Professional Documents
Culture Documents
City of Corinth
and its Impact Upon
Paul’s Corinthian Correspondence
Tim Attaway
© Copyright 2005 by Tim Attaway
All Rights Reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without prior written permission from the
author.
CORINTH
Ancient Corinth is actually two distinct settlements. The Greek city of Corinth was destroyed
completely by the Romans in 146 B.C. Except for minor occupation, the site was uninhabited until
the city was rebuilt in 44 B.C. by Julius Caesar. The rebuilt Roman city is the Corinth of the New
Testament. The city visited by Paul was not very old when he was there. The Greek Corinth was
an important city in Greece. Likewise the Roman Corinth was a major city in the Roman Empire.
The purpose of this paper is to examine both Corinths, to see what made them great, and to
examine their significance in light of the New Testament.
The city has myths to explain its origin. Among those legendary heroes associated with Corinth is
found Sisyphus. Sisyphus was at one time king of Corinth. Medea had given him the city.
Sisyphus was a cunning individual. His most famous trick was played on Death. Having
previously arranged with his wife to give him no funeral dues, he prevailed on Death to permit him
to return to earth from Hades in order to protest. After returning he neglected to go back until he
died of old age. According to one version, this is why Death decided to keep him busy so that he
could not run away again. Sisyphus was condemned to push a rock to the top of a hill, but each
time just as he neared the summit it slipped from his hands and he had to start all over again. 1 . The
people of the church at Corinth would have been very familiar with the character of Sisyphus.
They must have identified at times with his situation, feeling that their tasks are absurd and
unachievable. "The Corinthians' awareness of this spiritual void to a great extent explains their
receptivity to Paul's preaching." 2
The very geography of Corinth makes it important. It lies on the isthmus which connects the
Peloponnese to the mainland. Trade passing between these two points would flow through the area
of Corinth. The road which connected the cities of Arcadia and Argos ran to the south of
Acrocorinth. To the north of Corinth was the road which connected Sikyon, Achaea, and the coast
of the western Peloponnese. The city was situated along another important trade route as well.
Maritime traffic flowing between the Mediterranean and the Aegean Seas could go around the
Peloponnese, but this tended to be a dangerous journey for smaller vessels. Several centuries
before Christ, a road was built through the isthmus connecting the Corinthian Gulf with the Saronic
Gulf. Rather than sailing around the Peloponnese, a vessel could sail to one end of the road. His
entire vessel could then be hauled along the road to the other side of the isthmus, and he could
continue his journey. Several attempts were made to cut a canal along this route.
The isthmus where Corinth is located was also the site of the Isthmian Games, one of the four
Panhellenic Games. These games regularly brought people in and out of the area. They came for
the games and brought money with them. The trade flowing through Corinth made it an important
city economically. It brought many people and many different types of people through the city. It
may very well be this flow of people that made it a fertile ground for the growth of Christianity.
1
Jerome MurphyO'Connor, St. Paul's Corinth, with an Introduction by John H. Elliott (Wilmington: Michael Glazier,
Inc., 1983), p. 8.
2
Ibid., p. 9.
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© Copyright 2005 by Tim Attaway, All Rights Reserved
The earliest inhabitants did not come to Corinth because it was a center of trade. They came
because of the good farm land. Archaeology has shown that there was an Early Neolithic
settlement at this location. Although little has been found, there is enough pottery and stone tool
remains to indicate that there was such a population present. During the Bronze Age, population
increased in the area. There is no real evidence that the people began to urbanize during this
period. They lived in a number of small villages throughout the area. There are no outstanding
remains from this era. The most significant remain is a portion of a wall which was probably built
when the Dorian invasion was threatening. According to Homer, the area was wealthy during this
period. The wealth probably came from agriculture. There is little evidence remaining from the
Iron Age. That which does remain indicates the presence of houses and civic buildings. An
industrial area of the city, known as the Potter' Quarter has been found. Some small, early shrines
have been found here, and a few graves, along with the pottery shops and kilns; we may deduce
that a segment of the population – that which produced the pottery carried in Corinthian ships all
around the Mediterranean world – probably lived at its place of work, some distance from the
center of the city." 3
The period of the tyrants shows much building being done in Corinth. This building continued
during the oligarchy which followed. This period saw the construction of the Archaic Temple, the
remains of which still stand. The tyrants and the oligarchy built roads to the city and improved the
water supplies for the residents. Another important structure from this era was the temple of
Aphrodite. "It was this sanctuary with its hetaraipriestesses which made the Corinthian cult of
Aphrodite notorious in the ancient world." 4 More will be said of this worship of Aphrodite later.
In this late archaic period of Corinth, the market place had little formal organization. The public
market grew up around the intersections of the main roads in the cities. There were no covered
market buildings. Through the heart of the area was a race course. Nearby were the sacred
buildings. On the edges of it all were private residences. During the fourth century a significant
stoa was built which reshaped the agora area. Over 160 meters in length, of the Doric order on the
exterior, the building had a row of Ionic columns inside dividing the colonnade proper into two
aisles; behind the colonnade was a series of 31 shops, each with a rear storeroom, and at either end
a stairway giving access to a second floor over the shops. Each shop on the ground floor was
provided with a well; and behind each storeroom, outside the back wall of the stoa, was a sheltered
latrine. On the second floor there were 31 oneroom apartments, extending the full length of the
structure. The internal arrangements of the stoa, combined with the objects found in the shop wells
(numerous drinking cups inscribed with various forms of toasts, musical instruments) have
suggested to Professor Broneer, who excavated the Stoa, that it was designed to provide food
(downstairs), bedrooms (upstairs) and entertainment (on both floors). He believes that the South
Stoa was constructed shortly after the Battle of Chaironeia by which Philip of Macedon in 338 B.C.
acquired control of all Greece. Philip at once established a League of Greek States, with its seat at
Corinth. The South Stoa may have been a part of Philip's planning for the League of Corinth: it
was a hostelry to supply the needs of delegates coming to Corinth from the other Greek cities. 5
3
Henry S. Robinson, The Urban Development of Ancient Corinth (Athens: American School of Classical Studies at
Athens, 1965), p. 6.
4
Ibid., p. 12.
5
Ibid., p. 16.
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© Copyright 2005 by Tim Attaway, All Rights Reserved
The late fifth and fourth centuries were periods of building in places besides the agora. A theater
was constructed to the northwest of the city. Temples to the various gods and goddesses were
constructed. A gymnasium was built. Residences were built. Roads were laid. Fortifications were
reconstructed and strengthened. From the time that the stoa was built until the time the Romans
destroyed the city, new building continued to change the face and the shape of the city.
Corinth was a remarkably wealthy city early in her history. Goods from Corinth, pottery and
bronze in particular, were prized wherever the Corinthian ships could take them. During the sixth
and fifth centuries, Athens rivaled and outranked Corinth in importance, but during the fourth
century Corinth once again became the wealthiest and most populous city in Greece. Philip
recognized this when he made Corinth the seat of his league. Philip's treatment of Corinth vaulted
her importance but also spelled out her destruction.
The Philip mentioned is Philip V of Macedon (238179 B.C.).... Weakened by the
Hannibalic War, Rome was forced to concede Philip's conquests in Illyria (205 B.C.) but,
once recovered, it eased Philip out of the Peloponnese. Control passed to the Achaean
League, of which Corinth was a member, in 194 B.C. When the League proved more
independent than anticipated, Rome decided to weaken it. In 147 B.C. a Roman delegation
came to Corinth to announce Rome's desire that the League should be dissolved.... It was
perhaps in the pandemonium which followed this arrogant gesture that the episode reported
by Strabo took place. War with Rome became inevitable the following year, when the
League opened hostilities with Sparta. Corinth had few defenders when Mummius arrived
at its gates in 146 B.C. because three armies of the League had been defeated by another
Roman general in battles north of the Isthmus. 6
The Roman destruction of Corinth was efficient and complete. They may have desired to make an
example out of Corinth. Perhaps for political, perhaps for commercial reasons, the work was
mercilessly thorough: the men were slain, the women and children sold into slavery, the city itself
was burned and razed to the ground, its walls dismantled, its territory in part given to the
neighboring Sikyon and in part declared public domain. During a hundred years the site lay
uninhabited and desolate. 7
It is probable that the area had some sort of Greek presence during the next hundred years, but that
presence would have been minimal and negligible. In 44 B.C., the Romans under Julius Caesar
reestablished the city of Corinth. They had been in control of Greece for a century and the area was
at peace. Thus the choice of Corinth as a site for a colony was not based on military strategy.
Corinth was a good choice of a site for economic reasons. It was a strategic location from a trade
point of view. Most of the colonists who founded Corinth were freedmen. Freedmen were people
who had formerly been slaves but who had been granted their freedom. They did not have the legal
status of freemen. There were certain areas of public life that were not available to them. In
addition, at times their former masters made demands upon them. Going to Corinth did not legally
remove the restrictions which were upon them, but the distance from Rome rendered those
6
MurphyO'Connor, St. Paul's Corinth, p. 64.
7
Rhys Carpenter, A Guide to the Excavations of Ancient Corinth, with a Preface by Oscar Broneer, 4th ed. (Athens:
American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1947), p. 14.
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restrictions meaningless. Thus going to a new colony elevated their social standing and gave their
children a chance to become freemen.
The colonists were shopkeepers, artisans, teachers, secretaries, and so forth. They were the kind of
people who form the core of any community and allow it to function. Some of them were
economically wise and knew how to take advantage of this new opportunity. In order to raise
immediate capital, many of the early settlers turned to grave robbing. Demand for Corinthian
artifacts was high in the Roman Empire. The old tombs around Corinth contained a ready supply
of terracotta and bronze. The colonists capitalized on the demand and the Corinthian name and
restarted the traditional Corinthian industries. The strategic location of Corinth as a trade center
was exploited as well. Soon merchants were a regular part of the Corinthian scene. It did not take
long for the wealth of Corinth to resurge. The official language of the new city was Latin and it was
a Roman city in appearance. The city was rapidly built during the two centuries following its
refounding. The old market area retained its identity but new market areas were built all around.
Shops were built. The theater was restored. Temples were built. Homes were constructed. The
population during Roman times seems to have exceeded that during the Greek times. Consequently
the water supplies into the city were improved. Public baths were built.
In 267 A.D., Nordic invaders attacked and damaged Corinth. Corinth took steps to repair and
improve its fortifications. In the fourth century, the city was attacked by Alaric's Goths. The city
was severely damaged, but was rebuilt. By this time the city was largely a Christian community.
Churches flourished there during the fifth and sixth centuries. During the seventh and eighth
centuries, Slavic invaders reduced the size and prosperity of Corinth and any progress in the city
came to a halt. In the ninth century the city began to resurge. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
the shape of the city changed considerably as houses, industrial sites, churches, etc. were built
where the old market place had once stood. By this time the city was part of the Byzantine Empire.
The Turks conquered the area in 1458. Soon after that, the population shifted somewhat to the
north, migrating to fresh springs of water. The city continued steady development until 1858, when
a disastrous earthquake shook and damaged the city. At that time the inhabitants moved to the
coast and established the new city of Corinth. That village remains today, small and obscure.
Corinth was fertile breeding ground for the young Christian church. Several factors contributed to
this. The first has already been mentioned. The flow of people through Corinth made it possible
for new ideas to spread. People came through Corinth regularly, both for commercial reasons and
for the Panhellenic Games. A traveler might come to Corinth, learn about Christ, and take this
knowledge with him to his next port of call and eventually back home. The second factor
contributing to the growth of the church was the population of Jews in Corinth. The gospel of
Christ would not have been totally foreign to a first century Jew. Thus they were a good source of
converts. It is known that there were many Jews in the city. It is speculated as to why they were
there. In Acts, we learn that Paul "came to Corinth; and found a certain Jew named Aquila, born in
Pontus, lately come from Italy, with his wife Priscilla (because that Claudius had commanded all
Jews to depart from Rome)." 8 Historical evidence casts doubt on the assertion that Claudius
actually forced the Jews to leave Rome, but it is certain that he made it uncomfortable for them to
stay. If a Jew were forced to leave Rome or left because of persecution, he would probably go to a
place where the economy was thriving. Corinth was such a place. Priscilla and Aquila were
8
Acts 18:12.
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certainly not the only ones to leave Rome for this cause. It is likely that many Jews migrated to
Corinth at this time.
A third reason that the church could grow in Corinth is that the people had the freedom to
assemble. The church in Corinth was not harassed and had no need to hide.
La diffusion du christianisme s'est donc fait à travers ce réseau des associations du monde
grec. L'Eglise d'ailleurs avait été précédée par les synagogues; les Juifs, la ou ils étaient peu
nombreux, avaient installe leur synagogue comme n'importe quelle autre association et,
sous le couvert des lois et de la coutume, s'étaient organises en toute indépendance. La, au
contraire, ou ils constituaient une fraction notable de la population, ils avaient vise a
constituer des ethnarchies, groupements du peuple, Etat dans l'Etat. C'est grâce aux mailles
de ce réseau d'associations grecques que les Eglises ont pris place, paisiblement et, en
somme, librement, dans la société ancienne. On n'a jamais refuse aux chrétiens le droit
d'association. Le monde ancien n'était pas arme pour cette jurisprudence. Quand on a
persécute les chrétiens, on leur a conteste le droit d'exister.... 9
Corinth had certain physical characteristics which may have influenced the writings of Paul. His
metaphors or examples were shaped by the things with which the people were familiar. One such
item was the temple of Asklepieion. Asklepieion was a god believed to have healing powers.
People would come to the temple to be healed. Patients who came to his shrine to be healed
dedicated fullsized likenesses of the afflicted parts of their bodies if they were granted recovery
from their diseases. The majority of the patients who came to the Corinthian Asklepieion seem to
have suffered from ailments of the arms and legs, feet and hands, breasts and genitalia. 10 .
Perhaps the presence of this temple and the terracotta statues of body parts influenced Paul's
metaphor in 1 Corinthians 12.
For by one Spirit are we all baptized into one body, whether we be Jews or Gentiles,
whether we be bond or free; and have been all made to drink into one Spirit. For the body is
not one member but many. If the foot shall say, “Because I am not the hand, I am not of the
body; is it therefore not of the body?” And if the ear shall say, “Because I am not the eye, I
am not of the body;” is it therefore not of the body? If the whole body were an eye, where
were the hearing? If the whole were hearing, where were the smelling? But now hath God
set the members every one of them in the body, as it hath pleased him. 11
This metaphor continues. Paul used concepts and images which were familiar to his audience. He
liked to hang theological concepts on things which they would encounter every day. Thus they
would be reminded of their teaching as they went about their daily tasks. Perhaps Paul used the
presence of this pagan temple to teach them about the unity that they had in Christ.
9
L. Cerfaux, Une Eglise Charismatique : Corinthe (Paris: Foi Vivante, 1975), pp. 1920.
10
American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Ancient Corinth, A Guide to the Museum, with a Preface by Charles
H. Morgan, 3d ed., (Athens: Icaros Publishing Company, 1956), pp. 4142.
11
1 Corinthians 12:1318.
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Another common metaphor used by Paul was one which compared living the Christian life to
competing in an athletic event. It is an experience that requires effort and perseverance, but that
has a reward in the end for the victorious. The Greek mind placed a great importance upon athletic
training. The people of Corinth were no different. Corinth was the center of one of the Panhellenic
contests. The people were awed by the performance of the athletic heroes. "A number of stories
preserve a popular belief that these men were heroes, halfdivine supermen, whose mere statues
could work miracles." 12 The archaeology of Corinth reveals that a race course existed in the heart
of the town. In the area directly west of the Basilica the Roman pavement and the fill upon which
it rested have been removed for a distance of about 100 ft. toward the west, exposing the pavement
of the Greek Agora.
A surprising discovery was made at this point. A starting line for a race course, preserved
in its entire length of nearly 60 feet, was found 10 feet west of the Julian Basilica and
exactly parallel to it. It is built of porous blocks set between rubble and plaster and covered
with fine stucco. Two rows of short grooves serve as toeholes for 16 contestants in each
race. A second starting line of earlier date and with a different orientation lies at a slightly
lower level. The westward extension of the race course, still buried beneath the Roman
pavement, awaits further investigation. We may plausibly connect these remains with the
Hellotia, a Corinthian festival mentioned in Pindar's 13th Olympian ode. 13
This race course was in the heart of the older city of Corinth. This sort of competition was
important to the people. It was another part of their daily existence upon which Paul was able to
hang theological concepts
Bronze, or brass, was an important part of the economy of Corinth. Corinthian brass was famous
and was a prized possession wherever it was available. Corinthian brass was even used in the
construction of Herod's temple in Jerusalem. It is significant enough to be mentioned specifically
by Josephus.
Now nine of these gates were on every side covered over with gold and silver, as were the
jambs of their doors and their lintels; but there was one gate that was without the inward
court of the holy house, which was of Corinthian brass, and greatly excelled those that were
only covered over with silver and gold. 14
The gate covered in Corinthian brass was considered superior and more valuable than the ones of
silver and gold. The brass was beautiful. It was also found to have uses in architecture. Ancient
architects discovered that brass, placed in theaters, would pick up the vibrations of the voices on
stage, resound those vibrations, and serve as natural amplifiers. The resounding brass could make a
great deal of noise, but had nothing original to contribute. The people of Corinth would have
known what Paul meant when he talked about resounding brass in 1 Corinthians 13.
12
Peter Levi, Atlas of the Greek World (New York: Facts on File, 1984), p. 88.
13
Carpenter, A Guide to the Excavations of Ancient Corinth, p. 52.
14
Flavius Josephus, Josephus, Complete Works, trans. William Whiston, with Foreward by William Sanford LaSor
(Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 1981), pp. 554555.
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The environment of Corinth posed a number of problems with which Paul had to contend. One of
the obvious problems was that of paganism and idolatry. The people of Corinth lived in a world
where Greek and Roman mythology was still very much alive. Paul had to encourage the young
church to divorce itself from the idolatrous practices of the Corinthians. One question that plagued
the Corinthian church was whether not it was permissible to eat meat which had been sacrificed to
idols. The modern mind might wonder why this was such a problem. If the people had a problem
eating meat sacrificed to idols, why did they not just buy other meat? Was the meat which had
been sacrificed to idols cheaper? Did it taste better? What was the real problem? About the only
time that meat came on the market was after pagan festivals and it had been part of the victims
sacrificed to the gods." Thus the consciousstricken believer had to choose whether to eat meat at
all or to totally abstain. Therein lays the problem. This is the source of the question which Paul
had to help them resolve.
The presence of the temple of Aphrodite had often been thought to have influenced some of the
moral problems in the church. Many commentators have assumed that the immoral behavior being
exhibited by some of the members of the church is related to the presence of the temple of
Aphrodite at Corinth. The temple in the time of Paul was not nearly as large as the one which
existed in Greek Corinth. If temple prostitution did exist, it was more likely to have existed in the
Greek Corinthian temple. If the prostitution did exist, "Corinth would be unique among the cities
of Greece. Sacred prostitution was never a Greek custom and, were Corinth an exception, the
silence of ... ancient authors becomes impossible to explain." 15
Prostitution was present in Corinth. It was present in most harbor towns, as it is today. The
questions of immorality which faced the Corinthian church were most likely not a result of the
presence of the temple to Aphrodite, however. They were a result of the harbors, trade routes, and
rush of people in and out of Corinth.
Archaeological excavations of homes in Corinth have shed some light on the manner in which the
churches met. It is known that there were no actual church buildings. The congregations met in
homes. Archaeology of Roman homes from this period has revealed similar patterns in the homes
of the welltodo citizens of this time. In the home, there were typically two rooms which could be
used for the meeting of the church. One was the equivalent of a modern dining room, the
triclinium. Adjoining this was normally a courtyard, or atrium. The triclinium was around 36
square meters on the average, and with furniture could accommodate about nine people. The
atrium was around 55 square meters on the average and could accommodate around thirty people.
Because of these restrictions, it was unlikely that the church met as a whole very often. Thus the
church at Corinth actually consisted of a number of separate groups which met independently. This
arrangement would very easily allow theological divisions to develop in the church. In 1
Corinthians, chapter one, Paul admonishes the church to get over the divisions which have
developed. Apparently, some of the house churches have said that they are followers of Paul.
Others are followers of Apollos. Others follow Cephas. Paul encouraged them to come together in
unity.
15
MurphyO'Connor, St. Paul's Corinth, p. 161.
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Another problem could have developed because of this physical meeting arrangement. Only a few
people could be accommodated in the triclinium. The rest would have to sit on the overflow area
of the atrium. It is likely that the host of the house church would invite his close friends into the
intimate quarters and let the others sit outside. Resentment would develop. Some in the church
would have been getting second class treatment. Paul encourages the church to treat all men the
same and to avoid showing favoritism.
One other phenomenon with which Paul had to deal was that of Gnosticism in Corinth. Gnosticism
was an attempt to achieve redemption through the acquisition of sufficient and proper knowledge.
The seeds of Gnosticism may have come to Corinth from some unexpected places. Qumran may
have been one such source.
The young children in the community had to undergo a tenyear period of training. They
studied a manual specifically designed for this purpose. It dealt with the provisions and
requirements of the covenant. Not until their twentieth year were children eligible for
membership. When a person was otherwise ready to become a member of the community,
he was examined publicly regarding his intellectual capacity and his moral character. If he
passed this test, he was required to submit himself to a year's probation. At this point he
was not yet admitted to the common table; nor did he have a share in the resources of the
community. At the end of his novitiate he came up again for review. If he was considered
to be qualified, he had to serve another year on probation. At this stage of his training he
was obliged to place all property in trust with an overseer. He, himself, however, was not
yet permitted to dine with the members of the community; nor did he have the privilege of
having a share in their materials and supplies. He could become fully enrolled only after
this second year of training, and then only by a general vote of the whole assembly and after
swearing an oath of allegiance. Once he became a full member he was reckoned as
belonging to the “rabbim”, a word applied to God's elect. The commentary on Habakkuk
uses this same term of kings and rulers, in the sense of the "great ones." This is of some
significance as we consider the church at Corinth. For part of the difficulty of this church,
as St. Paul describes it, arose from the conviction of some of the members, at least, that they
were already kings, that they were living beyond eschatology, so to speak.... Now, it is just
possible that this strange idea came to Corinth by way of Apollos, whom Acts 18.2428
describes as having belonged to the movement begun by John the Baptist. It is possible that
John, for a time at least, lived in the Qumran community. In the Gospel of Luke we read
that he lived in desert places (1:80). After the death of his aged parents, he may have been
adopted by the community; for we know that this was the practice of the Qumran sect. It is
clear, however, from the information the Gospels give us that John did not share the
conviction of the sect that the community of the endtime was to be established in the desert
of Judah. He himself turned in his proclamation to the task of sending men back from the
wilderness into the world to carry on their work there in light of a new faith.... We mention
it here only to suggest that there is some likelihood that Apollos, before he received further
training from Aquila and Priscilla, carried something of this idea of the present dominion of
God's elect to the church at Corinth, and that this notion persisted even after he himself had
changed his point of view. 16
16
Martin H. Scharlemann, Qumran and Corinth (New York: Bookman Associates,
1962), pp. 4445.
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Apollos may also have carried to the church at Corinth the emphasis on knowledge as a means to
salvation. This mental discipline was at the heart of the Essene philosophy. The young church did
not fully understand what had happened with the death and resurrection of Christ and how salvation
was to be obtained.
Le christianisme des Corinthiens tendit ainsi à devenir une religion intellectuelle. Des
problèmes surgissaient devant leur esprit chercheur : rapports de Dieu avec le monde, réalité
des idoles, résurrection des morts, problèmes de la vie morale; le christianisme apportait des
solutions neuves et profondes et excitait la pensée. La vie chrétienne développait les dons
de l'EspritSaint. Chez les Grecs, l'intelligence n'était pas, comme dans certaine culture
d'aujourd'hui, isolée de la vie religieuse. On employait volontiers les termes
<<Intelligence>> ... et <<Esprit>> ..., et les deux mots possédaient une résonance
religieuse. L'Intelligence était considérée comme un don divin, de même que l'Esprit, et elle
s'épanouissait dans la contemplation de Dieu. 17
Paul had to fight this concept. Salvation was not to be achieved by each individual through the
accumulation of knowledge; it had already been achieved for each individual through the shedding
of the blood of Christ. The community at Corinth gave Paul the opportunity to answer questions
which men are still asking today. The encouragement that they needed is still needed by
individuals struggling to lead the Christian life. The heritage of Corinth lies not in archaeological
remains, but in the truth which was inscribed and associated with its name.
17
Cerfaux, Une Eglise Charismatique : Corinthe, pp. 3536.
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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Ancient Corinth, A Guide to the Museum. Preface
by Charles H. Morgan. 3d ed. Athens: Icaros Publishing Company, 1956.
Brown, Raymond Bryan. The Broadman Bible Commentary, Volume 10, Acts1 Corinthians. Ed.
Clifton J. Allen. 12 vols. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1970.
Carpenter, Rhys. A Guide to the Excavations of Ancient Corinth. Preface by Oscar Broneer. 4th ed.
Athens: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1947.
Cerfaux, L. Une Eglise Charismatique : Corinthe. Paris: Foi Vivante, 1975.
Cornell, Tim and Matthews, John. Atlas of the Roman World. New York: Facts on File, 1982.
Josephus, Flavius. Josephus, Complete Works. Trans. William Whiston. Foreward by William
Sanford LaSor. Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 1981.
Levi, Peter. Atlas of the Greek World. New York: Facts on File, 1984.
MurphyO'Connor, Jerome. St. Paul's Corinth. Introduction by John H. Elliott. Wilmington:
Michael Glazier, Inc., 1983.
Robinson, Henry S. The Urban Development of Ancient Corinth. Athens:
American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1965).
Scharlemann, Martin H. Qumran and Corinth. New York: Bookman Associates,
1962.
Schmithals, Walter. Gnosticism in Corinth, An Investigation of the Letters to
the Corinthians. Trans. John E. Steely. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1971.
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