Renewable Energy 76 (2015) 312e317

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Assessment of the energetic and mechanical properties of pellets

produced from agricultural biomass*

łka a, Mieczysław Szpryngiel a, Magdalena Kachel-Jakubowska a,
Ignacy Niedzio
Artur Kraszkiewicz a, Kazimierz Zawi
slak b, Paweł Sobczak b, *, Rafał Nadulski b
a
Department of Agricultural Machines Science, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Głe˛ boka 28, 20-612 Lublin, Poland
b
Department of Food Engineering and Machinery, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Doswiadczalna 44, 20-236 Lublin, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents an assessment of the energetic and mechanical properties of pellets produced from
Received 12 February 2014 agricultural biomass. For the production of pellets the following raw materials were used: wheat straw,
Accepted 14 November 2014 rape straw, and maize straw. Additionally, the mixtures of wheat-rape straw, wheat-maize straw, and
Available online
rape-maize straw (each accounting for 50% of the mass) were applied. The studied resources were
ground with the use of a universal shredder driven by a 7.5 kW electric engine. A pelleting machine fitted
Keywords:
with a fixed flat matrix with two driven thickening rolls was used to produce the pellets. Analyses of the
Agricultural biomass
moisture and calorific value of resources as well as the bulk density and mechanical strength of pellets
Pellets
Energetic and mechanical properties
were performed according to biding standards. The moisture of resources ranged from 16.5% to 18.5% for
rape and maize straw, respectively. The average calorific value fluctuated between 15.3 MJ kg
1 for a
mixture of wheat and rape straw to 16.2 MJ kg
1 for maize straw. The bulk density and mechanical
strength of pellets depended on the type of resources used. The lowest bulk density was recorded for
wheat straw pellets (386e420 kg m
3), and the highest (561e572 kg m
3) for maize straw pellets. The
lowest mechanical strength of pellets was noted for rape (95.4e96.8%), whereas the highest was for
pellets made from a wheat and maize straw mixture (96.8e98.9%).
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the release of excessive emissions of greenhouse gases and other

The present global climatic, biological, food, fuel and water crisis
has contributed to the spread of trends for “green energy”. The
causes of this situation may vary; however, the main factor is the
inappropriate allocation of capital, which still favours traditional
sources of energy (non-renewable sources) [1]. The wide-spread
use of fossil fuels to produce energy is the main human activity
which contributes to decreasing their reserves and the emission of
greenhouse gases, in particular carbon dioxide (CO2), to the at-
mosphere, which consequently leads to the greenhouse effect [2,3].
It has become the main aim of many countries all over the world
to improve the quality of life of their citizens, while at the same
time maintaining social equality, biodiversity and the abundance of
natural resources. This is closely connected with the need to reduce
*
This research was financed by the National Science Centre for the years
2011e2014, as research project No N N 313 757540.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pawel.sobczak@up.lublin.pl (P. Sobczak).
substances to the environment in all areas of the economy. These
policies have led to the mobilisation and development of a range of
programmes which enable the promotion of a low-emission
economy which provides both economic, social and environ-
mental benefits. These changes are connected with the principle of
sustainable growth linked to actions which aim at decreasing the
emission of harmful substances by introducing innovations and
implementing new technologies, lowering energy consumption,
and creating new work places which are consequently conducive to
the growth of a competitive economy [4e7]. The development of a
low-emission economy and maintaining the sustainable growth of
a country will improve energy efficiency and will involve the sen-
sible management of resources and materials of different origin,
from plant resources to industrial waste [8,9].
The negative impacts of the so-called greenhouse effect may be
limited by increasing the absorption of CO2, e.g. during the process
of photosynthesis by increasing the crops participation of plants
which produce high amount of biomass [10,11]. As a result of the
extended production of agricultural biomass grown for energy

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.11.040
0960-1481/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

łka et al. / Renewable Energy 76 (2015) 312e317
I. Niedzio 313

purposes, social, economic and environmental benefits may be 2. Materials and methods
achieved [10,12]. In Poland, the main source of renewable energy is
biomass. The basic solid fuel from biomass is biomass of plant 2.1. Raw material
origin. This includes biomass from fast growing trees and shrubs,
mainly shrub willow, perennial grass, straw and organic residues The research was conducted using straw of the following cereal
[12e15]. Currently, potential resources of biomass, which could be species: winter wheat, winter rape and maize. The resources were
utilised for energy production, are estimated at approx. obtained from three arable farms located in the Wyzyna _ Zachod-
30 million tonnes a year, including approx. 10 million tonnes of niolubelska district [Lublin West Highland] of Lublin Voivodeship.
straw, 6 million tonnes of wood residues (sawdust, bark, chips), as This mesoregion of Poland is characterised by a moderately conti-
well as 6 million tonnes of sewage residues from the paper and food nental climate with an average total rainfall of approx. 600 mm and
industries and communal landfills. Moreover, biomass as compared fertile soils created from loess and loess type dust deposits [25]. The
to other energy resources is characterised by its availability in the collected research material was compacted within one species of
majority of regions in our country [16,17]. straw as well as mixtures of wheat and rape straw, wheat and maize
Agricultural biomass, and especially straw sourced from cereal straw and rape and maize straw (each accounting for 50% of the
and straw from other crops in its primary form requires much mass).
transportation and storage space, and at the same time has a low
calorific value per unit of volume. Straw has a different chemical 2.2. Moisture content
composition depending on the species of plant, location and
growing technology so straw should be properly processed in order The moisture content in plant resources was assessed with the
to improve its energy efficiency. Hence, efforts are being made to use of the gravimetric method according to the standard [26].
compact these plant resources by briquetting or pelleting [18e21], Samples of moist plant resources (100 g each) were weighed on a
which leads to a higher concentration of mass and energy per unit WPE 200 analytical balance with ±0.1 g accuracy, and dried in a
of volume and the distribution and utilisation of this type of biofuel type K dryer to achieve their stable mass. The measurements of
is significantly facilitated. moisture were conducted in five replications. Before the process of
The capacity for plant resources to be compacted depends on compacting, fragmented resources were moistened with water and
numerous physical factors, e.g. the type of resource, its moisture, mixed with the use of a laboratory mixer until a moisture level of
granulometric composition, etc. [22]. Plant resources during har- 16.5e18.5% was obtained. This procedure was aimed at achieving a
vest often have high moisture levels, which hinder their calorific higher quality of resulting pellets.
value. High moisture levels cause a significant decrease in com-
bustion heat and the calorific value of biomass, and also unfav-
2.3. Calorific value
ourably impact upon the process of compaction and the later
storage of the resultant product [21,22]. Hence, resources desig-
The calorific value of the studied resources was calculated on
nated for energy production purposes should meet specific tech-
the basis of combustion heat determined by the calorimetric
nological requirements. Their usefulness is checked on the basis of
method with the use of a type KL-12Mn calorimeter. This apparatus
moisture, the degree of withering, heat of combustion and calorific
enables measurements of the calorific value of organic resources to
value. These parameters depend on the chemical composition and
be performed according to the standard [27].
moisture of the resource. Excessive moisture causes a drop in the
energetic value as well as an increase in the emission of pollution
2.4. Pelletisation process
during the combustion of the resources [23]. There are also serious
difficulties connected with their storage, the costs of transportation
Before pelleting, the agricultural resources were initially frag-
increase, heating installations function improperly and the effi-
mented with the use of a chaff cutting machine driven with a
ciency of boilers drops. For this reason, standards have been
7.5 kW electric engine with a theoretical cutting length of 20 mm.
established which determine the permissible moisture values for
Next, to achieve the required fragmentation of resources a universal
plant resources. The values vary for different compacting machines;
shredder driven with a 4.5 kW electric engine equipped with sieves
however, most often they should stay within the limits of 15e25%
with 6 mm apertures was used. To compact plant resources, a
[19,24].
pelleting machine fitted with a fixed flat matrix and driven thick-
Agricultural biomass is a fuel which is relatively difficult to use
ening rolls was used (Fig. 1). The technological-exploitation pa-
and requires proper processing. It is inhomogeneous and often
rameters of the pelleting machine are presented in Table 1.
moist; it has a low calorific value in relation to its volume. Conse-
quently, there is a need to compact it, e.g. in the form of pellets
made from dry fragmented biomass under high pressure and
increased temperature. Their calorific value depends both on the
type and the state of a resource and on its moisture [19,30,31].
According to various researchers [17,24,32], plant materials
which undergo pressure densification should have a moisture
content within the range of 8e15%. These researchers claim that an
excessive content of material negatively influences the course of
the process and the quality of the achieved product. This is pri-
marily evidence in a decrease in both the quality of pellets and their
calorific value.
The aim of this study was to determine the moisture and the
calorific value of the studied resources of plant origin and assess the
bulk density and mechanical strength of pellets produced in a
pelleting machine fitted with a fixed flat matrix and two thickening
rolls. Fig. 1. Compacting complex of the pelleting machine.
314
łka et al. / Renewable Energy 76 (2015) 312e317
I. Niedzio

Table 1 pellets, the total volume was weighed on a WPE 200 balance with
Technical-exploitation parameters of the applied pelleting machine. ±0.1 g accuracy.
Specification Unit Parameters

Type of matrix e Flat 2.6. Durability (mechanical strength)

Matrix diameter mm 230.0
Matrix thickness mm 28.0 Measurements of the mechanical strength of pellets were car-
Diameter of matrix apertures mm 8.0
ried out on a research stand according to the standard [29]. The
Number of matrix apertures item 126
Number of rolls item 2 rotational speed of the drums was 5.22 rad s
1; time was 600 s; and
Diameter of thickening rolls mm 100.0 the average mass of a sample 500 g (±10 g). Next, the tested sam-
Length of thickening rolls mm 50.0 ples of pellets were sifted through a sieve with 3.15 mm apertures.
Sizes of grooves on the rolls mm 3.0  3.0
On the basis of a test performed in three replications, the me-
Distance between grooves on the roll mm 3.0
Rotational speed of rolls rad s
1 11.6 chanical strength of pellets was determined for compacted agri-
Electric engine capacity kW 7.5 cultural resources.
Supply voltage of the electric engine V 400
Reducer ratio e 1e13
Capacity of intake hopper dm3 151.8
2.7. Data analysis
Dimensions of pelleting machine mm 1300  650  1020
Mass of pelleting machine kg 250.0 The measurement results for calorific value, bulk density and
mechanical strength of pellets were analysed statistically using
The measurement of the temperature of the resources and analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey's test, with a level of sig-
pellets was conducted with an ST-8869 pyrometer with a mea- nificance of a ¼ 0.05. To this end, SAS Enterprise Guide 5.1 statistical
surement range from
50 to þ1600  C. The temperature of re- software was used and the results of analysis of variance were
sources was approx. 25  C, whereas the temperature of the matrix presented in tabular and graphic forms.
fluctuated from 100 to 110  C, and the temperature of the pellets
was slightly lower (approx. 85  C). Fig. 2 presents a diagram of the 3. Research results
process of pellet production for compacted agricultural resources.
Table 2 presents research results for the relationship between
2.5. Bulk density the length and diameter of pellets produced from compacted re-
sources. The lowest values were recorded for pellets made from a
The bulk density of pellets was determined by filling a 5 dm3 wheat-rape straw mixture (3.12), and the highest for pellets made
measuring cylinder (without beating or shaking) according to the from maize straw (3.39).
standard [28]. After filling the cylinder and removing the excess of Fig. 3 presents pellets produced from compacted agricultural
resources.
Table 3 presents the moistures of compacted types of straw and
their mixtures. The lowest dry state moisture was recorded for rape
straw (11.1 %e12.4%), and the highest for maize straw (13.6e14.8%),
whereas average moisture after moistening was within 16.5% for
rape straw to 18.5% for maize straw.
The results of the measurements of the calorific values of plant
resources used for producing pellets are presented in Fig. 4. The
lowest calorific value was recorded for pellets made from wheat-
rape straw (15.3 MJ kg
1), a slightly higher value for wheat-maize
straw (15.6 MJ kg
1), wheat straw (15.7 MJ kg
1), rape-maize
straw (15.9 MJ kg
1), and the highest calorific value for maize
straw and rape straw (16.22 MJ kg
1).
During the analysis of the calorific value of the tested plant re-
sources, it was shown that the difference between the highest and
the lowest values was 5.8%, whereas the difference between
particular types of straw and their mixtures was within the range
0.4e1.7%. The analysis of research results with the use of Tukey's
test proved that statistically significant differences were only
noticeable between the calorific value of the wheat-rape mixture
and the calorific value of rape and maize straw. On the other hand, a
lack of statistically significant differences was proved in the case of

Table 2
Relationship between length (L) and diameter (D) of pellets.

Type of pellet L/D

Wheat straw pellets 3.28

Rape straw pellets 3.29
Maize straw pellets 3.39
Pellets of wheat-rape straw mixture 3.12
Pellets of wheat-maize straw mixture 3.22
Pellets of rape-maize straw mixture 3.24
Fig. 2. Diagram of the production process for pellets.

łka et al. / Renewable Energy 76 (2015) 312e317
I. Niedzio 315

Fig. 3. Pellets produced from straw: a) wheat, b) rapeseed, c) maize and mixtures of straw: d) wheat and rapeseed, e) wheat and maize, f) rapeseed and maize.

the calorific value of wheat straw and the mixture of wheat straw
and maize straw.
Fig. 5 presents measurement results for the bulk density of
pellets in relation to the type of plant resources used. Pellets made
from wheat straw were characterised by the lowest bulk density
(407.7 kg m
3), slightly higher values were recorded for wheat-rape
straw (449.4 kg m
3), wheat-maize straw (474.3 kg m
3), rape
straw (498.3 kg m
3), and rape-maize straw (523.6 kg m
3), and
the highest value was achieved by pellets made from maize straw
(566.9 kg m
3).
During the analysis of the bulk density of the tested plant re-
sources, it was demonstrated that the difference between the
highest and the lowest values was 39.0%, whereas the difference
between pellets made from particular resources was within the
range 5.1e10.2%. A detailed analysis of research results with the use
of Tukey's test proved that both the type of straw and the compo-
sition of their mixtures had a statistically significant impact on the
bulk density of the produced pellets. Statistically significant dif-
ferences were recorded in the case of the bulk density of pellets
made from all types of straw used, and also their mixtures.
Fig. 6 presents test results for the mechanical strength of pellets
in relation to the type of plant resources used. Pellets made from
rape straw were characterised by the lowest mechanical strength
(96.1%), slightly higher values were shown for wheat-rape straw
(96.5%), wheat-maize straw (96.8%), maize and wheat straw
(97.6%), and the highest value was achieved by pellets made from
wheat-maize straw (97.7%). During the analysis of the mechanical
strength of the resultant pellets, it was demonstrated that the dif-
ference between the highest and the lowest values was 1.7%,
whereas the difference between particular pellets was within the
range 0.1e0.8%.
On the basis of the analysis of the research results using Tukey's
test, it can be seen that the type of straw and the composition of its

Table 3
Moisture of straw employed for production of pellets.

Type of straw and Moisture in the Moisture after

its mixtures dry state moistening
(%) (%)

Wheat 11.9e13.6 17.5

Rape 11.1e12.4 16.5
Maize 13.6e14.8 18.5
Wheat and rape 12.0e13.2 17.0
Wheat and maize 13.2e14.5 18.0
Rape and maize 12.4e13.7 17.5
Fig. 4. Calorific value of agglomerated plant resources.
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łka et al. / Renewable Energy 76 (2015) 312e317
I. Niedzio

The results of our research suggest that the bulk density of

pellets depended on the type of plant resources used. The lowest
bulk density value was characteristic for pellets made from wheat
straw (407.7 kg m
3), higher values were noted in pellets made
from wheat-rape straw mixture (449.4 kg m
3), wheat-maize straw
mixture (474.3 kg m
3), rape straw (498.3 kg m
3), and a mixture of
rape-maize straw (523.6 kg m
3), the highest value was seen in
pellets made from maize straw (566.9 kg m
3). During the analysis
of the mechanical endurance of the pellets, it was shown that the
lowest endurance was characteristic for pellets made from rape
straw (96.1%), while higher endurance was recorded in pellets
made from wheat-rape straw mixture (96.5%) and rape-maize
straw mixture (96.8%), as well as maize straw and wheat straw
(97.6%). The highest mechanical endurance was identified in pellets
made from wheat-maize straw mixture (97.7%).
Compacting mixtures of wheat-maize straw and wheat-rape
straw had a favourable impact on improving the bulk density and
mechanical strength of pellets, as compared to compacting wheat
Fig. 5. Average values for the bulk density of the produced pellets.
straw. A similar relationship was observed in the case of a com-
pacting mixture of rape-maize straw as compared to compacting
mixtures in most cases did not have a statistically significant impact
rape straw. According to the recommendations of the standards,
on the mechanical strength of the produced pellets. Statistically
bulk density levels achieved during the research exceeded the
significant differences were shown between the strength of pellets
required value (above 500 kg m
3) only in the case of pellets pro-
produced from the wheat-maize mixture and wheat and maize
duced from a rape-wheat straw mixture and maize straw [28],
straw and the strength of pellets produced from the wheat-rape
whereas the required value of mechanical endurance (above 97.5%)
mixture and rape straw. On the other hand, no statistically signif-
was achieved in the case of pellets produced from maize straw and
icant difference was proved between the strength of pellets made
wheat straw as well as wheat-maize straw mixture [29].
from the rape-maize mixture and the strength of pellets produced
from the remaining resources.
5. Conclusions
4. Discussion
1.The studied plant resources used for the production of pellets
The calorific value of pellets depended on the type of resource are characterised by a high calorific value and undergo the
and its moisture content and was within the range process of thickening very well. The produced pellets were
15.33e16.22 MJ kg
1. The assumed moisture content range of pel- characterised by high bulk density and high indicators of me-
leted resources and the calorific values of the produced pellets were chanical strength.
confirmed by research results obtained by other researchers 2.Among the produced pellets, the best effects regarding calo-
[22,24]. rific value were achieved in the case of maize straw
In the opinion of many researchers, important parameters (16.22 MJ kg
1), whereas these results were slightly worse in the
which decide the quality of produced pellets include bulk density case of the mixture of wheat and rape straw (15.33 MJ kg
1).
and mechanical strength [33,34]. According to European standards, 3.From the analysis of the bulk density of pellets, it can be seen
the bulk density of pellets should be above 500 kg m
3 [28,35], that the lowest value was achieved by pellets made from wheat
whereas the value of the kinetic endurance indicator should be straw (407.7 kg m
3), whereas the highest value was recorded in
above 97.5% [29]. The type of agricultural biomass, its moisture, the pellets made from maize straw (566.9 kg m
3).
degree of fragmentation and the working parameters of the com- 4.During the analysis of the mechanical strength of the pro-
pacting machine all influence the value of these parameters [32,36]. duced pellets, it was proved that the lowest strength was ach-
ieved by pellets made from rape straw (96.1%), and the highest
by pellets made from the mixture of wheat and maize straw
(97.7%).

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