MATH 31BH Homework 1 Solutions

January 10, 2014

Problem 1.5.2
(a) (x, y)-plane in R3 is closed and not open.
To see that this plane is not open, notice that any ball around the origin (0, 0, 0) will contain
points whose third component is not 0, and hence not in the (x, y)-plane.
To show that the plane is closed, we will prove that its complement is open. Indeed, suppose
that (a, b, c) is a point in the complement of the (x, y)-plane. Then c is not zero. Consider the ball
B = B| c | ((a, b, c)). The closest point to (a, b, c) in the (x, y)-plane is its orthogonal projection:
2
(a, b, 0). This is a distance of |c| >  2c  away from (a, b, c). Hence the ball B contains no points in
 

the (x, y)-plane. So B is contained completely in the complement of the (x, y)-plane, and hence
the complement of the plane is open.

(b) R ⊆ C is closed and not open.

R is not open in C because, for example, a ball of radius  around 0 will contain the purely
imaginary point 2 i.
We now show that C − R is open. Let z belong to C − R. Then z = x + iy, where y 6= 0.
Consider the ball B 0 = B| y | (z). Now the closest point on the real line to z is the real number x.
2
This is a distance of |y| away from z. It follows that no point in B 0 is purely real. Hence B 0 is
contained in C − R, and so C − R is open. We conclude that R is closed in C.

(c) The line x = 5 is closed and not open in the (x, y)-plane.
x = 5 is not open in the (x, y)-plane. Notice, in particular, a ball of radius  around (5, 0) will
contain the point (5 + 2 , 0), which is not on the line x = 5.
To show that x = 5 is closed we show that its complement is open. Let (s, t) belong to the
complement of the line x = 5. That is to say, s 6= 5. Consider the ball B 00 = B| s−5 | ((s, t)). Now
2
the closest point on the line x = 5 to (s, t) is (5, t). This is a distance of |s − 5| away from (s, t). It

1
follows that no point in B 00 is on the line x = 5. Hence B 00 is contained in the complement of the
line, and so the complement is open.

(d) (0, 1) ⊆ C is neither open nor closed.

1
To see that (0, 1) is not open, we note that any ball around 2 will contain non-real points.
To see that (0, 1) is not closed, we will show that its complement is not open. Notice that the
real number 1 is in C − (0, 1). Now any ball of radius  around 1 will contain the real number 1 − 2 ,
and hence will not be contained in C − (0, 1). So C − (0, 1) is not open.

(e) Rn ⊆ Rn is both open and closed.

Let x ∈ Rn . Then B1 (x) is completely contained in Rn . Since x was an arbitrary point, it
follows that Rn is open in Rn .
Now the complement of Rn is the empty set ∅. Since there are no points in ∅, the statement “for
all points in ∅ there exists a ball centered around the point contained completely in ∅” is vacuously
true. (That is to say, there are no points around that have to satisfy the required criterion.) So ∅
is open, and hence Rn is closed.

(f) The unit sphere in R3 is closed and not open.

To see that the unit sphere is not open, Notice that any ball of radius  around the point (1, 0, 0)
will contain the point (1 + 2 , 0, 0), which is at a distance of more than 1 from the origin.
Now to show that the unit sphere is closed in R3 , we show that its complement is open. Let
(a, b, c) be a point in the complement of the unit sphere. In other words, (a, b, c) is at a distance
not equal to 1 away from the origin. Let’s call this distance 1 + d (i.e., (a, b, c) is exactly |d| units
away from the closest point on the boundary). d may be positive or negative, but it cannot be 0.
|d|
Consider the ball B 000 = B |d| ((a, b, c)). Since the closest point on the sphere to (a, b, c) is |d| > 2
2
units away from (a, b, c), B 000 must avoid the sphere completely. Therefore B 000 is contained in the
complement of the unit sphere, and hence the complement of the unit sphere is open.

Problem 2
 
n2
The sequence xn = n2 +1
, √1n converges to the limit (1, 0).

2
Proof. Let  > 0 be given. Let N () = 2
.

2
 Now suppose that n > N (). Then we have

n2 n2
    
 1   1 
 n2 + 1 , √n − (1, 0) =  n2 + 1 − 1, √n 
   
 
 1 1 
=  − 2 , √ 
n +1 n
s 2
1 1
= − 2 +
n +1 n
r
1 1
≤ 2
+
n +1 n
r
1 1
≤ +
n n
r
2
=
n
s
2
<
N ()
= .

We conclude that limn→∞ xn = (1, 0).

Problem 1.5.14
x2 1
(a) lim = .
(x,y)→(1,2) x + y 3

Proof. By corollary 1.5.30 since this function is rational and x + y 6= 0 at the point (1, 2), the
function is continuous at (1, 2). Therefore

x2 (1)2 1
lim = = .
(x,y)→(1,2) x + y 1+2 3

p
|x|y
(b) lim does not exist.
(x,y)→(0,0) x + y 2
2

p
Proof. We examine the limit along the paths y = k |x|. As x approaches 0 on these paths, so

3
does y. We have
p p 2
|x|y k |x|
lim √ 2 2
= lim p 2
(x,y)→(0,0);y=k |x| x + y x→0 2
x + k 2 |x|
k|x|
= lim
x→0 |x|2 + k 2 |x|
k
= lim
x→0 |x| + k 2
1
= .
k
Since this limit depends on the choice of k, it follows that the original limit does not exist.
p
|xy|
(c) lim p does not exist.
(x,y)→(0,0) x + y2
2

Proof. We consider the limit along the paths y = kx. As x approaches 0 on these paths, so does y.
We have
p p
|xy| |k||x|2
lim p = lim √
(x,y)→(0,0);y=kx x2 + y 2 x→0 x2 + k 2 x2
p
|x| |k|
= lim √
x→0 |x| 1 + k 2
p
|k|
=√ .
1 + k2
This limit depends on the choice of k, so the original limit does not exist.

(d) lim x2 + y 3 − 3 = 6.
(x,y)→(1,2)

Proof. The function in the expression is a polynomial. Therefore, by corollary 1.5.30. we have

lim x2 + y 3 − 3 = (1)2 + (2)3 − 3 = 6.

(x,y)→(1,2)

Problem 1.5.20
For this problem we identify Mat(n, m) with Rnm so that the notion of limits of matrices makes
sense.
(a) Consider the sequence of matrices Ak for k ∈ N, where
 
a a
A=
a a
4
for some real a.
1
When |a| < 2 the sequence converges to the 0 matrix. When a = 12 , the sequence converges to
the matrix 1 1

2 2 .
1 1
2 2
1
When |a| > 2 or a = − 12 , the sequence does not converge.

Proof. By induction, we can show that

 k−1 k k−1 k   
k 2 a 2 a k−1 k 1 1
A = k−1 k k−1 k = 2 a .
2 a 2 a 1 1

Therefore, by Theorem 1.5.16.(2), we need only investigate the convergence of the real sequence
2k−1 ak .
Notice that 2k−1 ak = 1
2 (2a)k . Now the geometric sequence (2a)k will converge if and only if
|2a| < 1 or a = 12 . In the case that |2a| < 1, the sequence converges to 0 (and hence so does the
sequence Ak ). In the case where a = 21 , this sequence is the constant sequence consisting of the
real number 12 . Hence it converges to 12 , and so the sequence Ak converges to the matrix
1 1
2 2 .
1 1
2 2

We note that when a = − 12 , the sequence 2k−1 ak will oscillate between 1

2 and − 12 , and in the
case where |2a| > 1 the sequence 2k−1 ak is unbounded in magnitude.

(b) We may extend the above methods to any n × n matrix A whose entries are all equal to
some real number a. Inductively we can see that
 k−1 k
nk−1 ak

n a ···
k  .. ..  .
A = . . 
nk−1 ak · · · nk−1 ak

We notice that each entry is again a geometric sequence that converges to 0 if |a| < n, converges
1
to n if a = n1 , and diverges otherwise.
EC1
(a) The possible topologies on X = {a, b} are

• T = {∅, {a}, {a, b}}

• T = {∅, {b}, {a, b}}

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 • T = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}

(b) Define T to be the collection of subsets of R which are either empty or whose complements
are finite. Then T is a topology on R.

Proof. Certainly ∅ and R belong to T . The former is a member because it is empty, and the latter
because its complement (the empty set) has finite cardinality.
Now suppose that, for some index set I, {Oi }i∈I ⊆ T . That is to say, each Oi is either empty or
S
has a finite complement. If all the Oi are empty, then i∈I Oi is empty as well, and hence belongs
to T . Otherwise, at least one of the Oi is nonempty and hence has finite complement. Let us call
this set O. In this case, we see that
!0
[ \
Oi = Oi0 .
i∈I i∈I

Here, O0 denotes the complement of a set O. Since Oi0 ⊆ O0 and O0 is finite, it follows that
T
i∈I
0
T S
i∈I Oi is finite also. Therefore i∈I Oi ∈ T .

Finally, let O1 and O2 be members of T . If either of these sets is empty, then O1 ∩ O2 is

empty, too, and thus belongs to T . If both O1 and O2 are nonempty, then they must have finite
complements. In this case,
(O1 ∩ O2 )0 = O10 ∪ O20 .

O10 ∪ O20 is the union of two finite sets, and therefore is finite itself. We conclude that O1 ∩ O2 ∈ T .
By induction, it follows that any finite intersection of members of T is a member of T .
These three facts show that T is a topology on R.

EC2
(a) R is a metric space with the distance function d(x, y) = |x − y|.

Proof. Let x, y, z ∈ R.
First suppose that |x − y| = 0. Then we also have x − y = 0, and so x = y. Conversely, if x = y
then x − y = 0 and hence |x − y| = 0.
Next, note that |x − y| = | − (x − y)| = |y − x|.
Finally, by the triangle inequality for Rn , we have |x − y| ≤ |x − z| + |z − y|.
Thus d(x, y) satisfies the three properties of a metric, and so (R, d) is a metric space.

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 Notice that the open balls in this metric space are intervals, and therefore open sets are just
unions of open intervals.

(b) Any metric space (X, d) induces a topological space (X, T ), where

T = {U ⊆ X : for all x ∈ U there exists a small ball Br (x) ⊆ U }.

Proof. We show that T satisfies the three properties of a topology.

First, we see that ∅ ∈ T vacuously. Moreover, X ∈ T because any ball in X will be contained
in X.
S
Next, let {Ui }i∈I be a collection of subsets in T . We need to show that for any point in i∈I Ui
S
we can find a ball around that point contained completely inside the union. Let x ∈ i∈I Ui be
given. Then x ∈ Uj for some j ∈ I. By the fact that Uj ∈ T , there exists some real number r such
S S
that Br (x) ⊆ Uj ⊆ i∈I Ui . Thus i∈I Ui ∈ T .
Finally, let U1 and U2 be sets in T . Let x ∈ U1 ∩ U2 . Then x ∈ U1 and x ∈ U2 . It follows that
we may find real numbers r1 and r2 such that

Br1 (x) ⊆ U1 and Br2 (x) ⊆ U2 .

Let r = min{r1 , r2 }. Then Br (x) ⊆ Br1 (x) and Br (x) ⊆ Br2 (x). Therefore Br (x) ⊆ U1 ∩ U2 . By
induction, we see that any finite intersection of members of T is also a member of T .
Therefore T is a topology on X.

(c) Consider an infinite set X and let

(
1 if x 6= y
d= .
0 if x = y

Then (X, d) is a metric space.

Proof. Let x, y, z ∈ X.
By definition of d we already have that d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y.
Moreover, x = y if and only if y = x. Hence we have d(x, y) = d(y, x).
Finally, we consider two cases. If x = y, then d(x, y) = 0 and it must be the case that
d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) regardless of the value of z. If x 6= y, then d(x, y) = 1. But it is also the
case that z may only equal one of x or y. Therefore at least one of d(x, z) and d(z, y) is guaranteed
to be 1. So in this case we also have d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y).
We conclude that (X, d) is a metric space.
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 Notice that there are two kinds of open balls in this metric space. For radii less than or equal
to 1, the open balls are just points of X. For any open ball with radius strictly greater than 1, the
ball is the entirety of X. Since an open set is just a union of open balls, and since any point in X
is an open ball, it follows that any subset of X is an open set in (X, d).

(d) Consider X = R2 and let

d((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = max(|x1 − x2 |, |y1 − y2 |).

Then (X, d) is a metric space.

Proof. Let (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), (x3 , y3 ) ∈ R2 .

Suppose that d((x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 )) = 0. Then max(|x1 − x2 |, |y1 − y2 |) = 0. Since these are both
non-negative numbers, it must be that |x1 − x2 | = |y1 − y2 | = 0. In other words, x1 = x2 and
y1 = y2 . So (x1 , y1 ) = (x2 , y2 ). Conversely, suppose that (x1 , y1 ) = (x2 , y2 ). Then |x1 − x2 | = 0
and |y1 − y2 | = 0, so d((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = 0.
Next, we notice that |x1 −x2 | = |x2 −x1 | and |y1 −y2 | = |y2 −y1 |. As a result, d((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) =
d((x2 , y2 ), (x1 , y1 )).
Finally, we must show that

max(|x1 − x2 |, |y1 − y2 |) ≤ max(|x1 − x3 |, |y1 − y3 |) + max(|x3 − x2 |, |y3 − y2 |).

Certainly by real triangle inequality we have

max(|x1 − x2 |, |y1 − y2 |) ≤ max(|x1 − x3 | + |x3 − x2 |, |y1 − y3 | + |y3 − y2 |).

However, we can get an even larger sum than the two arguments in the maximum on the right by
choosing the largest of each summand and adding those together. That is,

max(|x1 − x3 | + |x3 − x2 |, |y1 − y3 | + |y3 − y2 |) ≤ max(|x1 − x3 |, |y1 − y3 |) + max(|x3 − x2 |, |y3 − y2 |).

By transitivity, this proves the triangle inequality (property (iii)) of d.

Therefore (X, d) is a metric space.

Notice that the open balls Br (x) of the induced topological space are open squares with side
length 2r and center x. Thus the open sets are unions of squares.