A curve ofthe area of any croeeeocton to various Grau Ploted against craught is uselu in a numberof calculations Wis known ae 3 Bonjoan curve Figure 25 ~Bonjean Curve 221 4.062 222 4.069 4064 4.065 4.008 4.087 “Tonnes Per Centimatre Immersion (TPC) For each watorplane the aroa define, fra given ens of wata, he change Graught The Un of draught ehango considered sane centima, ging Ne tonnes per em immersion (TPC), Tho the lm thats sometimes used TP Standing for tonnes per unt immersion I the area ofa waterpane Is Am? and the water densi isp tomes per m?, nen the TPC wl be A100. Moment to Change ri One Metre (MCT) Now conser departures trom ine steady sate by relation about a transverse 25, thal is whan ho ahipis Vinee Let win tough a smal angle, about an axis trough he CF, extra buoyancy wil be created al the end othe ship at ‘ch he caught increases and loss of Buoyancy al he end which emerges trom the water Te forces dus o these buoyancy forces wil produce a moment ‘ch wil act so as to oppose the change of im. The toll buoyancy wil remain {constant and equal othe ship's weight, W oherwsa the ship would move up oF Gov. IfM, isthe ongiusinal motaceie, te rgning movemsnt wil be wom, e This wi be the moment required 10 hold the sip atthe naw rm angi. the tum change ls one metre Oetwaon porpendiulars, the moment is elored to as tha moment to change trim one met (MCT). Iti be noted tat the MCT does depend upon the poston af G, 0 wil vay wi the fading ofthe ship, However. BM, (= 1) is arg. typical of te car ‘ofthe longi a ne hip. wil be aporecated hat tha variation inthe height of ‘G above the koa! wil be small compared wih GM, Hence, GM, wil not vary ‘uch with the loading ofthe ship. Th student now appreciate rowous chao, he vansverse and longituina’ nei of the watoplane were ‘mentioned. They ara important in defining the neigh ofthe Vanverse and on ‘una metacentrs above the cane of Buoyancy. Wie have seen that fr smal changes in tim about the CF, there sno change in ‘ver dsplacement the vim, di about amiéships, there willbe a change of Graught athe CF given by x where x6 the cletane of he CF rom amidships There wi ba corssponding coangeineeplacement given by: xe (TPO) ‘nis change willbe an increase when the tn is such thatthe draught athe CF positon increases ‘A plot of ho above data against draught gives ise oa st of curves tnown 2s ‘ne hydrostatic curves or simply hydrostaios, Digs ae 4 EXAMPLE ‘The TPC (tonnes per cm immersion) ora ship in water of density 1.025 tonnesin® at waternos 1 m apart starting at tho lead water tne (LV) and moving down ae: 1248, 1200, 1182, 10.48, 8:3, 7.80 ane 516 onnesiom Find the cisplacemont between the LWL and the lowermost water line dined and the stance ofthe canta of buoyancy below LIL ignoring the section af ship Blow te lowermost defined wator line, What would be the coresponding cispacement in water of ens 1.000 tonnes? SOLUTION | table can be constructed as below Pe su (Diep) Lever Fitloment) reas | a m_ ° 0.00 | i ro | 4 48.00 Ja 48.00 [11.92 2 22.68 2 45.28 | 7498 | 720 4 31.20 5 | 156.00 518 1 | si 6 30.96 Totals 0042 90.98 Hence, cleplacement = (1/8)(180.124100) = 6,094 tonnes ‘The contre of buoyancy below LVL. = 480.8 / 180.12 = 2.67 mets In water of density 1.000 tonnesin® the cigplacement tothe LL woul Be 8.004 / 1.025 ~ 5.658 tonnes ‘SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION 2 Inthe stove example, calculate the cepscemant up to each ol the frst three watortnesbolow the LWL wen tha ship i in water of 1025 tonnesin 2a welcHTs 4068 The woight of a ship can bo consdores as comprising + woights that are constant ducing a voyage, such 38 the weights ofthe hull ‘Stucture and machinery. These consti the ight sh, “+ arable weighs such asthe weighs of ful, stores and carg. These can De done fora variety of conatons but wil vary during a voyage. 4009 By summing ll the individual weighs of components tings and 30 onthe oa ‘tight and poston of ep can be sbfained bythe methods outined ear 24 FINDING A SHIP'S ORAUGHTS 44070 Knowing the weight and eg poston for any given ship condton, the draughis tan be fond by + using the yeasts, the draught amicehps at design ti coresponsing to the weight canbe read off ogethor wi tho LCB poston. The: ‘+ the weight mutiples by the cstanon between he LCG and LC ges @ ‘moment taking ie ai ey Wom te design im. The change oti lb 'y the bow or by the sem depending upon wheter the LoS i rw or allot tho LC® respecte. best progute a smal skteh of the Sp ‘how whion way momonts act and ance te way the ship ms + the tim change betwen perpenciculars in motes is found by dviding te tamming moment by the MCT. Th tim wil be about he LCFL, the positon of which must be aad, The Grau at tne perpendicular or st the draught mars canbe eae, ‘6071 ne ovra change in eraughts between perpendicular, L part, et, sy. he fenange of draught pr uit length along the ship is UL. st of draught marks Isat distanco rom the CF the change of draught t those marks ws be Whether is isan increase or decrease wil Jopend upon the way the tim {ange une ror to mans ae onward ora othe CFA smple gram Wil asst tne student in detaining winch 4072 2s 4073 aor 4075 26 4.076 It should be oles that the areughsebiained fom the above wil only be reasonably accurate ary change rom he design Wim is alway ama the Change of tim is significant a new amidehipe caught must De found andthe recess repeated. FORE AND AFT MOVEMENT OF WEIGHT a woight already in tho ship is moved fora or atthe affect ist move the LUcG' and tho sught wil Icraaee at tha ond of the ehip towards. whieh tho weights moved. the weight sw and itis moved a distance forward the temming moment created wil Be we, a the proguct ofthe te. ‘Te ship must tim © compensate, thats the naw LOB must move s0 3510 be Inne wi the new LCG. The change nti s found by ving tne moment by the MCT. Siace the weight was aleady on boats, the ceplacament ofthe sip constant 50 het wl be about tho CF postion and te new draughts can be found ApoINe weIaiT Ifa weight added, or taken of, there ara we eects: ‘+The ship wil sok (or rise) fle so thatthe increased (decreased) ‘buoyancy equals the enange i weight ‘+ Tho hip wiltim cue othe fore and aft movement of he avral =hip LC. pl. —_, Eps Fiowre27 4-07 tie convenient to cleus the changes in draught into stages: ‘Assume the weight intially added nthe same vortcal in asthe CF of the wmleriane ot whch ne saps tating Thin sh wil sink by an amend fuel fo fie woight divided by te TPC. Al tis stage there wil be no thang in in Move the weight tothe positon iis to occupy and calcuate he changes. in draught as above, “The na eaughis ar obtained by summing the wo etc above. Again, is usta te drow a thumbs sketeh to show ow the draughis change EXAMPLE ‘A vossel, iplacament 20,000 tonnes, has a length between per endieuars 0200 m, and has aleve caught of m. thas a war pane area of 5000 me, wh ts convo of otaton 5 m at of ams Spa. Calculate the new deh forward and lt 8 weg of 20 | tomes is added 30 m forward ofthe cere of flan. The longi ‘inal metacete is 150 m above the ships cents of ray. Assume tho water done i 1.025 tonnasin® ‘SOLUTION ‘Tne TPC of the walerplan ie 5,000 % 1.025/100 = 51.25 tonnes perem the weight wore added atthe CF the paral snkage would be 200151.25 = S90.ms = 0.038 m Moving the weight forward 30m causes a moment of 200 = 30 = 8,000 tonnes m rming tne ship by the Bow “Te resulting vim is 6000120,000 > 15 11800 radians ‘Tho ship trims about the CF so the Increase in draught fad = 108/500 m = 21cm “The decrease in aught at ~ 95/500 m~ 19 em Te naw draughts wal be Foard m+ (3.9 + 2t}ome ~ 6249 tem = (38 — 19) ems SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION 3 Forth ship inthe above worked example in he nal condtion calculate the now eraughis and fa woight of 180 tonnes is rmnoves From a point 20 m formar of amidehipe. Find the poston a which a 100 tne weight must be added in ardor Ina the éeght fond does not change. SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION « ‘wnat condition must be met inorder thal a sip wil ot change Win In moving betwoen walor of leant densities? ‘¥.achp i of 150 m engin wah ts ent of fetaton 5m at of lamidchips what weight placed 10 m forward of amidsnips wil cause tha sama tim as'a waight of 6 tonnes placed! 15: frm the bow? 3. STABILITY aa 4078 4078 LEARNING OUTCOMES ‘tex completing this chapter, you wil have an understanding of: ‘+ ne concep of transverse stably + theimportance ofthe transverse metaceate + stabity at smat angles: + stabity at arge anges + the eects of suspended weights and re Squ eutaces within the ship: + stabity on docking or running aground: + the.use of he inlining expecment to chock the sips condtion| bul and stabilty standards, ‘TRANSVERSE STABILITY, SMALL ANGLES So far, consideration has been given only to @ ship when In equim oF ‘moving sion rom ane poston of equirbrum fo another, Now consider wnt happens when a ship is subject oa smal haeling moment For small isturbances, ts veasonabo to assume hat thre sno change in tm and that ho upright ane neales waterines wil intersect ont canteline of he ‘sip. The ship wil take up a smal angi of hol a uta in Figure 3.1 onthe Toiowing page. Thera wil be a newly submerged weaga of hal an one side Ine contin and a earrspending emerged wedge onthe athe. The genie of ‘buoyancy wil mova from i al positon in the cenreline plane, E108 new postion By such that the distance between the two postions represent the ‘momento ranste of bucjancy between the two wedges. The line BB, wl Be parallel fo ne line orig the cores of volume ofthe two wodges, 4-060 4-081 4.082 4-088 4.086 Figur 3.4 “The total buoyancy force remains constant but it now acs in a vertical ine trvough ,, thats normal tothe inl waterine, Ths ine intersects the sig conteine pane in M, the melaconve. AS previously noted, for most common Ship forms,M canbe akon aa. xe point x smal anges, typically up o ou AO degrees, “Tho woight W (equal 10 the buoyancy) wi ae vough the conte of gravity of the ‘snp which remains fed, The resutant moment acting on the snp wil be ive by GM. where ¢ isthe angle of heel, assured smal From a stably point of view, here are twee possi: + Mis above G. inthis e350, the moment acting, cue to he si in buoyancy, is tonding to restore the ship to the upright postion. The ship is sad fo be stale; thas postive stabil. ‘+ Mis below 6. In tis caso, the moment ying to push the ship further ‘om the upright Th ship aide be unstable, ras negative stability + Mand 6 coinciée In this ease, thare no moment acting onthe ship ‘which wi romain in the heeled postion. The ship is sai a have neutral ‘stabity. As stated provousy, the vertical clstance between the centre of buoyancy and ‘ne metaconive i gn by BU = UN, wae is tho second momentof aca othe net, ofthe waterplane ‘bout anginal ais and Vi the ttl velume of Siplacement Fora rectangular waterplane af lngih L, an brea, Bt centaine are gon by be wuse 4-005 4.008 In goneral terms, V wi be proportional to LBT whore T i the draught ofthe Thus. in this case. BM = Const B2T [Note 6? changed to 8 Athough a normal sips waleplane is not rectangular, he genera lationship wile approximataly tue for ships. Thus, the boam has a very great infuonce ‘on the ital stably ofa ship. might appear, a frst, that good stably could be obtained by making the 4) = 2775 m Honce GM = KB + 6M ~ KG 192m 112)420) + 2.775 ~ 3.000 “Tat ne barge est stable transversely oo 4 sevay 55 SUB-DIVISION 4-176 A ship fs ved into comparimants for many reasons, as ¢ @novse oF oico flood, sub-dvsion i to + Minimise the toss of ransverse stably and prevent the ship roting ight ‘ves ha eapstzing + Mines the oss of ong! stabity 0 that he ship does net sik by the bow or stern, ha, plunge. 1+ Minimise the loss of roserve of Buoyancy. “+ Limit tne damage to equipment and carg, 4-177 a ships sink at altho "best case” scenario woul bo where she retains her ‘stably as weler enters and then sinks Boal that is, founders, due fo lesing Al her reserve of buayancy, Its too simple to eay thatthe emaler te compartments the ship the sale ‘he wil Be. Other considerations come into pay, quite apart Kom the ease of poration of he shi: + Fore and at bulkheads may confine water to one side loading to arge angles. Genoraly ts type of watortght sub-division is To be avoided Untss iis aimed at sriing poneation of te ep sie oa love! at he trenoverse stably can folate. Typical. penetration due Io a colssion ‘assumed tobe 20% af the beam. Gross-laodingarangements should BE provided to enable ee! ater damage to be recuoed, + rransvere bulinesds ae 19 case then 8 single inedent may breach mote than one compartment Iisa mata of balance. Te important ting is to havo a clea’ doa o the length of ships sie uel 1 be damaged I any accent ‘+ For acolison the point of impact along th ships length is impocant. is ‘ot possiie beore a colision to know were & ship wil be ht and Pow ‘much ofthe hull wil be cpened upto the sea, Statsten! daa is used 10 ‘etine ho probabites of varous lengths of side damage andthe kely point of impact ‘+ Tho permeability of @comparment wit rt he amount of water tna can enter. ‘+ _Tansverse bulkheads provide strength agelnst racking ofthe sho hull and support he ongtudina stuck 55 FLOODABLE LENGTH 4-179 Fer any pont slong te ul tis posable to cals the ang of ul that ean be allowed 10 food bore immersing pata he margin ine, The margin ine 4-180 4182 e183 ‘tne a 9st 76 mm below the unper surtace ofthe bulkhead deck, hich is ‘he uppermost weather igh dock o whch transverse watertight Duleieads are taken Ths length is known a the Mloodable Yong, Internationa ules provide formulae to calculate factors of sub-division to be applied tothe eedable lengths. These factors depend upon th lngth of the Ship ane the series for wien tis ended In essence, te factors ensie that ‘ne, two oF to compartments must b6 ood belo the margin Ne Immersed, ending to wha are termed one, o> oF troe-compartment ship. \inist a smat vesse! might be accpiate ata one-compariment standard. 2 large passenger ship would be expoci oe of hroe-compartinen slandar. {LOAD LINE REGULATIONS “The Load Line Convention ofthe International Maritime Organization (10) contains reguationssimed at ensuring a ship has suite freeboard fo enable her to withstand damage and tho rigours of serves. Athough come of the rules 270 rather complied Ine end Yemit a sores ones marked on he id0 of ‘he ship. The main toad line markings detine tie minimum Ieeboas, meas- {rad fom the deck also, associated wlth operations in laren ocean areas and a erent seasons of he year Separate ines are show for + Winter Nort Atante (WA); + Wine ew + Summer (8 + Topical: + Fresh (Prand + Topical Fresh TF, Ditlerenttteeboards are assigned when the ships possess special atibutes. ‘Thus. a ship such asa tanker designed to cay ius n bak have iow lee: ‘boards electing the fac that thc room win tn ship for water fo eter, ‘Such sips ae termed Type A shos. ‘Tho majorty of ships ae eter to a8 Type B ships. hase have what may be termed siandard resboares Ships whose designs suchas to enbie them to ‘stand damage ta degree ats down by the rules may be ceagnaled Type 18.60 oF Typo B-100. The 60 or 100 eles To the percatage of te difrence beeen Type B and Type A by which the Type 8 freeboard ie rauced. Thats the ieeboard fora Type B-100 is the sare as tha for Type A. Easenaly the ‘Type 8-60 can mista the Reodng of one space anda Type & 100 we spaces aha sil meet certain stability conditons ‘Shies which are designed to cary timber on deck are alowed reduced fee- Doarae" ns ie Yecogntion oft fal that he wood, H earecty secure pro ‘aes buoyancy which improves the ship abit to aurvvefllning en acide 50 4105 5a1 106 Pique 54 MANAGING RISK ‘Theres covering safely of ships cen be considered under three headings: + Preserptve DDesersing exact what as to be done to satiety international or national requirements. These ae eativalyexsy1o use and equi less knowedge ‘ad advanced technelogial ably onthe part ofthe cesignr. Thay ae “Smenda to elect the expen wth many ship bu the press fakes ‘ime. They tand fo lad wo a luton mesting the minimum need (hose {hat can be agreed bythe nematonsl communty and are not prop ale fora design with eval features. 1+ Performance Standards Defining an aim but leaving the designer tae to meet the aim as thought Dest sista to that ep Theee are bet euited to novel design and alow 8 designer fo use tho alos! theries and techniques. Their success wil ‘Sepend upon new good and hw clay expressed the aims aon the fst place. + Ask Assessment Procedures Wich are ineoasingly used fr large projec Formal Satety Assessment (FSA) ‘Wns the intorational and national egulatons concering ately ae a gooe staring point, hey should not be ele upen entity. Anew design may Rave Lunusus features or bo required to operate ouside the customary conan. ‘inate needed is an anaes of heres to whi te sip may be subject For any percenea vsk fs necessary to consiar the Uksshood otk ooturing and ‘he consequences of at eocurence, These facore must be assessed together th the eos nal respects, not st money) of elmnating reducing te risk Ore consequences The fine! design must balance up thase factors A hazard ‘which is very unlikely may wal Be unacsepabia fe consequence are Sovro, (On the thor hands nazare wih vlaivey minor caneequences mays be sy 4197 50 4.100 unacceptable tis ikely to occur equ, Some o he factors involved in an “analy of his ype canbe eaculatod wih sore precision, eters require joe ‘ments based on gensral experience. Many sole not only the ship but alco ‘Moce operating hora pateangers ne come, ow they are kay to bohave a various crcumstances. ‘The stops in safety assessment are seen tobe 1+ Establan operations! scenarios forthe ship, eg areas ofthe wor in whichis fo operat: the sea condions tis ike} Yo encounter + ently potential hazards and how tkely thy ae to occur 9. clision ‘mote tkay in a busy watoray such as to English Channel compared 1, Say. the South Pcie. + Iontly the consequences of each potential occurence. t @colison ‘cers how mah wale one, and where? + Gonsiser now hazards can be avoided or her etets reduced, eg the possi of colsion might be reduewd by Hitng a beter navigation sys fom: more subsvsian wil esti Foodng “+ Garry out a cost benatt analyse of tteren ways of proceeding 1+ Decide upon tne options 1 be pursued “+ Make sure tne builders an operators understand te intentions. “+ _Arange auating rocedies for checking that he intonion are achieved uring bata ane in operation, IMO have issued intern Guideines for he Apaleaton of Formal Safely ‘Assessment 1 the IMO Rule-Making Process, cots of which are gven on he ‘nebste ofthe Marne and Consiga Agency FIRE In most martime tragedies inating fe, he greatest oss of fe arises from “smoke and love umes. This has edo regulations controling the mata sed in construction and fing cut. Other reglatons call for cerires for managing ‘emergencies, and sale areas whore peopo can suruve won & fre makes one {zone ol ho chp uniniabtabe I sufiseny Pot. tras can eavee les of suc {ural strength, for instance in aluminum. The spread ofr can be lites by physic! Doundes whch are sutably insulated: However, to pam aim mut be'to put fre aut. Sinco ft dopends upen oxygen and a cortain animon ‘oamperature fo sustain sa, a fre can be doused by cooing W or denying ‘xygon by smothering. In iting ship into tones to tthe spread of Wo, ‘care musi be taken wits the ventlatian sytem to eneut that aroke ans Tes conltinad,Cealy some cargoes ae more hazarcous than others. They may Droauce intense neat and ray contain enough enygen to make emote frcuce may i On % 4-180 Cooling is usualy achieve by applying wale tom a fro mai. This main must be of arge capaci ana be in seckons, wih oss connections, 8 a kay to remain efecive ate damage. wl fad no aomatcspinklr syst ‘tinal conpartmacte: Smothering usualy achieved by foam oF net ge Systems. Some cargoes contain oxygen wthinthemsatves and smaering ‘ot eflecive in such casos, Apart frm th large fhe systems ema potable ‘xtinguishors are provided: Smothering canbe used only when all personnal are ‘ear ofa space. 510 LIFESAVING 4-191 Tho equromonts a ship must mest ar la down by SOLAS. They depend upon the size and type o ship. They are most demanding fr large passenger shi ‘Geneally, enough Meboate and rate must be. provided fr al the De0pe ‘onboard allowing a mar to allow forthe fact that al might na be able to be launcnec. ey sould be capabie of boing launened wih te ship at an angle cf 15 degrees Escape chutes canbe fitted to taitate evacuation and evacua tion times are lid down. Passengers musi be mace aware of he escape routes and mathods. Th lifeboat ere designed and quipped to protect te people ‘Tom he slements and i some cases the immediate enonment where burning For other Razards may be preset In passengers, increasing attention beng pais nowadaye tothe neecs ofthe elder or hose wth disaities, ‘SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION 2 Explain in general terms, how you woud approach a formal ‘assessment of sally fra new design, 64 4-108 COMPUTERS LEARNING OUTCOMES _Ator completing this chapter, you wi have an understanding of 1+ computer applications ia general arms; “+ the computers strong and weaknesses; anc «some of he more intresting applications to ship design, buts and operation. GENERAL “Tne computer has come to aet every aspect of modern day. The maritime fil a no exception In naval afhutectre, in th early days the computor nad Ite computing power and i simpy carted cut some ofthe smal radon Totajon and stabiity caleulalons more rapidly and accurately. Toe actual talulaton wa earned out by Ine same precodutes. That sit was simoly 8 ‘omputereed version of the anual calculations. The nest step was 10 sng aculations fogether eo tha the ouput fem one clcuation fed aiomaticlly lato the nxt. Forinstanee the hl form having Deen ied by ono rogram tne Catnsion was wept inthe computer for siabaly assessments This saved te {and eliminates the posslty of ranszripion errors, ‘one potential anger af using comptrsis he false sense of accuracy they can ‘engender When engineers worked mth slide rus the number of significant Foures they eaule work wth was ited but the computer can provce an almost Initess number tis important o consider he accuracy possible in an answe: tora problem given the ascuracy ol he input dat, is necessary to bear in ming sun ngs as: + Acip i not be built exact tothe dmansions on ne plans. Accuracy of ines depends upon fhe constuction methods, mensions wil vary with temperature, materiel scantings wit Rave manufaciuring tolerances and “+ _Draughts can only be reac to an curacy of about tom anc the ship may be hogging or sagging 80 that the craught amidships nat the mean of those at he perpencicuas. + Two sea condone the ship has fo wisn may citer trom those ‘assumed indesign and matoal qualtios may vary 4108 ‘As computars became more power, they were able o undertake more complex ‘caulatons making it posse fo avod some of the simpifyng assumptions inhoret in he eater manual methods. A computers partly good at repe lve ealelatone and many oft programe imahed ropet ine tortions by ‘whch te nal soliton was btanod.Stabityn the damaged conation a good ‘rample Algo ecearcnee were now able to develo new methods of acking eran probleme. For Hetanoo, rie element methode were Gevoloped for sok Ing stvcturalprotims. More recent. computational uid dynamics methods have been develop. These matnoas requre conscerane processing power ‘making use ofthe computers strength in deaing wth Tuber crunching (On the ater hand, the computer is poor at pattem cecognion Imagine the

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