“How are neuroscientists integrating the nervous system into

neuroprosthesis, that allows the user to gain tactile feedback and

control?”

Sara Voss

Senior Advisor - Kurt Pattison

Abstract: ​Finding effective solutions to further the cohesion between humans and robotic
controls of neuroprosthetics, will bring significant improvement to the lives of amputees.
Interfacing the PNS through proper electrodes permits an association and collaboration between
the machine and the brain that controls movement and reflexes. This is done by using the
progression of an electrode that is attached to the PNS. It is essential to develop an individual
interface with the sensory system so deliberate motor commands from an individual can be
conveyed and tactical feedback can be received by stimulating the afferent nerves. Interfacing
with peripheral nerves or muscles for neuromuscular and muscle stimulation is used in
neuroprosthesis. Control of neuroprosthesis and HBS through interfacing the PNS requires
bioelectrical signal recording through processors to impart between the prosthetic and the PNS.

12th Grade Humanities

Animas High School
20 April 2020
Introduction

Out of the 330 million people in the United States, there are over 2.1 million living as

amputees. Out of 2.1 million, there are 350,000 that have upper-body amputations such as the

arm, hand or wrist. Many that make up the population of amputees struggle with the affordability

of owning prosthetic devices. Around 32,000 prosthetics are sold per year meaning many do not

have the proper tools to navigate through their daily actions. The amount of discomfort and

sensory deprivation that is seen in the patients has sparked an interest in neuroscience. Being

able to restore sensory feedback to people who experience sensory disruption implies a

biological connection between humans and machines, which has become a human interest for

many years.

The human hand is very useful throughout life and when analyzed our hands are in

constant use or motion. Up to thirty or more muscles are used for each hand movement and

between intrinsic muscles which allows fine motor control for the fingers and extrinsic muscles

which are for flexing/extension of the hand allowing grip. Sensory disruption from our biological

sensors serves as a motivation for restoration in lost capabilities in amputees. Working in the

patient's favor it is sought out to mimic the natural feel and control of the biological structure of

a human hand.

To continue moving with current developments in the field neuroprostheses and their

users' needs, it was found that interfacing the peripheral nervous system (PNS) would provide

the best control through neuromuscular stimulation and signal recordings. The PNS is a nervous

system located around the spinal cord and brain, allowing connections to the target organs. The

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organization of the PNS has several connections through peripheral nerves containing nerve

fibers. The free ending sensory receptors convey as sensory inputs allowing appropriate

communication between electrode implants to the artificial limb. The somatic nervous system

that inner lays in the PNS voluntarily controls movement throughout the muscles which result as

a conductor of motor and sensory innervations to the appropriate region. Using biological signals

to control artificial prosthetics has established efforts that use functional electrical stimulation

(FES) on patients. FES involves small electrical charges to the muscles that have experienced

any abnormalities such as becoming weak or paralyzed. It uses electrodes that stimulate the

nerves that allow normal motor functions to be performed.

The biocompatibility of robotic and human interaction for controls is the outcome of

interface, non-invasive, muscle, extraneural, and intraneural electrodes as base components.

Interface electrodes are what creates the connection between the machine to the human and find

links between the processors to the tissues. Recording bio-electrical signals from natural sensors

establish a neuro-contact between both structures. The biocompatibility of both systems uses the

design of the biological structure and communication between the tissue. Non-Invasive

electrodes are electrodes applied to the surface for recording through the skin (surface

electrodes). They often are used for a biological signal recording that provides stimulation

towards nerve tracts underneath the skin. Non-Invasive electrodes are often used for hemiplegic

patients that need treatment from the FES system and also for recording electromyographic

signals (EMG) for controlling artificial limbs that require activation through the muscle. Muscle

electrodes such as the epimysium and intramuscular electrodes are surgically placed onto the

surface of muscles. Epimysial electrodes create an interconnection between multiple muscles

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allowing few difficulties to occur. Intramuscular electrodes are not implanted without any

surgical requirements but are deposited into the tip of muscles allowing wires to reach the

outside of the skin this also may cause damage to the muscle fibers but will have no impact on

muscle force. These electrodes require maintenance and hold mechanical stress during muscle

contractions. Extraneural electrodes include a large variety of different electrodes for different

clinical uses. Epineural electrodes are placed directly onto the nerves while helicoidal electrodes

are circumjacent to the nerve. These along with cuff electrodes provide a direct interface with

axons and nerves which bring subtle improvement towards neuropathic pain. The intraneural

electrodes placed within the nerve to activate directly with the tissue would be intrafascicular

electrodes. Longitudinally implanted intrafascicular electrodes (LIFEs) interface with axons

located within peripheral nerves. LIFEs are used for leading electrode motion and offer

stimulation to selected areas. LIFEs assist in the FES system for control and neural coding.

Historical Context

The Egyptians were the first pioneers of the prosthetic field and started the long and

winding route from fabric constructed prosthetics to the neuroprosthetics known today. The

earliest operating prosthetic device would be two toes constructed by Ancient Egyptians. The

progression to larger limb prosthetics began to develop after a focus of learning the human

structure and modern equipment began to arise. The advancement of prosthetic arms was later

used during battles. Prosthetics have forever been entwined with war and the soldiers that suffer

from loss of limbs. The middle ages began to craft from wood and mimic basic human anatomy,

leading to the early 16th century when Dr. Ambroise Pare made progress in both amputation

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operation and the development of prosthetic arms. In 1912, the first metal prosthetic limb was

given to aviator Marcel Desoutter. Work throughout the 20th century occurred but the year 1950

is when work began to develop and advance leading to neuroprosthesis.

Neuroprosthetics have been around since the late 19th century and for decades

investigators have eyed neuroprosthetics as ways to avoid neural deficits induced by illness or

increase existing use for motor performance. The area of neuroprosthetics has made immense

strides in recent times. The most generally used neuroprosthetics is the cochlear implant which,

as of December 2010, has been embedded in around 220,000 individuals around the world. A

cochlear implant is a device that sits behind the ear that transmits sound to the user. This was

implemented in the design process of auditory prosthetics in 1957 and gave a starting point for

neural implants as invasive communication counterparts for face or ear prosthetics. This is an

important step in the development of neuroprosthetic technology and was also one of the first

steps towards direct interfaces with electrodes. Richard Caton in 1978 found that electric signals

transmitted through the brain were possible. In 1950 Dr. Jose Delgaod invented the early

electrode that was implanted in the brain supporting Caton’s previous discovery. This was the

beginning of what created the commercialization of cochlear implants in 1972 and the first

brain-computer interface (BCI) in 1998. BCI allows users to interact with computers through

brian activity.

Presently, neural technology is pushing the perspective of neuroprosthetics. As

investigation yields further insights into how neurons in the brain and peripheral nerves sustain

human intent and knowledge, new ways to effectively interface with the human nervous system

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can arise. The development of technological and clinical capacity can require many studies,

including basic neuroscience, technology, computer science, and neurosurgery.

Research and Analysis

EMG-based control of neuroprostheses, hand prostheses, and exoskeletons:

Control of neuroprostheses and hybrid bionic systems through interfacing the PNS

requires bioelectrical signals recorded and amplified through signal processors to communicate

between the prosthetic and the PNS. This is done by using a series of electrodes that are attached

to the PNS. To communicate with electrodes, electromyography (EMG) which evaluates the

electrical activity of the skeletal muscles is used. EMG signals recorded using surface electrodes

(sEMG) are viewed as a significant source of information to permit individuals to control the

robotic prostheses. In the past, a few designs have been created and tried to control different

robotic stages such as prostheses planned for replacing parts of the body and exoskeletons

planned for increasing or reestablishing human capabilities. Despite what might be expected, the

control of prostheses has a difficult requirement for coding the different activities of the robot.

For instance, each finger of a prosthetic hand must have their distinctive muscular activity.

Which means each finger must have their code for the controls to be used for the correct

function. This helps distinguish which fingers and what motor functions are needed.

The various designs for EMG-based control are isolated into two fundamental classes:

control of non-homologous muscles and control of homologous muscles. It is typically

unrealistic to use the homologous muscles to control the development of prosthetics. The

improvement of algorithms making use of the possibilities of using pattern acknowledgment

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strategies is required for the homologous muscle to be used. The parameters that can be

separated are not adequate for recognizing multiple movements. Later it was discovered that

valuable data can be found in the transient burst of the myoelectric signal following the

beginning of compression and that EMG signals have more prominent grouping limits than

steady signals. Time and frequency domains highlight a feature that can increase the chance of

controlling multiple degrees of movement of the prosthesis when used in a mix of classification

algorithms and learning techniques. By using this method, the individual must start all the

movements to control the prosthesis, making it hard to change the classes of movement/motion

and expanding the reaction time of the individual. The sEMG signals have been additionally

used in the ongoing past for the control of upper and lower exoskeletons.​ ​For this purpose,

sEMG signals are used to decide how much force/torque is to be created when movement occurs.

The use of EMG, for this reason, presents a few issues.

Electroneurographic (ENG) signals are used to identify and distinguish a wide assortment

of infections or conditions including nerve damage. In many cases, ENG signals are used to

recognize the motions when used in prostheses such as an object being held begins to slip. When

a handle on an object begins to slip, a sleeve that is set around the palmar nerve records the

action from mechanoreceptors which allows control and power over the grasp. This can be

recognized as reflexes when studied through biological human hands. Finding the correct

trajectory using the previous recording from other tests is used when predictions for basic and

common movements occur.

Extracting information from neural signals through ENG signals from the PNS using

neural interfaces have been used in the past to get helpful data to improve neuroprostheses. As of

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late, it was indicated that the LIFE ENG signals can be organized using a traditional

spike-arranging approach. (gathering of spikes into groups dependent on the comparability of

their shapes. spikes are delivered when neuron tends fire). LIFEs have been used to inspire

sufficient sensory feedback to the amputees by stimulating the afferent nerves. Investigating the

chance of sensory feedback by stimulating the PNS gives the possibilities of this method being

successful.

Sensorized Hand Prosthesis:

Hybrid Bionic System (HBS) can be characterized as frameworks that contain both

artificial and natural components. A prosthesis can be linked to the individual by various

methods of invasive and noninvasive interfaces. It is conceivable to control a prosthetic hand by

using signals recorded noninvasive or by embedding electrodes to interface intrusively to the

central nervous system (CNS) and PNS. Using invasive interfaces to the PNS to control a

sensorized hand prosthesis and the use of EMG signals recorded using surface electrodes to

control a prosthesis have been introduced as practical partnerships for HBS. It is important to

build up a personal interface with the nervous system so deliberate motor commands from an

individual can be delivered and tactile feedback can be received by stimulating the afferent

nerves.

A biomechatronic hand has been created using the method of upgrading prosthesis

adaptability by keeping a natural activation and actualizing basic control. The CYBERHAND

prosthesis mimics the structure of the human body and is driven by a solitary link moved by a

motor. The motor for thumb abduction/adduction is situated inside the palm, while the motor for

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the finger movement is situated inside the lower arm. The hand has sixteen degrees-of-freedom

(DoF) and six degrees-of-motions (DoM). Each finger has one DoM including the thumb.

Tactile Feedback in Prosthetic Limbs:

Reestablishing tactical sensing to amputees plays a significant part in both material

recognition and control movement. A prosthetic hand outfitted with a BioTac material sensor

which is for recognizing force, vibration, and temperature and various tactors created to playback

modalities regarding an individual's lower arm was used to assess recognition in material

recognition tests. Two methods have been proposed to use material data in prosthetics. One,

material input can be used to empower natural reflexes to make hand control increasingly normal

and instinctive, and two, data can be given directly to the individual for natural perception.

Studies were led to decide whether the use of these sorts of tactile displays gives a powerful

method for passing on tactile data to an amputee and if they would be reasonable for further use.

The BioTac is a sensor intended to mimic the natural sensory abilities of a human finger.

Three displays of tactile feedback were created to pass force, temperature, and vibration through

BioTac to the arm of an amputee. To pass on force measured in the BioTac sensor, pneumatic air

muscles were coupled in a loop to fit freely around the upper arm of an individual. As the

pneumatic stress inside the air muscles expanded, they hardened and fixed, creating crushing

power regarding the individual's arm. To show temperature a Peltier component was used to

warm and cool the individual's skin. Air conditioning temperatures were mapped out between a

range of temperatures confirmed by a thermistor between the Peltier component and the skin.

While this framework was compelling at restoring feedback to the individuals. It was mentioned

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that the factors are rather distracting and would not be suitable for everyday use but it gave a

starting point for recognizing what is valuable and what will be replaced with other forms of

control.

Technology Issues:

All human-machine interfaces, particularly invasive electrodes must be inactively and

effectively biocompatible. The charge that can be stimulated is constrained by the electrode

territory. A bigger surface allows the higher currency to pass through and at the same time, the

impedance and the potential supply is reduced. Since a definitive objective of most invasive

electrodes is to be constantly embedded, they are fabricated with long haul biocompatible

materials to guarantee the biocompatibility. Dynamic biocompatibility relies on the design and

location of an electrode. During muscle contractions mechanical stress forms which are a factor

when considering what muscle movements will be available for that territory to be controlled.

As of today, the most developed automated prostheses are restricted to basic and essential

movements. They use durable electrodes for myoelectric signal (MES) from generally solid

muscle compressions, which is wasteful and unnatural for the individual. This is sought out to

hinder the acceptance between the amputee and the need to use an artificial limb. A few

approaches have been executed to adapt to the poor myoelectric signals that surface electrodes

produce. A significant issue of the dependability of biopotential signals has become a concern

now that real-time control for pattern recognizing algorithms is accessible. Each invasive and

noninvasive electrode comes with setbacks that require further development whether that is

materials that need further development and technological efforts or the likelihood of general

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maintenance that is sometimes an occurrence in invasive electrodes. This can be presumed that

the use of invasive electrodes as an answer for drawn-out steady and normal control of

prosthetics relies on the strategy that is used to power the counterfeit limb.

Discussion and Conclusion

In every one of these frameworks, user compatibility is carefully associated with the

mechatronic and robotic characters of the interface that connects them. To acquire personal

satisfaction of amputees it was found that interfacing the PNS with electrodes has become the

main method for controlling prosthesis. An answer for establishing characteristics at normal

human capability, one of the most essential developments of an interface between the natural and

counterfeit limbs were discovered.

Interfacing with peripheral nerves or muscles for neuromuscular and muscle stimulation

is used in neuroprostheses. Control of neuroprostheses and HBS through interfacing the PNS

requires bioelectrical signals recorded and intensified through signal processors to impart

between the prosthetic and the PNS. EMG signals record using surface electrodes which allow

the individuals to interact with the artificial limb and control the mechanical prosthesis with

real-time controls.

As of now, the most progressive prostheses have restricted control of essential natural

body movements. They all use invasive and noninvasive electrodes to read myoelectric signals

(MES) from generally solid muscle compressions, creating an unnatural feeling which furthers

the possibility of accepting the use of an artificial limb. A few arrangements have been executed

to adapt to the poor myoelectric signals of noninvasive electrodes. It has been proposed that the

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stability of bioelectric signals required for exact control of DoF, is a significant issue for

prostheses. It is sensible that this can essentially a credit to the use of invasive and noninvasive

electrodes.

Further research for creating a more financially friendly prosthetic device that still

enables the user to receive a high level of intricacy when about tactile feedback, a more

reasonable request. Neuroscientists are still constructing and developing controls for

neuroprosthetics to create the full sensory restoration. Mimicking the biological human hand in

every way possible is the goal set out by most, as long as user needs are being met and the

requirements are realistic to the mechanical structure of the designs.

Bibliography

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Development of a Neurocontrolled Hand Prosthesis” - IEEE Journals & Magazine,

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“Evaluation of Force, Vibration and Thermal Tactile Feedback in Prosthetic Limbs” - ​IEEE

Conference Publication,​ ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/6775495.

Navarro, Xavier, et al. “A Critical Review of Interfaces with the Peripheral Nervous System

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