Sonia C. Munteanu waversrraren TeHNrca iii Academic English for Science and Engineering Casa Cacti de Sein Cluj Napoca, 2013Cope Pain Paes ain acrditati CNCS () © Sonia C, Manteany, 2013, escerea CIP Bibliotesi Nalonae Romine MUNTEANU, SONIA ee Engh Se nd Eaglrtig Contents Preface To the reader. I, PRELIMINARIES. 1, MIND AND LANGUAGE PRODUCTION. 1.1. The mind and its workings. 1.2 Mental content 1.21 The representational model of the mind 1.22 The computational model of the mind 1.3 Language processing. 1.3.1 The Mentalese hypothesis 1.3.2 Universal Grammae 2. NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING 2.1 Natural language processing and Art 2.2 The role of computational linguistics al Intelligence. 1A context-free grammar Language processing by technology 2.2.3 Further ambiguities, II, SENTENCE GRAMMAR AND DISCOURSE GRAMMAR... 3. SENTENCE GRAMMAR 3.1 Word steucture 3.2 Phease structure. 3.2.1 Word classes 3.2.2 Phrase composition 3.2.3 X-bar phease structure 3.2.4 Order of elements 3.2.5 Movement and deletion 3.2.6 Phas 43.3 Basic phase types 3.3.1 The noun phase in English 3.3.2 The prepositional phrase 33.3 The verb phease 33.4 The adjective phrase. extension rules. 3.5 The sentence phease4, DIS 4.1 Language at 42. Parameters of variation: dialeets and registers EXT AND TEXTURE, 5.1 Text 5.2 Cohesion of texts 5.21 Reference 2.2 Lexical cohesion. 3 Substitution and ellipsis, 2.4.Connectors 53 Coherence of texts 53.1 Topic. 53.2 Information structure 5.4 Readability of texts II]. FEATURES OF ACADEMIC TEXTS... THE INFORMATIVE FUNCTION OF SCIENCE DISCOURSE 6.1 Texts on science and research 6.2 Definitions 63 Classification 6-4 Description of process and procedure 65 Hypotheses: 6511 Stating and developing a hypothesis. 6.5.2 Bringing evidence 7, CONVENTIONAL STRUCTURE OF TE: 7. Why conventional patterns. 7.1.1 The discourse community 7.1.2 The communication needs 1.3. The context of communication 7.2 Patterned texts 7.2.1 Textbooks. Research articles, 723 Posters 8, CONVENTIONALIZED EXPRESSION 8.1 Formulaic language. 8.2.Tenses in academic texts 8.2.1 ‘The imperative 8.2.2 Present tenses. 8.2.3 Past tenses. 83 Disciplinary variation 9.,THE INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION OF SCIENCE DISCOURSE 9. Knowledge claims. 9.2 The interpersonal function. SOURSE GRAMMAR. -e and beyond the sentence 54 34 6 6 2 oe 64 a 61 9 69 n 80 80 81 83 86 86 86 0 30 90 91 ot 92 93 94 101 107 107 109 109 110 i 12 114 114 115 9.2.1 Author and readet 9.2.2 Shaced knowledge 9.2.3 Directives and aticude markers. 9.2.4 Hedges and boosters 10. PLAGIARISM 10.1 The ethics of writing on science 10.2 Plagiarism: a question of language we 10.2.1 Citations. Q 102.2 Patching and parphaaing Dibstiogeaphy 116 116 7 18 12 12 125 125 128 133,Preface Waiting books for teaching purposes and, especially, grammar books will always be an endeavour writers of this topic dream, There is no end to this effort, mainly ‘when theoretical scholarship and actual practice need being wedded to. train Jeamers’ minds. To find a grammar textbook for engineering students to be used a5 a lecture bass is not altogether an easy matter, because we do not want young Jeamers to find distaste in the study of a subject chat is at hand in practice, but ‘whose theoretical side seems miles spar. Sonia Munteanu is a lecturer of English in the Department of Modem Languages and Communication of the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca. I aware of her concem (o direct undergraduates towards a study of English sch-oriented and practical in character language that is both scholarly, res To attain these ends, Sonia Munteanu based her textbook writing on making available a modern perception of grammar, based on really good literature. Facts of language, theoretical assumptions, many quotations from authors of fame and from English for Science and Technology fields show readers that they are no filled only with theories. Reading the textbook lets mind be entiched and the research sense deepened, while keen observation of all grammatical forms and usages in Science and Technology is quickened. The book is orginized in chapters that move from sentence grammar to texture, fom functions and structures of text to conventionalised expressions, Sentence grammar pays attention to words and phrase structures, while discourse grammar and texture relate to language beyond the text, cohesion, connectors, lexical cohesion, text coherence and reference. Readers and learners will find an unexpected approach to these issues, a wealth of examples and special ceading chapters that, if Followed, will open their eyes to a new and fresh perspective they had not been Sonia Munteanu's aim was als related discourse. The features of the academic text are present. chapt ntations of functions science and technical texts, very interesting will be the pattems of texts and the > related (0 going in-depth into the science- n the last that define +r of the book. Besides classical pi patterns of language typical of such documents. We should not forg8 m, mainly seen from the viewpoint of active thinking, cultivates analytical skills consistent discussion of plagia use. The book involves dedu ; to apply grammatical knowledge in order to generate original wor This book does not only record use and facts ee f technelouy, but has also the aim of culivating mental skils and power, : a dents towards further studies in this field and to better their Sole through a richer, more meaningful disecting st performance in academic ot form: and more practical leaming experience. Matinela Granescu, PhD Department of Modem Languages and Con ‘The Technical University of Cluj-Napoca To the reader Who is this book for This book is the reference material for the ESP course I teach to English medium Computer Science students from the Technical University of Cluj- Napoca. The course is the 4" semester of language learning in the syllabus, rounding off their university formal training in ESP. However, the book was written with all engineering stu n mind who would want to develop their comprehension and writing skills in English for academic purposes. Researchers and occasional writers in science and engineering fields can also benefit from using the knowledge and practical tasks intzoduced here. ‘What the book is about The book attempts to describe aspects of English for specific academic purposes which can enhance my students’ understanding of written texts in hard sciences and engineering. As this field is quite broad, disciplinary variation d wherever relevant, Although comprehension and writing skills are transferable, raising the students’ awareness to particular discourse feature: favoured by different fields of science and engineering can only contribute to their ability to read and write discipline appropriate texts The Preliminaries represent a broader framework to language production and processing whose main goal is to saise awareness of the many aspects of professional activity where knowledge of and about langy is involved. Computer science students study Actificial intelligence and many make a earcer in developing technologies based on natural language processing, ‘This short introduction is meant to show what kind of data linguistics and discourse studies can feed into engineering technologies for language processing, I have nd cognitive taken here an approach rooted in both computational linguistics linguistics. tem and discusses in ‘The second part deals with grammar as a hierarchical 5 more depth word and phrase formation, parageaph and text features as units of discourse, a5 well as features of registers as situational language and of genzes as instantiations of specific communicative pusposes. Texture and elements of texture are detailed with a view of enhancing the students’ ability to comprehend specialized text by understanding the mechanics of cohesion andthe typical structure of information favoured by specialized discourse in hard sciences and engineering, I have taken here an approach rooted in phra ‘composition syntax and corpus linguistics, ‘The third part narrows down discourse of hard sciences and engincering, Features of academic texts in Science are organized on two layers: the informative function and the interpersonal function of language, The most representative genres of facademic discousse: research articles, textbooks and scientific posters are discussed in their structural, thetorical and functional aspects. Data from are used extensively to provide support 1¢ scope, focusing on the written a corpus linguistics and register analysis for the descriptive parts. Practical application accompanies all theoretical presentation of features, discussion of frequency and distribution of relevant Prructures and functions. Tasks use extracts from authentic published material Every effort has been made to acknowledge this source material. If I failed to do so, the responsibility is entirely mine The book concludes with a section on using sources in academic writing, treating the subject of plagiarism from a twofold perspective: the ethical and that of language use. The former pertains to all aspects involved in the production and use of academic text, while the later is particularly of interest For non-native speakers of English. Tam grateful to my colleague in the Modem Languages and Communication Department from the ‘Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Senior Reader Murinela Granescu, PRD, for her comments and fertile discussions we have had along the years in preparing the ESP course materials for our Computer Science students who study in English. They, too, brought a contribution to ny course not only learning from it and solving tasks, but also challenging me fe debates on controversial topics such as conversational agents, bringing me tp to date with state of the art technology in language processing, of pointing Gut aspects of academic English that are of most practical use to them. I, PRELIMINARIES In this part we will have a look at some of the theories that form a coherent explanation of = how the mind interprets reality; = what is language and how the mind uses it; what is the relevance of knowledge about language for technology development; how Artificial Intelligence uses knowledge about natural languages; + what is computational linguistics.Chapter 1. MIND AND LANGUAGE PRODUCTION __ 1A. The mind and its workings en the realty and our human Humankind has wondered about che relationship berween Hele from ancient times, Many theories to explain what celity is and how we poteive snd understand it have been put foncard dbates heated scholars and laymen id few ofthese theories ever resisted to all riticiem. He a Bite pore expec nudes ingot ‘he mind hwo be conv hea spurt rom th bin, which su phys aor oes o he ind Testy ind me dseipin wnt the mind nd owt work ends of the human mind bate been 1d modified as our knowledge of the woed In moder times theories of the mind Feom Aristotle to modem philosophers developed, explained, debated, rejected an increased, beliefs changed and others formed, In mod the mind ite mostly the concemn of cognitive sciences but inform and get informed by othe: ciences such as: neurology, neurophysiology and neuropsychology and also philosophy. Many hypotheses about how the mind works and how the brain supports the working of the mind have been formed as consequences and, in the same tine, premises forthe stady of mental disorders and language-elated mental disorders suc as aphasia or dyslexia. 1.2 Mental content 1.2.1 The representational model of the mind ry of the mind attempts to explain the nature of ideas, cca tha hing eas witin a itera ten of mprsrtaton and postulates the actual existence of mental representations which act as On a ering aes (an nd) andthe Oj rose co other entities observed in the extemal wold. ‘The representational theot concepts and other mental contea ae rEkceondtons, tuivrdue, et); as toch i can be undestood only i coma Say the mind and the world. The content of computational teems. It stands between Academic English for Science and Engineering 3 mental representations is taken t0 be abstract objects (properties, relations, propositions). The mind operates with these mental representations in a process we generally call ‘thiaking’. 12.2 The computational model of the mind A contemporary and much elaborated version of the representational model of ¢ ‘mind is the computational theory. Its basic assumption takes aver the idea of mental representation as ‘semantic objects’ for the mind to process. In this view, cognition is 4 form of computation. This view underlies much of the esearch in cognitive science. One early and still highly influential version, put forward by the philosopher Hilary Putnam and (1967) developed by Jerry Fodor (1975, 1993), holds that the mind's computations are operations over symbolic representations according to Fora cules. ‘This version requires explicit representation of the cues. ‘This research is also rooted in a few ideas elaborated in mathematics in the 19 and carly 20% century. An important issue discussed ia mathematics was delimiting the class of functions that are “computable” in the technical sense (or evaluable) by the application of a rote procedure or akerthm (eg. column addition or differential equations). Not all mathematical functions are computable in this sense; this was known by mathematicians in the 19 century but it was aot until 1936 that Alan ‘Turing proposed 2 general characterization of the class of computable functions. He proposed the notion of a “computing machine”—ie., a machine that does things analogous to what a human mathematician does in “computing” a function in the sense of evaluating it by application of a rote proceduce. Turing's proposal was that the class of computable functions was equivalent to the class of functions that could be evaluated in a finite number of steps by a machine of the design he proposed (the ‘Turing machine). The basic idea hese was that any operations that are sensitive only to syatax can be duplicated (or simulated) mechanically. What the mathematician following a formal algorithm does by recognition of syntactic patterns as syntactic, a ‘machine can do by mechanical means, ‘These developments in mathematics echoed in the cognitive sciences and philosophy, too. With the representational model and the computational model of the mind we are getting closer to a more general perspective on the mind and human cognition as a Form of canpuaton. Human reasoning may be seen functioning as a Turing machine, with computable functions; semantic values can be syntactically encoded, hence processed via syntactic rules and relevant results obtained. How much can this theory explain of human cogaition and reasoning? ‘The computational model of the mind is a general theory and tries to offer insights into the basic processes of the mind. Jesey Fodos stated that we should distinguish between modular mental processes and global mental processes and (2000) that itis only the Former that are likely to be computational in the sense described above. Even if the computational theory only pastally reveals how the mind works, itis, Fodor claims, a very lasge pact of che teuthSonia G Mantesn 4 the computational theory is bused on the concept of the modula of the mind Faece ned (hath part daing with computable mental process) made se tide sutonomnous om olber department. Such medals woud be vu Ice ne avo diferent suuctres thes moles ae organized by a information modules (or Chomskian modules, after N, Chomsky who proposed t modular view on the human language capacity); these are systems of mental y referred to them as competence’ modules (C- representation and Choms modules); bb processing modules; these are mechanisms used in computation and are seferred to as ‘performance’ modules (P-modules); Modular systems of both kinds coexist. For example a module for performing arithmetic computation (2 P-Module) calls on a domain-specific module of arithmetic knowledge (a C-module) As mentioned before, human language competence displays a modular structure Chomsky also claimed that a consteaint on the structure of a module is that, atleast part us ore universal for all human kind. In the case of oi must be innately given, there _ iC -e’, which is innate was called Universal Tanguage, the pact of its C-module, ‘competencs Crinmar, This UG is a system of mental representations uniquely given to humans and, in contact with and influenced by environmental input, is shaped into specifi linguistic systems, that is, into various NATURAL LANGUAGES: ‘Computational modules, P-moduls, are mechanisms that process and transform mental representations. ‘They can carry out computations on a restricted range of inputs, snamely, those of a particular domain; in processing this kind of input they can only use their own proprietary principles and procedures, stored mainly in theie respective C- ‘module which acts as a database. For instance, an le will only provide “olutions for asthmetie problems, using only asithmetic operations and inputs rithmetie P-mod Cognitive sciences and the theories that developed within the study of human cognition in the past half centusy ace essential pillars i the exeation and development ff Artificial Intelligence and intelligent systems. 1.3 Language processing J. Fodor's theory of the modulasity of human mind argued that language processing (pursing) is a Pemodulae sytem and that, like other Pamodules, when presented with eepropriate input (inguiste, that is its Function is mandatory and the processing Pe Unfont ately, he admits, output of modular systems is rather shallow is very fast. Unfortu to any human languages, whether English, French, Sign 1 We wil use the te natural Language’ eer Language, ee af oppored to programming ngages, musical notations, logic nd Academic Engh for Science and Engineering H In spite of the very articulated and experimentally supported theory of modulatty of mind the question of the general architecture remains. ‘The main issue would be to show the extent to which the mind is modular as opposed to employing, domain- general (modules are domain-specific!) principles and processes. The computational theoey of mind admits that the centeal cognitive systems (responsible for belief fixing and reflective thought) are content general and highly sensitive to contexts and individual utiles. 13.1 The Mentalese hypothesis A further development of the representational and computational theories of mind proposes that outside inputs are taken over by the mind, and transducers process these inputs and ‘translates’ them into a logical and computable system of representations as if it were another language. This was called ‘Mentalese? or the language of the mind/thought, and unlike natural languages it is universal for all hnumans. The language of thought does in no way overlap with any natural langu known. People acquire such natural languages as English, Romanian, French, etc. to communicate thoughts to other people, but they form and pros ss thoughts using system much more complex than natural languages and that is ‘Mentalese". Thoughts often seem to contain much more information than can be put into words. Any natural language is limited by the linear produetion of speech, by limited attention span, limited time, ete, (0 name just a few factors that make communicated messages underlying them, Jess rch in information than the thoughts Another fact supporting the theory that the mind, in Forming and processing thoughts and information, does this ia “Mentalese’ rather than in a natutal language, is that even babies and people who have never acquived a language have thoughts and can process information. When a natural language is learnt, Mentalese is translated into that language in order to allow humans to transfer thoughts from mind to mind. S, Pinker argues that, for instance, ‘if babies did not have a Mentalese to translate to and from English (or any other natural language n.d itis aot clear hovw leaening English could take place, or even what learning English would mean’ (1996-73), ‘The hypothesis that human mind ‘speaks’ its own language has at least three interesting implications for the study of human cognition and language processing: (if the mentalese hypothesis is true, it means that in order to understand and form a cepresentation of the World, humans have identical mental ‘equipment, irrespective of the natural languages they possess and use; it also shows that even if each natural language represents the world/eaity in a different maaner, the basis is the same system, mentalese, for all ©) it explains how, without the ability to form and use’ a natural language, animals do have the ability co form a representation of the world, probably in their own ‘mentalese (9 if natural languages are meant to translate mentalese, then a fundamental and universally human mechanism for learning natueal languages mnust exist. ell16 Linguists and laypeope ake have been wondering how lering languages happens af TTA human beings, shortly after coming into the wold, strive to communicate and ccme to be equipped already with the ight tools: the instinct of acquiring @ natura language, no matter which, whether its English, Chinese, or Sign Language, And, given the opporranity tobe in contact with one (i the Family or other social enronment), alt yume beings do learn a language and manage to communicate successfully 1.3.2 Universal Grammar of acquiring natural languages (the language faculty) is language (ve natural language) is a complex inciples. Humans come already endowed with 1 Grammar. ‘The term Universal Grammar efees to te langage jaa that triggers the learning and use of individual natural Tangaages, But also 0 all the shred properties of mate! lng. Lexening che mother tongue activates precisely those grammatical principles encoded in that particulae Tnnguage and thos language leaning can take place. But the innate ability to leam_ inmguage is a domain-specific type of knowledge very much like other domain-specific sate knowledge in the natural world such as the one that makes different species of birds build a certain model of aest or spiders weave a web. Tis argued that the capacity exclusively human. In this view, I ‘mechanism of integrated grammatical pri this linguistic genorype, called Universal ‘The ales and principles underlying UG are not the grammatical rales you learn in school from grammar books. They do not seem to need any teaching as we all ‘know, thom without having ever ‘learnt them. A comparison of languages around the world evenly that certain properties are far more frequent than others, therefore, they are taken to reflect linguistic universal. Fer instance, in any mother tongue we might have, we know that verbs such a8 give heed three ‘aqguments 2 subject (omebody to do the giving), an ‘object’ (Something fo be given) and a ‘receiver (Gomebody to receive the given objec). ‘The way these Srguments ace acranged in a pacticular sentence depends on the language. In Engl the subject 6) comes frst, then the verb (V) and then the object/-s (O). Hence, itis said that English is an SVO language. Mary (S) gave (V) the book (DO) to John (10) “The grammatical principles a language is based on are limited in number. They a applied according to rules and this combination of a limited number of clement vets infinite sentences which can convey virtually any meaning our minds might ‘want (0 express. Grammars thus unique in the natural world; itis a ‘diserete combinatorial eystem’ sta faite set of clements (words) and a finite set of rules which together generate Safnite instances in the form of sentences. Using the words and the rules of a given tratual language can generate an unlimited number of sentences. ‘Thus, if grammar it Timited, language is not. Io der what fo whom can be expeessed in a range of sentences (ith different emphases) with a handful of words and a few combinatorial cules. Academic Engh for Science and Engineering ‘The suena the news rete. Theseus eau The ne resate era he sets. “The elements languages ace made of (vont made of (ord) fill in just afew eases ( classes ot parts of speech) and so do the ul eaters ‘word classes and grammar rules in part IL. a ete Feieee aol oie ges cee ae ae eet (ES ti erie epee Natural language processing and its implica Nawal nage presng ;plications for technology development is the Summing up ta tse feed » snd vw of cite pins and ese dat fom milton of how te nnd neat ay, Cpa st sch Bee sina! cup, borpene We buy corerensd ha wig language processing fit into the equation of human cognition. rreee oot Some ideas to remember: + Ceiona thinking i « (rods) companion procs wich pea With symbolic cepresentations, employing its own syntactic rules, this cri thts ut fe she mind pce Sbol pe ces jown as the ‘language of mind/thought’ hy "the, mentaese trv te gg of mind hgh pos he men lnguagsmrceming «mole of cgno, i compan (wing ste | pecstes with specif inputs and genecates natural languages do not ovedlap withthe lang 7 tecm tobe enabled bya innate vem inant oa of csi my cE the natural languages, PA EEE ON 4 univertl grammar is wed to refer to () the h ich allows o acute language; and the pence mad eles Ba are common to all natural languages; “a grammar it 2 combinato‘al sytem using 4 (limited) set Proce a cles) eof amen and greens nite senencasSonia C Mantes 18 Application linguistics the controversy regarding how much is innate 1, In cogeitive sciences and linguistics th garding er nccled Ths & and ow a i pend lne Re 08? Chapter 10 and eae the Naess eb cy compacing rte knows sia behaviour words: understand (cb), importance (0), What are the arguments of the followin speak (vb)? 4, Wdentify the Subject (oes), Verb (in predicate position), Object (vhat?, who? Whom?) in the following sentences: 1. The approach proposes know methods for automated workpiece selection. be The special issue Finishes with two papers in hybrid assembly cc. They discuss the effects of ‘on mental workload, edge models, seasoning and planning the areas of manual and task complexity and related attention demands 2 eae, D. & Reis, C2008). Lame — AW ine on gust a geen Oxford: OUP. Chapter 2 NATURAL LANGUAGE _PROCESSING 2.4 Natural language processing and Actificial Intelligence Understanding how language works, what processes ate involved, what rules these triggered further research in areas as varied as neurology and brain physiology, peycholinguistics, language learning or computer science and atfcial intelligence. In this section, we will look at how the latter hat made use of knowledge about language provided by cognitive sciences and computational processes follow I linguistics. In theie introduction to one of the most influential books on NLP and artificial intelligence, Daniel jrafaky and James Mastin weote: The idea of giving computers the abily co process human hnguage is as old as the ‘dea of computers themselves. This book is about the implementation and Jamplications of that exciting idea. We introduce a vibrant interisciplinay fel with ‘many names corresponding to its many facets, names Uke speech and language processing, human langwage technology, natual language processing, computational linguistics, and speech cecognition and synthesis, The goal of dhis new field is to get computers to perform useful tasks involving human language, tasks like enabling human-machine communication, impeoving human-human communication, or simply domg useful processing of test oc speech. (20001) As the authors point out, getting computers to understand and produce human language involves many interdiscipliaary skills, from processing linguistic knowledg to creating learning s lively branch 0 has been called ‘computational linguistics’ and, among others, its aim is to develop the computational machinery aceded for a non-human agent to exhibit various forms of li tems. Tn this complex but challenging task, a sather new but linguistic study has produced interesting and invaluable results. This sistic behaviour, whether it is understanding or producing natural language, of both. This computational machinery is made of computer programs and various types of data (eg. statistical, analytical) as well as large amounts of knowledge about language Integration of language and computer programs makes perfect sense if we see he (artificial) mechanical symbol systems. The modular type of processing linguistic input can be transferred to computational processes, t00. age a8 a (natural) mechanism of complex symbol systems and computers as Another method common to both language processing by humans and by computers is the ability to improve performance based on statistical analysis. Linguists andSonia © Munteans con of tents (writen oF spoken considered epresentaive forthe language, Tice cytes that neds to be shied. A corpus provides dat about language 19 aan cc and texts users produce in real life linguistic exchanges, Conpora ae important because they provide evidence of how grammar works for 2 particular kind ares meaiings Corpora aso provide the contest for language data At a Grin level te man ind opeates wih corpora wes them to ee and/o eee Cntuiie competence. Taequeney of oecurenc a ees Commas and such gatas sed (py brane and computer prog in sien aR mapa vaous lings tsk, such a8 dsambigution of sentence ‘meaning, Examples of tasks petformed by computers and involving NLP are: a. automatic speech recognition and natural language understanding (cg Spplications would inclide for instance voice activated controls, digital dictation, transcription of speech or the heacing-impaired, ets by muchinewandatons Rfommaton extrction (web-based question answering, computersided © amen md oe checking f SRN al agents prewams able co sndestand and produce natal language ~ speech recognition and speech synthesis - with a high degree of autonomy and fluency). 1 input in a modular mannes, taking each sub- The steategy of processing linguistic input tI be module of subsystem at a time and then, integrating the output for a comprehensive solution is typical for NLP computer programs. 2.2'The role of computational linguistics Geting computers to understand and produce’ meaningful language, from simple tasks euch as dieplaying a warning message on your screen, to (today, only imagined) the elegant and smooth language abilities of Captain Data from Sta Tick, involves wast knowledge of computer programming and actficial intelligence, but also krowledge of language itself. Computers can generate linguistic data, sentences, of a isciplinary Fields such as computational linguistics provide various complesities, Inter indispensable data, Ie he lowing ve wl ty to undead te leo ompuatina ngs in Fe ee a by compte snag» ond station: Out go isto reveal how much inguistic Knowledge (of syntax and entatc structures in thi Co enn abana and A te Re Ba cal er aedaanied at. Tae eompute apae 2 prestre sentne _ Academic English for Science and Enginering a ‘These systems of language generation cannot produce novel sentences or texts. For a computer to process and then generate new sentences much more complex programs are needed which ace capable of an: appropriate output ing a linguistic input and then produce an Let us take the task of analyzing a simple written tentence in order to, say, translate it from English into Romanian. A computer programmed t0 do automatic translation (machine wanslation) would take a series of steps, analysis of linguistic input proceeds as follows: formed in a given order. The Ian fch Step 1. ~ tokenization 2 ou sentence needs to be segmented into smaller parts, in this ease words; this process is called tokenization, and in English (or other European languages) this is a faidy simple task ‘as words are punetuation separated by spaces and/or eanvish. Step 2. - moephological analysis b. a morphological analyzer brakes a word into its constituent parts — stem, for a simple task (vuch as search query with a search engine) sometimes is ‘nough if the program can identify the (Guch as fichin fishes), n and ignore any inflected Form: d._ when more complex tasks need to be performed, and machine translation is a complex task, there is the possibility to use a database of full inflected forms; ‘we might thus have for the verb ‘fish’ (fish, fishes, fished) this strategy is useful in the cate of languages with few inflected forms like English, but rather impossible to handle for languages such as Turkish that hhas around 2 million inflected forms for a single verb! £ another strategy is to progeam a rule for inflecting forms and store separately only itregular inflections; the computer program identifies the words that match the pattern of that cule and recognia at inflected form; satactic analysis parsing, an important part of natural language understanding is syntactic analysis, tha is identifying the structure of a sentence; this is done using a set of linguistic rules that specify for a given language the way words can combine in sentences (a grammat); 4 computer program which deals with grammatical rules in trying to find the best grammatical structure for a given sentence is called a parser/syntactic parser:Sonia C. Mantean «cin the case of ambiguous sentences, or with multiple syntactic interpretation, f parser would produce all possible structures (that is, all possibildes that ‘comply with the rules that program is using); 4. parses: make use of simplified forms of grammar, called context free frammars; even simple versions of context-free grammars can handle quite a Bee of sentence types, and in combination with frequency counts (statistial ta of Frequency of occurrence of certain structures in large corpora) may generate good results 221A comtext-free grammar Context-free grammars are systems of rules that break a sentence into constituent flements, such as phrases, and phrases into smaller constiment elements such as words, For example, we might design a contextfzee grammar with the following phrase constituents: § = SENTENCE VP = VERB PHRASE NP = NOUN PHRASE We then specify that on the immediate inferior level of composition these phrases Ihave the following possible structuce: Ss —INP VB} vp [VERB] VP [AUXILIARY VERB} VP [VERB NP] ‘VP [AUXILIARY VERB NP} NP [DETERMINER NOUN] NP [NOUN] NP —s[PRONOUN] “The categories on the left ace called nortermtinal as they can be expanded to othe: categories; for example the non-terminal category NP can be expanded! into three Uifferent structural sub-categories as shown above, We can then expand the sight hand elements in the structural sub-categories into swords, called ferminaly which cannot be further expanded: V—+{sleep, write, ean, fish, love) AUXILIARY —*{can, have, didn't} N —+(door, fish, head) DETERMINER — (the, this, blue) PRONOUN —{I, we, you, she, he, it} A parser wil provide a syntactic structure of a sentence, in a hierarchical order. These hierarchical syntacti structures are ealled parse trees, _ Academic English for Science and Engineeving interpretations and ead to the generation of two pase wees” ae 1. ean fish. > Tam able to catch fish What happens next? How isa computer program to decide which of the two syntactic interpretations above are the correct interpretation of the sentence, in a given context? entifyng the cle of each woed (las it belongs to, or part of speech) solves part of the problem. This process is preformed by anther type of program which lbs, oF tags each word, assigning it a part of speech role. Such programs are partol-specch- tagger nd they do this Flowing peven res bt alo by aig pats by Adiing res to a contexte grammar and ensbl tebighice cin be redveed of amined ia plea ealed waco, and = grammar based on such processes is called a unification-based grammat, 2.2.2 Language processing by technology Mace anos pecan more tik than shown he ne vey ns proces see nae hn nee op mae ngage Howe ‘moti ont pcerd snc y sents and pee couse Contes oa ead owed cl somineshlaous eg target language : a An examples of corpus processing tools is lexical analysis software. WordSmith is such a program which can assist users in creating from a large collection of «Sonia Mantes 4 ina text, or cxeate fits of all words used in a text, wit ete. It can mark up texts so users can see adher'>) and tags if they want to omar ts, Bnd hor i a 0 Frequency values, arsanged alphabetical both text (I hard 2.2.3 Further ambiguit inated by writing sules and having sentences docs a lot of disambiguation naturally and the mechanism could be replicated by efficiency and speed and learn Not all linguistic ambiguity can be elimi syntactically parsed. The buman mind almost instantaneously. Although theoretical : designing rules for a computer program co do the same thing, igning : ‘vould stil be a problem. However, machines can be trained to disc en thee own, Wich temendous increase and sophistiaton water programs can learn form analyzing large amount eae ce ‘analyzed by the computer which rules of linguistic analy of computational power, : OF (éelevant) texts, corpora. A corpus of language is marks up the sentences with parse trees. Once the treebank is created, A computer program ean induce pat Jearn about that language. These statistical data can later be ambiguous interpretations oceut. The program can decide For the one intespreta “chich appeared with the highest frequency ia the coxpus of sina texts texts have been annotated a ems and theie frequency and used when sentences with registers, suep 4. semantic aalis Tentence meaning deeds | oer Gutacte eae ae supplemented with semante ms in ASE euning) onder acieve a high epee of disambiguation; 4 meanings and then ent pats, words and phsase a uch as Ife eenumn to our example, |can fish, where, say, based on statistical data, the most likely parse tree would be Ls pel ae 1 can fish Academie Engl for Science and Enginceing terminals at the bottom of the tree would be assigned meanings based on a combination of syntactic and semantic rules jucafsky, Mastin 2000) such as: VP [Aux V] VP.meaning = Apply (Aux.meaning, V.meaning) Summarizing the above exercise, we can list the kinds of linguistic knowledge involved in (computer simulated) natural language processing: Morphology — word components and theie function; Syntax ~ structure of sentences and functional relationships of sentence components; Semantics — word and sentence meaning For processing simple sentences these kinds of knowledge may be enough, but if more complex utterances are presented, or more complex tasks need to be performed, supplementary data are necessary. If the linguistic input is spoken, knowledge of sounds in a particular language must be used (phonemes, phonetic rules, etc). Also, in various contexts (ocial, stylistic, professional, ete) a sentence can acquire meanings that are not a simple function of the composed meaning of its parts. This is handled by pragmatic rules which take into account the relationship among sentence meaning, context of use and speaker's meaning, When meaning is derived from coherent units larger than a single utterance (Gentence), discourse knowledge is Summing up Linguistics and technology have joint forces to create artificial intelligence which can understand and generate natural language. Computational linguistics and corpus tudies offer solutions for the challenges faced by computer science in the following = morphological processing: tokenization, identifying morphological composition rules; statistical analysis. = Semantic disambiguation, Language structure and ules are thus translated into algorithms and programs which computers can usc in generating meaningful language. Computers can also learn from corpora and input sensitive to discourse context to improve outputSonia © Nnteams Application 4. Perform a tagging procedure for the following sentence: “The program overlooks repeated words. TL Wealeulates rates of frequency, b Resleutp ereaing such a highly adapable and flexible manufactng A ke es“emberdng onine, cognitive capabities in the machines tomselves and the production contro a, Find definitions from three different sources of the following cones Trelingeises, generative grammas, Rhetorical Structure Theory i fest paso eT Tatcigence, resent your definiéons to the class and point out differences in approaches. 4, Find 3 tiles of books, articles, chapters in books which deal with the flowing remie: ‘aumaGesuramaszation, question answering: infommaton vies al ‘opie tar language processing, discourse parsing/ paces, Provide nares of sare Vaat/place of publeation and publisher; provide short presentation (mas 30 wordks)of approach, topics, ete. 4k Study the text processing software | TROPES (download fom / /wxrw semantcknowledge.com/doweloathtm)/ WORDSMITH TOOLS Chaps are lesieallyaet/swordsmith versions index hon, Use the demo/ et , functions and a shor Nercions, Make a presentation in class of what it dot demo. 5. Read chapter 10 of Dlsae&C. Reiss 2008) I-Languge, Oxford Uingrittcs peut de a cammary and explain what ‘domain-specific knowledge’ means ia language. 6. Read pages 321322, 337-340 fom D Marcu @2000) Tie thoy ond aaa ee ing and smmarizatnn, Massachusetts Institue of ‘Technology. Som ¥o fe penta about the role of stcture in, human and auromatic ane naiation, Present furee applications of rhetoscal discourse parsing, 4, Read pages 4-46 from B. Roatk &R Sproat 2007, OUP) Computations! he eee eit and St: Nake a suramary ofthe discussion about the definition ¢F aoe ae provide an example from English and discus it in dhe framework put forwaed by the two authors Read pages 451-453 from St, Pinker & P. Bloom fea langage and Nata! Satay fetzoduction) in J. Barkow, L. Cosmides & J. Tooby (1992) Tie adap seat (uummanze the dtcusion presenting the prot and cons of natal language as a peoduct of evolution. 0, Read pages, 484-488 from Chp.14 "Computational Linguistics /Relaed Teal Read Pages gee J ConnorLinton (ed) 2003) Ax Intention to Langage ond Tinga, OUP, Summarize and present the information to the class II. SENTENCE GRAMMAR AND DISCOURSE GRAMMAR s part we will learn about: - combining parts of words (morphemes) to create new words; combining words to form phrases; phras structure and formation; X-bar theory; - structure of main phrase types in English: NP, VP, AP, PP; sentence phrase ~ coordination and subordination; - language in use: discourse and variation of language use; = the concept of text and texture ~ cohesion and coherence of texts; - structure of information.Chapter 3 SENTENCE GRAMMAR _ 3.1 Word structure Grammar can be defined as a discrete combinatorial system because it works by combining a set of clements according to 2 (finite) set of rules to create an infinite Sumber of sentences and, hence, enabling its users to communicate wlimited meanings. nbine into highes level Components. Phonemes combine into morphemes, moephemes into words, words into phrases, phrases into sentences (lla type of phase), sentences into discourse units Its also a hierarchical system as lower level components co In this section, we will discus combining morphological components, syntactic components and discourse units focusing on an illustration of features in technical (written) texts ‘The morphological level of grammar structure contains a viewully infinite set of clements called morphemes and a finite set of combinatorial rules. Words ace created fiom a core element and affixes. The core is called stem while ce, if added at the left of the stem, or sullixes if added at ite affixes may be pr sight _Affixes can be of two kinds, according to their role inflectional: they signal inflected forms of the same words for instance, tense fora verb or aumber for nouns; Ueaivational: they ereate a new word form the stem (often the new word may nanonly wn crtain>ncertan Delong to a new word class): common +h English is eather poor in its inflectional system, but very sich in derivational potential Below, there isa lst of the most common English affixes: able age al an ed en er ful shod se ify jon ‘sh ism ist ity sive vine ay -ment va anti pee- & part. dis | «= Academic Engh In addition, new wor can be freely ceated in English by ‘compounding’, that Faabining ive cr mow veeds ‘The new worl'tay fet thge tt wan continuously, a hyphenated unit made of multiple stems or : Beccles unit made of stems nevertheless eady-made idney beans kidney+beet Th, the rales for building morphological units (vor) can fltows¢ ie eae eel Sang saan 7e oes ee moe Jor infesting [1] Xstem —Xstem Xinfleetion rules (noun; X=N) Notem —sNstem Ninflection for derivation [2] Xetem —+Xatem Xaffi readable (adj) Adjstem —Vstem AdjaffixApplication ~for compounding [3] Xetem —Xstem Xetem 1 Identify inflected words in the following text and write the rule by which each has . been inflected. Draw a tee for each, online (adi) "hs geet descbes te sping prince, des and fall paamance _, Pstem Neter twoleve, ree-eg device commulated current squree converter (CSC) topology Adjstem-+ Pster based ‘Static Synetvonaus Compensalor (STATCOM), which fs developed for mecium votage Industry applcalions. ihe paper, the relationship betveen the Teactve power and te contol variables fs obtained, harmonic minimization tecmiques applicable to CSC. are investigated, and then Selecive Harmonic Elimination Technique is applled for he elimination ofthe Sth, 7th 1th and 3th hhamonies in CSC line extent. The design principles ofthe Input fer are ais Set out Considerations for optimum sizing of STATCOM in common sty ‘applications are deserbed wih the design objecive of maximum uilizaton of power semiconducors. (wiv elseviercomfocatelepr, 2011, al 81), go-ahead (n.) Nstem —sVstemAdvstern 2 Identify derivate words in the following text and write the ale by which each has been inflected. Draw’ a tre for each The design principles presented inthe paper are generalized fr all contol and PWM techniques, and also take into account the effects of practical imation. In the system sng study, the primary design objecive is to operate CSC symmeticaly in both inductive and capacive regions fr fll ullizaton of power semiconductors, and hence minimization of installed CSC capacity. (dem) 3 What are the composition rules the following words: reviewable, disambiguated, anti-acid, logic-based? Deaw a tree for the derivation inflection structure. 4 Read the following fragment. Identify words that can change form by derivation. Write the derivated forms and state what word class thety belong to. Computational reflection is a wellknown technique applied in many existing programming languages ranging from functional to object-oriented languages. In {his paper We study the possibilities and benefits of inlroducig and using reflection in a rule-based model transformation language. The paper identifies ‘some language abstractions to achieve structural and behavioral reflection Reflective features are motivated by examples of problems derived from the ‘experience with current used transformation languages. Example solutions are given by using an experimental language with reflective capabilties. The paper also outlines. possible implementation strategies for adding reflection to a language and discusses their advantages and disadvantages, 5 Complete the table with the right word, noun of adjective, What morphological rule is applied?adjecive strong elastic durable light flexible heavy brite rigid tough iNoun stabilly fragity adjective malleable flammable rough smooth wide reliable deep ‘noun energy resistance hazard conductivity _ Aeaemie Engh for Science and Enginesing 2 3.2 Phrase structure A sentence isa linguistic expeession of who does what to whom, wen, low, were, ef. That fs, a mental process or a thought is ‘translated’ into a natural language. Sentence structure works with a set of elements, called words, and a set of (Finite) combinatorial rules to create an infinite number of sentences. Syntax deals with the elements and th rules of sentence structure 3.2.1 Word classes ‘The set of elements that combine to form sentences are called words and fill into largely two categories lexical words: these are words that are semantically loaded, that is eatrying a meaning of their own; lexical parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions; lexical words are constantly added to the vocabulary of a language funetion words: they contsibute mainly to the structural organization of a sentence and are semantically w parts of speech; function words are a closed class, that is new additions cannot appear in a language ker; articles and conjunctions are functional 3.2.2 Phi ‘omposition In the process of conveying meaning, words are assembled into phrases, and pheases into sentences. As sentence structural rules are essentially the same with phrase- structural rules, sentences can be seen a8 a kind of phrase. Understanding phrase and sentences means making sense of theis components, the role each component plays and the rules chat apply to such components ia order to become phrases. Fos tongues, such rules are applied rather automatically; we rarely monitor conse our mother jously how iged in a piece of writing/spoken communication. But in a foreign re making sense of corn role of each woed, how it combines into higher order structure — phrases, what is the ‘order words should come in 2 phrase, etc. Competent (foreign) language users are highly awe of syntactic organization of elements in written /spoken communication and make ‘good use of syntactic tules to peoduce high quality texts, unication invalves a lot of work into deconstructing the Phrases 8 higher onder syntactic structures combine a set of components, in a particular order, according to a set of rules © the core element of a phrase is its head, which gives it its name; thus, a ‘noun phrase has a noun for head, while a verb phase will have a verb for its head; © in English, the head is on the left ofits complement(s) © phrases have an internal specified structure and can be embedded into other phrases (recursion) to generate an infinite number of structuresSonia Munteams «sentence are, by these principles, a type of phrase governed by a finite verb; English is a language where word order is sather fixed, os at best, syntactic Timited flexibility. For native speakers and competent users arcangement of words ha Of English as a foreign language, the acrangement of words into phras ito sentences is often self-evident. Sometimes however, identifying heads, modifiers tnd thei positions is not so easy. Which words combine into what phrases can be ‘iificult to decide. There are tests to determine if a set of words can be considered @ pihrae. Language users should employ them wherever correct segmentation of a pce Of text is uncertain. The tests are: = trampositin oF morement: tis testis based on the assumption that a phease is fy-tied unit and hence it can be moved around in different slots within a clos eg a All tests will be Finished Dy the ond of te th week 10, By the endo the fh ec, athe cests will be Finished. the sequence by the end of tbe fib weck is seen 2s a phrase, a ining its Tn a, and a’, abo structural unit, nd, as such, can components in the same sequence. Of course, semantically speaking, the meaning of rnd af is not identical a, fronts the time adjunct (by the end of the on in Eaglish is after the verb (a). Bu the fact that fe moved around in a sentence, still mais the two sentences fifth wek), whose unmarked pe ‘bythe end of the fifth weeks a phrase is supported. “The test of transposition for phases stands even where the tested phrase changes syntactic function, asin the ease of active to passive voice transformation, 1b The rearcers al MIT anntounced their results on Frida J. The results weee announced by the esearchers at MIT on Friday Ta br the resanders at MIT is subject, while in 8. it is agent. Stil, its structural composition is preserved and components preserve their ord Now compare the situation in a. and b. with the following: ‘e.The information was sent by clerks in sealed emelpes. 1 this example no active transformation can move the entire sequence by clerks sealed envelopes on the subject position. Ce. Chirks in swale envepes sent the information. © is simply incorrect because the four words in italics are not syntactically and functionally a phrase = substitution. this testis based on the assumption that a phrase as a syntactic word) ‘unit can be substituted by a sing All tests wil be Finished by te end of te fits week dL All tests will be finished shen _ eis this test assumes that a set of words forming a phrase can be left out altogether and its meaning cetsieved by refersing backwards Acadonic Engl for S scand Eng 3.2.3 X-bar phrase structure Phaases canbe presented ina tree structure that follows the above me fe al gpa of phrucn aad accu eo here a comer expaizndoa aces al Ianguages in the wodd. aa 7 ne soil hor tat deena ers stac ate (eal languages) according to similar pattems is called X-bar th It a plate (XP) seule it properdes fom its head (X) and conowms to singlet Plan. Bellow we wl ithe parmetrs hit define this general ster plan (@) The head (1) of phrase (KP) may be preced positon is filed in ve phrases by the negative cements (aot, eve, te) tnd nao pes yao sme hy ah eve hy 3 nm oc enanpe say be preceded bya nea suai, an Mente ajc, pessenive sleeve: the dog. 8 dog, any dog, my dog, some dogs, ccs Species ate aot stickabl, hati, they exe cach oer: any doi incoect XP spec. H (a ed of «phrase may have a number of arguments, cled complement, at specify the necessary participants in a relationship which complete the meaning of that head-woeds ce, the v o id-word; for instance, the verb ‘give’ presupposes 1 giver (the subject), an object which is the given thing, and another (indirect) object, or a recipient of whatever was given; these Participants in the relationship of ‘giving’ are called argume ‘give’; the giver is the s 4 of the verb ibject of the verb, the other two are complem ‘The head and its complements (C) are n ;ouped into a ub-phrase~ an X, pronounced har - as theic meaning. b rT on a diferent ning cannot be sparted and hicrarcheallyaanged on difer tree-branch; this can be written as: : os . | X! +X Complement The board gave the project funds. Nei t«CUWP ~v : voa @ The board gave theproject. funds ion con ire ool ave complement, oo Inthe pac ‘he Inpetance of temperature for dant gringo onder Unt the head-nounmpotance’ should Fall te mening thre hast be something to be nportat, ted at temperature, hence “OF temperature’ is a complement of ‘importance’ : Comp 4 q head they take, but the close bound between head and complement is obvious fn ll ‘ypes of phrases. ne. Sonia C. Musteane (6) a head may be pre- and post-modifed by other elements called ‘adjuncts “which usually add (ciccumstantil) information about it, without being Cesential in completing the meaning of the head; in our example ‘the importance of temperature for plant growing’ for plant growing’ is an adjunct as it brings addtional information about the head word adjuncts fre represented inside the phrase but aot under the X's the head of + pphease can take any number of chem this ean be written as Follows: XP —+ X' Adjunet* (8 a phrase may also have an optional subject (in English, on the left of the Thead); so, the fall structure may be written for English as follows: XP —s (subject) X' Adjuner™ 3.2.4 Order of elements ‘You may have observed that the phrase elements, optional or obligatory, have in English tir own position, before or after the head word, English is not jntleetinal language, therefore the Function of words in phases, and sentences, t00,i8 marked by thee postion inside phrascs. Positioning and inflection are rules in all Tanguagee used © assign faneGons to words and phrases, Where inflection i rutable, soch a8 in Romanian, Talian, ct, order of words in phrases is less sgid. Bat here the inflectional system is poos, Words order is rather rigid, Variations are ‘Mlowed, but they are ‘make, that is, die use is not the prefered but the emphatic ( {gave the book to John vs. To Jehn | gave the book {not to Mary) . This is ale that works the same forall haman languages. In addition, the rules for the positioning of the arguments essential in = meaning ‘elation seem to follow some basic patterns for all human languages. As there are thece essential roles, subject (S), verb (V) and object (O), six logical possibilities exist: S¥O, SOV, VSO, VOS, OSV, OVS. Human languages occupy only some of these logical arrangements’: Pat erin fwd lange Eis SvO Grex 75 of world languages use English, French, Viewamese SOV lone of these pattems Japanese, Tibetan, Korean WSO ‘Approx. 15% Welsh Vos Tow percentage Malagasy ‘OVS/OSV__ Extremely low Timited to languages spoken ‘confined area in the oe Amazon basin Free order Low percenty Latin, Navajo. 3 Apu D. Cystal 1990), _ Academic Engl for Seience and Engincerng 3 3.2.5 Movement and deletion Ginn te ce le ‘hic postion in a tentens aecoding to the ue of each ace hc, nny Smee in be analyzed and represented in a tree But if English specifies a non-marked position of arguments as an SVO configuratio how can we account for passive sentences? Or questions? — ‘An explanation i provided by anoter principle of Unites Gr Nor Chonan 957i the v-ald aed rd geasnie pens Ste diplay vo levee of ogaization, a dee, unde level fabled in geneive primar deep-intue, and ltr d-etise) ana eutice el (utice suture, or srt) hich ithe conccte rpreenaton ofthe undedjng ene, Tete we ‘way er mization ven peer ting in fat ce and the nme tama content rag). Iti the eae of pasve/acive sentences. Say this example [1] The machine computes the input data instar Lm i stanly {27h ret data are computed instant (byte machin} ft)Sonia C Manreana 38 ree lok atthe wots of het sentences, he smi is obvious, We epresented Tews lok ath cpg eter how te yt of the scice exe the tute i Shar mov he ound Tr the tuts, al neces seences ative ce Pais) the meaning of a word ean be completed, To natural Tanguages, For various reasons ~ many heeding to the need for the most econontics langnge, or ase Cectucs mote around elements and omit the ones whose ‘meanings can be easly retrieved, Tote computational mos ofthe nnd hs epee x tebe Semon coping than om the onl pee cst las fo ene cee capri he ebere ca he scenes (oe eo the ai of ean Pet They the ogi deed, bt ays Ting a oe hc oe fan fhe meaning of hx Pe Fe eaten gence ganar movement Let as haves look a2 question sete the movement process and the ifference cee rrnc detrutuce and its s-scutite, In question Formation, the ia berween tae dete ig copied and moved, to. When cepreenting the sentence clement ducotions itt uel to add level of TP (flected phsase so that the fusllary movement ofthe verbs wisble at da they speak about? (ie yee oy speskipast terse about what >What dd they spon abou] dstrcture with alts roleplay adem Engh for Ssience and Engineering 9 3.2.6 Phrase extension rules If grammar is made of a finite set of sules and basic elements, language is infinite in the kind of meanings and structures it can communicate, How can this be done? Language allows for the growing of a phrase/sentence using the same rule again and agtin, saving our brains from the effort of using other rules for extending its meaning, ‘These are called recursion rules. wipe adjionets this principle means that one can insert words in a phrase structure ad infinitum; for instance, in a NP the noun can have attributes added before i¢ (adjectives) smart device = the principle of adding and adjective in front of the noun to supply information about a kind of noun (dleviee) ean be repeated any times we wish: smart wireless device smart inexpensive wireless device = there is 20 theoretical boundary to how many attributes of this kind can be added before a noun; the only limiting criteria would be the time, enesgy available, attention span, ete. for communicating ina real life situation. 2) embedding this allows any phrase/sentence to be placed inside another sentence; the use Of relative clauses is an example of embedding It is also possible to remove sentences which contain certain indicating phrases. it can go on indefinitely, embedding a sentence into an embedded sentence into another embedded sentence. Its also possible to remove sentences which contain certain indicating phrases which have a TE*IDF score lower then a given threshold £3} coordination = coordination means linking two pheases/sentences on equal terms using coordinating conjunctions such as: and, but and of “This too! does not employ any automatic methods to help huma but ives them the option to access a corpus of human produced abstracts,40 Application 1, Analyze the surface structure of the following, tying to account for all sub- phrases, i. Automatic summerisation systems help us to deal with the information overload, ii. The paper finishes with a review of related work in the field of computer aided language processing ii, The concept of computer aided summarisation was inspired by the machine-aied translation approach proposed in 1960 by Martin Kay 2, Provide recursive extension of any kind possible for the meaning and structure of the following sentences. Mention the recursive rule/-s you used. Other features were undo/redo operations, i. The feasibity of the computer-aided summarization approach confirmed by research into haw humans produce summaries. ‘Some ofthe proposed methods can be applied to any domain The procedure followed a modified atfiial grammar paradigm, _ Academic Engh foe Science and Enginceing 3.3 Basic phrase types ‘The main word classes that cacry semantic content - lexical classes - can be heads of theit extension phases. Hence, we may have noun-phrases (NP) with a noun as head, verb-phrases (VP) with a verb as head, preposition phrases (PP) with preposition as hnead and adjective pheases (AP) with an adjective as head, 3.3.1 The noun phrase in English 4.3.1.4 Simple nouns and compound nouns As far as their internal structure is concemned, nouns can be simple such as car, mouse, desc, etc. o¢ compound. Compounding in English is extremely productive, Technical vocabulary is constantly enriched by new concepts expressed as compound nouns. However, often their meaning is not eas ing able to ‘see’ into their structure may contribute to meaning comprehension AAs with phases, the structure of compound nouns is built of head/-s and modifier The modifiers in compounds ace pre-positioned with cegard to the head! and may be adjectives, participles, numerals or nouns. Syatactically, pe-modifiers in compound nouns are attributes, but we will keep the functional label of (pre-)modifiers ia analyzing their structure to keep theoretical aspects simple. In the noun phrase, compound noun has its own specifier (determiners) and may be followed by its complements and/or adjuncts. Compounds behave as single units, hence can be a sulti-word Head of their own noun-phrases. Let us examine some typical structure of ‘compound nouns. Too-vord compounds N— preMH, H e{noun}, preM (noun, adjective participle} Adjective + noun adaptive vision preModifier "Head adaptive visidn 4 Compounding in English follows a general ule where the sight most word is the ead and th to iu left determine or modify it The mle is called The Right Hand Head Rule ‘onsstent through al Kinds of compounds in English, compound nouns onde RHHR and is= Noun +n patent law patent Nee pel, Me NAT HY H+ preMIT/ pM peMpeeX H {nous} : M {noun, adjective, participle} = lefebeanching natural language processing /™ M ~~ uZ Nu language NH natural processing -right-branching computerized numerical control control computerized wreword compounds N preM (preME)H. N preMH(preMH) N preMpreMpreMH _ Academic English For Science and Engineeing 8 coordinated modifiers N preMpreMpreMH1 sodium nickel chloride batteries M M1 M2, Other configurations of compound nouns in English are = consistent lef branching | = consistent right branching branching teenter-beanching right-branching tcenter-beanching Science language abounds in technical terms which ate taken as compound nouns. Although nonspecialists can hardly decode the meaning of such complex technical nouns, understanding their intemal structuring contributes significantly to understanding their meaning vocabulary, and should be ab Also, scientists ate creators of their own specialized 0 coin new terms following the rules of English noun 4.3.1.2 Pre and post modification in the Noun Phrase ‘The presen its most obvious and also stiking feature # long and complex noun phrases in science academic prose is pechaps ‘The structure of the noun-phrase (NP) in English implies both pre- and post: un modified, as we have already seen, is called the Head o Dead led by modification, The ni now. It can be a simple noun or a compound. Its specifier position is determiners. Between the 3 cifier and the head, an adjunct position is filled by attabutes in the noun-phrase. The post-modification comprises complements and/or adjuncts. Thus, the noun-phrase can be represented as Follows: NP det atts N (post)M Pre-moditication ‘The noun in English can be pre-modified by its determiners and any number of attributes, These belong to the following word classes: adjective sumeral pacticiple_ Sonia Mantes “ reemodifeaion wily sits with dice detemince (wher the css) The dei Premodictc notsome pete subet ofthe Head aoun intended, andi Se en ety Ths diet clement scaled bythe folowing word dass: E demonstratives: ‘which/whichever, what/ whatever, c. interrogative 4. antes : fe indeterminate quantitative: each /every/somes £ others: same, other, different, identical, entice, whole ‘The determiner may include a numeraive element which indicates quantity in a more Fane vale by numer (510) or quan Se tc aac by ones is cod as Ae Deteeniners are not stackable, tha is, a phrase can have only one of a kind. They do not follow a recursive rule The aitbute clement may be an epithet which si Tha Guay imy be an objective propery of that thing (as rah) ox ray be ro eee tezson of te speaker water (intact). Une. determines ae ee ackable and follow the recursive rule. So, in the same noun hore then one epithet may precede the head-noun Thay employ lovely fst lve wagons Mort often epithet dots filled by adjectives and may accept degrees of compan at vey employ the fastest wagons. They ample amare. sucess! approach tothe study of miro topes. « a classifier clement which indicates « particular subclass ‘The attsibute may also include a classifier el bs eae pain sb Of the head-noun (carbox nanotubes, plolamechanizt! actuation). The classifier doe a “This slot i filled by nouns or adjectives, out ticiple) may function as classifiers, t00. htly linked that they are often perceived oftware progeamm). take degrees of comparison or intensity non-finite verb forms (present or past par hhead noun and its classifier ma become so tik as a single compound noun (lectical ciccuit, operating system, s scilating power (resent paticee) paver tat osciats) crefen ake (pet partie (evalu hat ven) avert (rou) Shotomechenca actuation (adjective) Post-modification it may take the form of another phrase Post-modification is a more complex thing as it may take pe {usualy prepositional ora relative clause. Each type performs different functions and construes various meanings. Academic Engl for Science and Engincering 7 ‘The photomechanical responses of nanotube polymer systems depend on the structure ofthe actuator. We discuss some possible mechanisms that contibute to the overall Photomechanical responses of carton nanotubes and their polymer composites. This could lead to new early diagnostic tools and therapies in the troatment of cancer. sd with: = prepositional phrases: the structure of the actuator, therapies in the treatment of cancer. = relative clauses: The two magnets which hold the mechanism in the charged position are commercially available Neodyme-Fer magnets. = non-finite relative clauses (to-infinitives, past or participles) In this section, we propose and discuss different design principles fo fulfill these functions, [Assuming a deceleration distance of 2 mm, the force acting on the tigger ‘and this spring when touching the surface is 5 N ~ relative clauses introduced by adverbials: The moment when the force is measured. the point where the force is applied. Examples of the hardness of diferent prevalent man-made and natural materials where our mechanism can perch on are isted 1 Table 2 Post-modifiers may be realiz present Post modification is a means of providing more information about the Head. This information is given in the mast explicit way by means of the relative clause and in hast expliit way by means of pasticipial or infinitive constructions, with the prepositional phrase as an intermediary case Compace: In this set of experiments we evaluate the reliabilly of the perching mechanism which attaches and detaches on diferent substrates. (relative Clause) ~ the mechanism attaches and detaches from diferent substrates, In this set of experiments we eveluste the reliability of the perching mechanism for attachment and detachment on diferent substrates, (prepositional phrase) — the mechanism is used to altach or detach Something from diferent substrates, In this set of experiments we evaluate the reliability of the perching mechanism to attach and detach on afferent substrates. (non-fnite verb) “rather unclear: the relabiliy of the degree in which the mechanism is ‘able to attach or detach from substrates or the reliability of the mechanism itself, which is used to attach or detach something from diferent substrates, Functionally, the post-modifier plays either the role of complement (jt completes the meaning of the head and goes under the X) or the role of the adjunct (brings additional information and does not go under the X?)Sonia C Munesn 3.3.1.3 Nominaligation the construction of nominal groups and slanses. The Steely speaking, nominalization means pattem that emerges is one in which a verbal structure i reiterated later by @ related Expression with a different structural profile will not be refracted enough...for want of sufficient refraction those convex glasses ..ifthe glass have a due degree of convexity. |A complex illustration of this isthe Following paragraph: ‘Evolutionary morphology generates the initial population genotype. The seotatenatton of constituent elements in EM is equivalent to the generation of the “genome of the technical system” in engineering conceptual design. This {Jeneraion could help both in understanding and avekding functional flaws as well 3erindiverefying and improving the technical systems, eration’ in sentences 2 acd theme, as ‘known’ but also In the paragraph cited, the verb ‘genera’ becomes noun, 5, first stil part of heme, as new information, and the rl “Transforming a verb that expresses the established, less negotiable, less debatable. snost important pros that differentiates EM from other approaches in the fled into a es the probability of altering it and establishes firm claims to its snows, a thing, ed reliability and importance ‘Nominalization is a process of compacting information; a verbal structure ~ a finite or hom finite clause ~ is reduced to a shorter, nominal phrase preserving the in ‘This feature has made nominalization one of the most frequent discourse strategies in neademic discourse, where text must be as short as possible compsising, still, the most information 3.3.2 The prepositional phrase A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition as hea, Followed by a post-modliiee {prepositional complement). The complement may be either a town (or a noun ands phrase) ofa clause with a finite verb (a wb- clause) or a non-finite verb (ig form) PP +PN/PNP, PP PVP; VP ¢{ wir clause} PP —+PVP; VP e| Vaing clause} In a few cates a preposition may be followed by an adverb or an adjective. This is mainly the case in idioms. tog. at once, until now, before long, since when, a worst, in brief s ic parallel robots with Schonflies motions via logy’ in Earp Joral of Mecani ASal 5 Gaigore Gog (2006 ‘Structar synthesis of Fully theory of linea transformations and evolutionary mo Bleevie Academie Engh oe Science an Engineering . ¥ ‘A prepositional ph time and place ee se is sometimes pre-modified by intensifiers, expecially those of All results were completely against expectations, This component must be placed directly above the power source. Prepositional phrases used as noun-postmodifiers have functional meanings given by the meaning of the preposition eg the operational potential of this system (possession) slove-box faciity for tials (purpose) ' partin the suitching system (location) 3.3.3 The verb phras: “The verb phrase (VP) has a vecb as Head Ifthe veb in the head position isin afte md ke es and ge ah he ibe) eve phe pt 2 non-finite clause (it de eee e ° ). no take a tense inflection, aor does it agsee with its subject). ‘The specifier position in a verb phrase is filled by negative elements. The post modifier may be a complement of an adjunct ia the form of a noun phrase, adjunct clauses (cla , that-clauses, prepositional phrases or Adverbs and adverbial phrases. Ths can beweiten sa. : 8 of time, cause, result ete VP > spec.VposiM postM (NP/that-clause/PP/adjunet clause, Adv.P} e8 To satisfy the safety demands required by certain industries, in particular those involved in the handing of chemical, biological and nuclear mateal, there is an iceasing reliance on robots and manipulator systems, v Complement ‘The ver pheases whee the ver sa linking verb, 0 copul . a inking verb, o copula, is somehow different. A linking verb needs a second par to complet its meaning, therefore ithas to be always considered a complement. . . a Yet fome at fen muli-componen. Thats on veal foam may be compoted of several other words than the verb careying the meaning. Some of these components ‘mark mood, aspect, tense, voice oc modality .8 Consider “Three samples have been examined separately. In this sentence the ver consis of theee words, fave ben examined, al falling woe the Head of the verb phrase dave ben esumined separately following, apart from tense, mood, and voice, modality is marked with the silagy may “All samples may have already been contaminated. Ir modal a 3.3.4 The adjective phrase “hn adjective phrase (AP) has an adjective as Head. The specifier is usually an adverb AP degree The postmodifier of an adjective pheas, whether complements of Siijancts ace prepositional phrases, wheclauses, or non-finite verb phrases “This an be written as: AP> spec. A postM postM > {PP, wh-clause, non-finite V} spec > {adverbs of degree) ee. ‘such structures are extremely brite. (AP > spec. A) Riavements are independent of context forces. (AP > A PP) ‘The controller is easy to program. (AP > AVP) ‘The operators unsure where the cycle ends. (AP > AVP) Adjective phrases can occur within noun phrases. Consider the following: the small pieces (NP > deta. N) the extremely small pieces (NP > det. AP N) In the example above, the attbute of the noun phrase, the smal ews can be 3 Give phrase, Eaomaly small cannot be considered a simple adjective 25 extramely defines small, and extremely small defines pies the bare adjective, small rand stands the test of substitution with Adjectives and adjective phrases follow the so-called linking verbs of copula, Hon, In English, there is a small set of inking verbs, of ‘appear, become, fe, oak remain, sem, smell, sun occuring in predicative po ‘which the most feequent are: by, {Al surfaces of the metalic part fel smooth “The rate of change remained steady. ‘The pert appeared ready fr finishing n academic science discourse is related to the use of ‘We mentioned above that adjectives can be hon init verb phrases. Ve seems that sence Tinking verb + adjecives! An interesting Fearure of written these adjectives that follow a linking verb* followed by a clause introduced by w- ob prose favours the pattern with aowfinit verb Jolhwin ——— Aen snc English foe Selence and Engineering 9 ‘compact and also impersonal style. - represents Since ts says east fo measure te ine these, hens boterto dee prase angle ache curer Xs important fo emphasize thal he nt hat he naton of mult conponent bos introduced by Gibbs corresponds to the notion of a ‘old with ce micostuctu, as Fed and urn (1500 nofa In this casei is easy fo see that p Is equal to the ambient pressure pa 3.3.5 The sentence phrase ‘The sentence i type of peat in the sents that the une the vi and flow ater Faed ove Gn Englah word order t more rigid than in inflectional languages), ee [A iople sentence isan independent clause bil around sedi jet ux win mule enteee we may ve more an on fet ve which can gover their own structures called clauses. . a epic ror es me [the error is reported to the main iReantl ni process tn or fx soon a he sata sat). in ett ie reenact ei hac th lt th ih i a constituents within this as main or subordinate clauses. a 43.5.1 Coordination Clauses are coordinated if linked by and, but Be 3s ote I linked by and, bus of they may also be juxtaposed, that is 3.3.5.2 Subordination Tn a compound sentence subot pound bordinated clauses are in a hypotactic eelations to the main clause. That means they form a hierarchy where the subordinated clauses are| «a constituent elements of the sentence; they can function as subjects, direct object shalrect objects, advesbials of time, place, reason, condition, ete A detailed description of clause types and functions is beyond the scope of the ‘ions conceming the use and frequency ef couse. However, some general obsereations conceming the we and (ea peeurrence of various fypes of subordinated clauses a et cence made dace tome Sper of mbrta crats are more Frequent, while others are much more rare or absent altogether: ai jes are much more frequent in conversation and relatively rare mn pceiia wa replaced by much more by shat and awh nig science prose. In academic prose, they tend to ae oan Ping clauses. An explanation of this choice is it important consteaints is maximum modifying a verb or an opt for the latter. tive ts much longer than a noo-finite structure, 50 wri 7 phrase. 1 frequently in academic science ‘noun of a noun phrase. They appear more frequently ia aca may © on Lies ate feequent in academic prose i a in conversation. Thal peo ce, that and whwords can introduce nominal relative clauses, that is, clauses research studies. Compare: tharcluuse asa direct | object defining a lexical | verb | Recall hat for @ permeable body in euiriom with ts | surroundings, the chemical potentials constant and | fequal fo the ambient | ‘hemical potential that/wh-clause defining |that-clause as a relative Ainking verb+adjective | clause defining a noun. General aspects that are ‘common to both examples fare discussed first. itis possible that al variables are measured in the same time. ance cademic wring Irenpecng ite an nie flowing the | 8 Bibereeal ( I sieic Engi for Sciace and Engnozing 43.5.3 Some non finite subordinate In science texts, some subordinate claus 8 oceur more frequently. ‘Th se express meanings inherent in ‘doing science’, such as: time, ‘reason, purpose, revult insrument/metiod. I. English, many such subordinates appear both in finite-verb subordinates and non-finite verb subordinate clauses, We will have a closer look at ron-finite subordinates of time, reason, purpose, and method as they appear with Frequency in science texts = expressed with an + Failing o provide the expected accuracy,the method was abandoned, — expressed with an sing clanse afte (ever) since, aftr, before, whi, when, whenever Before feeding in new data, the system must be restarted. Parpase: = expressed by the fo ft the infinitive may be preceded by in order t/a te Field results are also given in the paper in order to validate the operating prineiples and design enteria, Instrument metho exp od by "ting sr “The active and reactive power expression at the input of CSC can be defined respectively as in (8) and (8) by assuming three phase balanced supply votages. Summing up In this section we discussed features and grammatical structures that are underlain by the following ideas: = grammar is a hierarchical system; cach level functions on similar rules but is based on components articulated by elements of the immediately inferior level, grammacis a discrete combinatorial system because it works by combining 4 (Ginite) set of elements according to a (Finite) set of rules to ceeate an infinite timber of messages. Phases arc a basie syntactic steuctuee generated by similac rules. ‘They have a dead and modifiers and thie chacacteristics depend on the characteristics of theic heads. The X- bar theory describ and represents syntactic structures which work cmie-lee! For a particular language and cmss-dingustcaly foe all natural languages. Th English, syntactic phrases are headed by wows ~ noun phrases, by prepeitions — prepositional phrases, by shr— verb phrases, by adicties — adjective phrases. Even fentences can be viewed as a type of phras phrase and a verb phras , Whose minimal components are a noun‘Application «orien emple of aozinsloaon in the tar iow Nom ho ports oe initial ee ae, wl bo ce ee ee ee does that Tenbute to Focused information in the ext ed infaon. ete breakage of since nto emaly Hose) Fragmentation, aenon in ature and engineering, apical, widespread Pagropmyeicl scales such ae i the creation 4 @ efey Tendee po}, to, ranoscales e.g. fragmentation, of Pash GHolian Faye ot gg Inthe itermediate range fragmentation underice Oo array isn, rung bale mpec, as Pieclen damage me alo, debi after impact of salts, cat asnes IPs aring ino} Stan and sol desiccation. During a dynamic and Soe ones aan over, merocracks origale at seeminal, PAT sites, fragments to at large speeds, and evertualy coslsse, 2 ope Propatrerae fragments, During thelr opening, mitocracks Teese arate oe hat propagate eraund ad protect the encom posses unloading cn damaged ilo releates fs own srs waves, Crete areas, Sine Geracione emerges. Despte is comblexty, agent natura appications that hes continuously appealed (0 ne \Morest ofthe scientific community. 4, Read te Following research article abstract and solve the ats below: wing cesar funny treo was st toced by Zadeh in 1S68 The concep of eynamic systems that ae too complex endo, 6. used to descr ime conaters using comentonal,mainen oo fide fues Maman applied the zy sel neon for Sees modeling ecerrolere (FLO) or conling amamic S/tems, Sr {uzzy oe roe researcners have developed LCS, fo times tne ealone. in general a FLC consists ofa Seto Inguie, condticnal applications, Geo jeved from human operator, and Which repress Stator Gnawiedge about tne sytem being controled. These ‘statements expert knowlege, Sal acons using #-then rules, The ELC, oe define <2 fey reasoning process and f atempts 0 Urs te conetunowtedge in emuletng human convo cepabities Tes manifests expat kre oy quale information about the Process ere {re sof in the triclaed in the Fihen rues. Far example, 8 Te ifermation ay process the error an the change i er fo syesize ser conta for proving the system performance a. Find 4 noun phaase where the head noun is premodifed by + 200m and a adjective b. Find a noun ph present participle eae emu phrase where the head noun is post- modified by = prepositional phrase ‘which indicates location. isan ith prc and post: modification; specify the word class for pre a Uhfers and the type/meaning of the post-modifier se where the head noun is pre-modiied only by adjectives and Academie English for Science and Engineering, 5, Identify a verb-phease with a finite verb as head and a noun ph yun phrase as post- modifier modifier; a verb phrase with a non finite verb as head and a prepositional ositional post thrdore garing seas fo he acarcus aen, A ‘infest design manipula is fa artvopomorphic nd eect, whch ‘consists of four mechanically adaptive fingers cone of fa plive fingers together with a’ simple- _ Chapter 4 DISCOURSE GRAMMAR 4.4 Language above and beyond the sentence sing of language, So far, we have discussed mosphological and syntactical peoet adding a basic layer of semantic disambiguation. Apart ffom reconstucting strvcce of sentences peop wing aoe ee, fecal pncge now a componitionalty We know that in genet the meaning of a sentence, for instance, is made up cumulative ftom the meaning of mea Fe) ad the es OF combining them, However, in conversation (eid ee ‘of communication) this principle may not be enough sia communieated. Ir an utterance uch as ‘ck on soy to understand by combining the meaning of onal (et long wit does (Ge Irgenealys van instance (Cigagm the ful menting of wh the ean to open a new window is Se omar enpesss atoms nt campos oo nes you have prior knowledge of their semantc content, Other aspects complicate disambiguation of sentence/uterance meaning, Consider the fll : Can you fetch me a glass of water? r tha sentence does not make an igi into the tenes ability tod eee peer ic swer such as ‘yes, I can.” Rat rare eal prabably be dtatiied to ge an answer suc a ‘es, can” Rather, eae we king apes and expec it to bese. more eutable sve ao Or coun her you are? The Estence understands the intended meaning oie eran by conlecng, in adi to what compostoaliy os iomate seething can supply, the covfext in which the communication has taken place a Te comminieaton seem to be able to differentiate and take into eae apoth sentence meaning and speaker's (tended) meaing Oe an aterm, he contest ofthe communicaton pa an important role. of communication, taking into account supplementary Ye use inference. Inference is the ability to attribute s on the basis of observed In the process of making sense 0 information such as above, peop! mental states such as intentions or beliefs to oth behaviour Academie English foe Science and Engineering 5 Based oa these assumptions, a pasticipant to communication will add inferred information, Itis a ‘mind reading’ ability (some reseagchers claim that itis a modular system, too), again uniquely human, and contributes decisively to comps comminicative acts, ending A new science, stemming fom linguistics, that attempts to explain how we make sense of communicative acts - linguistic communication included - is Pragmatics. Pragmatics integrates principles of linguistic processing in modularity cognitive theories with ‘mind- reading’ inferential theories to develop coherent and consistent explanations of Jew ae make sense of communicative acts. Pragmatics is the study of the relationship between Tinguistic forms and the users of those forms, and linguistic forms and the context ia which they are produced and understood People also employ other ‘rules’ to make sense of linguistic communication, Building a fame of contextual information around an utterance is one such rule. ‘Normal’ ot familiar situations will be locally interpreted using previous pattems of interpretation, We employ what we already know/ have already experienced in order to make sense of a new contest, a new linguistic form. Pragmatics terms this ‘background Imowledge’. Our ability to appropriately interpret what is not explicitly said, but still ‘communicated, must be based on some pre-existing knowledge structures Consides these notices: 1 Plant sale 2 Garage sale. While the first one for most of us means that there are plants in sale in the space nearby, the second one does not mean that garages are on sale! Based on our general knowledge on how and what kinds of things are sold under certain conditions, we should interpret (b) as ‘various used (household) things are being sold, possibly in/outside of the owner's garage’ In language research a term emerged for the study of language in use in specific contexts: DISCOURSE. The study of discourse covers a very broad range of language rclated copies, from organization of segments of communication (whether ‘written or spoken) — dicwure rhetoric - to how language is ‘manipulated’ to gain power (Critiea! Discourse Anahi). 4.2. Parameters of variation: dialects and registers Language in use is conditioned by extra linguistic pacamerees of a very complex and varied nature. Variation and definition of different variants of a language gi es along such parameters. Two concepts arise in this contest: dialects and registers as forms Of variation of language in use Dialects ae defined mostly in celationship with different speaker groups and Parameters are of such nature as geographical and/or historical situation of speakers, ‘oc socal situation56 Sonia C Manteam Registers however, are defined according to their situation of use, for instance Conideing parameters such as purpose (of communication), opie, setting interactiveness, mode (written/spoken) et Given theic definition via situational characteristics, itis accurate to say that a speakers, ‘hanging numerous situations does change the registers in which s/he communicates, ce ce controls one single register and we are ‘trained! to acquire and master as many tr possible from childhood, We are taught that there is one way to addeess and speak foun adult and another way to your child peers. That our professional discour should be different from the language we wse with ous families. ‘But what are these differentiating Features or characteristics? On the linguistic level they tre characteristic lexical and grammatical (tactic, morphological, phonetic) choices that preval, ovee other choices; these are obviously more frequendy used and often ‘gite unique to that type of discourse. The specific vocabulary (technical vocabulary jhagon) ofa field of interest is « marked feature that differentiates the discourse of tht Fela feomn the discourse of another Stl, itis rare for one register to be identified by the cccurrence of one/several linguistic Features found exclusively in that register. Rather, Specife profile ofa register is given by shared features, but with hghes/lower fequency CFoccurrence, co-occurrence pattems or the relative use of such features. If we look at eegisters from the point of view of their situational contexts, some parameters of varation are easly observable, One is ther domain of use. From this Perspective, here is a language of business (elated to doing atvies in any fekd/su- ald of business) a language of law, a language of science, a language of medicine, a Tanguage of joumalism, etc. In tum, each of these may be spli ito sub-ypes/su2- repaters, on increasingly more specific levels: a language of online financal transactions, a language of environmental contro, ee. Let us consider an example. We have below ewo texts that belong to two different registers A ae “Tie Gude provides a sat toil] in Ws paper @ more accurate method rae ae Bette yous to periom usetllestmating the probably cstrbtonf te desis to Sra fata. Yeu can worktime to votage hstabity is proposed. The araieee urls sequence or tum fo|problem of estimating te | probabily| though te etic you" need addtional |aisoution of the load-space dstance 10 Phe tenis tt tpier wil miroduee You|vollage Haun 197623). fee ee interpret it and, hence, supply the mi eee The reason is that we sing elements of texture, by inferring information, by using by using background knowledge, by considering the context, etc.«2 5.2 Cohesion of texts several means # Reference © Lexical cohesion ‘© Ellipsis/Substitusion conjunction) = " Josed classes, and hence have involving oper Reference, lips number of words in the English language, that is the e era texmed under ‘geammatical cohesion’. The other resourc choses of woeds (vitually unlimited), are termed ‘lexical cobs 5.2.1 Reference Ic refers to those resources for pointing to a participant or cizcumstantial clement whose identity is recoverable Reference is {situational - exophoric (point 2 textual - endophoric (pointin gto the stand contest fo dtanbigutcn) 2 She damantsoftext for dambgation) ig-a form of pointing, When a word in a text points to other word/words in Fe ee meaning, we speak of reference items and thee referent. These in the text for thei meaning (backward bed t enify te mearing, We Poin jon) oe forward onvadseference /eataphon) e items may be: In English, referenc: ¢ the definite article personal and possessive pronouns and adjectives ¢ demonsteatives © comparatives @ phosic adverbs: here, there, now, then exive, these items must refer inside the text, not outside to the eee aa Usually it is the third person sens /adjeives tat cae links between parts of text ’ “The authors of this study believe that there is need for further research. ed Toe eS nae 8 closed container, ts woume remained | constant fest occursence of a noun ‘There may be a network of lines of reference ~ from a fies om (eo John), each later pronoun possessive (he, his, hi) is Hinked co its predeces tip to and including the initial reference (cumulative anaphor). — Academie English or Science and Enginecing . ‘The case of it ‘qe may refer back to a thing, a pacticipant of an abject Mercury is sometimes found in balteres, relays and switches. It damages the nervous system and is toxic in high doses. qe also has the property of referring to any identifiable portion of text, 10 a fact, a process or sequence of processes (extended reference): However, when a negative potential is applied to @ device that has not previously seen a postive potential, no threshold vollage is observed in the IV-curve (Fig, 11), Itcorirasts withthe case of the negative potential applied to a Ge2Seai/SnTe device (Fig, 3) where phase-change switching ig observed wth a threshold voltage less than 3V. a, Demonstrative reference Demonstrative reference is also a form of pointing; the speaker/writer identifies dhe referent by locating it on a s le of proximity Near Far Neutral this that ve these those here there now then ‘The report discusses an experiment to study an ideal gas that was heated in closed container. The objective of this experiment isto test whether the ideal equation of state holds ‘The environmental demands have been developed by the Swedish Society for Nalure Conservation, These demands impose restrictions on the presence and use of heavy metals, brominated and chlorinated flame retardants, ‘The voltages as measured forthe pressure and temperature transducers ‘appear in table A of the appendix. Also included in the Appendix ae the fequalions used fer callrating those voliages with the actual pressures and temperatures. “This and ‘that’ have the property of extended ceference, that is, of referring back to an extended portion of text, ‘As part of the experiment, the theoretical values of temperature were calculated for each measured pressure value, In this calculation, which Used the ideal gas equation, the volume and mass were assumed to be Constant (text reterence) ‘The industry of computers. ig an ever-growing and continually more compeilive market. This leads to well made, reliable systems that make a Valid argument for themselves, (fact reference) ‘The case of ‘the? "The’ is the definite article itis used to circumseribe, to identify the item in its class. Ie plays a role in cohesion when i accompanies a second reference of noun and has the ‘meaning ‘that particular x mentioned beforeot Sonia Muntean [An industrial robot is a complex technical system consisting of several Subsystems operating within the robot's physical make-up. the Tie may define the seferent by indicating forward in the text, especially wh pou it accompanies is followed by modifying clement such 2 i eal yetom of on ndtral robot termine Is lexi and feney irade 9 Control system, the path tobe traveled ‘The most popular av sysem The robot ch const of oar base 'b. Comparative reference Some instances of adjectives of comparison and adverbs of comparison have the the ext ——— Previous research has been done with the standard procedure. A better procedure suggested in = Cataphore [ Find @ number equal to the square of the sum of its digits. thee words used in comparative refere ~ same, equal, identical(y) such, similat, so, likewise other, different, else, otherwise Lead can be found in picture tubes, displays screens, solders, and ‘cepaciors. Lead damages the nervous system and in higher doses: Causes lead poisoning. higher’ than those asd for manafactring tbe devs ‘mentioned in the fret sentene 5.2.2 Lexical cohesion ms Academic Engh for Science and Engine “6 bb, the same word may be reiterated (we speak of repetition); ca word similar in meaning may occur (we speak of synonymy or aeat- synonymy); 4. a word that includes in its meaning the first; that is, the name for a more general class (superordinate) A general noun may appear and include the meaning of the word first used (general word); of, a previous explanation, summary word may include the meaning of a whole a. Repetition ‘The presence of the very same lesical item/word in subsequent sentences of fragment creates the effect of texture, or cohesion. ‘They employed structured Cartesian meshes and Youngs’ algorithm to reconstruct the interface. The spatial convergence of the method and issues associated with the segmented representation of the interface were rot examined. For this to be true, the referent of the word repeated needs to be the same every time this lexical item occurs. Compare the example above with the following sentence With the VOF-based method proposed herein, by contras, the interface is represented by a single plane within each element, This is also in contrast with level-set representations, where the interface 0 di rfven is Usually reconstructed on the basis of nodal (or vertex) signed distance files, . Synonymy In this case, a word is ater reiterated with a word having the same meani for a similar meaning (nea cause confusion. But within a given text, several words/expressions may be used to refer to the same concept. This is called contextual synonymy Rechargeable batteries slore and release energy as charged atoms, called ions, from between two electrodes called the anode and the 1 (¢ynomyen) mnonym). In science synonymy is rather rare as it may Lexical cohesion refees to the effect of ‘texture’ achieved by the selection of cated ‘vocabulary. I refers to the class of lexical items named nouns. Lexical cohesion takes ae ©. Superordinate REITERATION; ‘a. Repetition b, Synonymy and nears & Superoedinate d. General/summary word COLLOCATION ‘The concept of reiteration reiteration is a form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of lesical items/woed in some way This category refers to any item whose meaning includes that of the earlier one. The relationship between the subordinace word/-s and the superordinate is called hhyponymy. It is also the relation between specific and general texms (opp. of hhyperonymy). Computer science often terms this relationship an 'is-a' relationship. For example, ‘Red is a colour’ can be used to describe the hyponymic relationship between sed and colour, or we can say that colour is a superordinate for red. Ideas that were once the realm of science fiction - such as creating atiicial trees fo absorb carbon conde, or reflecting sunlight away from the Earth are coming under serious scrutiny as temperatures and COZ ‘emissions continue to rise. ihSonia C. Mantean 6 oun superordinate cxeates the effect of "The presence in a subsequent sentence of @ + text, of linked sentences/parageaphs. 4. General /eummary word seneral meaning within some major ‘This class is a small set of nouns with a ver ‘non-human noun’, ‘place nour’, ‘fact noun’ etc. thing, object, stuff, business, affair, matter (non-human) Veey often these general words take over the ceferent of a previous noun, its meaning, cd are accompanied bythe article "the wd thu, being defined, ae secompa . “What shall | do with these books? tate sa ee, i dea ih tee yeneral word use can be observed in a formulaic ‘hist 1 ral word is one that su {het summary word. The gene word i nee aa thie rumor we ihivtauimmary word provides cohesion, Mueney and 2 ammatizes the previous idea ané ‘compac means of expression. ample in which the word 'crceapondenc’ summarizes « Cats of connections and saasiies the author d a : rhe oceanographic conditions on the Ross Sea continent a roe oer nos nine Wedel Sea, nat ere a westrard fo a tanh slaty ofthe sf water increases othe wes by sg ie sl carespondence suggests at he mchansms sated Oto ah re also operative those Sea n moving the shel ent the coninenta sone Consider the following ex ¢. Collocation ciation of lexical items that werncon. Tt refers to she proximity of certain items dhat tend to come up in the another. cause — effectiresult problem - solution wet = dry car — brake Tealso includes pairs of words drawn from the same ordered series first-second:-third-ete. presence of one TW pace A Warren @001 Deep Cirulation of the World Ocean in Panty Ste, CUP. > Academic Englsh fr Science and Engineering 6 In some cases this easy t0 pin down, Such methods of altering the worlds climate may become necessary unless emissions of greenhouse gases fal within ve years ‘The crystals would act as “nucle around which water vapour could ‘condense ang thus inerease the reflective power of the clouds One idea is to create plantations of fast-growing trees such as willow and tum them into “biochar’. Plants grow by extracing CO2 from the air and Cconerting ito wood, 60 the ides would be to tum the wood into charcoal, Using giant ovens. Then it would be buried so the carbon could never be released back into the air, antic relation is very obvious, very marked; in others itis not 80 5.2.3 Substitution and ellipsis "They are a source of cohesion in English because by substituting one clement ubsttution) or eliminating another (ellipsis) the reader/listener of a message has t0 rely on the text and its organization in order to understand it, a. Substitution Substitution is a relation between linguistic forms such as words of phrases, It works fon the grammatical level of the language not on the semantic (meaning) as reference does. In English there is a short list of items that can replace another item and play the same grammatical role as the one substicuted: Nominal substitution: ne, ones, ame Verbal substitution: de Sentence substitution: s0, noe b, Ellipsis Ellipsis is a form of substitution where the substituent element is zero. Nouns, verbs and whole sentences may be elliptical but they are somehow understood presupposed from the contest Which last longer, the curved rods or the straight rads? ‘The straight [6] are less likely to break. 5.24.Connectors Im the section about sentence phrase (33.5) we discussed a series of connecting elements that create coordination and subordination in sentences, taking a more {grammatical approach. Here, the focus is more on what kind of meaning these linking, ‘words relate and introduce. Gonncetorsecalize cohesive xclations ina text. These eclations are no longer a kind of Jnstructions on wheze to find the meaning of an item as the ease for reference, but they ae specifications on how to interpret what follows them in connection with what has gone before. They work at intcr-sentential level but also at intra-sentential level, thatis, between clauses and sentences and becween phrases, respectively.a Sonia C. Munteans | jean English for Science and Engineering A Connectors reflect very general lations of meaning, Thete rations may be classified] 5,3 Coherence of texts as follows: Jn the previous section we discussed cohesion as a text-forming component of Additive and enumeration - (4nd, in addition, first, finally, ete) Adversative (contrast concession) - (but) Cause/ reason — result - (because, a8 a esult) ‘Temporal ~ (when, while, until, as s00n 28) Tinguistic communication. Cohesion isa necessary condition for cceating text, though itis not sufficient. A text needs (0 send a message in a comprehensible manner. Cohesion exprestes the continuity, the links that exist between parts of discourse r ce Other text Forming components ae Puspose- (0 that) ‘i topic and topic development rein (or ample, thats, eB, 2 penne In gencel, connectors ae of theee kinds ¢ selationships with the environment (participants, setting, over I Bene ope and conjunctions (cmple ot compound}: and, but 0, yet es Hemet pe (Pantcpants, sexing, overall toese toring, terete, vss : : 2 ‘Other more complex compounds: furthermore, nevertheless, anyway These clements fall under a rather different category of text forming resources in 3, Prepositional phrases: on the contrary, asa result, in additions as « result off language, that of coherence. that in spite of that, because ofthat Coherence phenomena are rather of a cognitive nature, but their reconstruction is othcands neiter.nor, andy.vben, mh base on linguistic signals in the text itself "They may appear in costeative forms: sooner. tha 5.3.1 Topic ne connector may teaize different eelations in different contexts. Stady the use of asin the following examples: “hs this has already been explained, we wil ne It is a rather intuitive notion and largely means ‘the subject discussed in the ‘ot go into further deteis | text/"what the text is about, et. It can be treated at several levels: we can speak of As tit the ope of tex (oo mater how long) ofa paragraph or ofa sentence, (aus al stats meting, the temperature must be lowered 2) of aparageaph or of ital [At the basic sntentil level, a distinction can be made between topic snd comment, that is, a topic is announced and then other information is provided about it. In English (other European languages, too) topie coincides with subject and comment with predication, Robot hands / have besn employed for motion control and assembling Connectors also signal the attitude of the writer/speaker towards the information dicate to the seader/listener how to interpret transmitted in that sentence, or may ind . saeeifomation, In tis instance, connectors are part ofthe interpersonal function off atmpunge. We wil discus connectors in thei oe of intxpersnal markers in eecton Ley 81 In the example above, the topics“ inthe example above, the cop s ‘robot hands’ about which it ie predicated that ‘they Connectors fancion in texte at exenation, signaling for instance the begining ofa] have been employed fr contol and assembling pat ' oonneesjon, top ahi, the end of 2 line of argument, dexwing conclusions, side : : Commentset. In this instance they are called signposts Sometines tp ovelaps ent on the gamma sujet but need not be oly Studies showed that in academic writing connector are much more Frequently used Computational reflection iis @ weltknown techrique applied in many rasis ddhor kinds of writing’. Textbooks display a high density of logical connector xing programming languages. aa Premuse they address an audience who are suppored to be less knowledgeable The problems that may be tac by using rection i! span a vide spectrum saehhe subject they discuss. Therefore, thei writers use logical markees, signposs Of in the sb ay cade undestading ofthe mateal in ace earl len, the szactce ofa ext che unit it made of ie decied by topic development sae tnking words ace weed with less frequency at the target audience are pedi] ae tpic sift Seriters can assume that they wil 6 in the inks Me deve eal tat chey wil "fl c Topic development refers to the way one subject is inteoduced, discussed and considered in a text. When another topic is introduced we speak of topic si, a break in the discourse which may signal either the end o a a text and the beginning of a new (one, or the end of a unit within a text and the beginning of a new unit, not necessarily Se Separate from the fiest unit 1 Biber et (1999)0 in the layout of a written/typed page. ‘The In writing, topic shift is reflected also in the layout sped pag principle of one paragraph-one topie/subtopic functions asa text breaking device Cone: th eng some ‘Analogy i= & method we all use, consciously or unconsciously. The Ne us tonse coer wcheome palin 8 tien eel eee aera tion pakas eae Tec saga Toe ponies fitout Serhan ho yu can tt he corte re et suite coroners you know Wea, ry the samo approsch as winena car dover stare When tying to calculate Te se ae chek eam, 2 piyeoa wl Npealy at eis ec oe ald fr te (mus spe) yoga ‘This why complex problem domains (such as cognitive science) are ‘ypieally explained by means of concrete examples. By seeing the analogy Se ee a ae oe csclomr he row tn wl berrna ach ae Coun opt: analogy : Print paragraph: definition, expansion, examples ' Sean pabagraph no rel topte shi us subtopic: geveraliing he principle peste These being mentioned, what els should good paragraph contain? Apat fom the aaa eens prep mun include oe scveal supporting wemtencet stlon/errent eating tonaeeoen sail, the topic acatence i the Gt sentence of a pangeagh Th pct eae that umes pis and another one that nts deste area of he mpc Tbe deat wit inthe space ofthat puna entre ald the onli idea Topic ‘The aim ofthe numerical examples to show how the method described i this paper can be applied by looking ata simple system, Contoling ides rolling idea of this In the sentence above, the topic is ‘numeri! exampl? and the contell paragraph topic is stated in a subordinate clause begianing with 'Joa). This signals the Fact that the paragraph deals with methods and is past of a esearch paper section that which results were obtained explains the means Supporting sentences bring explanation or arguments for the idea stated a8 topic. A paragraph that fails to provide convincing and clear supporting ideas will leave the topic hanging and confuse the ceader. The most common types of supporting idest are example, statistics of mathematical modeling, methodological details, quotations Acalemic English for Science and Engine ng 4 for reference to other work. In the example below, the first sentence is the topic testes wth it contling ies, whe the eer evo sentence provide sporting seguments for the topic announce lin this paper a more accurate method for estimating the probability distribution of the time to voltage instabilly is proposed. The probiom of estimating the probably distribution ofthe load-space distance to volage collapse inuced by sdalezodebiation is also adressed. The method uses @ combination of a ffs order,Le. hyperplane, approximation and @ ‘second order approximation ofthe sadle-neue bitccation surface.” supporting ideas ‘The concluding sentence provides a logical closing to the parageaph. It often signals the end of the argument, it may repeat the topie sentence in another form, or it can sum up the most important points of the paragraph. Concluding sentences ace lone paragraphs, such as an abstract of a research paper, but may not appear in texte where an is developed over a several paragraphs. compulsory in stand argument/idea 5.3.2 Information structure ‘This notion is more obvious in speaking then in writing being ceflected in intonation patteens, Ic refers to the way types of information are marked in a text. The status of a piece of information depends very much on the intentions of the speaker/write, the purpose of the communication, etc. Rising the voice, increasing the speed of your speech, slowing down or emphasizing are ways of saying that something is more important in my message, other things are of peripheral importance, a, Given vs. new information At the level of discourse, topic and topic development are obvious in the way chunks of information are organized and succeed one another. A common patteen is that of given information vs. new information. Generally, in English sentences the first past (called theme) usually introduces given information and realizes the (cohesive) link with what has gone on before, while the final part introduces the new information, Sometimes, given information coincides with sentence topic, and hence, grammatical subject, But on the level of paragraph organization of text organization the chunks of information marking ‘given’ or ‘new’ extend beyond sentence level. There ate several syntactical ways of conveying the same propositional content. [1] theme = gram. Sb] The paper /! identifies some language abstractions to achieve structural and behavioral refiecton. {2] theme = gram. Sb] Some language abstractions to achieve structural {and behavioural reflection # are identified in this paper. [3] {heme = beyond gram, Sb] is same language abstractions that the Paper i! identifies to achieve structural and behavioral reflection [4] [theme beyond gram. Sb] What the paper identifies 1! are some language abstractions to achieve structural and behavioral reflection, ML Peeninge,L. Sader lecrc Power Sytem Resch 8 eee eeSonia C.Monteana | 4) More importantly, the paper I iscourse comment + gram.sb] More important! i Tanguage abstractions to achieve structure ane behavioral (Si them identifies some: reflection. : — the ‘departure point’ of a statement, 0 ‘Theme (the beginning of an utterance) is pest cece there ment which a at mgs fh a ave He sae pres ee ae predication). Theme ends where the predication content tence he sams ite ois oa ifret theme and feet ae ee ee wa first influences the iatespretation of ve formation. What the writer puts firs everything that follows, something ee listenet/ reader, bas been already explained, sets dhe setting, ete, Wi deducted by the listence/ its what is Known, presumably not known by the sey aa oe tage ema Beyond sentence, at the makers such a «boundaves can be signaled by meas of Se e discourse markers and are often paired with: adverb ox connie. es Mpfomaton orien such 2 oxtopahi Te opie shift or informa titles, subtitles, ete formal mad paragraph sroblem-solution pattern : ne a » information in discourse isthe Problem-Solution pattern, a enberey 1d typieal of scicnce discourse. This pattern conssts ‘ery common in a3 Pownce anal), which Form anice acronym SPRE: Uf four steps (called moves in genre analy Station greeny bonis Problem —desibes Qe Pattee infonmason 10 solve/dea! with the probe Response — provides the neces identified valuation iis often an optional ste provides an assessment ofthe response its often an op p. reread scence pot his pats of exgaizing infomation develops oS Fn er ein erat aces, foe example the ext uel is. 2 SPAM i citer level popper ter sedons of ext ae otn ee a © fourstep system. Also, many linguistic and lexial pein eee er the text. For instance, adverbials of contrast (howe satu of cach Pa mmo indicators of problem seeGons. Alo, adverbial mere pt) signa sometimes the evaluation Pat rane the fllong examples : [situation] Meche elt onrecrns ‘tronics is @ discipline that combines elements fo ‘electrical engineering, and com sh for Science and Enginering 3 science {problem} Given its cross disciplinary nature, it is typically reserved for graduate or upper-level undergraduate courses [solution This trend may be beginning to change as schools introduce mechatronics centered curricula. [prablem) However, it is generally believed that beginning engineering students are usually too inexperienced to handle tronics concepts. {solution} While this may be true for advanced tronics, the basic elements of the topic can easly be grasped by Undergraduate students and even high school students. In a longer piece of text, the steps of this problem-solution arrangement of information may not always follow each other so neatly. Often, there is a cyclical repetition of some of the steps, others are just left out or make up only a very small section of the text. 5.4 Readability of texts Iris almost redundant to point out that some texts are more easily read than othess. In what concerns science texts, it is often the case that some texts are more difficult to read than others, and not many are truly easy to read! Much effort has been invested into researching what aspects of texts make them readable. An extensive discussion on stylstcs is beyond the scope of this book, but we will try to understand what factors contribute to unreadable texts and how we could avoid them, A science text is less dificult to sead and comprehend ifthe readers are Familiar with the subject or the field. That means, common psior knowledge and professional experience for both writer and reader of a text can make it more readable, This kind of shaved knowledge allows the writer to lea certain pieces of information unexplained as the reader can either supply the missing bits or logeally deduce. It ean be shared vocabulary, pattem of organising information known by writer and reader, the layout of the text, etc, or it can be all of these in the same time. When the writer of a text corte assesses his readers’ prior knowledge on the subject, then s/he can better avoid © cither being tiresome by over explaining unnecessary aspects this can annoy a reader and make him/her feel s/he is underestimated in teams of professional expertise; or being elliptical and leaving out absolutely necessary explanations which would make the message clear and information complete. Pact of this aspect of shared knowledge is use of vocabulary. Appropriate technical vocabulary must be used if we write for a professional audience. Many concepts have lffezent names in different science fields. A writer must be aware of that and use the Specific terminology of the field. How ‘specialized’, how much ‘jaggon’ sould be used, ‘gain depends on the target reader and his/her prior knowledge of the subject. But readability is influenced by th ‘cructure of the text, too. Cohesive links seem to bbe more frequent and obvious in texts where authors assume the ceader is | Inowledgeable in che subject, and therefore les likely to supply information or deduce Missing bits. Textbooks are a relevant example. ‘They must be easy to read and somprehend as they ate intended for training a novice in the fc4 Sonia Montes Tn conteast, research attcles exploit cohesive des less and rely more on shaved knowledge to supply the missing information. Theie target readers are experts in the fields, therefore more likely to nced les structural cohesive links to be able to follow a text Sentence length is an aspect of readability, although so Far, nobody could give @ final rerdict to the question of how long or short should a readable sentence be. Sentence Jength depends on word length and aumber of words. A paragraph made of 15-2¢ word sentences ean give almost anyone a headache. It doesn’t necessarily mean, however, that parageaphs of 3-5 word sentence are readable and comprehensible They may seem lke a children’s story and highly inappropriate for a science text Formulae for readability have been devised which take into consideration struetueal aspects such as sentence length. They have only an orientative value and should be taken as such. A rather simple to ute readability formula is the ‘Fog index’ published by Robert Gunning, [tis calculated as follows" 1. Find the average number of wards per sentence, using a sample at least 100, Words long; cvige total number of words by number of sentences. This gives the fverage eantence length. 2. Gount the number of words of three syllables or more per 100 words. Dont ‘count (a) words that are capitalized; (6) combinations of shor easy words—tke bookkeeper’ {c} verbs that are made three syllables by adding ‘ed! or ‘este ‘ransmited” or ‘advances 43, Add the two factors above and multiply by 0.4. This wil give you the Fog Index. t ‘orespond roughly wih the number of years of schooling a person would requirs foread a paseage with ease and understanding 4, Check the result against this scale 5 fairly easy Tore Standard stort fairly aitficut 12015 sificlt Scionce seademic prose will never fall in the easy readability category. But it should be faisly easy to eead by experts in the field. They are the intended target and itis ther prior knowledge, needs and expectations the texts should take into account. Complex Fentences and complex meaning are expected features of academic science texts, but they do not have to be difficult to read and follow. Even advanced research can te reported in clear, comprehendible texts. Flexible sentence length, alterating longer and shorter sentences give flow to a text A sequence of too long sentences ca become mind stretching, while only short sentences can make a text monotonous, Variety of length and structure keeps the reader's interest alive. Long words can make reading difficult. On the other hand, they are oftea unavoidable in science writing, Technical vocabulary contains complex noun-phrases, nominal Bsn and Teduty, Indust Re ® Adapted from Robert Gunning (1962) Mov Efe Wi ston Intemational, pp. 2-15. Aexdemic Engh foe Science and Engineering groups and compound words. They should be used judicio y, keeping in mind the fntended reader and his/her expertise in the field pee Nomninslized actions are common in science prose. It is a natural choice since authors tend to opt more frequently for passive verbs and impersonal constructions, Abstract ‘concepts and reasoning are also expressed frequently in nominalized Forms (applicutin, Inpresenation, ete). The problem is that sentences built on one verb and too mas fhouns and noun groups seem hard to follow. It is verbs which keep the ow of reasoning and an explanation going. Where possible, sentences should rely on verbs and less on their nominalized forms, Study the following example: Nominalized process: ln this paper, the geometrical approach is used for workspace >>>>unimpertant does not have>>>>>lacks {dé not rememiber>>>>>forgot did not pay attention to>>>>>Ignored did nat succeed>>>>>faled b. avoid empty words or phrases: As it is well known, Ac it har beew shown, IP cin be regarded that, I bond be emphasized tht, I ic important, et gEavoid unncessary jargon and acronyms 22 ‘a majority of>>>>> most crumb otsss5> many are othe same ops >>>> 9708 ise toque ceourng>>>>> rare a Woo the tners>>>> tree due Se fast at >>> Because eave anf on >>> ate Summing up Connected sentences whose meaning and organization converge to form a higher level unit are called text. Rhetorical and discourse features contribute to creating ‘texture, the defining characteristic of a unitary piece of discourse. ‘These Features may be of a steuetural kind; they sefer to the links between segments of discourse which fall under the category of cohesion. Reference, substitution/elipsis ‘and lesical co-occustence are elements of text cohesion. Feanuses that refer to the organisation of information provided by a text fall under ‘coherence. ‘Theme and theme developments, information structure and patterns of information organisation are elements of text coherence. Readability of a text refers to the degree of difficulty an audience encounters in reading, it. Science texts often deal with complex topics and must always carefull consider both informativeness and personal point of view. This does not mean science text cannot be easy co read and enjoyable for the intended audience. Prior knowledge and professional expertise of writer and reader, amount of technical vocabulary, length of sentence and organisation of information are factors that influence readability of texts, , peademic English for Science and Engineering » ‘Application 1, Find the problem-solution pattern and mark the linguistic clements that indicate where each step is realized: ‘+ Advanced motion systems are widely used in the high tech systems industry, Examples are active vibration platforms, wafer steppers, robotic manipulators, ahd ‘atomic force microscopes, Fig. 1. The behavior of high performance motion systems is typically dominated by mechanical dynamics. Therefore, mechanical systems are constructed to be light and sti, withthe abjectve to move bandwith limiting phenomena to high frequencies. A common trend is to equip systems with more actuators and sensors in order to improve dynamical behavior. In other applications, it is required to actuate mation systems in multiple degrees of freedom. These systems then naturally have multiple inputs and multiple outputs (MIMO). The mechanics. of such systems are lypically constructed ‘with the objective to allow each degree of freedom to be controlled independently. With increasing performance requirements, multivariable control is a necessity ‘+ The formulation of the dynamics model of parallel robots has not been extensively studied. These kinds of mechanisms are characterized by complex kinematics relations. As dynamics is the natural extension of kinematics, ths leads to complex dynamics equations. In the Iterature, researchers have propased three. main approaches to dynamics modeling of parallel robots, The fist is the traditional Newton-Euler (N-E) formulation. This applies N-E laws to every body composing the mechanism. The result is a large number of equations because internal reaction forces between bodies are considered, and this makes t quite inefficient 2. Find cohesive devices and explain how they work in this text ‘+The existence of passive joints in the kinematic is the main source of complexity when calculating the dynamics model of mechanisms. In order to avoid them, a ‘common practice is to approximate the dynamics of the limbs by point masses When their inertia is small. However, such simplifcations are not desirable when the dynamics model is intended to be used to Implement advanced contol techniques such as computed torque canlral. These techniques require models Which are as accurate as possible, Besides, with curent technologies, ‘computational complexity isa less important problem than before. inthis paper. the inertia of the limbs is considered and passive variables are not neglected, + Strain-gradient theories of plasticity have emerged in recent years, based on the Underlying notion that strain gradients enhances dislocation density and thereby enhance material strength. Both phenomenological and crystal versions have been developed, and have been Implemented within a frte element context in order 12 Predict a number of size effects: the Hall-Petch size effect, the bending and forsional strengths of micron-scale specimens and the indentation size effec. ‘These higher ofder theories require higher order boundary conditions in order to satisfy the governing higher order partial diferential equations. In broad terms, the mechanics iterature has focused more on prediion than on experimental ‘evidence, and aspects of the underying physics remain unresolved. For example, the relationship between the material langth scale(s) entering the theories and the Salient festures ofthe disiocatad state requires further investigation. _5, Swuly the patageaph below. Identify at the level of the paragraph, what is considered given information and whats new information, Fat’ many yeare conel engners have been using sensors. and dlectonc Foosesiny fo enhance andor ser the petormance of mecherical systems, i ae areas te prove a level of uncionalty that isnot poseble wihout the Selon Th stent wh a re ee oss oth Terese powerl processing dovces and heightened sofware. skils has ‘eeuted In on rgeasig te on Ss erbeded meen aks voting [UI FEATURES OF ACADEMIC TEXTS Syhergete combination of mechanics, electronics, sofware and computing. Ths ee aoe amu ducpinery undeslending. of the relevent scene ond Trainconng pncplos andthe ncigualkrowedge ofthe mechavonie engineer Trot be sacleny comprononeive to beable to rene the imovatve combination that makes up mechatroni solions fa tis pat ve vil ieca sou 4. Find a text of around 1,000 words from a textbook in your science field, and a text De ae ee ese - the informative function of science academic discourse; OF the same size connectors and signposts and compare the two texts from the point of view of the number and kind of connectors used. How do your findings compare with what you : have leamt about the use of linkers in different types of text and registers of lang specific features of academic science discourse; enres of academic science discourse; - disciplina y variation and discipline communities - the knowledge claims expressed in academic science texts; the interpersonal function of science academic discourse; plagiasism: an ethical and a linguistic issue.Chapter 6 THE INFORMATIVE FUNCTION OF SCIENCE DISCOURSE 6.1 Texts on science and research We use language to communicate in almost all situations of life. In one day, we vary the way we speak/vwrite and adapt our language to many situations. This variation cf language use is called register variation, and the varieties typical of frequently re called registers, Situational parameters of segister variation ‘elated to these were discussed in Chapter 4 Tn cach situation, language performs several functions which are responses 10 the particular communicative demands. These demands may be of information, soca, expressive, persuasive, ete. A linguistic exchange, written or spoken, is usvally a inctional, layered constmiction, For instance, we ean use language to provice multi information, establish a relationship with the audience, persuade audience of the validity of our claims, al in the same time, Each exchange, however, foregrounds ore: ‘or more functions, Doing science means understanding the natural world around us, itis also about the exchange of such information and the development of knowledge in a particular field Language is the vehicle of information construction and transmission. Therefore, the informative function is the most prominent. It means that other elements, such 1 the social roles of the pactcipants, their selationship, etc. are less important ard usually set in the background of that exchange. They are not entirely absent, but priority is given to the informative function of communication. Scientists and cesearchers are concerned with understanding and explaining the natura ‘world. Thus, the most feequent types of information provided by science and research, texts are definitions, taxonomies, comparisons, contrast, processes, their causes and their effects, object (in a broad sense) descxiptions. So far, we have discussed particular aspects of language use in professional contexts related to doing science. Let us now tuen ous attention to the English language used in ‘acedenic context, This is called English for Academic Pusposes (EAP) and relecs to the language used in contexts related t higher edication ~ lectures, teaching and learning, activities, conferences, etc - and research ~ meetings, seminars, conferences, journdls and other publications, etc. ‘This context also presupposes that the participants have, or aspire to acquire, expest knowledge in thei fields of interest. While, in leaming contexts, one of the Academic Engh for Science and Engineeing i participants usually has more expert knowledge to transfer to the less knowledgeable pasdcipant, in rescarch contexts, communication takes place between peer experts, In both situations the main function of communication is the transfer of knowledge and creation of new knowledge in specific areas. Communication in academic contexts is characterized by a high degree of formality, whether in the spoken or svritten mode. In the following, our focus will be the written mode, but observations sill be made about oral academic discourse where relevant to out discussion, Considering the contest, specific situations where EAP is used, as well as the roles and relationship among participants, some general features of hnave been established: AP written discourse - high lexical density: this means that there is a much larger proportion of content swords (verbs, adjectives, nouns, adverbs) compared to function words (prepositions, conjunctions, articles, pronouns) in EAP than ia general English; more lexical words in a sentence also means mote information packed in it, high nominal styl actions and events phrases. impersonal constructions: this means personal pronouns are kept to a minimum, passive structures are preferred, direct address (ja) is entirely absent. this means that nouns and noun phrases ate preferred; even ie more often nominalized than expeessed as verbs or in verb 6.2 Definitions cate chapters ofa book. The mort important peers of informations efnon aut contin ae: the tem defined, the case it belongs to andthe distinguishing features that make the parca item different fom al othe: members of the ess. In sentence definitions the most common patter is term defined + vb. TO BE + class + wh-word + distinguishing features eg Outsourcing is the process of contracting an existing business process which an orggizatonpreveulyperomed eal to an redepenet In this example, ouftouning is the tem defined, belonging dl 7m m defined, belonging to the class of pres of otra a isi ines ros. "Te stinging fextres ae died ithe wh A few observations regarding grammatical features of definitions are necessary (® the indefinite article a/an is used before the term defined and the class it belongs to; for uncountable nowns, no article is used (&) the particular features of the term defined appears in a wh-word introduced “hp: /envkipedia. ogi Ovsourcing : &Sonia G Muntezns f eademic English for Science and Engineering seclative clause; this may be a finite clause (the verb takes a tense and agrees with the subject) or a reduced relative clause; reduced relative clauses have the advantage of being shorter; usually elative clauses that contain the wh-word, the verb to be/to have (passive structures included) and adjective or rnoun/noun phrases ean be reduced to either a noun phrase or a non-finite verb phrase: [A patent is a limited property right which is offered fo Inventors in ‘exchange for their agreement to share the details oftheir inventions ith the publi. 'A patent is @ limited property right offered to inventors in exchange ‘or their agreement to share the details of ther inventions with the publ. = arelative clause containing a modal verb cannot be reduced t0 a non-finite verb phrase/aoun phrase Definitions are sometimes more complex structures, extending beyond one sentence Tnformation is staged to convey the desired message, defining, and clarifying the meaning of an item, This staging starts from more genera! (often one-senterce definition) information and becomes speifi, more detailed, in the distinguishing, features. Specific details may be described in full paragraphs which contain elements bout camponents of the item defined, dewriptions of such components, theit application, the hitrical development of the pacticulae item, problews encountered, exceplions to the ‘basic definition, ete eg. Information retrieval (IR) is finding material (usually documents) of an Unstructured nature (usually text) that saisies an information need from within large collecions (usually stored on computers..J. IR can also Cover other kinds of dala and information problems beyond that specified In the core definiton above, The term “unctrctured data’ refers to dala which does net have clear, semantically overt, easy-fr-a-computer structure In the example above, the progression from general to specific is observable. The second sentence provides an extension of the scope mentioned in the basic definition the third sentence covers a narrower component of the definition, that of "unstructured data Definitions may include contrastive oc compacative information. A notion is compared and/or put into contrast with another in order to clarify its meaning, Consider the following example of comparative definition: Given a set of documents, clustering isthe task of coming up with a good) Grouping of the documents based on thelr contents. itis similar to ‘arranging books on @ bookshelf according to their topic. 8 6.3 Classification Classifying concepts, objects, phenomena, etc, is an integral part of any scientific activity. Classifications must include: the tezms being classed and the csiterion on which the classification is based. None of these should be missing if we want a coherent and consistent argumentation. However, it often happens that the criterion swe base our- classification on may be at a distance in a text from the actual classification; it may be absent from the text because itis inferable from the context, fr easy to logically deduce, The classifying verb is often in the passive voice and accompanied by modal verbs (cam be clusified, may be split, is broken into n categories.) Consider the following examples: simple, one sentence classification, without naming the classes The following are casses of commonly-used powered industrial trucks, This classification does not include all powered Industrial tucks covered by the OSHA standara. - simple, one sentence classification with criterion and classes By the quantity of carbon they emit, energy sources can be spit into: ccarborrintensive and carbor-free energy sources, - complex clasification, with criterion, clastes and expanded explanation Information retrieval systems can also be distinguished by the scale at which they operate, and it is useful to distinguish three prominent scales. |n web search, the systom has to provide search over billons of ‘documents stored on millions of computers, Ditintve issues are needed to gather documents for indexing, being able to build systems that work efficiently at this encemous scala, and handling particular aspects of the web, such as the exploitation of hypertext and not being fooled by site providers manipulating page content in an allempt to boost thelr search tengine rankings, given the commercial importance of the web. At the other extreme is personal information retrieval. Email programs usually not only provide search but also text classification: they at least provide @ spam (junk mai) fiter, and commonly also provide elther manual or automatic means for classifying mall so that it can be placed directly ino particular folders. Distinctive issues here include handing the broad range of {document types on 2 typical personal computer, and making the search system maintenance free and sufficiently lightweight in terms of star-up, processing, and disk space usage that It can run on ane machine without annoying is owner. In between is the space of enterprise, institutional, ‘and domain-specific. search, where retrieval might be provided for collecons such as a corporation's intemal documents, a dalabase of Patents, or research articles on biochemisiry.™ % Christopher D, Manning, Prabhakar Raph P e. 1 Rati CUP, Online eon insih Schitee 2005) An Induction ts yormatin eee eeeFr a Sonia C, Muntesna 6.4 Description of process and procedure A process/procedure description is usually concemed with how something happens. If the process is a general one, itis described in the present simple. The passive woice is the most Frequent choice, but the Jy-agen, which usually indicates the (human) doer of the action, is absent, This is consistent with the aims and focus of science research which is concemed with Facts, objects and phenomena and less with human intervention: 'A ground source heat pump takes edvantage of the geothermal activity in the frst few meters beneath our fest in order to provide part of hot water supply Cold water is pumped through a seres of pipes often spanning hundreds o meters but situated only a few meters beneath ground level. This water i (gradually heated durng ls joumey through the pppes and is then fed into « Boller at several degrees above the temperature i orignaly was. IF by agent is present, the agent is usually a process, too: 'A coordinate system is a way of Uniquely specitying the location of any positon in space with respect toa reference origin. Any point is defined by the intersection of three mutually perpendicular surfaces. In the next example, the author combines definition elements (the first sentence), classification and process desesiption: Raw milling Involves mixing the extracted raw materials to obtain the comect chemical configuration, and grinding them to achieve the proper Parlcie-size to ensure optimal fuel efficiency in the cement kin. and Strength in the final conerete product. Three types of processes may be Used: the dry process, the wet process, or the semi-dry process. If the dry process is used, the raw materials are dried using Impact dryers, drum Eryers, paddle-equipped rapid dryers, air separators, or autogenous mils before grinding, or Inthe grinding process ise. In the wet process, wate is added during grinding. inthe semi-dry process the materials are formed into pellets withthe addition of water ina pelletizing device. In process description sequencing and sequence markers are important. The order it ‘which steps of a process happen must be clearly marked: ‘Once the production of portland cement is complete, the finished produd is transferred using buckel elavators and corweyors to large, storage silos in the shipping department. Most of the portland cement is transported in bik by railway, truck, or barge, or in 43 kg (94 pound) multwalled paper bags. Bags afe used primarly to package masonry cement. Once the ‘coment leaves the plant, distribution terminals are sometimes used as an intermediary holding location prior to customer distribution. The same types of conveyor systems Used at the plant are used to load cement a alstribution terminals "The steps of a process can also be arranged in alist format, so sequence markers a2 When a process is to be executed, ic cakes the form of instructions...Verbs are then ia the imperative, also arranged in the sequence required. Instructions are an important language function of user manuals, guides, tutorials, ete calemic Englth For Science and Enginceing 85 Process and procedure descriptions appeat in lab/experimental reports In such eases, the descsiption is about one instance of the process/procedure, therefore the verbs arc in the past tense. Generalizations, conclusions or present results of the facts ‘reported are presented in the present perfect or present simple. Processes detailed jn complex documents such as lab/experimental reposts are accompanied by sections where apparatus, methods, theory or tools used ate described, This equipment stil exists, £0 it should be described in the present simple. Here is an example: ‘This experiment examined the effect of fine orientation and arrowhead angle on a subjects abilty to perceive line length, thereby testing the [Maller-Lyerilusion. The Mller-Lyerilusion isthe classic visual ilustation Of the effect ofthe surrounding on the perceived length ofa line. The test ‘was to determine the point of subjective equality by having subjects adjust line segments to equal the length of a standard line. Twenty-three subjects were tested in @ repeated measures design with four diferent arrowhead angles end four line orientations, Each condition was tested in Six randomized trials. The lines to be adlusted were tipped with autward Pointing arrows of varying degrees of poiniedness, whereas the standard lines had inward pointing arrows ofthe same degree. Results showed that line lengths were overestimated in all cases, The size of error increased with decreasing arrowhead angles. For line orientation, overestimation was greatest when the lines were horizontal, Ths last is contrary to our ‘expectations. Further, the two factors functioned independently in their fffects on subjects’ ‘point of subjective equality. These results have important implications for human factors design."® ‘The text above combines the past tense for the description of the experiment and procedures followed and the present tense for methods applied and implications, On the level of vocabulary, these kinds of texts favour the use of verbs of description. Here are the most frequent verbs; 1 be wed for /expeessions of description: 2 verb + ing-clause - amount to, be associated aith/assciate NP with, be baed ‘on bare NP om, como, describe, be to do with, be engaged inf engage NP in, emai, be found 1b incl, iol, be involved in] invoie NP in 3. verb + NP + ingeclause ~ acount of, amount to, be associated with/arciate NP ith, be based on/base NP on, consist of, describe, dep, detect be tod with discover, ental, find, hide, ighlght iden. ignor, incude, ino, be invoked in/imohe NP in, ave, ‘Pbotegraph, record hp: / wwii utoronta.ca/advice/specificypeso€-wrting/labteport86 Sonia C. Mantesms 6.5 Hypotheses Experiments and experimental procedures ar uted in science to vey Iypotheses implication "The steps to be taken start from stating the hypothesis and developing i and then defending it by bringing actual test data as evidence 6.5.1 Stating and developing a hypothesis A scientific hypothesis should be stated as clearly and precisely as possible. It should be obvious to the seader what its limitations are and how it ean be tested out. If verified satisfactorily, this Knowledge can become part of the common-core knowledge in the scientific field it belongs to. However, it may happen that the inital hypothesis need further adjustments after a series of tests. It is only notmal chat hypotheses should evolve due to results of experiments of new findings. Even when inital testing scems to invalidate what has been postulated, observations and ‘experiments must be reported accurately. Supposting evidence for a hypothesis should berassembled in a logical and convincing argument. Every piece of data must connect to the hypothesis and must be presented s0 that the reader can follow the argument find be convinced that it is a correct argument. If objections can be raised, these should be anticipated by the writer, stated in the text and discussed. If an objection ‘can be refuted by evidence and test data, it will only strengthen the validity of the initial hypothesis and will make the study even more valuable. 6.5.2 Bringing evidence Supporting a hypothesis with factual evidence can be done in a number of ways. Four {gpes of evidence are more common in science writing! analysis of proof, modeling, simulation and experiment/testing “Analysis of proof — this is a formal argument which attempts to prove that the Inypothesis is correct, Modsling ~ shea a mathematical description of a hypothesis is made and then demonsteation is provided. Simulation ~ a (sieoplified/pastial) Form of the hypothesis is implemented and data is ‘collected usually in a 'conteolled’ or artificial environment. Experiment testing — a fall test of the hypothe: possible; experiments are meant to test expected behaviour and predictions confirming o sefuting initial hypothesis, implemented in as real conditions a Not all types of evidence suit any kind of bypothesis. The scientist should select the method that best fits the data, it is most convincing and provides fair support to the Claims, Evidence should prove the hypothesis, not the hypothesis fit the evidence! In the following example, the hypothesis is Formulated as an algorithm (modeling) and then evidenee is gatheced in a sequence of simulations which provide the necessary data to prove it . « Academic Engle for Science and Engineering a FThus, we consider the clean ECG signal as xn), the Test signal can be writen as x(n) = xo(7) + sin(2p 0.2n) + cos(2p 0.452) +n) aren i the ow-equncy random component ofthe simulated bane cit. We es th elgerten by geve'sung re basal cf 10D tes ech ime va ferent May The magia fo tndated BW wes high and re M&E vn by Ea. 9) wat Mer han 18 na OD smllone requring applet of ihre mari (le and I bssne caren sop Ih THe procetre Improved ns EN by epprosmaey 24 Gand reducod Ye RS ofr of base extmaon by 93.5%, ‘The text above is an example of good-practice in writing and information organisation asit communicates effectively, employing a few simple strategies 1. the hypothesis is formulated in words and mathematical form; the algorithm is sepacated by text; : the symbols and mathematical notations ace exphineds, the methods of gathering evidence are clearly stated; the procedure for testing and cesults are presented in a logical and step-by- step sequence; 6. the eesults and expected outcome ace given sight after the demonstration, Summing up Benue lee canner ghee eke eee Bae cated oe fake Ge teem aa vey roa eri), ik er lb ee ee cue al pinsotin cd am wold dure ag te yp eee en Be oe coe beens Fees eae tae of tpl ngs forma ete eee re ee re ace ae ares eel eye eee eps rs Gea see peel oil eae eee se deias ih parton © aly © asa = ae © lnc as88 yy Senia G Munters Application Find a text in which definitions, description of process or procedure, exemplification appear and tey to separate the sections that contain cach language Function, Read the text below. Identify all verb tenses used and explain why a certain tense hhas been used in that particular context. ‘The 3D structure of our model is based on a series of MR torso cross-section Images. When we acquired the MRI data, the locations of ECG leads were marke fon the body surface. Those locations can be identified on the MR images. We Utlizd a region growing method to separate the areas inside and outside the torso of each M8 mage. Thus, the torso contours can be defined automatically by the ‘Computer. With the help of ECG gating, each phase encoding pulse of MRI was {Generated and received in the diastolic stage ofthe cardiac cycle. Seventeen slices, Or heart-torso image at ciastalic stage were collected. The interval of each heart forse image is 6 mm, Ther seapes are 40.3 40 om and there are 258 x 256 pixes within an image. The ventricular contours in these images were found manually. A 415 x 18cm square region which covers the entre region of the heart was set on each image. By resempiing, this region was represented by a 150 x 150 pixel aay. ‘The size of each pixels 1 1 mm, Based on the ventricular contours defined in tre heel array, we interpolated another five layers of pixel array between each two Friginal slices. Eventually, the ventricle model is represented by a 100 x 160 x 160 ‘Voxel element aray. Each element is a 1 x 1 x 1'mm cube. Each element is set ‘with proper vertricular type (epicardium, endocardium, myocardium, left and righ Yeniicular cavities). Finally, the contours of the torso surface, the locations of ECG. Jeads, and each element of the &-D ventricular model were saved in the computer (Computers and Biomedical research, vol. 32/2000, pp.23-42) Read the paragraph below. What kiad of process is being described: general of specific? Suppost your answer. Heat flows naturally from a higher to a lower temperature. Heat pumps, however are able to force the heat flow in the other direction, using a relatvely small amount er high quality drive energy (electri, fuel, or high-temperature waste heal). Thus heat pumps can transfer heal from natural heat sources in he surroundings, such, fs the air ground or water, oF from man-made heat sources such as industrial o domestic waste, o a building of an industrial application. Heat pumps can also be Used for cooling, Heat is then Wansferred in the opposite direction, from the ‘pplication thal is cooled, to surroundings at a higher temperature. Sometimes the ‘xeess heat from cooling ls used to meet a simultaneous heat demand, In the text below, fil the blanks with the modal verb suggested and the verb in the active of passive voiee, to write a general process description. Then, break the text into steps of an instruction sequence changing the verb forms to imperatives or modal-+verb. in gas welding, @ mixture of two gases (neediuse). To create a hot flame, 3 ‘Combustiole gas (mustimix) with oxygen. Although acetylene is normally used, ve Combustible gas. (need notibe) ecatyiene. Hydrogen or petroleum gases, such a propane, (canluse) Oxygen (carvstore) at very high pressure. To create a suitebl ame, the gasses (must/supply) 1o the welding torch at low pressure. Pressure Acadeanic Engh for Science and Engineering 89 regulators (needs) to reguate the gas ow from the oyinders. High pressure cylinders are dangerous and (mustihandle) with To fi e tach th la) wih care. To light the toch the Castle gas (steno) Te ryan sup shocks oe he 5, Read che text below. Where is the hypothesis stated? What type of evidence is 6 brought? Is the hypothesis validated? Find a research article in your field of interest and identify some working hypotheses it tres to prove. What evidence is brought in and how does the author construct the argument? Is ita convincing argument? Why? Why not? PPIEEE /ASME TRANSACTIONS ON MECHATRONICS, VOL. 11, NO. 2, APRIL 2006, pe 172.cadeic English for Science and Engineering Academie El Enginceing a Chaptet 7 7.12 The communication needs ee ees ee ee ees Posse wie cakbonion & med (e waren con Inthe fant con Oe eres ee ee ee ee and evaluation of opinion are more common. CONVENTIONAL STRUCTURE OF TEXTS 71.4 Why conventional patterns? Professional communication takes rather standardized forms when it occurs in 71.3. The context of communication recurrent situations. The factors that determine these (more or less) standardized Forms of communication are: ‘The context in which communication takes place includes aspects euch as 2 the mode of communicton: witten/opoken; b. the selationship between participants (writer-eader, speakerlistenes): cexpert/novice, peer to peer, etc the style: formal informal. 1. Discourse community 2. ‘The communication needs of that community 3. ‘The contest of communication “The purpose and the context of communication helps a writer to identify his audience, ‘They answer the basic questions of any communicative at: to understand to who he is addressing his texts. Who? — the partners of communication ‘Why? — the purpose of that communication the figure below, you can see a spectrum of types of tests in How? ~ the forms it takes Spe fgnee below, y spectrum of gypes of texts in chemistry (genres) addressed to different audiences with various degrees of expertise (Robinson, et al 2008): : . : 2 7.4 The discourse community “The people involved in a cetain professional activity, sharing a common interest in & discipline/profession, having various degrees of expertise on the subjects of the discipline and various roles to play in the development of knowledge in that ddiscipline/profession are the asp community. As theis interaction is based largely 02 linguistic communication, this has been called ‘discourse communi, or a group of people using langaage ina particular way to fulill purposes in theie profession or field Pr interest, Therefore, we can speak of a discourse community of lawyers, of mechanical engineers, of computer science engineers, of academic community of ‘medical researchers, tc ‘The main purposes these texts address ace = to present research results and create new knowledge in the field Gournal article, seseatch proposal, scientific poster); : " to teach established knowledge in the field (textbook, lab manual); comes rnew/established knowledge in fields to non-specialists (populac articles) Perhaps in these discourse communities, the most obvious clement of distinction s the lexical aspect of their communication. ‘The vocabulary - words, expression, particular meanings ~ they use differentiates a profession/ professional community from others. However, the discourses of various professions fields are not limited (0 lexical choices. The kinds of texts (genes) they produce, the structure of those texts and the written /spoken modes those texts take, are all part of the particular profile of the discourse a cettain professional community shares.2 Sonia C, Munteasn 7.2 Patterned texts ¢ Form of salto called gente ied when members of 2 discourse e same kind Along these lines, communication takes the texts. A standard structure, or a template, is us community exchange repeatedly information with the same purpose, in th For instance, in academic contexts, where information is taught and learnt, the most frequently used type of (vritten) text is the ‘estbook, Although textbooks vary significantly in length, degree of specialization, ot internal organization, many features are common to all such tests, due to the fact that they answer a single important Communicative need: that of teaching specific piece of knowledge. A textbook, thecefore, necessasily includes presentation of information, illustration, practice, reinforcement, and evaluation sections. Its target audience are novices in the field, and the knowledge twansfersed is usually noa-controversial or belongs to the core content Of the feld, These ace features that make textbooks a gente-text with recognizable tent organisation, choice of language Features, chetorical strategies, etc patterns of cont ‘Why ace such texts used and why have they evolved into standardized structures? One explanation can be given taking into consideration general communication principles (P.Grice: 1975) and the eelevance theory of communication (SerbesteWilson:1995). ‘The relevance theory claims that, ofall the principles of communication which are at work in any exchange (linguistic or not), the rule of relevance is prevalent. It Considers the relation between cognitive efforts and effects in such a way that the greater ‘he benefits and the wer the ots the more relevant isan input for cognitive mechanisms: “That is, ‘when something is communicated, the message with the maximum guanty+gualiy Tnformation which requires the last effort to undertand is the most rekant forthe naviver, ence, those forms that bear maximum effects and are easy to decode will be always favoured ‘and chosen for encoding/decoding a message. Processing effort, therefore, may be ‘minimized by the reiteration of standard structures, so that these structures become atutomatic and easly recognizable co the user. They are pattemn-structured texts “The need to achieve maximum relevance with minimum effort is even more obviously present in professional interaction in science fields, where the primasy function is the Exchange of accurate information within strict time/space limits. It is only natural chat Communication in science fields be highly formalized and generic standaed structures favoured over any creative types of texts .ce, when new products ate seleased, the manufacturer needs to inform its n, to texin the customer t0 use them. “This For instan prospective customers about them and ofte {kind of communication has taken a rather standard form called a ‘user's guide’. Of course, all exemplars of a ype of text (genre) establish a paradigmatic relationship with the ideal model (for example the ‘template’ of a research article) but they ate rarely oF never identical in form, structure, and fanetion with this model Each cext ia a class will vary to a certain degree from the template. Even the concept of an ‘ideal template’ may be inappropriate, because each professional community may . = Academic English for Science and Engineering % these are easily observable: e ilemic envionment: Spoken mode Lecture seminar laboratory Can you generate a template for each interaction? Work from the observable needs/functions to the probable style/degzee of interaction a eg Lecture choiee/ rather monologue-type 1 more Formal, elaborate language, with fll sentences, more complex structures; closer to the written text elaboration; ° 2 functions: explanation, taxonomy (classification), definition, instructions ? d._ more persuasive in nature, biased a How is opinion expreses? Seminar 4. dialogical in nature? b Laboratory a. dialogical in nature? b. acc written texts generated? © are these written notes in a standardized Form? : standardized Written mode The most common wpes of text he moet common op sts (genres) genesated in academic and research are textbooks, research papers/articles, lab reports, review papers, memos, tser guides, technical specifications/manuals, ete : : 22.1 Texthooks Stn in il conse nd egineing ll ate mt aii wi eto cis Fat univeriy dye they are ted to read, stay, make tummanen, ete of textbooks or textbook sections. In this cae, the convendonalned arpects ites to Participant relations and content, Textbooks address an audience who is less familia Wid the ject, needs explantion, pracuc, stinforement and. even testing FromSonia Munteaou Therefore, most textbooks display © definition of field /subjects © definition of fundamental related concepts; ‘¢ scope and methods of field/subject, ‘* theoretical explanation; # proof of theory: ‘© practice session, A textbook docs not attempt to farther knowledge in the field, but presents the Current state of knowledge. Authors often vary the degree of specialization of content, difficulty of practice or breadth of material presented, according to the level previous knowledge the intended audience is supposed to ave. 7.2.2 Research articles In eesearch work, the most common type of text is the research article/paper, crganising information in. introduction-methods-results-discussion-conclusion (IMRDG). Published work in scicace Fiekls in professional/specialized journals follows this functional template. Even the geaphical presentation is often modeled on these five sections, sometimes labeled/entitled as such. The IMRDC format is also known as the hourglass format because it works from presenting general background information (introduction) on the topic, narrows its focus to specific aspects (gnethods and zesults) and attempts to draw conclusions and generalize the outcomes Of the research (discussion and conclusion). sct of functions and answers precise requirements of research in ach section fll © displaying decp understanding of current state of the art in the field (latroduetion), ‘© using established methods of research and empisical testing (Methods), reporting relevant results (Results), ‘© accurate intespretation of findings (Discussion), ‘¢ producing salient and original conclusions (Discussion, Conclusion), '* opening new directions for further research (Conclusion). A series of linguistic features correspond to the situational and formal differences observed above between textbooks and research articles. For instance, textbooks lack sive language and writer involvement, while research articles often need tc persuasive language © fppeal to thetorical means of persuading the reader of the value of claims made Because textbooks present knowledge that is usually established in a discipline, itis not necessary to assert is value. 1 Ser wection IIL fora detailed discussion on how knowledge cms ate made and defended in sien, Fe Academic English for Science and Enginceing 9 ‘Templates are not formal struccuces. They are formalized, that is, they acquire a standard organ format, the reader grasps its meaning faster and in more depth. But the function of tach piece of information in a text will determine where and how it s integeated in the text. For example, ia a usee's manual che section which lists the components of the uct being described must always come before a description of how the product functions. This logical principle leads to the standard format of a usee's manual. The same applies to all types of texts that have become common communication in a discipline ation of content, because when content is presented in a familiar ‘templates’ of 7.2.2.1 Titles Complex work, such as research papers (but also textbooks, review papers and others) may be formalized at lower levels as well. Hence, a complex template of 2 research paper may be made of other sub-templates (or sub-genres) such as title-template, abstract-template, conclusion-cemplace, ete For instance, in the case of research articles in science, theee models have been observed for titles, each with various frequencies in different science disciplines. ~ Full sentence titles: tides take the form of a full sentence, with a finite verb, whether a statement, question or exclamation. In hard sciences and engineering this type of ttle composition For research articles is almost absent, = Noun phrase titles: tiles take the form of a noun plirase, often long phrases swith pre- and post- modified noun heads. Some of the most feequent types of tiles are those with a prepositional post-modifiess. For, of in with ace common occurrences in titles of hard science and engineering, noun-phra research articles. "They highlight the informativeness of compact noun phe Jmportant meanings for science research”. and stress. some purpose and intended destination (for): ‘A non-linear control design forthe discrete-time muthinput bilinear systems ‘Arobust controller for wheel-sipaltenuation # instrument or specifying attributes (with) ‘A miniature milling spindle with Active Magnetic Bearings ‘© which part of technology, study, etc is being addressed (of “Mechatronic solutions of microactuators and positioners © location (in) ‘Mechatranis in agricultural engineering ‘Optimal design issues in high-speed high-precision motion servo systems " Bxanples fom a sty on Mechatonies research atic ti Mechatronics a shaly of stucuce and function”, A ISSN 158205523, Alba luli, om 4 by Mantanu, $-C (010). .RA ties in Serie" Philclogia, tit Unter Aun,Compound titles: tides tke the form of noun phrases juxtaposed on both sides of a dash or a colon. A very frequent function of such titles is to ormation, In these cases, the organize a general fo psf patter of delivering in first noun group shows fle arta of research and the second narrows it down t0 a “ingle applton or details and interprets some aspects oF that ace Bond graphs: A representation for mechatronic systems Ona micromanipulator for medical application—stabilly consideration of its bilateral controler TTotbot an object level robot programming language Compact noun phrases, juxtaposition, choice of prepositions to indicate key well as nominalized processes indicate a preoccupation for Titles must attract ceader’s attention, must 1 clear indication on the subject of the coordinates of research, informativeness and explicitness in titles. inform without being too long, and giv research, Noun phrases are structures which can express a lot of concise form and appeal to the busiest readership. 7.2.2.2 Introduetions "The term template should not be take very sarcowly. Even for the most typical and in selecting and priostizing information, in intended effect. most frequently used texts, variation linguistic resources employed to express certain meanings and This variation is obscrvable from discipline co discipline. The well known CARS (Ceeate A Research Space) format for introductions to research aeticles put forward by J. Swales (1990, 2004) has been customized for the needs of cesearch articles in asious disciplines. Below you have the model Swales revised in 2004, Try to apply it to an introduction of a research article published in your field of interest. Does it reflect accurately the content and organisation of your chosen introduction? Why? Why not? Adapt itto fit the content presented in your chosen introduction. “CARS model revise in 2004, J. Sales eS : _a Move 1 Establishing territory Step 1 Chiming centrality and/or Step 2 Making topic generalizations and/or Step 3 Reviewing items of previous research Move 2 Establishing a niche Step LA Counter-chiming Or Step 1B Indicating a gap Or ‘Step 1 Question-saising, Or Step 1D Continuing 2 tradition emi Engl for Seienee and Engineering 7 Move 3 Occupying the niche Step 1A Outlining purposes Or Step 1B Announcing present research Step 2 Announcing principal findings Step 3 Indicating RA structure Be ox ituseion ofthe sbore geal emplate, yoo cans invodseiont below, which eed Fom mn tnvenignion of lage soos ot biochemistry research articles”. Observe the selection of steps in a move, the absence of one step or another, the ordering of moves and steps. ° More structure of introduction to biochemist research articles ‘Move 1: Announcing the importance of the field stepl: claiming the centeality of the topic step2: making topic generalizations step3: reviewing previous research Move 2: Preparing for the present study stepl: indicating a gap step2: rising a question Move 3: Introducing the present study step: stating purpose/-s step2: deserbing procedures step3: presenting findings 7.2.2.3 Methods ‘The most impocantfimctions of a Methods : as been done according to standaed procedures inthe especie fl, that dhe methods used are desebed in detail -where they are nonstandatl «and tha they ate filly repcable. The Method section provides very specific and demain speci) information; it is the c f oe template of a research article ‘ : : ‘Bspesimenal secon: As these subsies suggest, methodology information is 8. Knokslpatham (2005). Rhetorial path 5). Rhetorical structure of biochemistry research articles. ESP 2, pp. | a4 Sonia Munem For instance, certain more theoretical research areas in Chemistry and Applied Chemistry prefer to call their methodological chapters ‘Expesimental. Because, in these research areas, methods and procedures are faily standard and authors as well as readees ace expected to be Familias with them, the information is relegated to the end of the research arth, following the Conclusion section and not the Introduction. Sampling procedures, weighting substances, cultures, apparatus are described in standardized Formulas, The section, although important for the credibility of the study and of its author, is given a secondary place outside the main body of the research article. Other science fields, even within Chemistry, prefer a sequence of Introduction- Methods as main building blocks of the knowledge claims the authors make. Three steps can be identified: = describing materials: depending on the field, it could be samples of general reaction conditions, etc. instrumentation, apparatus and/or substances, sampling sites, other materials, = desesibing experimental methods: procedures, = de this contains information on statistics, theocetical computation, mathematical calculation, tc bing numerical methods: especially in applied sciences and engineering, 7.2.24 Results and discussion The results and the discussion of results expected to provide new knowledge claims, new data, original interpretation of data and, generally speaking, to bring a contribution to the development of knowledge in the field are the core of a research paper. They are The Results section may be separated from the Discussion section with subtitles, the presentation of results may be followed by their interpretation without formally separating the two. Results ace usually presented first without interpretation. A first step represents a transition from the Methods, where a brief recap of how the results/data were obtained is followed by reference to graphical information: a geaph, a table, diagrams, “The next step is meant to guide the readers through the results or data obtained by: + identification of key findings: «= deseription of important trends; - pointing out unexpected results. These steps may be repeated for each set of results ‘The presentation of cesults is followed by their interpretation which the author provides in the Discussion section. Often relevant literature is referred to when data/results are inteypreted to connect the work of the author with the body of knowledge already familiar to experts in the specific field. Although the discussion part may contain the major contribution of the author to the fields, the section is _jcadenic English For Science and Engineering ” chacacterived by statements made with caution, by hedges”! and attempts to avoid pias. Even well substantiated results are interpreted in the most impersonal way Authors display a professional attitude in this manner of presenting theie work, show respect for the expert community and modesty, being fully awace that, in a dynamic feience field, nothing is infallible and their findings may, at one point, be overtheown by new research resul 7.2.2.5 Condlusion ‘The conch to provide a brief summary of the work and to suggest implications or possible applications of the results obtained. The conclusion section offers further lines of development of the knowledge in that specific field. Therefore, itis the lower part of the hourglass structure, with the opening towards general information, sion section is a short closing of the research article, Its main function 7.2.2.6 Abstracts ‘The absteact, although it stands sight after che ttle of the paper, should be written avhen the paper is completed. The abstract is meant to offer a glance to the main sections of the paper (field background, gap in the knowledge, methods, results, conclusion), to raise interest For the work and cesults obtained. ‘There ace several kinds of abstracts for research paper, and the choice is again discipline specific. Most abstracts in hard sciences and engineering are the informative Iype, containing the above mention selection of information from the text. The abstract should be writen so that it can be a stand-alone piece of text. Many papess are indexed in databases only with theie abstracts, so ceaders should be able to grasp the main points of the research article from the abstract and be able to decide if t they should read the entire text. A common organizational framework of abstracts in hard sciences and engineering research contains: = the research area and its importance as background information; = the gap/gaps in the knowledge of « the pupose or objectives of the works cedures employed (briefly); key findings or results; a concluding remark on implications importance of the work specific area which the paper addresses - methods o p ‘These steps may not formally succeed in the above presented order and some may cenly be hinted. It usualy suffice for a knowledgeable readership to decide if ic fits theie interest ¥ See TIL for hedging language:aH Fr 10 Sonia © Manteans 7.2.2.7 Extras For a research article to be complete, ‘peripherals’ should be mentioned, although they hhave their importance and role in the genesal purpose of a research article author(s) names and affiliation ~ right after the Gi ~ keywords ~ they should signal the area of research targeted by the works knowledgments ~ they come at the end at a paragraph feaming, the institutional and financial support provided for the work; bibliography /references — bibliographical ists mention all elevant literature for the sent work, while reference lis only include those authors and works mentioned in the text of the research articles = appendices contain data, visual, graphical or text that is not necessarily pact of the ‘main argument of the work, or that is too long and if inserted in the text of the research atticle it would break the flow of the argument. “The arrangement of these extra sections is usually decided by the editors of the journal where the article is to be published. Reference and bibliographic list are compiled recording to discipline standards, too. In hard sciences and engineering, in-text references appear 2s: the name of the authors cited, followed by a number in square brackets which sefers to the position of the cited/mentioned work in the (aumbered) reference list: Alptekin and Canacki [18] and Yoon et al. [19] reported models for predicting sunflower, soybean, canola, corn, cottonseed, and waste palm biodiesels- integral citations: this means that the name/-s of source authors appear as a syntactic clementiin the text. Although much rarer, integeal citations can be reduced 10 just the reference number of the source cited and listed in the refecence list, Bellow, there are extracts illustrating forms of integeal citation: 37 Vimaz, (2007, 11 Octobe), Plaga? No, wee just horowing better English. Natu, 49,658 Becher de Trower (2001 } See ako Chapter 7, scion 7.227 Extras126 Sonia Mantes The move from a disciplinary view to a thematic view is discussed by Wikander etal. (8) and compared to the trade of products and systems engineering, Wikander, To'mgren and Hanson define the traditional Imechatronics approach as subsystem based—meaning a development Strategy where integrated systems are buil from technology homogenous ‘subsystems, which might be mechanics-, electronics-, controlor software subsystems.” In [15,46] yet another type of translating platform has been proposed and studied from the Kinematic point of view: since it tured out that the machine presents very good features, Ike simple direct and inverse kinematic relations, high slfness, a convex. dome-shaped workspace J" non-integrl citations: this means that the source mentioned is nota syntactic part ofthe sentence in which it appears, but ether a bracketed note, a foomote, endnote feference or an apposition Bellow, there are extract llustating Forms of non integral This paper is an update ofthe coesponcing sections ofthe previously publed report Olea etal. 2002), ginal presented at het Sth IFAC Wort Congress This sensor fison process became one ofthe most important problems related to iteligetrobotes(Sasiadek & Wang, 2003) = Nevertheless, even ithe subject of paral knemafcs machines hes been Studied exterelvely nth lst years, many probleme are stil open for an sficert explotaton ofthe concept Ike the smal workspace, the poor dlvtery the dfeut design, the complet of dec kinmatics equations the couning of postion and orientation, and 0 on (6.71% Because they are a syntactic element in the text, integral citations may contain a reporting verb, such as i dca in the example mentioned above: ‘The move fem a Ghcpinary view to 6 terete view is ciscusse by Wikander et al. [9] In this example, the source (Wlander otal. (9) plays the role of agen to the passive vet i died Reporting verbs are important to master for a non-native E because th ‘impersonal’. Skilled writers make use of various reporting verbs when they introduce their sources to reveal theit opinion on the reported data/theory of to evaluate it. For instance, the very common seporting verb show suggests the writer concurs with the reported facts/data, while propose may suggest that the writer wishes to remain neutral. Other frequent reposting verbs convey attitudinal behaviour from the part of ilish writer in science, san convey a wide range of meanings, many not entirely ‘objective’ oF 48M, Grimbeden, M. Hanson / Mechatronics 15 (2005) 179-192 “Idem 4, Oller etal. / Anal Reviews in Control 30 (2006) 41-54 © Tem. 4 NL. Calle etal, / Mechatronics 16 (2006) 589-605. . @ Academic Engh for Seance and the reporting writer co the sources cited, Bellow there are examples of various ‘eporting verbs which may indicate evaluation of sources cited: tis worth citing also the work of Carrcato and ParentCastli (14), who studied exhaustively the ent family of TPMs whose limbs can be modelled as 5-dof chains, which is by far the most inaresting case, Chun et al, (10) have studied the heat pipe solar water heater using different heat transfer medium and analyzed (experimentally) the temperature distribution pattern of the heat pipe under low level solar iradiance, Ritdech et al. [9] investigated the plate collector adopting a curved heat pipe and analyzed the infuence of solar irradiance and ambient temperature on the collector performance. This analysis incorporates the natural forces of gravity and capilry action, It has addtional benefits euch {88 corrosion free operation’ It has also been pointed out that integral citations are ‘amthor prominent, that is they deaw attention to the name/-s of authors cited, while non-integral citations are yormation prominent” a5 they draw attention to the information /data/ theory, ete in the source cited, rather than to the authors of the source information data/theoey, ete. In engineering and haed sciences where emphasis is placed mostly on the informative function of discourse and on impersonal presentation of facts, non-integeal citations would make more sense. However, integral citations are quite frequent. A rhetorical choice was observed which mediates somehow the need for objective prose and for an integeal citation form: writers in hard sciences and engineering often reporting verbs dummy subjects (i) or non-human subjects, as illustrated extracts bellow: ve theie the Values of 2Ra for FA were reported in Halvorsen etal, (1993), which were calculated by solving the mocified Rackett equation(t) creclly for ZRA With @ reference density at a given temperature. However, there are na values reported for TAG and FAME. In tis work, values of parameter ZR for all compounds were estimated by a least-squares fiting of available ‘experimental values (rom this research and other reported studies) of densiy as a function of temperature = To compare the measured density of jatropha ol wth other vegetable ols, density data of various ols (rapeseed, soybean, mikweed, lesquerella) {om the study of Noureddin etal [1] were employed. By utlizing cointegration and dynamic causalty analysis in Alam et al, it was found that unidirectional causally existed fram energy congumption to ‘economic growth both in the short- and long-un in Bangladesh, ® © Mechatronics 16 (200) 589-605 4B, Du etal / Renewable nd Sustainable Energy Reviews 17 © Idem, “20th Furopean Symposium on Computer Aided Peocess Engineering - FSCAPE2N,S. Perel an G. Burzi Ferraris (Editors) 2010 Elsevier © Ine] Thermophys 2009) 3525-561, lem, 3) 119-125