$26 Anaguino, Spirito nage Spivito (1617-25) Taian composer, Hisnamie hhas sometimes been incorrectly spele ‘Anagnino™ and ‘Agnanino’. He was an Augustinian monk and lived for ‘par of his life in Naples. He published several olumes of Imusic but only two survive (and the second of these incomplete): Nova sacra cantica ... liber secwdus, for ‘one to four voices and continuo (Naples, 1617), and ‘Sacro convita celeste op.6, for to to six and eight voices ‘and continuo (Orvieto, 1825). o Analysis. A general definition of the tern as implied in ‘common parlance might be: that part of the study of Imusic that takes as sts starting-point the music self, tather than external factors, More formally, analysis may be said to inelude the imerpreraion of structures in music, together with their resolution into celatively simples ‘constituent elements, snd the investigasion of he relevant fonetions of those elements, Ta ssh a process the znuscal ‘struct’ may stand for part of a work, 2 work in 3s entirety, a group or ever a repertory of works, na waite ‘or orl tradition. The relationship berween the structures fand elements proposed by analysis, and expe igencrative and documentary perspectives oa music, has ‘ircumscribed analysis differently from trae 10 Hime and from place ta place, and has aroused debate. Less controversially, a practical distinction is often drawn hetween formal analysis and stylistic analysis bur eis Iinnecessary insofar as on the one hand aay. musical ‘complex, no matter how small or lage, may be decmed a stsle, and on the other hand, all the comparative processes that characterize stylistic analysis ace inerent Inthe basic analytical actviey of resolving structures nto elements [Gene Hino E.Generat 1. The place of al i se say of mai 2. Thenaare ofa analyse 3. Theale method waa scaly, 1, THE NLACE OF ANALYaS iN THE stUbY OF MMIC. The phrase ‘miosical analysis, taken in a goneral sense, embraces 3 large number of diverse activities. Some of theseare mutallyexclosve: they represent fundamentally dlfferent views of the nature of music, music's role in Jnuman hfe, and the role of the human intellect wich egard to musi. These differences of view tender the field of analysis ditfeslt to define within its own hoandaries. (Guch s definition wil bethe concern of §62 and 3 below.) Underlying all aspects of analysis as an activity is the fondamental point of contact berween mind and musical sound, namely musical perception (see PSYCHOLOGY OF Music, More dificult, in some ways, isto define where precisely, analysis ies within the study of music. The concerns uf fanalysis a8 a whole can be said to have much in common fn the one hand with those of musical aesthetics and on the other with those of corspositonal theory. The three regions of study might be thought of as occupying ‘postions along.an axis chat has ac one extreme the placing ‘of music within philosophical schemes and at she other the giving of technical insruction in the craft of compo- sixion, Thore ate complicating factors, however, concern ing theory and criticism, Music theories have been developed that find their practical expresion not in composition but in analysis; from the obverse point of slew one might say that such theories desive stable Concepts ty abitraction feom the dats that analysis proves, The relationships tbus one of mutual depcod= Ehey. A similarly mutual thou le dependent relion= Ship might be thought to exist in principle between Salis and crt. Many wetings that ae atended rimacly as crits ond fe within i waditions are fevopsizably analytical in chee concern with che direct Aeserption and invesigaon uF mosial deal, Con ‘Nersiyy analytical wring expresses 4 citeal position, tibet dometimes merely by implication, but often in a Sophisteated manner theough the multiple connorations ofthe theories applies and the comparisons i das. Even a wordless anabsis~ which would seem the last Capable of doing so pases value jadgment i asserting, thats musica sobjcts worthy of soy andexphication. “The analyst and the dheorst wf mosieal componiton (Satctechn, Komposiionslebre| have acommoointerest he law of msial construction. Many would deny a Separation of any kind and would argue that analysis is fulhgroup of susie theory. But that an atirae shar fing from particule social and educational conditions {Whileimporent contributions have been madcto analysis by teachers uf composition, otbers ave been made by Tecormer, instrumental teachers, eres and historians. [Rnalyis may serve tool for teaching, thogh it may jnac ease instruc the performer ode listener atleast ts often as the composer bute may equally Wall Bea private activity ~ a procedice for discovering. Musical nays no more implicitly a pare of pedagogical heor? than ichemical aati; nos impli a pare of he Acquistion of compostions techniques. On the conra Suatements by theorists of eompontonal reckgue ca Form primary material fr the analysts investigations by proving eter against which zlevane music may be examined ‘Of eater significance i the fact that analytical procedures cam be applied to styles of performance and Incerpretation as walls thse of composition. Bur the point at which composition ceases and interpretation uns rately ncatves Most Western aalsis takes 2 sore atts subject mater and impli assumes ito be 2 finalize preseneaton of musical denn Iie ue that the notated form in which « medieval, Renaissance or Baroque work survives san incomplete record, iiseven twote ta the point that forthe analyse of ethnomusicalog- {ca materia, ez impeovsation oe popular music fe Corded on tape, vinyl or CD, Score is ouly an intermediary artefact which in no way marks of eon pose” from ‘performer’. Te provides a coarse commani- Eston of # recorded performance, much of which wil inave tobe analysed by eae or with letronie measuring quipient Similar considerations apply to the analysis St petoring practice in Wester nat, shou here the Sofn corey Peed aca pit of lene Inrmeawring and comparing dferene realizations of iin performance ‘rely, then, analysis is concerned with musa srvee tures, however they aise and ace reorded, aot merely wh composition. Morsover, within the subj mae {hat snalyus and compositional theory have in common, the formers by defiition concerned with resolution and explanation, 0 thats eeverse procedure syathesis~ is bo more. than a teans of yerfcation; the Inter is cerned direty with the generation of music, and Snulyial method sony a means of discovery. The Belds ph ho ot wh his fe fw th ea th oO de fe hi Tr of wl th Iyi wl fi ae i atstable ralysis spend ‘ended sleet ‘Con ira. least sering enya Te hat nalpsis se by it least Ube a ‘ons by nay be Useical ce and Ie the aes a tobe sethat icolog- ty an sh will sen frethe ference seirin struc merely fon and fe and fields a Analysis, §1, 2: The nature of musical analysis 527 ‘overlap bue with essential differences of subject, of aim And of metho. Similarly, the analyst, lke the aesthetician, is im part concerned with the nature of the musical work: with whar iris, or embodies, or signifies; with low it has come «9 ‘oe; with its effects or implications; with its relevance t, cof value for, ts tecipiens. Where they differ isin the centres of gravity oftheir stadies the analyst focusses is fttention on 3 musical structire (whether a chord, a phrare, 2 work, the ausput of a composer or court et), And seeks to define ts consticuent elements and explain how they operate; but the aesthetician focusses on the nature of muse er seand its place among the ars, in life and realty. That the wo supply information ro each ‘other isundoubed the analyst provides a find of material ‘hich the aesthetician may aduce asevideace in Forming, his conclusions, and the analyst's defnition ofthe specie furnishes a continual monitoring service forthe aesthet- cians definition of the general; conversely, the aestheti- ‘ian’ insights provide problems forthe aialys salve, ‘condition his approach and method, and ularly Farnish the means of exposing his hidden assumptions. Their activites may overlap so that they often find themselves doing similar things. Nonetheless, they have two essential differences, which may: be characterized in teems of the celative importance of empiricism at fefletion: analysis tends to supply evidence in answer to the empirical questions of aestheccs, and may be content to exploce the place of a musical structure within totality of musical structures, whereas the aesthecian’s ‘concern is withthe place of musical structures within the ‘stem of reality. (Por further discussion, see Pan csr Or Music.) Criticism s inseparable on the one hand from aesthetics anil on the other from analysis, Within criticism 8 been constant debate as to the extent t0 whi descriptive o¢ a judicial activity. The ‘eseripive eitc tries to do either o¢ both of two things: to: portray in swords his own inner response ~0 depict his responding feclings~ toa piece of music ora preformance, oF think his way inte the composer's or pecformer's mind and expound the vision that he then perceives. The judicial critic evaluates what he experiences by certain stondards “These standards may ar one extreme be dogmatie enone ‘of beauty, of seuth of of taste ~ pre-set values against ‘which everything is rested or, athe other extzeme, values that form during the experience, governed by an under lying belief that « composer oF performer must do whatever he is attempting 0 do inthe clearest and rose fective way. In none of the above does ertcisma differ categorically from analysis: thete is also a latent debate ‘withio analysis ac to whether the analyst's function is desesipsive or judicial There is perhaps a difference of degres. In general, analysis is more eoucemned with describing than with jing, tn this sense, analysis goes less far than entcism, and it does so essentially because ic aspees to objectivity and considers judgment to be subjecuive. But ths in turn suggests the other difference between analysis and crii= ism, namely that che latter stresses the intuitive tesponse ‘of the eriti, relies spon his wealth of experience, uses his ability to relate present cespoase to prior experience, and taker these two things at data_and method, whereas analysis tends tows ats data definable elements: phrase ‘units, harmonies, dynamic levels, measured time, bowings and ronguings, and ether technical phenomena. Again this i 8 difference only of degre: a eric’ response is ‘often highly informed and made inthe lighe of eechical ‘knowledge; and the analys’sdefinable elements(a phrase, motif etc) are often defined by subjective conditions ‘Where subjectivites are acknowledged to be inevitable, the analytical mind will tend not to work with hem directly, bur to investigate cheir nature in relation to definable musical phenonems, thus drawing closer 10 aestherics in general and to semiology in particular. To Say that analysis consists of technical operations and {xitcism of haman responses isthus an oversimplifction, though it helps to contrast the general characters of the vo, (See also CRIHEHN, $1.) ‘A rather different relationship exists between musical analysis and music history. To the historian, analysis may appear 26a tool for historical inquiry. He uses ieto detect relationships between ‘styles’, nd thus to establish chains ‘of causality cha operate along the dimension of time and are anchored in time hy verifiable factual information, He may, for example, observe featuees is eontmon between, the ayes of two enmnposers (or groups of composers) and thy ternal analyticalmethodsandextermal factual ‘ones whether tis represents an influence of one upon the ‘other; or in reverse order, seek common features of style when he knows of factual links. Conversely, he may tect features out of common beeween picees normally Sssociated for one ceason or another, and proceed 16 ‘listinguish by comparative analysis distinct eraditions or ‘categories, Again, fe may use it analytical classification ‘ol features as 2 means of establishing » chronology of Tn rur, the analyst may view historical method as ¢ tool for analytical inquiry. His subject matter i rather Tike sections cue through history. When under analysis they ate timeless, oF ‘synchronic’; they embody internal relationships hat the analyst seeks ro uncover. But factual information, concerning events in time, may, for example, determine which of several possible structures isthe most Tikes, explain causally the presence of some element thar is incongruous in analyteal terms. Comparative analysis of t3t0 or more separate phenomena (Whether Separated. chronologically, geographically, socially oF intellectually only ceally activates che dimension of time ~hecoming “diachronic — when historical information relating the phenomena is correlated with the analytical Findings. Historical and analytical inguiry are thos mutually dependent, with common subject matter and complementary methods of working. (For further discus: Sioa see HisToniograpiy and Mustco.ocy, §§and Il, 8) 2, Thi NATURE OF MUSICAL ANALYSIS. The primary Jimpulie of analysis is an empirical one: vo get to grips swith something on its ovin terms rather than in terms of other things. Its starting-point is a phenomenon itself sather than external factors (such as biographical facts, political events, social conditions, educational methods ndall the other factors that make up the environment of thar phenomenoa). But like all artistic media, music presents problem, inherent in the nature ofits material Music isnot tangible and measurable as isa liquid or a solid for chemical analysis. The subject of a musical analysis has to be determined; whether itis the score ive, oat leat the sound-image thatthe score projects; ‘orthesond:-imagein che composer's mint the moment528 Analysis, §1, 2: The nature of musical analysis ‘of compositions or an interpretative performances othe Tistene’s eemporal experience of a peeformance. All these categories are possible subjects foe analysis. There is no ‘agreement among analysts that one is mote ‘correct’ than ‘others, only thar the seore (when avaiable) provides a fefevenice point from which the analyse reaches out towards one sound image or another. ‘Analysis the means of answering directly the question How does it work?. Its central activity is comparison, By comparisen it determines che structural elements and discovers the functions of those elements. Comparison common tall kinds of musical analysis fearureanalyss, Formal analysis, funcsionalanalsis, Schenkeriananalysis, pitch-class st analssis, style analysis and so on: compar fson of unit sth uni, whether within a single work, oF between two works, of berween the work and an abstract ‘inode? such as sonata form or arch form. The ventral analytical act is thos the test fr identity. And out ofthis rises the measueement of amount of difference or degree ‘af similarity. These two operations serve together 10 slluminate the three tundamencalform-building processes: ‘recurtenee, contrast and variation, “This isa highly “purified” portrayal of analysis, impas- tial, abjctve, yielding the answver ‘Ir works this way rather than "It works vel? or Ie works badly’. In reality the analyst works with the preconceptions of his culture fige and pecsonalty. Thus the preoccupation which the ‘Dh century had with the navire of ‘genius’ Ted to che [phrasing ofthe initial question aot as How does it work? bur as ‘What makes this great, and this remained the initial question for some analytical traditions in the 20th century. Since the ‘scienic’, comparative method was predominant over evaluasion n such eraditions, and since Only seorks of genius possessed che quality of structural coherence, followed that comparison of werk eth 30 idealized model of structure or process produced a measure of its greatness. “This i only one example of many. The history of iusical analysis in §Hl below inevitably recounts the ‘pplicaGon of intellectual outlooks from successive ages te tnusical material: the principles of thetorie,theconcepts ‘of organism and evolution, the subconscious mind, ‘monism, probability theory, seructuralis, posestrvctor lism nnd so forth. Ulimately, the very existence of an observer ~the analyst ~ pre-empts che possibility of total ‘abjecvity. No single method or appeoach reveals the truth about musicabove all others. 3. THE ROLE OF METHOD IN MUSICAL ANALYSSS. Many: ‘ofthe classifications tharhave been formulated formusical, ‘analysis have distinguished between types of analytic practice according to the methods used, which can then bbegrouped together into broader categories. Foresample, theres the widely accepted division into stylisicanalysis land ‘analysis ofthe indwidval work’ which was deserbed above as pragimacic but eheorericaly unnecessary. There {sthe detfold classification intoeonstructionalanalysis', ‘psychological analysis’ and “analysis of expression’ put {Grward by Esplin MGGI (1949-51). This classfcation does noe correspond exactly with, but is oughly equiv ‘lent to, Meyer's disnction (1967, ppsAZif| berween formal’, ‘kinesicsyntactie’ and ‘referential’ views. of musica!’ signification. Dablhaus (RiemansLi2, 1967) ‘made « fourfold distinction: ‘formal analysis’, which explains the structure of a Work “in tems of fonctions ‘and relationships between sections and elements “ener: tie interpretation’, which deals in phases of movement fr tension spans; and Gestalt analysis, which treats works fs wholes; these three make up among them the field of analysis proper, which he distinguished from his fourth tatezory, *hermencutics’ the interpretasion of music in terms of emotional states or external meanings. The fst, Second and fourth of these correspond Ivoadly with the ‘theee categories of Expf and Meyer, while the third deals with analyses based on the idea of organism. “The principal difficulty with thes classicatonsis that their categories are not mutvally exclusive. Thus, for example, Riemann is generally cited as the prime example 6 formal gd constructional analyse, and yet his work fests on a fundamental idea of “fe fore’ (Lebenskraft, Tebendige Kraft, energisches Ansireben) that flows through music in phases and as actualized in phrase onto, dynamic gradings, fluctuations of tempo ond ‘ogic stress. This tea is closer 10 the kinetic view of ‘nasi, suggests that Riemann’s work belongs to two oF Meyer's three categories different way af idensfying analytical methods is partly histascal im mature. For example, Scheakerian “inalsis, socalled, has its Origins inthe work of Heinrich Scheoker [TSE5-1935}; but, as @ label thar identifies a type of analytical practice tody,“Schenkerian analysis! des a number of developments that have acerved nce Schenker’s death and are duc to his pupils, his pupils’ pupils and others [see SIL, $6). This ‘method’ is Creunscribable because, seen a4 4 tradition communi: ited orally by teaching, and also through 2 modest fumber af written somees reeisins reasonably concise. ‘The status of motiic analysis a8 an identifiable complex of methods i less enay t0 describe: naturally, it has a history (see Sl, 3-5), bur the accumulation of develop- ments has been such that some filtering our has also eaken place: significantly differene synoptic descripnons of Imotivic analysis as pracised today are thus possible. In the case of harmonic analysis, the range of meanings is such that no contemporary synoptic description of casa ‘inethod' can properly be offered: only its history retains a degree of integrity ‘A good example of the emergence of a method by accumulation and selective filtering is seen inthe analysis ‘of form, which Cook (Guide, 1987) explicitly include in ‘category of ‘traditional’ mpethods. Broadly speaking, ‘one may describe formal analysis historically, identifying principles and refinements as they Were newly introduced nd one may present an overview of what is meant by formal analysis today. Nether of thee approaches alone, however, can fully reflect the fat that formal analysis has 12 two-dimensional history of changing accumulations: that the differenee between formal analysis around 2000 anid formal analysis acound 1900, fr example, exnnot be reasured solely im terms of the new ideas that have been ftdded in the mtervening eentey. Bur it an be traced in the differences hetween attempts by responsible faprovide synoptic definitions at various times and ‘The history of formal analysis tells us thar during the Jae 18th centucy and the 19th, music theorists defined certain stverural patterns ~ not ents oF species such as ‘concerto ar minuet, bar more widely applicable processes ff formal constraction common fo many geares and species ~ shat were reducible to cwo fundamental patterns: ‘AB and ABA. These were subsumed in German terminol- ‘ogy under the single term Leedforme (fest proposed by AB ‘the lish Bro fon the peti hist, wt fun pos oP that dev plas lose the pro ott pat vex (ab, sud the for bys the for gov fro: it For wth (Ric par and rela cx jor) as ally keympl has a velop raken ie of ale In ad by salysis tein sling, ‘aiving ced ant by alone, sishas 42000 ‘norbe webeen seed in uthors places ing the Iefined such as es and ‘nol sed by Analysis, SI, 3: The role of method in musical analysis 529 A.B. Marx, 1837-47) ia its “ewo-part (aeiteliges) and “dhuee-part (dreiteliges} form, and distinguished ww Eng lish terminology a8 BINARY FORM: aid TERNARY FORK Broadly speaking, these terme ceferred to small-seale foems; they applied mose directly to instrumental dance ‘movements ofthe 17th and 18th centuries, and relied on the concept of regular phase stucnire withthe eight-bar period as the principal unit of constuction. Later in the history of formal analysis large-scale formal modelscame to he regarded as extensions ta one of other of the te fundamental pattems: thus SONATA FORM was the extension of the binary pattem, and RONDO of the An overview of what is meant by formal analysis might begin with the ehrce basic form-building processes pro pposed in §2 above: tecurrence’, ‘contrast and variation’, expressible as Aa, AB and AA’, Te might further identify a distinction between two basic processes of extension that of a suecession of formal units, and that of development. The former (in German, Reibuengsform oF plastische Form) relies on proportion and symmetry, and ‘architectral in nacure; the latter (Entwickhagsform or logische Form) relies on. continuity and growth. The rondo, ABACADA, extends remary oem by succession, sonata form excende binary Form by development. And the we procestes are both brought into operation in the so-called sonata rondo: ABACAB'A, There is farther process by which larger forms may be created oUt of one Df the ew basic pattems: hy the operation of one or both patterns at morethan one level ofstracture(Potencierame, ‘exponentiating’). By this means, soch structies as 4 faba)B (cdela (aha) are produced. Related ro this isthe oncept of CYCLIC FORM, whereby movements in ee hizable forms are grouped together wo formn larger wi such asthe suiteand che sonata. “Many manuals of form have separate descriptions of ‘the contrapuntal forms’ and allow a categor¥ of free forms’. Nonetheless, the underlying. idea of formal analysis is that ofthe mode!’ against which all compos tions areset and compared and measured in terais of cele ‘conformity to 0 ‘deviation from the norm. Bt if formal Bnalysis may be distinguished from other kindsof analysis by its concern with the recognition of these processes and the descripsion of works in terms of chem, manuals of formal analysis vary inthe ways in which they see the rouality of musical formations, from che Middle Ages ‘onwards and for all voeal and instrumental media, a8 governed by these fundamental patteras. Quite apart from the univesaiey ofthe basic models, here are many difficulties in determining criteria for their recognition For some analysts, identity or nom identity is determined by thematic character, for others, by key scheme: for cothers, by length of units, ‘Thus, for Dahlhaus (RiomannL 12, 1967), the priee conditions of the to pore Liedform kale ate, fest, that the fre part ends ‘on a halfcloe in the ronic or 2 fall-close ina related key, And, second, that the parts are melodically different (or related LAXI:AYS or kAXsAKBX:), For Scholes (Osford Companion to Music ‘Form’ binary fore rests on the same Key scheme fonic-dominant (or relative ms- jorlidominant (or relative major|-tonic, and the ab- ‘sence of ‘cong conwrast in thematic material, For Prout (1893-7, 1895), key scheme i ot eealya determinane at all for binary form, for he allowed ltonie-tonicleremote Ikey-tonie, nor is themasie relationship, for he allowed AA'BA™ as well as ABCB, The basic determinant for owe was thatthe form should constitute ‘two complete sentences’. Thus the form kAclIBAs, which for Dahthavs ‘was three-part Lied/orm, as for Prout binary form unless the fst patti itself a complete binary form, sell contained and rounded. The question mighe be asked whether analysis as a ‘whole can he described: by listing and describing its methods ~ using this word in the sense explored ahove. Handbooks of analysis written langely for pedagogical purposes (2. Cook, 1987; Dunsby and Whivall, 1983) have adopted this approach vieually ous of necessity Such texts appeared ata ine whens analysis had emerges for the fist time in the English-speaking world as a complex academic discipline i its oxin righty rather than as an adjunct, however valuable or essential, to other forms of musical activity 6 training. This moment in the history of analysis was href, however perhaps inevitably 50, a8 the high profile of asalysis encouraged the questioning of is assumptions and practices (see $Uh 6) Arguably, those relaced disciples from which ‘this ‘questioning emerged ~ norably eriiism ~ have in the aftermath taken 09 many of the lasting priorities and ‘occupations of analysis, themselves hecomingsiznifcently changed in the process. Conversely, analysts remains strong, bur has revitalized its concesas though closer cconsact with disciplines dhat always lft more room for flebate about the nature and function of music chan analysis had come to-do, I follows from allthis thar a chorough-going rypology ‘of musical analysis, widely applicable across times and places, would probably have to encompass several axes Df clasifcation. The analyst's view of the nature and fonetion af music would certainly be one af these. But his approach to the actual substance of music would be a Seconds his method of operating on the music would bea thisd; and the mediaat for presentation of bis findings would be a fourth. Ocher axes might be concerned with, for example, the purpose for which the analysis was carried out, he context in which ie was presenced, the typeof recipient for whieh ir was designed. Under approaches 19 the substance of music woul be ‘ctoories sich as that «piece of music ia) a"seuctare', 2 closed network of eelationships, mote than the sum of its paces (b) concatenation of structural units) a Bld fof data in which patterns may be soughty (dha linear process; and (e) a string of symbols ar emotional values. ‘These five categories embrace the approaches of formal analysts such as Leichtentrier and Tovey, structuralists and seriolegints, Schenker, Kurth and Westphal, Rie- marin, hermencutcs, stylistic analysis nd computational analysis, information thenry analysis, proportion cheory, ti and funcional analysis, andmuch le. Theeategories ate sell ot exclusive. For example, (a) and (@) are soe ‘wholly incompatible in that approach (ec) may lesd #0 approach (a). Then sgain, wo approaches may co-exist ft two different levels of construction: perhaps (al or (6) for large-scale form and (dj for small-scale thematic development. ‘Under methods of operating would be categories such 2s [a} reduction technique; (b) comparison, and recog ‘ion of identity, similarity, or comaon property; (¢) ‘exmentation into structaal units () search fr rules of syntax; [e) counting of fetucess and (f)reading-off and530 Analysis, §1, 3: The role of method in musical analysis incerpretation of expressive elements, symbolism TDader media of presentation would be cateyories such ‘a a) annotated score or reduction ar continuity ine (see Held) (0) exploded’ scare, bringing relaced elements Together (fig.28); le) lis, or“lexicon” of musical units, probably accompanied by some kind of syntax’ deserib- Ing theit deployment (see Rg.23); (d) reduction graphy showing up hidden stroenaralcelationships (figs.17-20), {e) verbal description, using strict formal terminology, Imaginative poetic metaphor, suggested programme ot mabolic interpretation; (f) formulate restatement of Structure jn terms of lecter- and nambersymbols x) fraphic display: contour shapes fig.22) diagrams (fig 16), Beaphs {fig 5}, visual symbols for specific musical le iments (ig 14; (h) statistical tables or graphs; and (i) Sounding scare, on tape oF dis, or for live performance, Soch media can be used together within am analysis, and elements of two oe more can be combined U. History 1 Bay soy fo 1780), 2, 1750-1840, 3. 88-1910. 4. 1910-45 5 1915-706 Since 1970 imagery a8 well as 1. EARLY Hastonny (T0,1750), Analysis a8 & pursuicin its own right, came to be established only inthe late 19th ‘enturysitseauergence a an approach and method can be traced back the 1750s. However, it existed as Sehtolacy tool, albeit an ausiliary one, from the Midd [Ages onwacds, The precursors of modem analysis cam be Seon withis at least two branches of musical theory: the Stady of modal systems, and the theory of musical Thetoric. Where, in either of these branches, 2 theorst Cited a Piece of music as llastrating 2 point of technique ff structure, only a small amount of discussion, was inecessry before be was using what would now be called the analytical approzeh. fin a sense, the classficatory work carried out by the Carolingian clergy in compiling tonanes was analytical: {rinvolved determining the mode of every antiphon in a repertory of chant, and then subclassifying the modal groups according to thei variable endings (‘psalm tone tilferences’ see TONARY). ‘Such theorists as Wilhelm of Hirsau, Hermannus CConteactus and Johannes Cott in the 11th century cited antiphons with brie modal discussion, as did. Laer theorists sach a8 Marcherto da Padova and Gaffurivs "Their discussions were essentially analysis in he service ‘of performance, Renaissance theorists such as Pietro ‘Raton and Heinrich Glarean discussed the modality of polyphonic compositions by Josquin. (For examples ee Mode, 551, 2-45 ll 3,4.) ich citations of individual works were all concerned jch mavters of technique and substance. Iwas only with the development of musical rhetoric that the idea of oem! fetered musical heory, The literature of ancient classical ‘Greek and Roman thetoric was rediscovered with the Finding of Quintlian’s Iustzuio oraforia in 1416. But che applieauo of the ideas of classical oratory has been traced back as far as the Notee Dame polyphony of the fnly 13th cenrary, and its direct impact is clear in late {Sth-cennury musi, [twas with Listenius (Musica, 1537s Eng, trans. 1975) that sia poetica ~ musical rhetoric "vas introduced into musical theory. Dresser (1583) ‘ilided to 2 formal organization of music that would dope the divisions of an oration into exordiiam (open ing’), median and fins, Petro Pontio (1588) discussed the andaeds for composing morers, masses, madrigals, psalms and other genres, and similar discussions occur in Cerone (1613), Peaetorivs (1618), Matheson (1739) and Scheibe (1738-40), ‘A plan similar to Dressler’s appeared in Bucmeister (1608), Burmester had already proposed (1599, £601) that musical “figures could be treated as analogous £0 ‘hetorieal Aigores, and it was he who fist set out a Ful formal analysis of a piece of music. Te was Burmester, oor who gave the frst definision of analysis (1406, pri ‘Analysis of compost the ssluan of hat copsion ia Aree ule tad pata poses of ennai lam Sm ge and int eas peti = Anal const of Fee fro Desai of odes 2a specs of woraiy: of GSeketpine: 4 Conadertion of quays 5, Resohiton of the ‘ouput alison or frig He then discussed exch of the parts of analysis in detail, and followed this by his analysi of Lassus's Bve-voice sotet ly me transtertt, He defined the mode av authentic Phrygian, and discussed the total range of the pieee and the individual vocal ranges. Fle defined he tonality as ‘diatonic’, che species of counterpoint as "broken (fac remy the quality as diazexgmenorim. Burmeister then proceeded to the fth stage (pp. 73): Frenne he wat 0 be id pwr eaeotaby in nine pecmer otek Reed compracr te Esorduen wich Teal wiht ener fge reper Seppe lnketoe by chy me The sen mle Srnec Carpe ofthe kylie he Confira tay companion balled wits Kinde an, OF se he Send Mi ornommeed mah Byporposs wort Saal thas fepeiion of ei one wephigheror owe] adams ils osanes tn me teen a deren pe cee ed Toned ik mam, thas snaps reer atesomot pre turn nallne rok ded The 1p ara hus hypsyboe snd mess [homophone Tie dicey shorseysoaertg ach tert eto oe Heth teu esc esto wo su-corsesends ‘thplne fa sonone choccy cxpresave af stent (a the ine maak m Tenor a Baul. The ts (end bes Hare epnarch fern acaliplas tnd mort omen ccs ike een ated 3 na sod ess ero the TERE Sake he loge wr ost The rece cs wih Pipl colnet Tene lingo E abd the Alas ending Sebetae seven Passages From this moter are cited elsewhere in Burmeis ters treatise toillastracethetorial devices, thus giving & ‘ery fall exegesis af the work. Fig 1 shows his analysis applied to Period 4. Tippivs (1612) discussed chetocc as the basis of the forex of structure of a composition. Throughout the Renaissance and Baroque periods che principlesoF reroric ‘were preseriptive: they provided routine techniques for the process of composition rather than descriptive tech higues for alysis. But they played an important part in the growing awareness of formal structure dering these periods, and in particular of the function of eoutrast and the links between contrasted sections, out of which the ‘analytical faculty was eventually o develop. Macheson. (1739) enumerated si parts toa well-developed enmpo- sition such asam aria (p.236) Exon, ye otodtion and being Fx oy in whit ‘prow sad eo nto must tsb, 50 thatthe Deer Prefars nde atten sors, ‘Nami sport oa mareationin-wbich the eating md mate the douse ue] sogeted. found eaely 3 theussed igals, Hand 1601), ol 1606, thane. Siasof ey ke serail, hentic wand Vine then Tach mle ‘neal, plas fonsse ving a alysis of the sat the tes for tech par in 5 these rand ich the theson compo sch dane Cor___ me hypotyposis: ]word-painting: ‘my heat”. ‘panteth’ ‘imy strength faileth me! ~batum est, con-tur-batum est,| de - 1 Dredd Laat tet ane rs 1623 ih oat otra of the oie or the mos mporan concerted ierumentl pur sed 6 sdsted tothe Ezordum hy mans of 4 sabe cates with te cal en und ine Exon Propo ty contin the mesing and pape of te musical ‘perch and simple oc cemppound Sach propations hove thet Place ied afte hes paseo me when scully he Ese atest led and presents the mara bn brand sin ‘Then she vice rans Wr propos ara, om wiht be Sad ‘hircresteracompoond prapstion, Confruo i he aise seenthenng of the proposition ‘aly found m mca by tape andunespete epee breach nore be nade th arma pass. What We mean havea agreeable oil psp rept sever ns wth lis fie change of Scored ain alia Conf ibe resleion of bjeions us. contrasted or oppoing aca den Ine may he expel ahr by ed es OF Iteration aad een of pastgee whch prea sean Peon Sally ithe endo conclusion for maa eration sd ‘nim above alle be epoca express, And thi ft fund ust inthe cunt ce cotinoaten of tie lady el ba parca in the pontuda, be ke ather fr the baat line for song ccomptninwnt vbetheo atone ha ead he rls Blo Teas estar tat the arn celeste the sare atl 2 ‘egy that ur Exod sla serves 9 Pear, ‘Manheson then went on so apply this sectionalization ro anatia by Marcello, complete with discussion aad musical ‘examples (pp.237fh, introducing cher technical termsas he di so, (Sbe RHETORIC AND MUSIC, SIL) So ar this discussion has been occupied with principal developments up ta 1750 in the analysis of structural ‘de = resli~ re-li ~ quit Analysis, §IL, 1: Early history (to 1750) 531 eon tur Jcon ~~ tur-batum est| Hhomephonic answering phrases at diferent pitches = quit me vir- ws me - a arr hypobole: exceeding lower ambitus| cing be amass of Barter (606), 86,74 organization, However, if a full appreciation is to be ‘ined of the groundevorl of analytical theory, then three bther traditions of musical theory must be touched upon at this point the ar of embellishment, the technigue of Figured bass and the theory of harmony. Nowe of these is itself ceatred on analysis, bt each bears oni. The tradition of embellishment manuals stretching fom Ganassi (Fonteyara, 1535) to Viegliano (I dole ‘melo, c1600) and then on to the 17ik-century vocal and ‘nseeumental rotors, was primarily concerned with reac ing graves and passage to performers. This was done by means of tables of ornaments extended practical exam ples and formated rules. In these manuals is established the fundamental coucepe of ‘diminution’. This concepe tas two aspects: (1) the subdivision ofa Yew long note values into many shorter valises; and (2) the application {o an “essential” melodie line of « layer of less essential Tinea material. In both aspects a hierarchy is rented, and in both the possiblity exists of the hierarchy becoming, smult-layered as an already embellished line is subjected to further embellishment. On the face of i this was a quest for the purely transient affair of the virroso performer. In eality much 1éth-century music contained elements of embellishment as it was written down; and the modern style of 17uh-cennury second pratica sub sumed omamentation within its notated exterior. The compositional notion of inventing (or adopting) basi structure and chen elaborating it, which goes back least ta the Sth century and was developed as contrapuncius dimiratus by ch-centary theorists, was crystallized in532 Analysis, §M1, 1: Early history (to 1750) this instructional tradition and was absorbed deep into European musical consciousness. Nowhere was this eruer than inthe stile antico lineage, which led from Dizuta (lf ‘primo libra, 1580) through Berardi (Ragionamens musi- al, 1681; Miscellanea nscale, 1689) and Fu (Gradius ‘ad Parnassus, 1725) right inte the beare of the 19th century. Ie should not be forgoreen thae Beethoven was seeped inthis tradition and co the end of hisliferemained profoundly influenced by his lessons from Albrechisber- per. This tradition was ro he of incalculable importance to the theories af Heintich Schenker a che beginning of the 2th sentry. “The teaching of Bgured bass was similarly performer orientated. The lin of treatises stretched from Agazzac) (Del somare sopra’l basso, 1607) into the t8th century. It tended to foster the concept om which it was founded: that of che chord as an indivisible wit. Ieevolved a new ‘categorization of consonatice and dissonance which, like the concept af diminution, was absorbed profoundly ino the mainstream of musical thaoght. However, it masked the concept of ‘cout by concentrating on the actual bass Tine Unquestionably the most influential music cheorist af the 18ch e=ntury was Rameau. Rameau was not himselP concerned with analysis of form and large-scale structure. ‘His theory of harmony nonetheless had latent significance for furure analysts. Rameau “conceptualized those princi ples of ronality which were so thoroughly evolutionizing harmony in theearly eighteenth century’ (Gossett, cd. an trans: Raraeaus Thaite, 1971, pasxi). He asserted the primacy of harmony over mciody. At the heart of bis theory are the three "primary consonanees' the octave, Sth and major 3rd, and the face that they are contained within and generated by the single uote. (This be saw frst through mathematical subdivision of sting lengths, a= hhad Zarlino before him, and lster through the observed ‘overtone structure ofa sounding body, or carps sonore. He save the octave as the ‘epic’ (répligue) of its source ibid, 8) From these observations he posited the notion ‘of transposing the natural order of sounds in a harmony, ‘thus isolating the principle of ‘inversion (renversement ‘inversion is basic to all the diversity possible in harmony ibid, 13). The principle of “implication” (soxs-entendie) allows thar sounds may: be heard in a chord while sor existing in thei own sight, Inversion, replication and Implication together yield the notion of root (a coneept ‘hich had already been grasped by Lippius, 1612, and Baryphonus, Pleiades musicae, 1615, 2/1630) and dus also the series of such roots, some present and some implied, that underlies a harmonic progression containing, inverted chords. This series of notes Rameau termed “fundamental bas’ (basse fondamentale} ‘What did this theory have ro offer to analysis? Firs, i offered explanations for chordal structures, consonant and dissonant, thereby providing tools for chordal fnalysis, Second, it presented a highly centralized view of Tonality, comprising a very few elements which could ‘occur in a rich variety of ways. Together with the rues for the operation of ‘fundamental bas chs paved the way for a reductionist approach to musical structure. Finally, by giving acoustical primacy to the major tiad it offered the prospect of scientific verfabilty to analytical Rameau’s exact contemporary [.D. Heinfehen was almost as prophetic in certain respects. His Der General ase sm der Composation (1728) was weiten towards the tend ofthe igared-bassteadaion and brought thattradition into contact with the theory of composition. Flinichen came close to formulating a theory of chord-progression. OF particular interest ro the analyst is his notion of fundamental roles’ (Fundamestalnoter), by which he denoted the principal notes in a melody line after inessential notes have been stripped away, 2, 1750-1840. The origins of musical analysis as one row thinks of i iin early 18th century philosophy and ace linked with che origi ofthe aeschetic atitude tel For it was inthe 18th eentury, and parccularly with the ‘English philosophers and essayist, chat che idea came r0 the sueface of concerplating beauty withour self-interest = that is, without motive of personal improvement or ‘lity. Thieme ateitude vas termed, by one of ts eariest protagonists, Lord Shaftesbury (1671-1713}, ‘sinter ‘sted attention’ It embodied a made of interest that went tno further thaa the object being contemplated, and was engrossed in the contemplation itself. Leibatz, ac about the same time, evolved a concept of perceprion as an activi an steelé rather than 26 4 processing of sense- Smpressions. This active concept af perception was ‘important im the work of Alexander Baumgarten (1714 £2}, who coined the word ‘aesthetics, Iwas during this period thar the notion of fe art as such, divorced from Context and social function, arose ln Shaftesbury's equacion of disinverested atention with ‘love of truth, proportian, order and syimmecry in things without lies the germ of formal theory as i wis Seveloped ia Germany dusing the scond half ofthe 18¢h cemury. His declaration that ‘whe Beavtifu, the Far, the Comely, were never in the Mater, but in the Art and Designs never in the Body itself, but in the Form or Jorming Ponce" (Charactristicks of Men, Marmers, Opinions, Temes, 1711, i, 408) drew areention t0 the jourtard form asthe abject of contensplaion rather than ‘content. Such an atitude came through in, or exam ‘Dey alloeit ertige Polonoison- und Menuetoncomsporist (1757| by IP. Kimnberger,one ofa numberof publications that laid down a fixed chord scheme for dances, and supplied several movits foreach bar from which one as to be selected by throwing a dice However, it was not in the field of analysis or of criticism, a6 owe might expect, that these perceptually brsed ideas were fully articulated in music for the frst time. Ir was in composition teaching: in particule in the writings of the theorist H.C. Koch. The most significant aspects of Koch's mportane work Versueb einer Anleitong ‘gir Composition (1782-93) were the twin subjeces of phrase structure and formal model. Koch's principle of phrase extension had its forerunner inthe Anfamgseriinde ur mauccalischon Setekunst (1752-68) of Joseph Riepel. In hie sccond chapter Frankfure, 1755) Riepel discussed the construction of eight-bar phrases in two four-bar ‘nics, designating each according ois pe of cadence as Grundabsatz, Aenderungsabsatz or Aendeningscadens (pp-3sff). He went on (pp-S4ff to discuss reperition and hrase extension (Ausdthmong) and interpolation (Ein- Echiebse). Riepel used graphic signs ~ the squat, crosses and lecters ~ to designate constructional devices. fn his fou sen the Fe so. sil lig) % Sar bn thy the be alle of Me ote sreeral dethe aivion vichen on of ch he after yand ise tathe atest was about in igthis ron ery in eiRth wand to the ean ample, ponist sand or of sully le Fre Henne EEE fourth chapter (Augsburg, 1765) Riepel considered me lodic ‘figures’ (Figuren} not iv the thesorical Baroque sense hut as units of formal construction. He presented ‘the frst ive bars of an aria, marking the four musical figures by brackets and numbers (ig-2a). He then rook ‘0-1 and showed how it miahr be eepeared sequentially at ehe interval of @ 3ed (marking the cepettion with 2 SSouble eras; i.2b), hen at che 2nd and the Sth. He then ‘worked a sequential extension of no.2 which continued with no (fig 2cl,and so on (pp. 811). The examples were scl very much in the syle of Bacoque melodic construc- tion, bur Koch described Riepe's work as ‘the fist ay of Tight (i, 1), There i evidence that Kirnherger t00 was iluenced bby Riepel in is writings. In Die Kunst des rein Satzes in der Musik (a/1, 1776), he employed a range of teminologs formelodie structures that provides ahalfeay pine hetween Ricpel and Koch, Each large-scale section ‘fa pice, called Haptehei, was subdivided into several units, each called Periode or Abschwitt. They were themselves subdivided into several units, each Known 25 Sete oe Rhys. They in turn were subdivided into the smallest unit ofall, each known as Casur or Sled. The term Einsebmite equated sometimes with Saiz, sometimes swith Casur. Kimberger offered rules (i/1, 140-51; also briefy |, 1771, p.96; Eng. trans, 407-16, 114) on the construction ofall hese units, especially as rocheic length, fhythmic patterning and cadence forms, In stating that the number of bars constituting a Sazz should normally ‘bea muleple of four, ar atleast of rw, he made special allowance for interpolation. A one-bar unit, a repetition ff the previous bar, could be inserted (i/2, 183; Eng twans., 409) without disturbing the feel of the un Moreover, the Saiz could be extended by the elongation ‘of the value of one or more ofits main notes, This might result in ive, Seven- oF nine-bar Size. Fig3 shows his sraphing of a succession of three five-bar units by bae ‘number and sur marks. 2. From Rigo “Anfonasninde wr malian Stun. (amsbing 1768-8102 Analysis, $U,2: 1750-1840 533 4. From LP: Krerer: "hie Kt de einen Sato der Ms’ (tera t771-9h ae? Kirnberger had apparently been a pupil of. Bach, and certainly sought co disseminate Bach's methods; in he was che musical adviser so the great Swiss esthetician |G. Sulzer. Ho was aso he direct hei ofthe ‘wolines of harmonic theory that deeended from Rares and Heinichen. This may be seen in three harmonic analyses of picees (ov of them entie) that are associated ‘with him, The frst an analysis of his own E minor fugue, which he appended to voli (1771) of Die Kunst des renen Satzes mt der Musik in order to demonsceate hhow to “detece the true harmony as conceived by the composer distinguishing. it from passing. note, in complex sitvacions. ‘Once beginners have acquired skill in the accurate analysis of harmony in this piece, we recomend to all of them that they also study the works Df great masters in similarly thorough way? (Eng, rat 260, 2708). This analysis is laid out on five staves, the top two presenting the fugue entire. The Sth staff shows the fandamenral hase as Kimberger derived ithe fourth shows the inessencial dissonances, andthe third presents 2 figured bass for the composition, s0 as to show the inversions of chords, Die_seabremGrundsatze cum (Gebrauch der Harmonie 1773), published over Kiraber er’s name, was probably written by his pupil JAP. Schule under his supervision. Appended to ths work are harmonic. analyses of two works from Bach's Das rwobltemperirte Clavier: the Fone in B minor from book 1 (selected because of its apparent insolubity) andthe fist part of the Prelude in A eninor from book 2. The latter is rather simpler, burt the B minor Page [8g.4) 36 lid out on two pars of staves the top pair presenting the gue in finished form), with to further individual staves Loew. The shied and fourth staves give a Figured bass (using the bass of the fague where appropriate) with chorus over it that simplify by removing all inessential, issonances. The ff sta gves the fundamental bass, ‘wih figures that retain the essential dissonance. Finally, ‘he sixth staff gives the fondamental bass with only the fundamental chords cecorded in is iguring chat is only triads and chords ofthe 7h, in accotdance with Rameau’s principles, Koch’s exposition of melodic phrase structure inthe 1780s and 90s was to be of the profoundest importance for music theory, ultimately also for analysis, and it led slretly to Riemanu’s theory of dynamic and agogic. The ‘exposition isin Parc ofthe Versuch section? subsection '3'Onche construction of melodic ection, andsubsection 4On the combining of melodic sections, or the construc tion. of period), occupying in all some 500 pages. It followsimmediately ona discussion of rhythm and metre, and establishes @ beearchical framework in which two har "segments? or “incises' (vollkommene Einschnitte) ‘combine in pairs to form four-bar ‘pheases'(Sitze) which in turm combine to make ‘periods’ (Perioden). Koch ten Iaid: down cules 38 to how this framework might be ‘modified without loss of balance. Chapter 3 of subsection934 Analysis, $I, 2: 1750-1840 4. ron /. Romberg fuih JAP. Scale Diewabron ‘rade som Gcbruch de Hanoi (Bek and Kiger Ther 4 contains three studies OF the se of melodic extension’ ‘The fest is of extension by repetition of all or part of a pease; here Koch conveyed the idea of function within a pease rather than melodie material, speaking often of ‘he repetition of a bac’ when the content of that bar is different on seeaad statement. The second study. is tnoltiplission af phrases and eadental figures. The tied {Sof the highly sgnifeane concept whereby a ®wo-har or four-bar phease-unit may be embedded within an existing melody. Koch explained with each estension device [Verlingerungsmiztel) how it could be used without lpstting te general effec fsymmerry, Thus forexample he stated thae “When a phrase contains one-bar units of ‘which the fis is epeared, then the second must aso be Tepeated, because if aot ‘che unequal handling, af these ftpall unis stands our as an unpleasant effet (i, 6310 ‘Chapter 3 of subsection 3 describes processes ofmladic compression effected hy the telescoping of two phrase {units to form a single unt. In this chapter he used a bar ‘numbering system that shows the bar at the point of telescoping as having owo functions. Fig.S shows the telescoping of two fourber pheases into a seven-bar period, with the suppressed bar (Tacterstckung) marked ‘with square (i, 493), ‘Koch's processes of extension and compression show his concern with symmetry and proportion on the smalles scale, Subsection 4 also. presents the constcuction of ‘compositions in ascending order of magnitude, from ‘the ‘combining of melodie sctions into periods ofthe smallest ‘ire, or the organization of small compositions’ (chap 2 4, 39-152) invelving the combination of four melodic ‘ections ‘of which two have a cadence ia the home key {p57}, “oF which one has a cadence in a related key’ {p81}, and in which only a single closing phrase occurs {p-111},and the combination of more than four sections in small compositions’ (p.128) to ‘he combination of melodic sections nto petiods of greater length, or the Organization of larger compositions (chap.4, ii, 23~ 4430) ln this way Koch drow all the musical elements of a ‘composition into murual relationship ~ for music is that re which expresees feclings through the relationships between notes [i 4) It in these two chapters that the other important aspect of Koch's work comes to the fore: that of the formal model, In this respect he cited a5 his authority Sulzer’s Allgemeine Theorse der schdmen Kibnste(1771~ +), 1m wihich the ides of layout (Arlage) or model is put forward. Such a model sets down a plan for a work and the most salient features. The ats, following this model, is then to proceed to the ‘execution’ (Ausfibrung) oF Completion of design and finaly to the “elaboration” (Ausarbeitung of the work nalts deralls. Accordingly, within the disewssion of smaller forms (ii, 3947) Koch provided th plan and charactersiedetais ofthe gavotte, Bourrée, polouaise, anglaise, mimucr and march, ebaclud. ing with the chorale and figured melody. He described, for example, the gavorte asa dance piece of lively and pleasane character” much used in theatrical dance. Is Features are“) an even time signarure which is usually fn 20 and not to fas; (2) that each phrase begins with a tworstotcher upbeat, (3) that it has even-numbered thythmic units with a decetable phrase division at each fecond bar; (4) thar it comprises two sections, each of eight bars. “All these models were offered as generative: from them composinons could be crested, almost mechanically — ‘lines’ hecause Koch held the view that living expres sion’ Ulebendiger Anedrack) was essential to the arust [the poet who abandons expression, image, gure, and hcomies a dictionary-user, isin err, 1,6). They form partafaminstrution manual thac proceeds frombarmony fo counterpoint and ther to melody and form. Yet they areimportant, too, ia the history of analysis, because they Separate nor from ndisiduahty, implicitly stating what was ‘expected’ and thereby defining liberty. Moreover, although most of Koch's abundant music examples were Specially written for the book (in the contemporary syle of Graun, Benda, and early Hayda and Mozare), he appended to his discussion of the combination of four melodic sections a brief analysis (i, $8) of the minut from Haydn's Divertimento in G (wile). The erteria for hisanalysis are particularly interesting: ‘Ths ite minuet' he began, “ha the most complete unity’. He followed the ‘philosophical dictate wansmicted by Sulzer (under Fi Feit, thae wholeness... and beauty consise of diversity pease eer fem 5, From HG Rosh: Versuch ne Anke ut Compost’ Uap, 1787455ve the 7 is pur kand volel, ‘g) oF ingly, Kock veld ribed, yand ets sually witha bred ‘exch ich of hem ally — pres sand orm they tether what tale 1, he Hose ia for edthe Tin (6A) sities om Vises 1 Violen ‘eo Viaa cadens leaguer. ‘cadences chant secon ae alee ond leanderto 6 Joke Mami Cour complet harmonies deca bound together in unity’. Sulzer described unity sith reference toa clock: “if only one ofits mechanical parts is Femoved thes it no longer whole [Grnzes} but only 3 part af something ele’. In hs analysis Koch identified the Fist four bars asthe sole peincipal idea, repeated to form a closing phrase. The opening of the second half, also Tepeated as a closing phase, ‘while differen from the preceding secon, is actually no less chan the selfsame Phrase used im another ways fori i stated in contrary notion, and by means of a thosough deviation shich fesults fom this beeonses bound together through greater diversity Nor only isthe ‘model’ an important sool for formal analysis, later to be used. by. Prout, Riemann and LLeichtentrit, but also the Sulzenian process of modelex- ccution-elaboration is itself an. imporcant concept of Artistic creation, which later acquued its analytical ‘ounterparcin thetheory of layers Sebichten.Inadbtion, Koch equipped the composer and analyst with a term nology, derived from grammar and thetoric, for the ‘eserption of sructure. For him, melody was "speech in Sound’ (Tovrede), comprising gratamas and punctuation. He sought to establish ‘natural law’ of musical urerance (Tonsprache) which he called the “loge of the phrase’ this logic the smallest sense-unit, called ‘incomplete Seument” anvollbommener Eixsebit), normally occu- pied one bar, the ‘complete segment’ (volkommener Einschrith self divisible into two Caster in Sulze's definition of Eiesciteewo bas, Such segments combine to form the “plrase’ (Satz), defined as either “opening Analysis, §1L, 2: 1750-1840 use eomplnene ievesrme plundreetnon pstmt. = nis 1806), 3109-10 form a ‘period’ (Periode). All theee prineipal words are ‘grammatical constructs: Einschmis 33 phrase, Sate as Clause, and Periade assentence, the thidof these divisible, according ro Koch, inca ‘subject (i fis four bats, Sate) and “peedicate’ (ater four bas) Ac the beginning of che 19th century came a work that gave ant unprecedented amount of space and range of thought 10 analysis. Jeréme-Joseph de Momigny (1762~ 11842) in his Cours complet d harmonie et de composition [1806) devoted no fewer than 144 pages, including analycical plates, to an analysis ofthe fist movewent of Movart's Sering Quarter in D minor K421/917b. He provided a double analysis, examining both phrase fructure and expressive content. Momigny's phrase Structure analysis i based oa the novel rhythmic concept that musical unis proceed from upbeat (lev) to downbeat (rape) and never vice versa. He teemed his smallest sense-onit, made up of two successive notes, upbeat and ownheat, the cadence or proposition musicale. These {hwo notes are in the relationship of axtécident and conséquent, Ip the opening bars of the movement by Mozart (fg.6), two cadences mélodiques pair off in antecedent-consequent relationship 10 form a cadence Iharmonique, two of those forming 2 hémitiche, «wo hhamistiches forming a vers, and wo vers forming a période. Momigny’s concept does aot, however, insist on fierarchy by pair, and alloys for as many ass or eight tere to makeup a péviodein certain contexts. Thepériodes form further ita reprises and are designated according to function within thei reprise as ‘de débur’ “intermedi aire, "de verve, ‘mélodiewse’, or ‘complémentare’. (In536 Analysis, §HL, 2: 1750-1840 other contests Momign'used other ters ftom versa tion also to designate structs] units of inermdiatesize: istiche trope and stance) Inthisphrave-structure analysis Momsgny laid che basis fora view of musi tht was o become important at che end of he 19th century: of musicas a succession of spam bf tension In his expressive analysis, om the other hand, he was looking back co the Afetnichre ofthe 180 century. His method was to detenmine the caractire of the work under analysis to select a verbal text chat had the same character, ane to set the text to the principal trelodie material of the work so that melodie repecton ‘was irored by verbal reptton, fuctuatons of mesial qnood by lactation of textual meaning. le contracted 2 poetic parallel with the musi, offen theough fe an interpretation ofboth form and conten “The plates for che analysis present the music laid out conten parallel saves the top four show the quarter ia Conventional save the lth staff presents the melodiline {and nos pened small here reveal the begionings of trelodi reduction technique] with its cadences marke, the sith and seventh tyes provide a harmonic reduction ofthe texture with harmonic cadences marked the eighth fnd ninth staves presen the principal melodic material Svth poetic text underaid (inthis case a dramatic vene berween Dido and Aeneas, with noes froma the Res vikin assigned fo Dido and from the cello assigned to Aeneis) find with simple piano accompaniment and the tenth Sealf shows dhe roots of she prevaing harmony as Findamental bass fi) Mmigny’s other exeended analysis is of he frst movement of Haydn's “Drumgall’ Symphony. 1.103 {Eng rans, 1994) Thi spans 24 pages o extecombined with 47 pages of annotated full score, The txt Hist Investigates the substance ofthe movement, praeeding petiod by pesiod, examining the themare mares and Eepleyment, st se of contrasting dynamics and timbres, Stessing the achievement of variety tn unity then builds 2 poetic analogue to the music inthe foom of a illage Community tore bya fenflstonn and evenly shustened in the eyes of God. This late “pictorial and poetic analysis’ belongs to an 18eh-centuy tradition af Exploring the borderland between words and musie— fraction exemplified by Klopstock and Lessing, of which the most celebrated product was Heinrich Wallelm von CGerstenbere's double adaptation of G.P.E Bach's minor Fantasy, Rese to the words of Hamle’s monologue ‘To thor not o be’ and then to tose of Socrates monologue ashe takes hemlock (se Helm, 1972), Indeed, Momign"s ‘wrtings sungest that there was a erable school of sch {cuvy in Paris a this tie, Getty was. skilled exponent ‘ofthis proup, which Momigny called les parodistr Momigay's vo analyses Irom 1806 are monumental achievements, So tou was another extended analysis, ‘which occupied 21 columas of the Leiprig Algemene rmusikalsche Zeinng, publibed ia two istaknens 0 July 1810: E:T.A, Hotfann’s analytical review of the Score and pats of Beethoven's Fitts Symphony, complete swith copioas music examples (Eng. trans, 1993). Ta desler three mighty analyses emerge from te head-seatees Of the broadening. steam of 19th-centiry analysis Superficial, Hofmann's review has mich in common ‘vith those of Momigiy. Both deal in detail with matters SF struceue, both uve highly technical language, both offer rch descriptive imagery. Hoffaann's picorial language, however, belongs (as one would expec of him) toihe worldof Romanticlterature,speakingof'aameless, haunted yearning’ and a “magical spt relay’, and of the work being held together "in a continuous fantastic Sequence w. Hike an inspired rhapsody’. His cechnical description, which freely uses such terms as Haupige danke, Zuischoncatz and Figur, sees the music not in fixed format, dhvough a series of periodic frames, but in free format, as 2 seamless continuity powered by motts. Teadumbrates an organist view of musical structure, as for example (Eng. tans. p.163): ice parila the lowe reationeip ofthe iiidulrbemestoeach tre whi rors he uy baie abe uno fet he Fisensheure. bcos caer tothemancan when eves pata tatu coon ro nen diferent pases of heh iy berreen Sep pases sks appre Br ofen ‘keer taupe ne demonstrable is way Speaks ony feo he hur the eae of ths fhinshp tar exis fetmssn he sj feet alles a the minus, and sat Fell cle corner anal is ‘At one point Hafan’ text sets out five forms of che ‘Menuet sheme so thatthe reader can see the transforma- ‘Schumann's review of Berlion's Symphonia fantastigue (1833) also combines objectivity and subjectivity in tackling the work from four distinct points of view formal constsuction, syle and texture, the poetic “idea [ping behind the symphony, snd the spirit that governs. ‘The eeview ranges itself agzinst cntics of the work, exaimining is sttccure section by section to show that “Gespite the apparent formlessness as epards its major proportions it possesses a wonderfully symmetrical dis: Postion ~ ta say nothing of is inner coherence (Eng. {rans 994,174; discussing harmonicaud modulatory Sie, melodic and contrapamal fabri, acknowledging the contravention of many theoretical rules but justifying them by the work's intensity, ie "wholly distinesive and indomitable spirit (p.1 80}; recounting the work's pro- framme, and arguing that ic spurs che listenes’smagina- fon to perceive is own further meaning; and finally affirming that the symphony “has wo be understood nocas the work of art of a master, bur rather as unlike anything, that as gone before i by vetue of fts inner strength and brig [p.194) ‘The use of analysis to serve an interest in musical fz theelves, ater chan to supply mod fo the Stull of composition, reflected ¢ new pitt of histo Siwareness thar arose with Romanticism, Tt was not a ispassionate “cientif’sntecest in the past specimens, Duta desie to enter into the past, to discover its esence. ‘This sprit, sn confluence with the Romantic image of “genius, resulted ina new type of monograph, biograph: teal and historieal, An early example was JN. Forkels Ueber Jobanoe Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst und Ker nuurke (1802), which, while including nothing hat could be trmed formal analysis as such, contained an extended ‘characterization of Bach's music asa whole in short a feylstie analysis. Forkel was much influenced by the ‘concep of ‘organist’ in contemporary philosophy and educations to seek the depths of ‘Bach's tcanscendent genius’ (Eng. trans, 1920, pexxin) in the totality of his ‘work rather than in individual compositions was consis- tent with this. He declared Bach's mastery of technique: ft the same time he ried to define where ‘Bach followed {course af his own, upon whieh the text books of his day were silent (p.74). To identify genius he took, in chapters ia Hh thy lea he febin) sees, ofthe haial “tee cath tsthe when irocit of the sigue idea work, Vthat major Mas ‘ne. Inrore ding feng and S pro sina rally ‘thing wand sil or the ‘rial age of raph arkel’s ‘Kure could ended vy the yand andent of his nique: lowed lisday aprers ll Se eS 5 and (‘Bach the Compose’) five aspects of music hharmony, modulation, melody, hytho aad counterpoint. His method was to cite a technical context, state the conventional in teams of cantemporary Hheory ox practice, and then consider Bach's handling of sucha context. He thus had illuminating things to say about Bach's voice leading, his use of passing notes, of pedal points, of remote moddulatvns, his contrapuntal solo melodic writ- ‘ng; his fuga counterpoine and his use of the voice; for example (p77) hese ele thot exey oe cd yan ascent xan be usted in he chord, because the aed ot sy om ate {Shae ont oe atone is ub see dled abo pars so cnsequeiy, foe comeciecrnves Sach whee Rortoch eens doubcan ny ne asidertlyeedeewbere inthe ele bu scully ce somone oc eng note Yetleavmds conser scene Hiss wadks yl varie For Forkel such transgression ou Bach's part always produced a more natural, spontaneous or smooth effect than orthodoxy. The link between genius and nature was sviomatic: when [Bach] drass his melody fom theliving Wels of inspiration and cuts himself adnif fom conven: tion, sll i as fresh and new as if ie had been written yesterday” [p43 The early decades of the century saw the publication of bother comparable monographs, including Bani’ study of Pelestrina (Memorie storicorriticbe della vita e delle ‘opine di Giowanns Pirluiy da Palestrina, 1828}, Carl ‘Winteefela's of Palestrina (1832) and Giovanni Gabsieli (1854) and Aleksande Dmitreyevieh Ulishev's of Mozart (1843). In these, technical assessment was placed ac the service of characterization of ale there Was 3 eritial Sind historical dimension to sah writing tha st it apart bboch tram the Feld of composition teaching that had given tke to Koch's terminology and from the eitical analysis ‘of individual works exemplified by Hoffmann’sreview of Beethoven's Fifh and. Schumann's of the Symphonie Fantastique, Other writings pucsued 3 third analytical path that derived fom the model of the composition treatise but was focusted onthe clucidation of pre-existing ‘works - even where the work in question had been ‘composed by the author, as in the case ofthe analysis by Gy. Vogler of one of his own preludes (1805; Eng. trans, 1994), Perhaps the most sriking aspect of the Trité de iélodie (1814, 2/1832) by the Czech composer and theorist Antoine Reicha ists citation ofso many examples from actual music [he listed the composers in his prefs) All these examples aze submited to segnentation and “scussion. This in tue represents sgaiicane shift from the compositional to the tvalytical standpoine ~ Reicha ‘remarked in the peeface ro the Tvaté tha ‘eis with music as with geometry: in the former iis necesary to prove tverything by music examples, just as eis wie the later by geometric figures. Such a shift is emphasized by the Inclusion of six extended analyses of works by Haydn Ipp-abffandex.D"), Mozart (p43, E),Cimacosa (pp 43ff 5), Sacchini (pp.45tf, G*, Zingarell (pp.a7t1, Q") and Piccinal (pp.49t, R'), Each piece ss presented as a continuous melodic ine annotated sith brackets, labels land comments, and a page or two of discussion in the [Reicha established set of technical tormsin the French language comparable to those of Koch, Riepel and Sulzer. He used dessin co denote the smallest unit of constraction Analysis, §I,2: 1750-1840 537 (equivalent to Binschyit), and lkened it to an idee to for three dessins normally make up a rythme (equivalent ‘9 Sat) tepettion of multiplication of which (the second of pair being called ke compagyon) produces the période. A composition made up of several périodes is @ Coupe that of two oF three periodes 18 4 petite coupe binaire ex eras, and that af two of thre partes, exch comprising several periades, is a grande coupe binzre ot ternaire. The dessin is punctuated by 2 quartercadence quart de cadence), the rydbme by a dem cadence, the période bya tote quarts de cadence (if repeated) or by a tadence payfate, Koch's division into grammar and punesuation is mirrored in this view, as is his fundamental Eoncept of hierarchical phrase structure, Thus Reicha took the theme of the last movement of Mozat's String Quaret 458, “The Hunt’, and divided it into wo ‘membres (ie. rythmes), each comprising two dessins of f590 hare’ duration. ‘Three of the four dessins are ‘clodieally distinct (hisnos.1, 2 and 3), and Reicha broke tach of these further into to sub-unit, numbering five ‘ofthees {nos 4-8) and stil calling them dessins. All thisis iMlserated in bis music example BY, of which the first section is shaven in ig. Such writing could aroase the interest of the masical public. Around 1830 there was an intense debace in the pages of Li revue musicale and the Leipaig Allgemeine Imusikalsche Zeitung about the opening bars of Mezart’s “Dissonance” Quartet k465 (ace Vertes, 1974), in which the protagonists were Fetis and an anonymous writer identified by the pseudonym °A.C. Lede’. The response to this hy the Mannheim-based composer and theorist Gorsried Weber was widely circulaed, Weber acknowl- edged the ‘disturbing effect of the passage, and stared that its causes may be ascertained by analysis (Eng. trans. 1994, p.163): “A thorough-going analysis of the entice Iharmonte and melodie fabric [Textur] of the passage in «question willenable us to deret al these causes, to solate them and see them inteeacting with one another, 3nd thas tospeciy what iis in these tonal constructs [Anklinge] that disturbs us so much”. Weber deployed number oF appevaches. He considered the conal sebeme of the passage through the application of harmonic theorys he ‘dentifed the proliferation of passing notes as a factor contriboring to the effect of the music; fe noted cross {lations between the voices, and parallel progressions at the inmerval of a. 2ady he reviewed ‘the grammatical construction of the passage as a whole” and finally assessed its ‘rhetorical impor’. Weber didnot claim that his analysis proved either the ‘lawlessness’ or the ‘law- abiding quality” ofthe music (p.183): only the musically trained ex could judge whether che tolerable ‘mits of harshness’ had been overstepped, Content himself 10 accept the judgment of Mozast, and to disregard ‘fools dnd. jealous ones’, Weber nonetheless felt that his Analytical approach had been able to establish what the elects consisted of and what intentions lay behind chem: “All that technical eory could have done, it hay here one’ (p.182). “Weber was also among those who in the frst decades ‘of the 19th century continued the work previously done tn the area of harmonic theory by Rameau, Heinichen, Kigaberger and others His four-volunse theory oftonaliy (Versuch einer geordneten Theorie der Tomsetzhinsty 1817-21) was widely used and acknowledged: the work.538 Analysis, $I, 2: 1750-1840 heme, ow Motte 2. From A Reicha “reid de doa (Par, 1814), lances, 46 ‘went through three German editions, and its America English edition (published under the name of Godirey {Weber}, translated by James Warner (1842), went through Some six impressions this edition was revised in 1851 by John Bishop of Cheltenham, the ranslator of Czerny and taitor of Reicha, In §53 of the Versuch Weer set our 2 tnew method of designating chord types. Ths uses Gothic Jesters in upper and lower case, with supersceipt circles 7” and cossed"7to designate major, minor and diminished triads, dominant 7th, secondary 7h, half-diminished 72, land major triad with major 7ch, Then in $151 there are Fundamental harmonies of each major key. T and 17, wont, a ur, Iv «IV, v «v7, va 7, evn «ovr? Fundamental harmonies of each minor key. 1 °n and °n7, ny “ay, yey, VI « VIF, on. 8 Fro G, Weber Versuch ier geodon Theore des ‘Tones Mass 1817-215 gree, 21851. Bihoph 007 ‘Roman numerals, large and small actualy small-capiall, ‘with the same suiperseripe symbols, to denore chord eypes Is located on degrees of the scale within a given key ifg.8). The to ‘modes of designation’, as described in §5153, can be combined by prefsing an upper- and lower~ ase lic levter and colon to che Roman: numeral as an index of the prevailing keys thus CAV" indicates the dominant 7th on the fourth degeee of C majoe. ‘Weber claimed originality for these symbolsystems and complained of piracy by contemporary weitets. The Combined system just outlined provided che basis for Schenker's designation of fendamental harmonic steps [Stuen), and became widely used in 20th-centurytheoret ical writings By fae the most visionary steps in harmon theory at this time, hovsever, were taken by Momigny. Over a period of 18 years he formulated a sheory of long-term fonality which enabled him to imply, for example, that the frst movement ofthe Mozart D minor Sting Quartet in its entirety modulates (in the modern sense) 3. mere cight cimes, and that other extended passages novmally fegarded ax modulating soveral dimes never leave the home key. While writing che Cours complet (1803-5) he crolved an expanded notion of tonality whereby a key Comprised not only its seven diatonic notes but also the five flanlang notes on the shatp and flat sides anda further five on the doublesharp and doublelat sides (relatively speaking) to produce a tonal space of 27 notes. Finally, in La seule vrai théorie de la musique (1821) that space is divided into diatonic genus, chromatic genus and enharmonic genss. By this formulation (derived from classical Greek music theory], most conventionally ac ‘epted modulation is clased as movement within this expanded tonal space ~ movement between areas called ‘etachordes'- Such local movement within the tonal space fs termed modulation (or modtlation négative), whereas ovement outside that space is termed transition (or ‘modulation positive. 3, 1840-1910. When Carl Czzeny translated Reicha's Cows de composition of 1816 and two Traits as Ve w So ta c G a a w R bepial, Types on key hed in lower rasan es the The sie for steps ory at wera aver ethae ‘anally we the “s)he a key (so the ihr inal, space ‘wand from ly a: in this called space hereas Voltstindiges Lebrbuck der musikalischen Kossposition (Vienna, 1834), he contributed by way of an appendix an analysis ofthe fest movement of Beethoven's ‘Waldstea” Sonata, in which he stripped assay the sueface figuration (the moving figure’) leaving ony the underlying haemo: nies (the ground-hatmony’), presented in block chords Ceecay also did ths Inter in his own School of Practical Composition (21848) for Chopin’s Frude op.10 0.1 (5g) forthe spel of Bach's Das wolonperive Wier, i, and for the introdvction to sonata by Gtenctiland he colocs a may by Orson? oes bane voice-leading (‘the ground melody") Allthe music examples in Czeray’sSchoofare attributed (shey represent the generation of Beethoven, Hummel, Rossini, Méhul etc., and many analyses of ‘whole ‘compositions are included, The treatise was unique in being the frat independent manual of form and instr: mentation. I ool for granted a grounding in harmony and counterpoint, and concerned itself exclusively wich the development of ideas and the formation of compesi= tions front the most simple ‘Theme to the Grand ‘Spmphony, and from the shortest Song to the Opera and Oratorio’ (i pi) isa veritable compendium of musical forms, including exotic dances (euch as the bolero fandango and tarantella and section on Russian national dances), vocal forms (such as the romance, preghiera and ballad, as well as the constituent movements af a sonata, other fors a gees str as the quartet CCaerny’satstude cowards form washighly determinate: “the composition must. belong, to a species already 19 Analysis, SI, 3: 1840-1910 539 existence, consequently, in this respect, no originality is, in general, necesaey” 1). His undeesanding of form and construction’ is self quite speci 6 tur|A work’ ment and prope det. aly Te jee madalations ray foto enabled kya poy ary and extanous ones, wel athe cts hse ‘hey ae araded iy Th shyehm the ropacton or symmetry oth ofthe whos, and ato ofthe nda arts pesos pe 4p Themanserin his poncpa oc anascevory mena shout iar peper pac snd where Kut ssraae th vac passes Ss form stra eandnangon, 2 moving Sav, 8 bridge > Se isoning Sly The conduct ad developmen pina o iy The srctte aed proper sicrton of the dicot component Por of th pi ansverble the pei of onion omchhe ethos ad nc sexes tele “There ae sokrable number of freeform in mui. These however af deduce vo far es numberof ach pip for, air lly dicen ince cease ean. A.B. Marx, in his Die Lehre vor der mmsikalischer Komposition (1837-47; partial Eng. trans, 1997), was less procrastean. “The number of forms is unlimited, he said, and there are ultimately ne laws dictating what foxin N22. The ground-harmony of the first Study by Chopin, Op.10. Allegro Loy Allegro. 8. From Cx540 Analysis, $11, 3: 1840-1910 4 particular composition should cake, For Marx, form was ‘the way in which the content of a work’ the composers conception, feeling, idea -outwatdly acquires shape’. A better term fort he suggested, might have been “the externalization of conten’. Nonetheless, the stde composer cannot learn composition through inspiration fand-idea alone. He needs the models of previous ‘composers as an intermediate stage on the road towards fee composition. Thus ‘i is possible to derive certain principal forms, and also certain composite or compond forms wich ace made up ofthese o vaciations of thems tnd only by creating these distinctions des it become possible to comprehend and master the immeasurable Array of [formal] moulds [Gestlten} (i, 5}. For Mars, form was almost synonymous with ‘whole’ (Gamzes) (i, aff: vey ork of are mur hae orm. For ever wor fares of Senay to bape end fod, rea gee nen Aieen wae of ratons of erent pe and numer The poner ter lol thes fears isthe form otek fa Thora ‘any fos se work fart Macx acknowledged that there seere similarities in form betseecn picces, ut denied strongly that forms were, as 2 result, routines’ chrough which composers worked ‘Content was not realy separable from form, Even so, the ‘ery appearance of similares suggests that ‘there must hhesome rationale underlying these moulds, some concept ‘which is of broader signifeance, greater srengts and Tonge dracon’ 7) Thus Marx denied form as ‘convention’ and proposed for tan epistemological ass Forms are patterns abstracted trom past practice, rather than conscious guidelines; they” represent deep-seated principles of organization which analysis uncovers, “This idea ie close tothe ideas of AW. Schlegel (176° 1845) concerning the relationship between artand nature: beneath the consciously moulded work of art must le sn ‘unconsciously moulded work of nature. Nature “is an intelligence. [lt shauld be understood not as a mass of products but as itself a producing [force' (Vorlesungen Liber sce Literatur und Kunst, 1801-2). Very euch abreast of the Romantic philosophy of his day, Ma believed in the originality of the arst in genius a6 4 special endowment, in the developing ‘idea’ as alle Important, in rues as existing to be broken. Marx was also influenced by the outlook of the Svis educationist Heingich Pestalozsi (1746-1827), who saw the lw of man's development as essentially ‘organic’ - not as ‘combination of circumstances but as an inner grove process. All proceses have a starting-point, they ger hate and grow, and at all points are harmonious and whole. Ar that starting-point Marx placed the Moti a Tiny unie of two oF more noes which serves as the sed ‘or sprout ofthe phrase out of which it rows! 27). In 1841-2 Mars engaged in public dispute with Fink over ‘methods of teaching composition, showing himself fully aware of the philosophical bass of his position (sce Die lee Muckler i Strvt mi wsrer Zeit, 18415 also Eicke, 1966), Mares discussion of sonata form (Sonatenform: —he ‘was probably the fist to use that term for the internal scheme of one movement) differs significanely from that” ‘of Caemny. Marx offered (i, 498ff) a page of formal instruction on sonata form in the major key followed by ‘twice as much indicating ways in which the ‘ground form’ may be deviated from, sessing always that the spirit (Geist of the composer may lead him in some other dlizection, and citing specific eases in Mozart and Beetho ten. He pointed only to the nique balance af the key scheme, spelling it out in a highly original fashion, and recommended the composer to keep its advantages Carefully io mind. The discussion was superseded when. ‘Mar issued the third volume of his compositional manual in 1945, There he devoted close on 100 pagee to the topic, treating each of the principal sections of sonata form in turn, the design of cach subject group (Haupssees, Seitensare, Sclusssat), che linkages between groups, the internal construction into antecedent and consequent, the use of motifs, ideas and cells. Significantly, he used the Beethoven piano sonatas as his exempliication through ‘outthiediscussion, Volume isitselfa manual of musical Forms that stars with simple forms, including variations, proceeds to rulo forms, to sonata form ard thence 10 hybrid forms such as sonata-rondo, multimovement structures and the fantasy, and concludes with vocal entes ‘Mars’s mose significant analytical writing eomtained in his Ludi vam Beethoven: Leber und Schafer, which ‘eas Fest published in 1859 and continued 10 be reissued ino the 1900s, This isa biogeaphy of the oeuyee rather than of the man ~a sequence of analyses through which the development of Beethoven's acts traced. Te contains ‘extended analyses of all the symphonies, Fidelio, the ‘Misaz solemmmis and several of the quartets. Many ther Wworks receive briefer analytical wreatment. It is this book that the concept af developing the idea i exploited most lly, expecially in the chapter The EroicaSvmphony and Ideal Musie™ Gi, 275; Eng. trans., 1937), which ‘expounds the aesthetic basis of "idea". The chapter on the Ninth Syraphony (i, 260) shows Marx's idealistic anal ical technique at iy best- His introduction to. the performance of Beethoven's piano sonatas (1863) is Alleged to be an outgrowth ofthis book. As well as giving advice on matters of execution, it supplies brie analyses ‘of most of the souatas, motive and descriptive, ‘The later pate ofthe 19th century, and the early part ‘of the 20th, saw the production of «growing number oF books, pamphlets and acher writings on musical subjects to meet the demands of pedagogical expansion. Though harmony texts also became numerous in this period, was musical form above all tha provided the material for such works. Some, perhaps because they were entiely directed at the lay reader, did not make explicit their inrellectual sources and inflences, but others chose also to contribute uo and develop whar was by now an ‘established tradition of ideas. Marx's Die Lahye vou der Imusikalischen Komposition went through six editions ducing his lerime, and an English translation of the foucth edition was ised in 1852. The work eventually underwent revision by Riemann berween 1887 and 1890 li, ev, 9/1887; fi, rev. 771890; i, rev, S/L8BR), and was tied in theory teaching. well ito the 20th century, ‘exercising a profound influnee on generations of musi- ‘ans, In 1885 Salomon Jadassolin produced yolume i of his composition treatise, entitled “Forms in musics! works of at analysed and graded asa course of study’, In 887 the American writer AJ. Goodrich published his Complete Musical Analysis, and the American teaches Percy Goetschius produced a sucession of books on Mu Kat isc Ma the Rie Bris 18 fan firs incl Mi fist incl 35: cha 13, bee rath hen the thet pra: pra fou (8 off ted ath oft (Gr cath iat alle iat thet ey fun ‘ico ing Alt alseveother Beetho- the key oa, and antages when ‘manual toric, form in ipisatz, aps the entythe sed the rrowgh= ‘musical iations, 3 ¥oeal ntsined 1 which Hoy the other in this sploited phony ‘which ron the anal to the 863) is saving ay part mmber of Subjects Though ssiod, erial for entirely Se their ove also von der editions of the entually 34.1890 and was semi lume ia musical aay" In shed his Teacher voks on musical form, of which his Models of the Principal Musical Forms (1894) was the frst. Riemann's ov Katechismus der Kompositionslere (subtitled Musial- ‘sche Fonmenlelre) appeared in 1889. In 1908 Stewart “Macpherson produced his Form ix Music, which was the standard manual for English music students for mich of the 20th cent ‘Among those who expressed themselves indebted to Riemann ~ a prolific nd influendal writer whose works covered an enormous range of musical subjects — was the Briih theorist Ebenezer Prout, who between 1883 and 1897 produced his two volumes Musial For and its sequel Applied Forms. Prout took from Riemann his Fundamental principles of shythm, and in parscular the study of mous, and admirced that bath volumes had involved intensive study of Targe Gerinan treatises’. The fist volume proceeds from motil to “phease' and “sen tence’, and then to simple binary and temary forms, the second from dance forms to sonata form and vocal musi, including a chapter on ‘cyclic forms’ whieh deals with the srmphoric poem. Hugo Leichtentit completed his ‘Musikalisebe Formenleve in 1911, later to become the fist part of a more extended study (Eng. trans, 1951) including chapters on ‘Aesthetic ideas as the basis of riusical syles and forms" and ‘Logie and coherence in rmusi™ tala had detailed analyses of works, notably 3 44S-page study of Brockner’s Fighth Symphony and 2 chapter devoted to Schoenberg's piano pieces opp.1 Land 19.Tewas with Prout and Leicheentite that Farmenlehre became a branch of the discipline of musical analyst father than a preseriptive training lor composers, and hence entered she fel of musioley Approaches ra harmony inthe second half ofthe 19th ‘eatury showed a tendency 1a divide into two camps: an the one hand those that took a conservative approach £0 theory bur developed nev insights born aut af analytical pragmatics, and on the other hand those chat hraughe 3 new tationalism to theory bur had less pact on the practice of analysis. An example of che fist kind i tbe found in Die Grandsite der mucikaischen Komposition (1853-4) by the influential Viennese teacher Simon Secheer.Seciter’s harmonic system rook over the concept ‘of fundamental bass originated by Rameau and transmit ted via Heinichen, Kimberger and Schulz. He developed 4 theory of chord progression based on correct soccession| ‘of “fundamental notes’ and the “underling harmonies" (Grundbarmaonien) that they project. Sechter used the notion of harmonie step (Stuf), and he defined notes as either leitereign (diatonic) or leiterfrma (hterally ‘alien tothe sale’). “Beneath every chromate progression lesa dliatonic one mose chromatic harmony exn be read as atonic harmony with chromatic inflections and most “apparently modulatory passages in reality retain their allegiance’ to the tonic. Fundamental nows must be diatonictoa major or minor scale, whatever goes on over ‘them, but a subordinate Stafe of ane key may beconte the tonic of a new key, thereby permitting transition from key to key. Some chords are desribed a5 ‘epresenting’ a fundamental that they do not contain (Stelloetreter: ‘{root| representatives’), Other chords ae seen as belong ing t0 two key areas (Zwitterakkorde: “hybrid chords). Although Sechter's approach looked back to Rameau, it also marked 2 major step in coming to terms with 190h- ‘century developments in harmonic language irinfluenced Analysis, $I, 3: 1840-1910 S41 many generations of musicians, of whom Schoenberg. is perhaps the most prominent example ‘Another fink becween old and new in mid-century was the Lebrbuch der musikalischex Komposition 1880-67) bby LC. Lobe, Lobe used a system of designation similar 1 that of Goutried Weber's Versuch several decades previously, hue rather eruder: thus C.3 denored the {iminor| tiad on the thied degree of © majors 4:5, the dominant 7th on the fifth degree of A minor; h:2" the chord of che thon the second degree of B minor, Like Sechter's discussion of harmony, Lobe is centred on the notion af Stufe. Tt makes a distinction between the progressions that are diatonic [leitereigen} and those that are modulatory (auswetcbend); the concept ofthe altered (alter choed allows chords with foreign harmony notes tobe viewed asdiatonic in certain context, shusinereasing the pawer ofthe harmonic sep greatly (i, 2427) Lobe it should be said, claimed credit for only part of histhinking ~dhunking chat looks forward vo the harmonicapproaches ‘of Schenker and Schoenberg. Seciner’s third volume (1854) speaks of ‘¢hythmie skecches' and makes use of two noteworthy graphic ddevies. The frst ses out the harmonie structure of an entire piece in terms af fundamentals whose durations ate tundifierentited ut which are marked off into phrases (Abschyatte) by commas (shades af Mattheson|, The second presents a fllyrhythmicized succession of funda: rentals with to rows af numerals inmediately beneath the staf. These numerals denote for each fundamental in tain the Stufe which ie forms of either ar both of twa prevailing key aveas. This praphic technique was adopted And claborated by several analysts, notably in the quest {or a theocetcal formulation ofthe harmony of Wagner: fig.10, irom an analysis by Kael Mayeberger, is a god example Although Mayrberger acknowledged his debe vo Sech ter, healso claimed to bave built on he thinking of Morita Hupeinann, whose Dre Natur der Harmon und dor Merrit: ur Theorie der Musik (1853) was conditioned by Hegelian philosophy, and who did mach ro inrtoduce the idea thae music theory should be systematic. and founded on logical principles. He formulated (1853) a theory of harmony and rhythm based on sehat he elsimied to be universal. Hix theory of rhythm, like that of ‘Momigny, took a two-clement pattern as its basic unit andexplained allunitscomprising more than two elements 43s ineersections of teo-elerent units, In Elauptmanc’s Hegelian teri, 4 tvorelement unit was the “these, a three-clement uni the antithesis’ and a four-element unit sathesis in the metrical system, But Hauptmasi’s ‘unit, unlike Momigns's, was made up of downbeat followed by upbeat, and it was Mathis Lossy who in his study of the anacrusis (1874) took up Momigny's levé-frappe pattern and developed the theory further. From this Riemann proceeded 0 develop a full theory based on the indivisible unit of the Motiv. The bulk af ie appeared in his Musikalische Dynamik und Agagik (1884) and Systom der mucitalicchon Riyshmk und Merrit (1903), the theory was sommaczed in the Vaderrecum der Phrasierang\1900; 8/1512 as Handbuch der Phvasierang) ‘Underlying Riemann’s theory isthe postulate thatthe patcern weak-stcong is che “sole basis for all musical onstruction” (1895-1901, i p-132). This fandamental Unie is termed the Motiv ir represents 2 single unie of542 Analysis, $11, 3: 1840-1910 Nr. 7. Umkehrung des 3., des Tristan-Motivs. (Part, 8. 5) GO MH @ oc OL. a2 O& 4 in Qa a @ 5 nergy (Lebenskraft) passing through phases of growth, peak and decay. Itis thus a dynamic ace, a lux, and is far removed from the taitionsl notion of ‘hess in 2 “bac, cach beat being separate and having its own ‘weight’, Musical forms construeted of many such ‘overlapping and interacting to produce extended. and compressed spans of energy. These interactions occur against a hackground? of absolutely reglar hierarchically built-up pattems: where twa Mot units oxcut in succession they form the two elements of a Motiv at the next level of structure, the fst forming the growth phase, the second the stess point and decay phase. In turn, two such larger Motiv units form a sil higher-level Mote, Sale TTA TT a o o 1, Fons Reman Pritt (aft 1895, ‘and so on na hierarchy. The results kind of conceptual arid, made up of equal units of energy and bearing an tncrinsc relationship to the topography of the musi. Given this theory, the process of analysis is one of locating the lines of the grid behind the articulated surlace of piece o passage A piece that was slavishly aligned to its grid would be ‘made of regular modules, each comprising eight bars of 2/4 o¢ 3/4 and paring off into 16-bar,32-bar, 64 0 forth units at higher levels. The tight-bar module i shown for 2/4 in fig 11 (Zeveisakteruppe is Riemana’s ‘erm for pai of Motiv unitsin weakestrong relationship Halbsatz for a fourber unit ~ either antecedent ot Gis. (A) D. (@) Gis, (A) D. OLOT er @ aa es consequent; Periode for an eigh-bar module: 1895-1901, i, p163). But in practice music adopts certain 'symmetr disturbing processes, some of which stretch or compress the gcd, others of which temporarily upset the internal relationships without affecting the regslanity of the rid itself. Chief among these are: (4) elsion (Auslassung) — the suppression of the growth phase of a unit, thus vielding a sttong-weak-sttang. pattern, (b) cadental repetition ~ restatement of the stress point and decay phase ofa unit at any level of stuctare (a classic example 's the introduction ¢o Schubert's Symphany n0.9; fig 12); nite —— or = “ie) o yay 12. From Riemann ond C. Fuchs ‘Mandbnch der Phasing (epg W313) 50 (c} dovetaling ~ 9 transfer of function whereby a final stressed unit 6 converted into an initial unstressed ones (4) general upbeat (Generalauftakt}~alargescale upbeat, ‘often oscupying only the space of the upheat ro a Moti but functioning as the upbeat toa larger formal unis and (e) appended Motiv (Anschlussmotiy) ~ a subsidiary phrase unit placed immediately after the strong beat ofa ‘main phrase unit, serving to generate a second strong beat where a weak beat would normally occur. The frst three fof these processes alter the temporal distance between points on the grids the last two may aler the impression a) a Bp a be m & bi ph Hi hi po dei 10 bas iS * i Ke oft the et of Cle1901, ine the grid ‘one = ie thon ‘ental VGccey seraie Seis B « a final ‘ed ones upbeat, a Mots: bitzand bridiacy reat ola sng beat csethece pression Neen TEESE ‘of such distance but do noe ntcesarilyaker the namber ent notes, intervals or eythms. Perception of the shape comes not 2s.a slow process but as flash of insight; i like the completion ofan electric eirenit. “There are three principles that relate to ths, “Closure? ts the prineple whereby the mind, when presented with a shape that i almost but or quite complet, will complete theshape automaticaly. Phipbenemenonistheprinciple whereby dhe mind, when confronted with two separate Decurrences, may link them together and atribute move ment from one to the other, “Prignan? is the principle Wihereby the mind wil look fr the interpretation of data that yields the most ‘pregnant result — the “best” interpretation. All these processes cam be seen a woe ny foc example, pexeption ofa lute anscrption ofa 16th century vocal piece, where the original vocal lines aze presented only incompletely because of the hmitations of [ace techniques oF in a solo violin a cella work by Bach, svhece several eontrapuneal lines are casted, all of ther incompleely yer with a general sense oF the polyphony ‘One final principle is of fundamental importance to musi: figure-ground perception. Very aften the mind selecs from the data beore tonly certain salient features, Thee i organizes asa ‘pregnant’ figure (Gestalt), leaving, the rest ofthe data fo remain in the eld of pescepion, Ukimately only he figure is passed up from the nervous system (where this organization of sensory experience takes place) 10 the psychological field. where it is ‘understood’. The rest ofthe data remains asthe“ round! This subconscious process f simulated ina proceduce the musical analyse calls “reduction’, an early example of ‘which is Crary’ stripping away of sorface ornament in Chopin, Bach and Clementi 29 reveal the underlying ‘essential structre (ee SI, above and fig). Signi cantly, but quite conversely to Gestale terminology Coerny called che surface ornament "he moving figure’ and the structure “the ground-melody" or "the grownd- harmony’ The first fullscale use of Gestalt procedures was probably Amold Schesing's examination of the 14th ‘entry Heaian madeigal (1911-12). In ic he introduced the idex of ‘disembellisment’ (Dekoloriren). This in solved removing groups of shor: note values from melodie lines and substituting fewer notes of proportionately longer value to ceeupy the same amount of time: laying bare from within a melismatic passage the simple melodic progeessioa’. Fig 132 shows an example of this (che reduction techaigue shows elements of “losure? and ‘Phi phenomenon’, and is a clear example of figure-groundthan xperi- close ilar in soup. silable = for n and ne. In by the Is, He ot lose change heard, shape losuee witha smplere inciple sparate inciple ofdaca best orkin, 116th Bach, ‘Fther leaving ception. round” lure the ple of lerlying This in rrelodic ‘nately “laying anelodic ais (the tnd "Phi ground Analysis, $l, 4: 1910-45 545 1, Fram A Schering "Dae ere Oreimadigal dss Trcento S180 04 1911-12, (2) Giovanni da Cascia "Nel meco a sei pana’ ware pare. a (e) Moen da Rimini ha se wera sar’ perception), Schering called what he uncovered ‘melodic 14ch-ountury madrigals were really keyboard arrange Keres! [Melodiekerne) or ‘cells’ (Keime), hath terms ments of flktunes. Such a theory is nor inconceivable: [being familiar from the organic music theorists of the there were keyboard arrangements in the 14th century, 19th century, But in fact what he sec our to reveal were and Schering was simply reversing the procedure known medieval folksongs, since he believed thatthe elaborate as PARAPHRASE whereby a melody, usualy a passage of546 Analysis, §Ul, 4: 1910-45 phinsong, was embellished in one voice of a polyphonic ompostin it the late Middle Ages and Renaisunce. The dca la n verifying the resutsas folksongs and Schering adopeed the interesting confematory device of reducing two diferent madrigals by diferent composers to the same underlying melodic progression. The eo madrigals had the same poetic tex and. Schering’s tsserion was that they both presented elaborated versions ofthe orignal folk melody for these words (g-130 and fg. 154) Scherng’s work provided in embryonic form the techniques for bath che melodic evolsioniss (Rei, Keler sn Walker) and alo th work of Henrich Scherer Steactral harmony. Teva ane of the greatest ures of historical musical (gy, Guido Adler, who artempted throvgh his book Der Shin der Musik (1313 eo change the nature of historical ‘writing soe manic hy intrelcig the noon of ye a3 the central conceen of the horn. As eatiy 1885 Aller had published « programme for the bitre of ‘nusicology, placing strong emphasis on analysis arguing for its eghtol place in historical snquiry. He se oat 3 series of rtena for the examimation of sicucture in ‘work, under general headings suchas rhythmic Features, tonal, polyphonic constaction, word-stting, treat tment of instrument, and performing practice. In De til tm der Musik Adler cridczed his contemporaries for making history ow ofa string of composers names, What teas aecenary, he Believed, was te formulation of a terinology adequate forthe description of sic with fut nares to prop i up. If mune could be described in this way dn t would become posible to compare work ‘sth work, and thas ~ in the dynamic terms hae Adler used specify what features Tink works together ‘Musi history wat to Adler hike a selfveaving teil whose thteids, of eiflerent colour, thcknestes and Serenahs, were features of style. Threads might discon tina, change colour, change pices o merge, Thus he spoke of "vlitic diction” (alchnng) “sisi change (Sivan), stliste wansfer(Selertarg), “aylistic hybridization’ (Stlkrensung) “styhtc ming” (Selmischung) (pp-19-48). 1 view of art was a8 an organism, Everything initcould he accounted fornothing eure by chance (p13 i ia nthe como ool waevon fs ST in on Co, bdo as econo ea {sot ong eeoprcie Mosisen open a ply ota cree hich harchangne strained Allee shacply criticized what he called the “hero-cule’ — that, history written in terms only of leading composer ‘the edifie of style is built out of minor figures just as much as major, and all need investigation if the true picture isto appear. (It significant thar Adler had been the prime mover inthe Austrian national series ofeditions, Denkmiler der Tonkunst in Osterreich, of which he was ‘editor from 1894 t9 1938; he most have been particularly conscious of the need to place lesser composers in historical perspective.) The cask thar he ser the historian ‘was to observe and apprehend that edifice of syle in an ‘essentially scientific manner; fr style i the centre ofthe Ihandling and comprebension of act. itis the yardstick by which everything inthe work of artis measured and judged” (p.5). He placed emphasis on “apprehension” as the first stage: tha is a recognition of the facts purely as they are, which avoids value judgments and subjective preconceptions on the part ofthe historian, ‘Adler offered two methods of approaching this task, and iti here that his work is important for the enalyst. ‘One method isthavof taking several piecesand examining them to identify what they have in common and how they differ. This is Adler's “inductive method’, by whieh the historian ean perceive the forces that cause an established ‘group of works to hold eogether: he ean discover which ‘Works in 2 random collection are rlaively close in style aad which more distam; oc he can trace links between ‘works composed in chronological succession. The other, the ‘deductive method? is 10 compare a given work with surrounding works, contemporary and preceding, meas: turing it against them by set erteria and establishing its position within them. Such eriteria are the use of mou tnd theme, rhythm, melody, harmony, novation and so forth, Other ceceria conceen the function and medium of susie: sacred secular, vocal or instrumental, Irical or Aramaic, courtly, viruoso and so on, Adler's book is far from a manual of sslistc analysis, Te does nor affer method in detail. It was laying of foundations in which Aller sought establish ‘framework of laws’ (Raber _gaseta) by which style operates and within which research ould proceed. ‘Adler made a particular study ofthe Viennese Classical style. Wilhelm Fischer (00, his assistant from 1912 1924, completed a dissertation om the genesis chat style in 1915. Two other scholars pursued stylisie studies in scholarly fashion at this time, Ernst Bucken and Paul is, notably i their joint article on the foundations, method and tasks of stylistic esearch into music (1922 5). Hoth also worked on Beethoven indeed, Beethoven inocame a centre of attention for studies of personal ste, ‘with Gals examination of undividual features in he your Beethoven (1916), Becking’s af Bethoven’s personal stvle (1921), Mues's of che meaning of the sketches for an Understanding of Beethoven's style (1925), Schiedermairs ofthe young Beethoven (1925), August Halts of middle period works (in Beethoven, 1926) and Engelsmann's of Beethoven's levels of compasition (1931). Other studies ‘of personal sile include Dancken’s “Personal types in melodie syle’ (1951), later enlarged as ‘Primal symbols in melodic formation” (1932). Becking was paciculaely innetested in thythm as a determinant of individaslity (1928) and devised a ser af graphic devices, known as “Becksing curves, for representing the ehythmic “national ccarstant® and "personal camstante. ig. 14 shows the 14, From G. Backing Der masiabche Rgbms ole Eventi, 1928), 58,120 sy sty pe es Hi his Pa: wh (Pr Pa pe ta wh pre feck int onl = FS & be cs 2 ie & mi i mel hy The Pak of listestash, nals sing whey ch the vlshed ‘which asple ‘ther, eu sing ts Fmt and =n Tum of ical or Kis far offer ‘which thmete ‘search lasscal S12 araiyle ‘es in Paul 112 thoven syle, young alstyle for an nid nn’ of studies spss in tmbols cular daality ational fs the ‘curves for the 18thcentury Halian-German mixture of styles represented by Handel, and for Wagner's excly stile. ‘The most distingnished and influential example of stylistic analysis at this time was, however, Knud Jeppe sen's The Sole of Palestrina and the Dissomance, est prepared as a doctoral dissertation in Danish in 1922, and subsequently wanslated into German in 1925 and English in 1927. Jeppesen peovided in this boole the etaled analytical provedure that Adler had lef wanting. His choice of “indewwe" or ‘deductive’ method was ‘conditioned by his general purpose: he saw the need fora history of dissonance treatment. He fle that modeen manuals of counterpoint, based on Fux (Gradus ad Pariassign, 1725), lacked. precisely that historical 3c count, that ‘genetic’ growth oF dissonance treatinent, ‘which would illuminate the decelopetent of musialssle in time and place from the Middle Ages to the late ‘Renaissance and tron there to the end ofthe LSth century (pais Pasig fry a sbscking sud of Gporian csc 10 prime Tshonie os, fro he ple alia he ene (fStamatic mu, or Wor Bach's almbon to the easel ao Viena, sould be the hex anne of prose for saps ieumadisele he esata pars ohne See area “cena arene Zhe ‘sich with Seren cam be spon to pose the exer Jeppesen in this way extended Adler's inquiry from the surface of music, considered empisicaly, to the subcon- scious controls of style, considered psychologically In 30 doing he enunciated the motivation fo later developments in feature analysis, including computer assisted analysis. ‘The aspect of Jeppesen’s work that makes i scientie i the fact chat che analyse snot selecting and summariziog: he is presenting che entire data foreach case and adducing laws from ir objctively. Jeppesen preseated fist an account of Paleseina’s melodic stle (pp.48-84) with regaed to pitch contour, shyttanic flow and the width and direction of intervals. ‘The preliminary work for this analysis must clearly have ‘been an exhaustive search though every vocal par of Palestrina’ entice output (n the Leipeig eollecred edition cof 1862-1903} inorder to count and note every interval in relation to iss metcical plang. Thus he located and listed forthe reader [p.55, note 3) theaceucrence of major Analysis, $1, 4: 1910-45 547 Sits and descending minor 6ths a ‘dead intervals (ie. berwern te phrases rather than doring 4 phrase 32 ss inall- The investigation of upward eapsin rhythmic ented led othe uncovering of subconatots Taw: "on Considering the syle with regard to ertches we meet withthe astonishing fac, not previously observed hata rule (alqost without an extepron) forbids the leap upward froman accenaacedcrothet (p.61). By contrast, Jeppesen listed fewer than 35 melodic pacers in which downward leap occurs fom an accenedrotche, and charted all the places in which these parte occur it in the mach larger second discevon, that of lssooance treatment (pp.84-267), whers he defined cach Gissonance in turn and discussed its degree and manner Of use by Palestrina, that Jeppesen entered inte hstoical omparison, Thus for example he considered the use of the ‘portamento dissonance’ (ihe antiipation of « note on a weak beat stating: ‘by Palestrina i was most frequently emploved immediately before a syncope [le syncopaion| and desending movement though the Syncope is noe an invacable condom (pp-184H). He then contrasted thi limitation with the we by other composers, citing cases i fosquit, Obeesht, Carpentras, Garr and Rie ne of Adler's pupils was Brose Kuh, Kush’ ideas were closely allied to those of the Gestalt prychologis, but also used Schopenhaur’s eaneep of the "Wil and Tree's ofthe subconscious mind, The Gest cheorss saw tice levels of aural perception: phil perception bythe ea, sensory orgaieation inthe nervous stem atl understanding atthe psychological level. Kueth sae thnee levels of activity in musical creation, wich he expounded as are of hs theory of melody inthe Rist part fof Grundlagen des lneaen Kontraprts (1912). The First of hese eves isthe operation ofthe "Wil which n atts nnslsh and diingerested in the fori of kinetic neey (Bewerumgseergie); this contnwous fli the living power of mai; the origin of nc the il to move. The second level the psychologist: the submerged strings ofthe uicencioun mind denon this nergy to produce a ‘play of tensions’ (Spat vom Spannwiger, each wg of tension describing an are of rows and formation (Ur-Formang o Eformeng) This Play of tensions docs age become eomscious onl the nomen dae ttakes foes in museal sound ~ the third level, the acoustic manifestation (Escheinungsform. Because des thre eves are scivatedoneatter te other to produce melody, the eesucan line has unity and wholeness shape is conceived hefore either notes harmonic implications are brought im ply is thus a closed progresion". This nthe ewence of Karth'sconcepe ‘ofthe linear, He saw tparoculrly at work athe music fof Bach ~ a texture made up of lines, ech of which is powered by Kinetic energy aod internally unified, aad ‘which make harmonic sense together only asa secondacy Phenomenon. This is what Kurth elle linear counter point He evolved a concept of ear phate unt of frowth and decay, quite separate fot the conventional Idea of “phrase” in that it did not depend on ehh Patterning, only 00 proportion snd eantour. The mot twas such a phase: unfed, ditinedive, not losing is idency. when its pitches, intervals and durations see modified (p21, 68 ‘Notes forming melody contain kineti nergy; notes forming 4 chord contain “potential energy” Tonal ha SS eee548° Analysis, SII, 4: 1910-45 mony is a system of intel coherence, carrying the povsilgy of change, broughe abst by potential energy. ‘The mose powerful teusion inthis syatem is that ofthe leading note, In is second book, on Romantic harmony (1020) Kurt fist esponnded chromase alteration 26 proces of placing the lading note wheee ie would not ormally oer He distinguished besesn two Forces at ‘work in Romtodc harmony, creating. poatzation: “Consructve and desrutie forces (pp27240 Tis the Shesvefores of ronalicy that are consracive, and the disolving forces of chrovmaticam that aze deserucsve: Slteration the use of eborde af the 7h o eh im place of fads, and the we of chose for colour fees, Korth {ook Wagner's Tusan, and in parielar the many Statements of the famous “Titan chord, asthe central trateral fortis book; i coatamed He actual analysts Jett offered new perspevtive for handling the lange Tate ronal strcrore of Wagner’ operas, giving insight into long-term ronal_elaionshipe despite peceadng Chromatics and movement to remot key areas for long periods ‘The scholar who grasped the problem of foem and tonality in Wagner and exposed fs sete” atalytcally teas Allied Locenr. Ate a doco disetaion on fom inthe ing (0922) and a study of the Trtam prelude (1923-3), he published the frst of his four volumes of ‘Das Gebeimns der Form bet Richard Wagner which were fo analyse form in the Ring (1924), Tristan (1926), Meistersiger (1930) and Parsifal (193). Loren's work was 2 Landmark in the hustoey of anal 1 was the larpesscale piece of stained analyial wring 30a tuted graphic and tabular teshoiques of prsentacion in 2 thorough-poing ways the sine cure" for harmonic movement the "projecule cove" for extended formal Contour, the graph for inadolaory scheme (ce 615 for the graph representing the whole Ring eee as avast tied seucturein Dpmajox with teal spacing marking 40 pages of score and each Boxzonal line major and space minor key area) and type set dageams for more dlraied tonal movement (eee fg16 forthe dagram of Das Rheingold, whichis complementary to 13 and Shows the opera as an troduction of 748 bars in the dominant of the dominant, followed by a massive Symmetrical seston of 3128 bars it Dp pivring ound the lative minor, Bo) Trenz’s work as the confluence of all che main developments in analyse before hin tine, Te contained ideas fom the Gest writers, his notion of peiodzation tnd symmetsy derived fom Riemann; his defining of Structure dew on traditional Formenldreshi perception Of harmonie moversert cane from Kurth (t0whom he dedicated his Titan eokume} Tee also bile fom large bed oF existing, writings on ‘Wagners musical and dramatic tractus (espotally hose by Hostinsk 18775 Grunsky, 1906, 1907; and voo Ehrenfels, 1896, 1913), and on his Kiem leg. Mayrberge, 18815 von Wolzogen,, 1876, 1880, 1882}, and above al from ‘Wagers own prose writings. Tovenz saw formal construction (Forme) as created out of three primary thing: harmony, shychm Snd melody, He segmented the eotre Ring cjele into devods according okey aren (pp. 234) He also aualysed fhe distibution of lekmoifs Inco formal groupies: repetition forms arch forme, refi forms and ba fm Teen this lst ea thar his man contin vo muse hoor lies. Loren perceived a ierachcal tracts in thane dic ewoeatemes of which ae helene Rythme Ind goss Rbyabmiks The second ofthese arises out of the st by forms beng “ained to a higher power \potensete Formenl. By this proces, thee consecsve aseages of nie may each be constroted sh arch fora Tadashi of thom omy be a restatement fhe ist Cease create an ach format a higher level. The proce aay be mace at ore than to levels, He aso described thrembedling of salsa nits within forms, extend- Ing thea and changing he balaee, and very arzescle formu tac contatn snl ale forms of ferent sors By alysng fore! ois this ay, Lorene sh 10 neover the acaitetonics gosse Arce) of er Inge muskal strates. Tr 190 Flnich Schenk had published his Haron ‘debe, th fis volume of fis highly sential Newe teaselche Therion wo Phantsien. Father volumes Mere Kontapindt (1910, 1922) and. Der fro. Ste {i945} Scheer’ unigue view of 4 mic compositon ‘var thar works that ste tonal and exhib mastery ace woeeone in tine of 9 single clement the oni te ‘Fh preecom of Sas stad cmap wa prose: transormation ino a eworpare fendamental soca ‘Sle the Uses and the composing-ove (AsRompor state of seclothes eat and ean be hav code, soils by well imal and computer sus, oth jon ofthe tsares the evanseit ioe of one messages aiitfernt Informa 1 highly sarchoice sely hen is gener- fields of swo-phys. sesthetis, the ax namely, 1) plays a Thefit musical conribtion in ther ofthe new elds of thought wae probably an sree to heft vem Sonal Congress of Dhonee Saencs tn Amsterdam ay Carly a8 1932 by the musicologst soe analyst and ‘chnomisicloget Gustav Becking ace 4 above twas phonology (heacens of dstinguhingbeeweenclemente tna sueam of vocal linguist sound andthe apprekension athe ole by which these scande at inked ogee) developed by Trubetskoy, dat seed elevant to mic ‘nd it pariclar twat she scholace of non-Western nus, with tee rapidly developing scene approach tether mater ubo is saw tr eran, Being in discussing Serbo Croat popular ei, pointed toa cetan paral between bavc probleme In phonology and those in scology, lstrating this by te diferent ousroe tone tha people of dite woe ulus place on t ten single muncl sound. Sach people opecate within Aifeene musta systema, ae Bong od ose up 2 ‘upoloy of spree, “unidimensional, “bidimenion, “tdmtersional’ and quadedimensonat. The ret Un Susie scolar Rota fakosom ook up Beings pois fhe same yea, scng that the pasar propesy of tus, ab of poctn, in tht ts consenions re hay dhonelogisal im operation, snd do nt concen ey mology Sekpontany He cog enteel cnc sey stole of phonology: 13 sear later los Weingart explored the analogies berscen musta aod lange phrase setae, th tnerrce to Cacch,and in 149 Antonin Shea xsimined follsong by mean of linge method. Further inf cant developments in the linguisie analy of tus include a it proposal by Brana Next (1958) andthe fine contribution by an infvctal fire in tis Bl Nicolae Runt in which he sought defiwe the sural problems of sening to snrgeal serial most by reference {Dphonologyandhe ned fora margnofecor between the phonemes na phonemic sparen (1959), Dcusone of he application of inocmation theory appeared by such strters as Bean (1961), MeyerEpyer (1962), ler (A964, Winkel (944) an Becker 1970 1986, 0a volume of sys dedicated to Jakobson, George Speinger provided ¢ comparison of language nd ctor seed the progres of inguinal in musi. Springar dscssed she diction berween Tepeion (tes Ment) and difrece av a’ binary Sppostion, and the modiRexton thatthe dea ofanation Brings to this solading that mai (1986, p10) Siero comenina il feats enn od penn smelly” Mseomnenst neon etaceiny {ck pce psig an fl rg fe conn poste) bt ieee id nec pes Tron arte hasan has nti pend ore von Springer's description surnmarizes the basic principle of lnformation-theary analysis, which views music a8 3 linear process (see INFORMATION THEORY). The process is governed by a syntax, but the syatax iy stated in cerms ‘of the probability thar any one element will oceur next in ‘the line rather than in terms of grammatical laws. Music is treated by analogy with the transmission of a message from sender 19 recsver, but neither that nor the word ‘information’ should give the impression tha meaning and communication are taken in the hermeneutic sense. ‘A message is a chain of disrete seose-unis, which in ‘music are taken fo he ‘events’ in a composition: usually isolated notes, chords or simultaneities. Any one event in Analysis, $I, 5: 1945-70 557 the chain arouses predistion of it following event. If the prediction is confirmed thes no ivformation is imparted; if i is ‘nou-confrmed then information ‘5 imparted, But events in music form patterns, andthe rota amount of information contained inp talculaed by a formula and expressed as an ‘index’ As early a¢ 1956 R.C. Pinkerton and Abrahary Moles produced articles relating information theory, as pre sented by Shannon and Weaver, 19 music, and it 1958 and 1959 a spate of material was issued on the subject two basic presentations by David Krachenbuehl and Edgar Coons, an article by Joseph Youngbload, a ‘monograph by W. Fucks, and an extended boolean the broader anpcation ofthe hor este pecepion bby Moles that devotes a chaprer to peeeeption of material’. Coons and Keachenbucl (1958) offered two indices, one of artculateness, which they described as measuring ‘how neatly the conditions of Suaity” and “variety” have been arranged so that the force of neither {is dalled, and one of hierarchy, which measused ‘how successfully 4 “variety" of events has been arranged 10 leave an impression of “unit” (p. 150}. Thee method in ‘other words, measured the phenomena of uaity and variety, which are so important in analysis, in an objective sand cangible way rather than a subjective aad vague Wy, Fecould do this fora single structure, of for a wask with respect to the known terms af reference of that work's, syle bis frst important book (1956) the aesthetician Leonard B. Meyer came close wo information theory iis view of styles as culturally conditioned systems of expectations, and of musieal meaning as deriving fram the arousal, feustcation and fulflmeae of soch expecta: tions. Meyer was sill working within the Gestalt concepts ‘of Prignanz and closure. In the fllescing year, however, he introdueed the fundamentals of information theory ino his argument and revised his definition of meaning in music, fashioning. theee stages of what he called "embodied meaning’ the ‘hypothetical mearing’betore ound: pattern has been heard, the evident meaning” wen the sound patter has become # concrete event, which initiates a stage of ‘evaluation’ comparable with ‘feed: hack? in concrol systems, and the ‘determinate meaning” that arises later in the tral expenence. Meyer dealt, 38 ‘Moles had previously dene, with the concept af ‘noise \wheceby information is distorted, The maturity of Meyer's thought is shovn in his subsequent essay (1961), which subjected the view of music as information tothe actual situation of musi frequently reheard The use of the computer in musical analyse may: be traced from 1949, when Bernard Bronson, editor of the melodies of the Childe ballads, analysed range, mete, modality, phrase structure, reftain pattern, melodic ‘urine, anserasis, eence and final of folksongs, sing data on punched caeds, The measoring of such quantities and the production of sets of seitisice was the facility most readily available from early computers. There was no essential difference between a human doing these ‘operations by hand and a computer carrying them out sfectronically, but the computer had the advantages of speed, accuracy and exact memory. Software systems with biases towards the demands of musical material were created inthe eerly 1960s, An important article by Selleck and Bakeman (1965) explained two strategies for Analysing melodic structures: one through probabilities,558 Analysis, §IL, 5: 1945-70 which derived frominformation theory, the therthrough Comparing and vorting melodic unit, hich derived fom linguistic: The joucnal Compuders wn the Humanities (1966-) maintained a director of projets in progres, uabling scholars toe asrae of ther work in het field find encouraging collaboration. A collection of essays on flcctooic data processing in usc, published unde the ‘aitotship of Heckmann (1967), presented ross section a work, incluing languages For representing music, Straezes OF compatational analysis sample analyses and Bartle raising more general sues, The most significant study of mathematics and music at this time was Nenakie's tweadse Musgues formelles (1943). Although is exposition of probabilities, stochas tis, Markow chains andthe theory of games sors to Salsis nosy inorder ro rae the compositional means it hi own work the Famework thae Xenakis set ovt places the arta sie ons more universal plane, opening {cup to investigation ccoeding to precise la, Pouring Scorn on esting eyberscie and linguistic analyses of musi a clementary and pseudo-objectve, be proposed ‘word of sound: masses, vast groups of soundevents, clouds, and galaxies gover by ew characteristics stich fs deonity, degree of order an rat of change" inplace of ttadidonal “nea musi thought, Pere Schaefer’ “Traité des objets musicanx (1966) was a disetation on the sonorous material from which music i made: an empeco present fall spology of that material, and 9 discover its general law. Schaeliers teeaie 6 under pied with aenasties and with philosophy and scented bn experience moses hut its much more tangible in itsformulation of "slfege des objets msicaux’ which is in pracice + Hatem of easicaton by sven eriteria tate dynamic, parmonie bee, melodic profile, mass rofl, grain and allection (llr. “The postwar years were a peid of revival, develop- ment and dissemination for the teachings of Shenker. ‘Much of his was undertaken by farmer pupils af his who tad emigrated to the USA. A Schenkerian tradition of teaching was established atthe Manes College of Music in Now York, and knowledge of Schenkerian approaches tras widened through the publcation of important books by Adele Kats (1945) and Felix Saer (1952). Although Schenker's most axive pupils [and thee pups in turn) Teniained devoted to fs sight, many of them had ‘origina ideas to contsbe to the developing trasition. ‘As Schenker’ own waiting emained largely unavailable in English teanlation, however it was nor alwaysevient ‘other than ro specialise shat Salzer’ Structral Hearing in partcular comained signieant deportares from Schenker’ views on the nature of music and significant