Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2017) 1e11

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Research article

The Self-sustained High temperature Synthesis (SHS) technology as

novel approach in the management of asbestos waste
Laura Gaggero a, c, *, Maurizio Ferretti b, c
a
Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences, DISTAV, University of Genoa, Corso Europa 26, I-16132, Genoa, Italy
b
Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, DCCI, University of Genoa, Via Dodecaneso 31, I-16146, Genoa, Italy
c
RIT4Waste, Center of Research, Innovation and Technology for Waste, University of Genoa, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The SHS technique was experimented in chrysotile breakdown. By means of two reactions such as
Received 31 January 2017 Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 þ Fe2O3 þ 3 Mg and 2Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 þ Fe3O4 þ 4 Mg the chrysotile was completely
Received in revised form converted into forsterite-rich olivine. Different mixtures of hematite þ Mg and magnetite þ Mg were
5 June 2017
tested with chrysotile to establish the maximum chrysotile amount in order to allow the reaction. In
Accepted 6 September 2017
Available online xxx
comparison with conventional thermal treatments, the SHS process is characterized by a fast reaction,
needs low activation energy and the apparatus is simple. For these reasons, the asbestos neutralisation is
carried out with positive balance of time and costs of the process. Furthermore, the combustion product
Keywords:
Fibres
can be re-used as secondary material.
Neutralisation © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Combustion synthesis
SHS
Asbestos waste
Waste management

1. The environmental issue
The asbestos minerals had widespread industrial and civil ap-
plications between the XIX and XX centuries, due to significant
physical properties, as flame resistance, high tensile strength, heat
and electrical insulation, resistance to chemical and biological
agents (Pass et al., 2005; European Parliament 2012/2065(INI)).
After the asbestos e related health hazard was realised, its
extraction, marketing and production started being banned
worldwide.
Italy has been a large producer, experiencing also the asbestos-
correlated environmental issues, in particular, the occurrence of
natural outcrops of asbestos e bearing rocks and the dispersion of
asbestos in natural matrixes. The natural or anthropogenic origin
and migration of fibres in the environment allow defining a “fibre
cycle”, as a whole parallel to the hydric cycle (Gaggero et al., 2013).
As assessed, the exposure to asbestos has mutagenic effects
inducing some asbestos related diseases, in particular malignant
mesothelioma (Pass et al., 2005). The asbestos containing waste
* Corresponding author. Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences,
DISTAV, University of Genoa, Corso Europa 26, I-16132, Genoa, Italy.
E-mail address: gaggero@dipteris.unige.it (L. Gaggero).
will further increase as the European Parliament, in March 2013,
approved the resolution 2012/2065INI adopting a common strategy
that compels the member states to remove and eliminate all
asbestos containing waste within 2028, supporting the treatment
option rather than landfill.
The management options for the industrial waste are the landfill
and the treatments. At present, in Italy, the landfill has been the
easiest and preferred option, however a survey by the INAIL agency
(Paglietti and Conestabile Della Staffa, 2013) stated that among the
73 Italian landfills only 23 still host demolition waste containing
asbestos (ACW), and 5 landfills receive other ACW: on the whole
the residue volume corresponded to 111.202 m3.
In the perspective of reducing the environmental issue and to
explore possible recycling of the breakdown products of chrysotile,
we experimented the use of Self-sustained High-temperature
Synthesis (SHS), a non-conventional thermal treatment assessed
since the Sixties for the synthesis of ceramic materials (Merzhanov
and Boroviskaya, 1972). A “thermite” or “aluminothermic” reaction
involves the exothermic reduction of a metallic reagent and a metal
oxide into an oxide more stable than the pristine. The reaction
starts by punctual heating of the mixture until the triggering of the
reaction that proceeds as self sustained (hence “Self-sustained High
temperature Synthesis). In order to have a SHS development the
“adiabatic” temperature (Tad  1800 K) (Munir, 1988; Maglia et al.,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.019
0301-4797/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Gaggero, L., Ferretti, M., The Self-sustained High temperature Synthesis (SHS) technology as novel approach in
the management of asbestos waste, Journal of Environmental Management (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.019
2 L. Gaggero, M. Ferretti / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2017) 1e11
2001) has been envisaged as thermodynamic boundary.
The SHS technique was experimented also in waste treatment,
with positive results in the fixation and consolidation of high-level
radioactive waste, the treatment of zinc hydro-metallurgical waste,
the degradation of chlorinated aromatics and the recycling of sili-
con sludge and aluminium dross produced by the semiconductor
industry and aluminium foundries, respectively, and in the treat-
ment of fibrous minerals, with particular attention to sepiolite (Cao
and Orrù, 2002; Porcu et al., 2005).
Provided that the landfill option, although the less expensive,
has an impact on the territory, and treatment plants have up to now
been not competitive with landfill, except for plasma treatment, we
aim at demonstrating that the SHS technique is an alternative
efficient in the energy perspective, and would decrease the need
and the social costs of landfill for hazardous waste. The early results
on several waste type demonstrated neutralisation of mixture
containing up to 75% asbestos waste (Gaggero et al., 2016): in this
study our goal is to enlighten the thermodynamic principles of the
SHS process in comparison with the conventional thermal
treatments.
2. Asbestos waste management: an overview
In 2013, the global world production was 1.94 million tons of
asbestos, mostly ascribed to Russia (46.92%), China (18.96%) and
Brazil (13.06%). About 200 million tons of asbestos is estimated to
be stored worldwide (Jinhui et al., 2014). In 2011, the world
consumed about 2.03 million tons of asbestos, 61.5% of which was
consumed in the Asian - Pacific region (United States Geological
Survey, USGS). In particular, China accounted for 30.5% and India
15.4%. Many, but not all, Asian-Pacific countries still allow the
import and export of asbestos, although some banned certain
types. Most of the asbestos waste derives from the tailings of
asbestos mining and the manufacture of asbestos products (Shi,
2011). This can be considered a primary source of AW, and can be
directly quantified.
In the US, the ban on asbestos has been progressively extended
to most of the ACM-products. However, at 2015, the manufacture,
importation, processing and distribution in commerce of products
is not banned for the several items.
In Canada, in late 2011, the remaining two asbestos mines in the
Province of Quebec halted quarry operations. In June 2012, a $58
million loan was promised by the Quebec government to restart
and operate the Jeffrey mine for the next 20 years. In September
2012, before the loan funds were delivered, the Parti Que  be
cois
defeated the Quebec Liberal Party in the Quebec provincial election.
The Parti Quebe cois halted asbestos mining and cancelled the $58
million loan, funding the economic diversification of the area.
All EU Nations, following the WHO prescriptions, are producing
theirs National Asbestos Profile that is supposed to homogenise the
data and the vision on the clinical and social costs of asbestos-
related pathologies. The EC has produced, between 1983 and
2013 a set of normative addressing the professional exposure of
workers and the management of waste across EU boundaries.
However, at EU scale, a few data on the quantities of this waste
are available and the sensitivity is different in each countries.
Asbestos is a component of the Construction and Demolition Waste
(CDW; ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/construction and demoli-
tion), one of the heaviest and most voluminous waste streams
generated in the EU. CDW are 25%e30% of all waste generated in
the EU and are heterogeneous, including concrete, bricks, gypsum,
wood, glass, metals, plastic, solvents, asbestos and excavated soil.
The level of recycling and material recovery of CDW is variable
(between less than 10% and over 90%) across the Union. Asbestos
Please cite this article in press as: Gaggero, L., Ferretti, M., The Self-sustained High temperature Synthesis (SHS) technology as novel approach in
the management of asbestos waste, Journal of Environmental Management (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.019
has been used also in manufacturing in high or low temperature
cycles, in transports, in domestic uses, in textiles, so that excerpting
the amount of ACW from the Eurostat categories is uneasy, as well
as the cross-country comparisons on decommissioning data.
One of the objectives of the Waste Framework Directive (2008/
98/EC) is to provide a framework for moving towards a European
recycling society with a high level of resource efficiency. In
particular, Article 11.2 stipulates that “Member States shall take the
necessary measures designed to achieve that by 2020 a minimum
of 70% (by weight) of non-hazardous construction and demolition
waste excluding naturally occurring material defined in category 17
05 04 in the List of Wastes shall be prepared for re-use, recycled or
undergo other material recovery”.
Among EU countries, Italy has by far an elevated awareness of
the damages for human health deriving from occupational and
non-professional exposure, due to the presence of the largest Eu-
ropean quarry, Balangero, and several manufacturing sites of fibre
cement in N and S Italy (Eternit™). Therefore, due to easy provision,
and low costs of the raw material, asbestos has been used in heavy
industry, naval constructions, public and residential buildings. In N
Italy, the peak of asbestos related pathologies is foreseen in the 15
years to come, mostly from naval and quarrying professional ex-
posures. In this regard, Italy has an advanced normative to char-
acterise dimension stones containing asbestos, to forecast a
possible fibre release.
Treatment plants other than landfills aim at modifying the
crystalline structure of the asbestos, neutralising its hazardousness.
After treatment, the following step is the reuse as raw material,
under the law prescriptions. Investigations on re-use technology
for asbestos waste (Su and Long, 2009) resulted for instance in the
extraction of SiO2 (Jiang et al., 2011) and magnesium, in recycling
tailings for construction materials (Liao and Lu, 1997; Zhu, 2009),
and in the thermal transformation of cement-asbestos for the
preparation of calcium sulfo-aluminate clinker (Viani and Gualtieri,
2013), but up to now these technologies are still at demonstration
scale. Colangelo et al. (2011) tested treated and recycled waste
containing asbestos cement, and demonstrated that its hydration
kinetics and mechanical properties made it a good building mate-
rial. Gidarakos et al., 2008 and Paglietti et al., 2012 proposed that
asbestos mines be turned to disposal sites for asbestos waste, with
the opportune safety measures. Between 1980 and 2013, 35 Italian
patents for the neutralisation of asbestos have been registered.
Following the Resolution of the EU Parliament 2012/20165(INI) 14
March 2013: “the landfill disposal would not be the most safe
method for ultimate elimination of the fibres released in the
environment eliminate, neutralisation plants for asbestos waste
would be the preferred option”. The Resolution invites the Com-
mission to promote the activation of centres for treatment and
neutralisation, in the perspective of ceasing the landfill of this
waste.
The Italian MD 29 July 2004 n. 248 requires that the material
after treatment should have the requisites of materials replacing
asbestos (all. 2 DM 12/2/1997): 1) absence of asbestos fibres under
the Scanning Electron Microscope; 2) total concentration of cate-
gory 1 or 2 carcinogenic substances 0.1%; 3) should not generate
hazardous waste; 4) the content of fibres with average Ø <3 mm
should be lower than 20%.
The definition of “secondary raw material” (DL 3/4/2006, n. 152)
was overcome by that of “end of waste status” (DL 3/12/2010, n.
205, IV correttivo, art. 184 ter): the waste is no more such after
recovery, including recycling and treatment for re-use, under spe-
cific requisites. Therefore, two classifications are possible for the
post-treatment classification: i) end of waste, or, more limitative,
however profitable ii) 19 12 12 “other wastes (including mixtures of
materials) from mechanical treatment of wastes other than those
 L. Gaggero, M. Ferretti / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2017) 1e11
mentioned in 19 12 11”.
3. Experimental
3.1. Characterization of chrysotile
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of chrysotile breakdown by
self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS), preliminary
experiments were carried out by conventional step heating. In both
cases the starting reactant was a natural chrysotile from a veined
serpentinite in Petronio Valley (Eastern Liguria, Sestri Levante e
Genova; Isola, 2010) (sample Ba230407_6; Fig. 1). It was preven-
tively characterized by optical microscopy, XRPD and micro-Raman
analysis (Fig. 2 a and b). The fibres from the same veins were used
for both the conventional step heating and the SHS experiments, in
order to guarantee homogeneous starting material.
The composition of Ba230407_6 chrysotile is comparable with
those reported in literature (Whittaker and Wicks, 1970; Wicks and
Plant, 1979; Viti and Mellini, 1997; Groppo et al., 2006) (Table 1).
Aluminium in the tetrahedral site is absent or very low (AlIV ¼ 0.022
a.p.f.u.) and Mg in the octahedral site is partially replaced by Al
(0.035e0.086 a.p.f.u.) and Fe (0.088e0.126 a.p.f.u.). Manganese and
Cr are low (Mn ¼ 0.002e0.006 a.p.f.u.; Cr ¼ 0.000e0.014 a.p.f.u.),
whereas Ni is absent.
Qualitative and quantitative analyses were performed by a
transmitted light polarizing microscope equipped with an elec-
tronic point counter. Macroscopic fibrous minerals, covering the
Fig. 1. Chrysotile fibres extracted from a vein in serpentinite.
Fig. 2. A) Characterization by XRPD demonstrating the high purity of the phase. B) Micro-Raman spectrometry of starting material.
Please cite this article in press as: Gaggero, L., Ferretti, M., The Self-sustained High temperature Synthesis (SHS) technology as novel approach in
the management of asbestos waste, Journal of Environmental Management (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.019
3
Table 1
Representative EDS EMP analyses of the starting chrysotile form
the Bargonasco vein.
Chrysotile
Cations Atoms per formula unit
Si 1.97e2.28
AlIV 0.00e0.01
AlVI 0.00e0.07
Mg 2.33e2.85
Fe 0.10e0.30
sample surfaces or filling open fractures, veins, and voids, were
sampled by a diamond file, then manually and magnetically sepa-
rated, and analysed by XRPD, effective for univocal resolution of
mineral mixtures. XRPD analyses were carried out using a Philips
PW1140-XCHANGE diffractometre (CuKa radiation; current 30 mA,
voltage 40 kV, scan speed, 0.5 2q/min; scan interval, 3e80 2q.) and
interfaced with PC-APD software for data acquisition and
processing.
Selected samples (very thin chrysotile veins) were investigated
by a Tescan Vega 3 LM Scanning Electron Microscope equipped
with an Apollo X detector and Microanalysis TEAM EDS System.
Microphotographs were acquired on graphite e sputter coated 3D
samples under high vacuum conditions with backscattered and
secondary detectors. Semi-quantitative electron microprobe ana-
lyses of phases were obtained under high-vacuum conditions by
use of natural standards. The natural standards were preliminarily
analysed by WDS microprobe at University of Modena. The in situ
mineralogy of the serpentine phases with microtextural control
was obtained by micro-Raman spectrometry carried out by Jobin
Yvon LabRam with 632.8 nm laser, at “Centro Interdipartimentale
Scansetti”, University of Turin.
3.2. Chrysotile breakdown by conventional step heating
A natural chrysotile from a vein in the Bargonasco quarry was
pulverized and divided in four. Each aliquot was weighted before
and after the thermal treatment in muffle furnace to verify that the
dehydroxilation process, corresponding to weight loss about
12e14%, was completed.
X-ray powder diffraction (Fig. 3) of chrysotile Ba230407_6 after
heating support a complete dehydroxilation already at 620 and
the occurrence of the amorphous phase metachrysotile in
4 L. Gaggero, M. Ferretti / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2017) 1e11

Fig. 3. XRPD patterns of chrysotile samples after 24 (A), 36 (B) and 48 (C) hours conventional thermal treatment in oven.

accordance with Cattaneo et al. (2003). The chrysotile heated at
1000  C for 24 h evidence a weight loss about 14.7%, stabilized after
36 (14.7%) and 48 (14.6%) hours. After treatment at 1000  C for
more than 36 h our samples resulted composed by forsterite and
enstatite still retaining the fibrous habit.
3.3. Chrysotile breakdown by the SHS technique
The thermodynamic parameters of reagent and minerals phases
are reported in Table 2. The reactants were mixed together with
randomly oriented chrysotile fibres (Fig. 4) and then pressed into
cylindrical pellets. Scanning electron microscope backscattered
image allowed defining that fibres were dispersed and their modal
content. The image elaboration software Image J was used to define
the morphology and the abundance of fibres. The geometric fea-
tures of chrysotile bundles are listed in Table 3.

To obtain the chrysotile breakdown, experimental procedures

typically referred to the SHS method were adopted, taking advan-
tage of the heat release of the highly exothermic reactions ignited
by a relative low energy source. The reactants were selected be-
tween different oxideemetal couples capable to activate the so-
called “aluminothermic reaction” and to break down the chrysotile:
Fe2O3 þ 3 Mg / 3MgO þ 2Fe DHr ¼ 983,2 kJ/mol
Fe3O4 þ 4 Mg / 4MgO þ 3Fe DHr ¼ 1286,3 kJ/mol
Chrysotile was then mixed with reactants (Fe2O3 powder 99.99%
Carlo Erba Reagents; Fe3O4 powder 99.99% Alfa-Aesar; Mg bar
99.99% Sigma-Aldrich) in stoichiometric amounts, according to the
following reactions:
3.4. The SHS experiment
The combustion process was carried out in a stainless reaction
chamber closed, in which argon flows at ambient pressure (Fig. 5).
The chamber contains a heated basement on which the samples
are placed. Before the reaction, the samples undergo pre-heating (T
of the heating base 200e300  C) for a few minutes. During this step
any trace of water is eliminated from the reactant mixture and the
whole sample is equilibrated towards the T of triggering, in order to
properly start the combustion; this helps to reduce the dispersion
of the reaction heat. The reaction temperature was monitored by
using a thermocouple.
A W coil is located 5 mm above the pellets. The reaction is

Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 þ Fe2O3 þ 3 Mg / 2 Table 2

Standard enthalpies of formation for reactants and mineral phases.
Mg2SiO4 þ 2MgO þ 2Fe þ 2H2O (1)
Reactant DHf [kJ/mol] reference
2Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 þ Fe3O4 þ 4 Mg ¼ 2Mg2SiO4 þ MgO periclase e601,80 a
2MgSiO3 þ 4MgO þ 3Fe þ 4H2O (2) Fe2O3 hematite e822,20 a
Fe3O4 magnetite e1120,90 a
H2O(g) e241,82 a
Both reactions are highly exothermic in spite of heat con-
Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 chrysotile e4353,0 b
sumption during the transformation of chrysotile: Mg2SiO4 forsterite e2170,4 c
MgSiO3 enstatite e1610,3 c
DHr(1) ¼ 852,8 kJ/mol a
US National Institute of Science and Technology.
b
Ogorodova, et al., 2007.
DHr(2) ¼ 1109,0 kJ/mol c
Stolen and Grande, 2003.

Please cite this article in press as: Gaggero, L., Ferretti, M., The Self-sustained High temperature Synthesis (SHS) technology as novel approach in
the management of asbestos waste, Journal of Environmental Management (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.019
 L. Gaggero, M. Ferretti / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2017) 1e11 5

Fig. 4. SEM microphotographs of chrysotile bundles mixed with Mg and Fe oxide reagents and close up of the stratified chrysotile (Ctl)/reagents pellet. A) General view; B) insight of
the intimate mixture obtained at 1,5 (t/m2) pressure.

activated by heat induction when the coil is made incandescent

Table 3
(over 2000  C) by a power supply (2.5 V, 85 A), which is switched
Geometric features of chrysotile bundles in homogeneous pellets, recast
by the Image J software.
off after a few seconds, as the reaction is initiated. Working under
argon flow avoids both the oxidation of W coil and of Mg powder,
Chrysotile
before the reaction occurs; in addition the vapour extraction sys-
N fibre bundles 452 tems enabled operating under depression. This apparatus was
Chrysotile average surface 8493 mm2 patented by Gaggero et al. (2010).
% Total area of chrysotile fibers 56.3%
The chrysotile was pulverized in an agate mill, then mixed to
reactants according to the proportions calculated for reactions 1)
and 2) and pressed (1,5 t/m2) in cylindrical pellets. Pellets of
different diameter (10÷13 mm) and height (7÷13 mm) were pre-
pared, to verify experimental reproducibility. A first series of sam-
ples was prepared by finely mixing chrysotile with reagents to
obtain a texturally homogeneous mixture. A second series was
prepared by placing alternate layers of pure chrysotile with layers
of pure reagents (Fig. 4). In both sample series, the reaction pro-
ceeded in a self-propagating modality. Two different reactant
mixtures (hematite þ Mg and magnetite þ Mg) were tested with
chrysotile (Table 4).
In this way we were able to establish the maximum chrysotile
amount to obtain the reaction with SHS mode. Using the reactants
of both reactions 1 and 2, the chrysotile was completely converted
into forsterite-rich olivine (Fig. 6).
Because of large temperature gradients and extremely high
heating and cooling rates affecting the reactants during combus-
tion, non-equilibrium phases could develop in the products (Munir,
1988). The non-equilibrium nature of the process would produce
non-stoichiometric or intermediate and metastable phases, as in
the case of reaction (4) whose final products, detected by XRPD
analysis, were forsterite, MgO and FeO.

4. Results

Fig. 5. Reaction chamber (open configuration): A) sample; B) heated base; C) argon
flow; D) W coil; E) inspection window; F) closing cover.
After the SHS combustion, the average weight loss of the sample
was c. 4%: is normalized to the per cent of chrysotile in the pellet, it
corresponds to a weight loss between 10 and 12%, likely corre-
sponding to the dehydroxilation of chrysotile (Mackenzie and
Meinhold, 1994 and references within).
A morphologic, mineralogical and compositional characteriza-
tion of products on ignited pellets was carried out by scanning
electron microscope coupled with Energy Dispersive Spectrometry
(EDS) microanalysis. After the SHS ignition, the fibrous habit
completely disappears and the breakdown of chrysotile originates
olivine with prismatic stubby habit as shown in Fig. 7 (A to F) and

Please cite this article in press as: Gaggero, L., Ferretti, M., The Self-sustained High temperature Synthesis (SHS) technology as novel approach in
the management of asbestos waste, Journal of Environmental Management (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.019
6 L. Gaggero, M. Ferretti / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2017) 1e11

Table 4
Reactants volume proportion, size and weight of the experimented ignited pellet series. Samples 1e4 contain stoichiometric amounts of reactants to provide the triggering of
SHS and to obtain the forecast breakdown products. Chrysotile weight percent varies between 45 and 65. In samples 1 to 8 reactants are mixed, sample 9 was layered.

Sample # Chrysotile [weight %] % Reactants Fe2O3 þ Mg Pellet size [mm] Pellet weight [g]

Ø Height

1 52 48 10 7 7
2 54 46 13 7 10
3 46 8 11
4 54 46 13 13 14
5 45 55 13 7 10
6 50 50 13 7 11
7 60 40 13 7 11
8 65 35 13 7 11
9 50 50 10 7 5

Fig. 6. XRPD patterns of treated pellets, demonstrating the breakdown of chrysotile to Forsterite (FeSiO4), Wustite (FeO) and Periclase (MgO). In particular, A and B refer to ho-
mogeneous pellets, C refers to the stratified pellet. D) Electron Microprobe in situ analysis of Mg-rich olivine from treated samples. A slight increase in fayalite molecule occurs close
to wustite grains.

related mineral chemistry in Table 5. Newly formed olivine grows in
MgO and Fe matrix. The volatiles developed at advancing com-
bustion induce the swelling of pellets and a vesicular texture.
Locally, the escape of volatiles is recorded by a vortex texture
(Fig. 7C); however this effect is minimized by the Ar flow.
The in situ composition of neo-formed olivine ranges between
Fo99 and Fo90 (homogenously mixed pellets) and between Fo98 e
Fo97 (stratified pellets), both comparable with natural olivine
occurring in peridotites (Fig. 6 and Table 5).
The fayalite content within olivine grains is variable and
generally higher towards the crystal rims or in small grains in
contact with metallic iron (Fig. 7 E, F), suggesting a relationship
with the proximity of Fe2O3 in the pellet. In order to test the per-
vasivity of reaction, XRPD analyses were carried out on “Hem þ Mg”
pellets after SHS reaction. The results evidence that chrysotile is
absent both in homogeneously mixed and in stratified pellets and
replaced by forsterite, periclase and Fe, thus confirming the
morphological and chemical analysis under the scanning electron
microscope.
The chrysotile breakdown reaction by SHS did not produce
enstatite nor in Hem þ Mg and Mgt þ Mg mixtures, in contrast with
descriptions from natural systems (O'Hanley, 1996) and from

Please cite this article in press as: Gaggero, L., Ferretti, M., The Self-sustained High temperature Synthesis (SHS) technology as novel approach in
the management of asbestos waste, Journal of Environmental Management (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.019
 L. Gaggero, M. Ferretti / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2017) 1e11 7

Fig. 7. SEM Microphotograph of SHS treated pellets. A) overall scoriaceous texture. B) Voids originated in the volatile release from chrysotile, surrounded by blocky, compositionally
homogeneous forsterite. C) irregular, swirly, amygdalar texture of bubble distribution, suggesting that volatile release occurred in a visco-plastic host material. D) Spongy texture
defined by wustite shells enclosed in forsterite (light grey, arrow on the right side). E) subrounded granular wustite and periclase enclosed in massive forsterite patch. The
concentration of granular wustite suggests blastesis along former discontinuities. F) Annealing of wustite grains.

conventional thermal treatment (Gualtieri and Tartaglia, 2000;
Mackenzie and Meinhold, 1994; Gualtieri et al., 2008).
5. The SHS technology in comparison with other thermal
treatments
The pellet moulding was carried out as homogeneous and
stratified. In order to appreciate the effectiveness of the SHS reac-
tion at variable chrysotile content, a homogeneous mixture of re-
actants and chrysotile allowed their close contact and a
homogeneous propagation front. In fact the reaction speed was
constant.
The stratified pellets provided a successful combustion: they
were envisaged in the perspective of industrial scale up, to repre-
sent the geometry of interbedded tiles and reagents.
The increase of size of the pellets vs. the demonstrated occur-
rence of the reaction by micro-texture and compositional change
suggests that the homogeneous mixture attains to breakdown the
highest % of chrysotile. At increasing chrysotile content, decreasing
reaction temperatures were recorded in the sample (Fig. 8).
The SHS reaction, compared with conventional thermal treat-
ments (Gualtieri and Tartaglia, 2000; Datta et al., 1987; Gualtieri
et al., 2008) takes to the complete compositional and morpholog-
ical break down in a very short time (some seconds for the exper-
iments carried out). In the perspective of industrial scale up, the
time length of the process is extremely profitable as for energy
input.
Gualtieri et al. (2008) proposed a high temperature process of
chrysotile neutralisation after which neoformed olivine grows
pseudomorphic on pristine fibres, thus maintaining an overall
asbestiform habit. Conversely, following the SHS treatment, the
newly formed olivine developed as granular sturdy crystals (Fig. 7).
Discrete olivine grains close to metallic iron drops evidence
higher contents of fayalite molecule (Table 5). The enrichment is
likely the effect of iron diffusion from hematite at the development
of the reaction Fe2O3 þ 3 Mg / 3MgO þ 2Fe.

Please cite this article in press as: Gaggero, L., Ferretti, M., The Self-sustained High temperature Synthesis (SHS) technology as novel approach in
the management of asbestos waste, Journal of Environmental Management (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.019
8 L. Gaggero, M. Ferretti / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2017) 1e11

Table 5
Representative in situ EDS composition of olivine obtained after SHS treatment. In isotropic, homogeneous pellets, Fo ranges between 90 and 98 mol %. In stratified pellet Fo is
constantly 97e98 mol%. “Others” end-members in solid solution are Tephroite (Mn2SiO4) and Monticellite (CaMgSiO4), with minor Cr end member.

Pellet type Homogeneous pellet Stratified pellet

Sample EVIS1 EVIS2 EVIS1strati

Oxide%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5

SiO2 42.42 42.98 42.31 40.87 41.40 42.54 42.57 42.49 41.96 41.00 51.55 51.68 49.77 41.68 41.23 41.49 41.31 41.02
TiO2 0.05 0.04 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00
Al2O3 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.18 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.29 0.00 0.41 1.00 0.86 1.35 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.15
Cr2O3 0.00 0.05 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.07 0.00 0.05 0.04 0.12 0.09 0.05 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.00
FeO 2.20 2.03 1.79 9.39 8.04 1.29 1.81 2.06 4.36 8.80 2.73 3.61 3.18 2.63 2.06 2.64 1.64 2.44
MgO 55.19 54.78 55.53 49.49 50.37 55.82 55.27 55.05 53.63 49.68 46.34 43.48 47.25 55.97 56.26 56.13 56.79 56.40
MnO 0.10 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.14 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.14 0.07 0.09 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00
NiO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CaO 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.09 0.06 0.00 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.00 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.11 0.06
Na2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
K2O 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 100.01 100.00 100.00 99.97 99.95 99.96 99.95 100.00 100.00 100.00 101.80 99.94 101.72 100.60 99.86 100.50 100.12 100.07
Cations
Si 1.004 1.019 1.000 0.999 1.007 1.004 1.008 1.006 1.002 1.000 1.245 1.284 1.199 0.980 0.973 0.975 0.971 0.966
Ti 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000
Al 0.000 0.000 0.003 0.005 0.000 0.005 0.000 0.008 0.000 0.012 0.029 0.025 0.038 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.004
Cr 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.002 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.000
Fe3 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.052 0.041 0.052 0.032 0.048
Fe2 0.044 0.040 0.035 0.192 0.164 0.026 0.036 0.041 0.087 0.180 0.055 0.075 0.064
Mg 1.948 1.936 1.956 1.803 1.826 1.963 1.950 1.943 1.910 1.806 1.668 1.610 1.696 1.961 1.979 1.967 1.989 1.980
Mn 0.002 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.003 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.003 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000
Ni 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Ca 0.001 0.001 0.003 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Na 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
K 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Total 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
End members
Forsterite 0.976 0.978 0.980 0.903 0.915 0.986 0.978 0.977 0.956 0.909 0.966 0.951 0.963 0.973 0.978 0.974 0.983 0.976
Fayalite 0.022 0.020 0.018 0.096 0.082 0.013 0.018 0.021 0.044 0.090 0.032 0.044 0.036 0.026 0.02 0.026 0.016 0.024
Others 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.003 0.001 0.003 0.003 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.004 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001

insulation by resin coating and encapsulation (Chan et al., 2000;

Fig. 8. SHS reaction temperatures measured by a thermocouple on the sample, at
increasing chrysotile concentrations.
As quoted above, after a conventional, hour-lasting, step-heat-
ing treatment, enstatite can develop at 1000  C as breakdown
product. Nonetheless, enstatite is lacking among our SHS products.
The average reaction temperature above 1200  C, the sudden
combustion and the high T gradients suggest the role of control (T)
and kinetic (DT) factors during the recrystallization. It is likely that,
due to extremely high thermal gradients and high undercooling,
the growth of enstatite was not allowed.
Several treatment methods were proposed for the disposal of
materials containing asbestos, after their decommissioning, as
Gualtieri, 2000). After removal, chemical- or thermal-based pro-
cesses, as fluorosulphonic acid attack (Sugama et al., 1998),
carbonation (Gadikota et al., 2014), hydrothermal process
(Anastasiadou et al., 2010), thermal treatments (Viani and Gualtieri,
2013; Averroes et al., 2011) and mechano-chemical methods
(Colangelo et al., 2011; Plescia et al., 2003) were proposed. How-
ever, encapsulation and coating are temporary solutions, as the
material is still subject to weathering. In addition, fibre treatments
based on chemical attack are liable to release toxic emissions.
Thermal treatments at temperatures above 800 up to 1000  C
demonstrate efficient in transforming chrysotile into Mgesilicates
(Cattaneo et al., 2003; Gualtieri and Tartaglia, 2000), although
pseudomorphic on the pristine fibrous habit. In fact, the dehy-
droxilation reaction of chrysotile is characterized by an endo-
thermic step between 600 and 700  C associated with the
formation of an amorphous phase (metachrysotile) (Datta et al.,
1987; Mackenzie and Meinhold, 1994; Naumann and Dresher,
1960). Dehydroxilation is meant when OHe, occupying 75% of
octahedral sites, are eliminated from the crystal lattice, originating
an amorphous phase (Datta et al., 1987; Bowen and Tuttle, 1949;
Brindley and Zussman, 1957; Martin, 1977; Ball and Taylor, 1963).
In particular at 620  C, neoformed forsterite begins to develop
topotactic on the relics of chrysotile structure (Brindley and
Zussman, 1957; Martin, 1977). At about 800  C a phase transition
from metachrysotile to forsterite follows (Cattaneo et al., 2003;
Brindley and Hayami, 1985). Ion diffusion determines selective
Mg2þ and Si4þ enrichment (Martin, 1977; Ball and Taylor, 1963) in
domains where forsterite nucleates first, followed by enstatite at
temperature exceeding 1000  C (Brindley and Zussman, 1957).
Quantitative XR diffractometry demonstrated that residual silica

Please cite this article in press as: Gaggero, L., Ferretti, M., The Self-sustained High temperature Synthesis (SHS) technology as novel approach in
the management of asbestos waste, Journal of Environmental Management (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.019
 L. Gaggero, M. Ferretti / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2017) 1e11 9

Table 6 6. ACW management: dirigisme vs. free market

Cost comparison for ACW management options. The cost depends strongly on the
type of waste (EWC) and the landfill. (Data compiled by INAIL - Dipartimento
Installazioni Di Produzione Ed Insediamenti Antropici - Gruppo Amianto ed Aree ex-
The ACW management is a complex subject, in which many
Estrattive Minerarie e 2013). stakeholders can play a role. However, Authorities must manage
most of the items and companies on the market directly face only a
Method Treatment Cost
few.
Landfilling Removal, stabilization and safety 150e300 V/ton First of all, the health and occupational exposure fall under the
measures (*)
competence of the Public Authority. Secondly, the normative har-
Thermal treatment at Fusion and vitrification by electric >150 V/ton
low and high or flame furnaces monisation (International ban) and adherence of national to EU
temperature legislation (decommissioning, definition of waste, of the end of life
Ceramic Solid state reaction >150 V/ton for the waste, of the second life for neutralised products) is indis-
Chemical Acidic or basic attacks water not defined
putably jurisdiction of the Public Administration. The social
treatments at high pressure
Mechanochemical Fibers breakdown by high energy 80-150 V/ton
outreach concerning asbestos is under the Public Administration
ball milling management that must assessed the quality of trained operators to
Plasma thermal Fusion at T [ 2000  C >1000 V/ton carry out dismissing and decommissioning, the public bodies or
treatment private companies accredited in monitoring and analysis and the
SHS “Alumino-thermic” reaction at 200e250 V/ton
quality of the monitoring.
T > 1800  C, high purity reagents
The environmental monitoring and the definition of geo-hazard
need as well the Third Party management and control of the Public
Authority. Finally, the validation of innovative technologies must be
from forsterite nucleation reacts with the latter to produce ensta-
assessed by the Public Authority.
tite (Brindley and Hayami, 1985). Furthermore, as confirmed by
After decommissioning, only economic considerations drive the
NMR spectroscopy (Mackenzie and Meinhold, 1994), IR spectros-
destination of the ACW, since the landfill disposal, after 2013, has
copy and TEM imaging, and high temperature in situ XRD (Cattaneo
become the cheapest option (Table 6). In fact, in a recent report by
et al., 2003) a multistep dehydroxilation path is inferred.
the Italian Department of Installations Production and Anthropic

Fig. 9. A, B) Waste hierarchy and C) interpretation of the SHS treatment in the management flow. D) Comparison of environmental impacts among ACW management options, after
decommissioning.

Please cite this article in press as: Gaggero, L., Ferretti, M., The Self-sustained High temperature Synthesis (SHS) technology as novel approach in
the management of asbestos waste, Journal of Environmental Management (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.019
10 L. Gaggero, M. Ferretti / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2017) 1e11
Settlements of INAIL Agency (Paglietti and Conestabile Della Staffa,
2013), landfill costs have been carefully evaluated taking into ac-
count the removal procedures, stabilization and safety measures
while the costs of neutralisation methods, at this time are not
reliable because they only take into account the real cost of treat-
ment in pilot plants. Even the costs of the method proposed by us
may be drastically reduced in a large-scale industrial plant with the
use of different reagents materials.
Asbestos e containing waste is the most abundant type after
municipal solid waste, and the most abundant toxic waste. The
landfill for hazardous waste is a low energy e consuming, fast
option that does not attain the destruction of fibres. Conventional
plasma and thermal treatments are energivore, generally long-
lasting processes, attaining a quite pervasive neutralisation of the
fibres. Finally, the SHS treatment represents the third option, due to
very low energy input, velocity and thorough breakdown of the
fibrous minerals in the waste. An eventual landfill destination after
this treatment would be for an inert material rather than for a
hazardous waste.
In the solid waste hierarchy (EC Directive, 2008/98/EC on waste)
the disposal is the less preferred option following prevention, re-
use, recycling and recovery (Fig. 9). The indications for hazardous
waste, with particular regard to chemicals, and other hazardous
waste nowadays produced, encompass prevention, and eventually
disposal at the end of the use, in a landfill for hazardous waste (EC
directive 1999/31/CE), that can be defined a “high-impact” landfill,
as re-use, recycle and recovery are not applicable. The management
of ACW requests a different perspective, as these are old hazardous
waste, so that prevention is not possible, and the ban is a first rank
constrain. Thus, removal, treatment and re-use of products, and at
last, a low e impact disposal in inert landfill is the streamline. The
SHS treatment is an alternative supporting a possible chain value
for this waste.
7. Conclusions
Although a SHS reaction has been mostly addressed to metallic
and metalloid materials, it resulted possible to obtain chemical-
physical breakdown of a hydrous silicate such as chrysotile. The
reaction is ignited by means of external heat sources for few sec-
onds and proceeds as combustion wave through the reactants
volume without any additional energy. In addition, secondary (in-
dustrial) minerals derive from the chrysotile breakdown.
As the mutagenic action of asbestos resides in habit, composi-
tion and size, neutralisation requires the structural change of the
mineral fibre. All experiments demonstrated effective in destruct-
ing the fibrous habit of chrysotile, turning its composition to stubby
silicate grains. The SHS process in comparison with conventional
thermal treatments, due to fast reaction time, low activation energy
and simple instruments, particularly advantages the asbestos
neutralisation, positively reflecting into time and costs of the pro-
cess. Finally, the product of this transformation is liable to be re-
used for instance as abrasive, or refractory material: this repre-
sents the end of waste status and a second life as secondary raw
material.
The literature and the overview on international extra EU
legislation evidence increasing awareness of asbestos hazardous-
ness; the total ban is however far to be declared e.g. the USA and in
Canada, one of the reasons being, for instance, that production is
still active. In EU countries the ban of production and use and the
law for the protection of workers are applicable, but the national
declination of the EU normative suggest that tolerance is well
different among countries.
The global scenario suggests a potential market for treatment of
ACW, in contrast and in parallel with a low awareness of
Please cite this article in press as: Gaggero, L., Ferretti, M., The Self-sustained High temperature Synthesis (SHS) technology as novel approach in
the management of asbestos waste, Journal of Environmental Management (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.019
hazardousness, or with tolerance on the use of this material.
Acknowledgments
This work was carried in the frame of PRATT 2012 e UNIGE
awarded to Laura Gaggero and of LIFE12 ENV/IT/000295 FIBERS
(Coordinating Beneficiary: University of Genoa). The authors
acknowledge Claudio Belfortini (DCCI e UNIGE) for designing,
crafting and improving the SHS reaction chamber. The authors
acknowledge Laura Negretti (DISTAV e UNIGE) for help in mineral
analyses acquisition, and the helpful comments of the anonymous
reviewers.
References
Anastasiadou, K., Axiotis, D., Gidarakos, E., 2010. Hydrothermal conversion of
chrysotile asbestos using near supercritical conditions. J. Hazard Mater. 179,
926e932.
Averroes, A., Sekiguchi, H., Sakamoto, K., 2011. Treatment of airborne asbestos and
asbestos-like microfiber particles using atmospheric microwave air plasma.
J. Hazard Mater. 195, 405e413.
Ball, M.C., Taylor, H.F.W., 1963. The dehydroxilation of chrysotile in air under hy-
drothermal conditions. Mineral. Mag. 33, 467e482.
Bowen, N.L., Tuttle, O.F., 1949. The system MgO-SiO2-H2O. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 60,
439e460.
Brindley, G.W., Hayami, R., 1985. Mechanism of formation of forsterite and enstatite
from serpentine. Mineral. Mag. 35, 189e195.
Brindley, G.W., Zussman, J., 1957. A structural study of the thermal transformation of
serpentine minerals to forsterite. Am. Mineral. 42, 461e474.
Cao, G., Orrù, R., 2002. Self-Propagating reactions for environmental protection:
state of the art and future directions. Chem. Eng. J. 87 (2), 239e249.
Cattaneo, A., Gualtieri, A.F., Artioli, G., 2003. Kinetic study of the dehydroxylation of
chrysotile asbestos with temperature by in situ XRPD. Phys. Chem. Miner. 30,
177e183.
Chan, Y.M., Agamuthu, P., Mahalingam, R., 2000. Solidification and stabilization of
asbestos brake lining dust using polymeric resins. Environ. Eng. Sci. 17 (4),
203e213.
Colangelo, F., Cioffi, R., Lavorgna, M., Verdolotti, L., De Stefano, L., 2011. Treatment
and recycling of asbestos-cement containing waste. J. Hazard Mater. 195,
391e397.
Construction and Demolition waste: ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/construction
and demolition.
Datta, A.K., Samantaray, B.K., Bhattacherjee, S., 1987. Thermal transformation of
chrysotile asbestos. Bull. Mater. Sci. 8, 497e503.
EC directive 1999/31/CE of 26 April 1999 On the landfill of waste.
EC Directive 2008/98/EC on waste (Waste Framework Directive):http://ec.europa.
eu/environment/waste/framework/.
EU Parliament 2012/20165(INI), 14 March 2013. Motion for a European Parliament
Resolution on Asbestos Related Occupational Health Threats and Prospects for
Abolishing All Existing Asbestos, 2012/20165(INI).
Gadikota, G., Natali, C., Boschi, C., Park, A.H.A., 2014. Morphological changes during
enhanced carbonation of asbestos containing material and its comparison to
magnesium silicate minerals. J. Hazard Mater. 264, 42e52.
Gaggero, L., Caratto, V., Ferretti, M., et al., 2016. Self-sustained combustion synthesis
and asbestos-bearing waste: scaling up from laboratory towards pre-industrial
size plant. Energy Proced. 97, 515e522. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.egypro.2016.10.064.
Gaggero, L., Crispini, L., Isola, E., Marescotti, P., 2013. Asbestos in natural and an-
thropic ophiolitc environments: a case study of geohazards related to the
northern Apennine ophiolites (Eastern Liguria, Italy). Ofioliti 38 (1), 29e40.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4454/ofioliti.v38i1.414, 2013.
Gaggero, L., Ferretti, M., Belfortini, C., Isola, E., 2010. Metodo e apparato per l’iner-
tizzazione di fibre di amianto, Italian Patent GE2010A000032.
Gidarakos, E., Anastasiadou, K., Koumantakis, E., Nikolaos, S., 2008. Investigative
studies for the use of an inactive asbestos mine as a disposal site for asbestos
wastes. J. Hazard Mater. 153 (3), 955e965.
Groppo, C., Rinaudo, C., Gastaldi, D., Cairo, S., Compagnoni, R., 2006. Micro-Raman
spectroscopy for a quick and reliable identification of serpentine minerals from
ultramafics. Eur. J. Mineral. 18, 319e329.
Gualtieri, A.F., 2000. A solution for the full impregnation of asbestos: the use of an
epoxy polymer resin. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 75 (5), 713e720.
Gualtieri, A.F., Cavenati, C., Zanatto, I., Meloni, M., Elmi, G., Gualtieri, M.L., 2008. The
transformation sequence of cementeasbestos slates up to 1200  C and safe
recycling of the reaction product in stoneware tile mixtures. J. Hazard Mater.
152, 563e570.
Gualtieri, A.F., Tartaglia, A., 2000. Thermal decomposition of asbestos and recycling
in traditional ceramics. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 20, 1409e1418.
Isola, E., 2010. Approccio multiscala con metodologie integrate alle problematiche
ambientali amiantoecorrelate. Tesi di Dottorato. Scuola di Dottorato di Scienze
e Tecnologie per l'Ambiente e il Territorio. Universit a degli Studi di Genova,
 L. Gaggero, M. Ferretti / Journal of Environmental Management xxx (2017) 1e11
p. 195.
Jiang, Y., Peng, T., Sun, H., 2011. Experimental study on rate of alkaline leaching the
acid leaching residue of activated chrysotile asbestos tailings. Nonmet. Mines
34 (3), 1e4.
Jinhui, L., Qingyin, D., Keli, Y., Lili, L., 2014. Asbestos and asbestos waste manage-
ment in the Asian-Pacific region: trends, challenges and solutions. J. Clean. Prod.
81, 218e226.
Liao, Q., Lu, Z., 1997. Research on heat-resistant concrete by asbestos tailings.
Multipurp.Util. Miner. Resour. 4, 44e46.
Mackenzie, K.J.D., Meinhold, H.R., 1994. Thermal reactions of chrysotile revisited: a
29Si and 25Mg MAS NMR study. Am. Mineral. 79, 43e50.
Maglia, F., Anselmi-Tamburini, U., Gennari, S., Spinolo, G., 2001. Dynamic behaviour
and chemical mechanism in the self-propagating high-temperature reaction
between Zr powders and oxygen gas. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 3, 489e496.
Martin, C.J., 1977. The thermal decomposition of chrysotile. Mineral. Mag. 41,
453e459.
Merzhanov, A.G., Boroviskaya, I.P., 1972. Self-propagating high-temperature syn-
thesis of refractory inorganic compounds. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 204, 429.
Munir, Z.A., 1988. Synthesis of high temperature materials by self-propagating
combustion methods. Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull. 67, 342e349.
Naumann, A.W., Dresher, W.H., 1960. The influence of sample texture on chrysotile
dehydroxylation. Am. Mineral. 51, 1200e1211.
Ogorodova, L.P., Kiseleva, I.A., Korytkova, E.N., Gusarov, V.V., 2007. Calorimetric
investigation of nanotubular hydrosilicates in the Mg3Si2O5(OH)4-
Ni3Si2O5(OH)4 system. Glass Phys. Chem. 33 (4), 303e305.
O'Hanley, D.S., 1996. Serpentinites: Records of Tectonic and Petrology History. Ox-
ford University Press, p. 277.
Paglietti, F., Conestabile Della Staffa, B., 2013. Discariche italiane che accettano
rifiuti contenenti amianto: analisi dei prezzi di smaltimento. INAIL DIPIA, p. 66.
Internal Report.
Paglietti, F., Malinconico, S., Di Molfetta, V., Giangrasso, M., 2012. Guidelines for
asbestos remediation at Italian superfund sites. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part C
Please cite this article in press as: Gaggero, L., Ferretti, M., The Self-sustained High temperature Synthesis (SHS) technology as novel approach in
the management of asbestos waste, Journal of Environmental Management (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.019
11
Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev. 30 (3), 253e286.
Pass, H.I., Lott, D., Lonardo, F., Harbut, M., Liu, Z., Tang, A., Carbone, M., Webb, C.,
Wali, A., 2005. Asbestos exposure, pleural mesothelioma and serum osteo-
pontin levels. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 1564e1573.
Plescia, P., Gizzi, D., Benedetti, S., Camillucci, L., Fanizza, C., De Simone, P.,
Paglietti, F., 2003. Mechanochemical treatment to recycling asbestos-containing
waste. Waste Manag. 23, 209e218.
Porcu, M., Orrù, R., Cincotti, A., Cao, G., 2005. Self-propagating reactions for envi-
ronmental protection: treatment of wastes containing asbestos. Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res. 44 (1), 85e91.
Shi, H., 2011. Discussion on environmental pollution-free management measures
for asbestos waste. Min. Saf. Environ. Saf. 38 (4), 83e86.
Stolen, S., Grande, T., 2003. Chemical Thermodynamics of Materials, Macroscopic
and Microscopic Aspects. Wiley & Sons, p. 408. ISBN: 0471492302.
Su, Q., Long, X., 2009. Approach for comprehensive utilization of asbestos tailing.
Multipurp. Util. Miner. Resour. 1, 27e31.
Sugama, T., Sabatini, R., Petrakis, L., 1998. Decomposition of chrysotile asbestos by
fluorosulfonic acid. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 37, 79e88.
United States Geological Survey (USGS) http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/
commodity/asbestos/.
Viani, A., Gualtieri, A.F., 2013. Recycling the product of thermal transformation of
cement-asbestos for the preparation of calcium sulfoaluminate clinker.
J. Hazard Mater. 260, 813e818.
Viti, C., Mellini, M., 1997. Contrasting chemical compositions in associated lizardite
and chrysotile in veins from Elba, Italy. Eur. J. Mineral. 9, 585e596.
Whittaker, E.J.W., Wicks, F.J., 1970. Chemical differences among the serpentinites
“polymorphs”: a discussion. Am. Mineral. 55, 1025e1047.
Wicks, F.J., Plant, A.G., 1979. Electron-microprobe and X-ray-microbeam studies of
serpentine textures. Can. Mineral. 17, 785e830.
Zhu, W., 2009. Application research of asbestos tailing in highway concrete. Shanxi
Archit. 8, 181e182.