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 Slope Engineering for Mountain Roads

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It is recommended that reference to all or part of this book should be made in one of the following ways:

Hearn, G. J. (ed.) 2011. Slope Engineering for Mountain Roads. Geological Society, London, Engineering Geology
Special Publications, 24.

Hearn, G. J. 2011. A3 Slope materials, landslide causes and landslide mechanisms. In: Hearn, G. J. (ed.) Slope
Engineering for Mountain Roads. Geological Society, London, Engineering Geology Special Publications, 24, 15–57.

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 GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ENGINEERING GEOLOGY SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 24

Slope Engineering for Mountain Roads

BY

G. J. HEARN
URS Scott Wilson Ltd, UK

2011
Published by
The Geological Society
London

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 THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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 Contents
Foreword vii
Acknowledgements ix
How to use this book xi
Part A – Landslides and Mountain Roads
HEARN, G. J. & HUNT, T. A1 Introduction 1

HEARN, G. J., HUNT, T. & WEEKES, R. A2 Project phasing and procurement in relation to slope management 7

HEARN, G. J. A3 Slope materials, landslide causes and landslide mechanisms 15

HEARN, G. J. A4 Landslide risk management for mountain roads 59

Part B – Site Investigation

HEARN, G. J. B1 Scope and programming 67

HEARN, G. J. B2 Desk studies 71

HEARN, G. J. B3 Field mapping 103

HUNT, T. & HEARN, G. J. B4 Ground investigation 117

HEARN, G. J. & HUNT, T. B5 Slope movement monitoring 127

Part C – Design and Construction

HEARN, G. J. & HUNT, T. C1 Route corridor and alignment selection 135

HEARN, G. J. & HUNT, T. C2 Earthworks 145

HEARN, G. J., HUNT, T. & D’AGOSTINO, S. C3 Soil slope stabilization 165

HEARN, G. J. C4 Rock slope stabilization 189

HUNT, T., HEARN, G. J. & D’AGOSTINO, S. C5 Retaining structures 209

HEARN, G. J. & HUNT, T. C6 Slope and road drainage 231

HEARN, G. J., HOWELL, J. & HUNT, T. C7 Erosion control 243

Part D – Slope Management

HEARN, G. J. & HUNT, T. D1 Slope management 269

Glossary of terms 285

Index 293

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 Foreword
This book is special in that it has made a significant advance
in coalescing engineering, geology and geomorphology into
one orderly and comprehensive volume which can be read
and enjoyed by an engineer with a lack of knowledge of
geology and geomorphology, or a geologist with a lack of
engineering and geomorphology. The book, I believe, is
the first, or at least one of the first, fully cohesive engineering
geology texts, unlike many predecessors which are only a
partially successful integration between the disciplines of
engineering and geology. The latter principally reflect the
discipline of the authors and even when one is a geologist
and one an engineer, the joins are often patently visible.
Not so with this book.
How has this come about?
Firstly, the authors are a team of practising engineers, geo-
logists and geomorphologists, not academics, nor a
working party, nor a conference of themed papers, but
employees of a major consulting practice with decades of
successful hands-on experience in the subject. As such, it
is not teaching geology to engineers, or engineering to geol-
ogists: it is a book that integrates the planning, design, con-
struction and maintenance of mountain roads in wet
mountainous environments – mainly the humid tropics
and subtropics.
Secondly, it is the example set by the excellent manual,
‘Principles of low cost road engineering in mountainous
regions’, Transport Research Laboratory, UK, Overseas
Road Note No. 16 (1997). This also drew heavily upon the
knowledge and experience of the consulting engineers,
Scott Wilson UK, earlier pioneering publications on moun-
tain roads in Nepal, and academic leaders such as Professors
Brunsden, Cooke, Doornkamp and Jones who, in the 1970s
and 80s, were largely responsible for creating the broader
framework in Britain of modern engineering geomorphol-
ogy and visualizing its power as a tool in assisting
engineering.
These two factors provided knowledge and set the scene
for a wider-scoped new book some fifteen years later.
The driving force for the new book, albeit with con-
siderable help from many others (see Acknowledgments),
is Dr. Gareth Hearn, one of UK’s leading second generation
of engineering geomorphologists who mainly work in indus-
try and have inherited the mantle of the original academic
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pioneers. He has been supported in this role by Tim Hunt:
a geotechnical engineer with considerable experience in
mountain road engineering.
Good road engineering in wet mountains is a matter of
achieving efficiently that which is practical. There are, as
far as I am aware, no substantive codes yet written,
especially for wet mountain road engineering. Eurocodes
used or discussed in the book and the current vogue of geo-
technical modelling are often not the realistic way forward
for mountain slope design because of the difficulty in obtain-
ing hard field geo-data about mountain slopes. Each situation
is a risk judgement. What factor of safety should be used on a
mountain where a huge lump of the landscape could fall
before, during or after the engineering works? What is the
limit of what can be built in mountain terrain? The book
has navigated its way through these problems. I like it very
much. It is heading towards developing a mountain road
philosophy but there is still quite a long way to go yet to
writing a Wet-Mountain Slope Code but it has made signifi-
cant headway.
What else do I like about the book? From its perceptive
description of mountains and landslides, mountain roads
and their feasibility, planning, site investigation, detailed
design and construction to subsequent road and slope man-
agement, its logical structure is well written for tropical situ-
ations and remote areas which commonly have only limited
infrastructure support. There are many case studies interwo-
ven with the text, largely drawn from the firsthand experi-
ence of the authors. References are numerous and relevant
and lead to wider reading. Figures, tables and annotated
photographs abound and considerably strengthen the book,
especially as colour is comprehensively used and is particu-
larly helpful in illustrating multi-coloured tropical soils.
Each photograph has been carefully selected to support
and illustrate the associated subject matter. Text boxes are
used to supplement engineering and geological points
without disturbing the theme of the main text. All in all, a
readable, valuable and authoritative volume. The authors,
Scott Wilson, the Department for International Development
(DFID) and the Geological Society Publishing House are to
be congratulated.
Professor P. G. Fookes, F. R. Eng.
Winchester, UK
August 2011
 Acknowledgements
The editor would like to acknowledge and thank the follow- although some examples are given from areas outside
ing contributors: these zones in order to illustrate a particular aspect. The
editor and URS Scott Wilson Ltd would like to thank the fol-
† T. Hunt: contributions and comment throughout the lowing for appointing them to carry out the work illustrated
document, advice and encouragement in this book:
† J. Howell: bio-engineering measures for slope protection,
comments on the text in general and some of the
photographs
† I. Muir: contributions to soil and rock reinforcement † Department for International Development (DFID) UK
† A. Hart: satellite image interpretation, Geographical for work carried out in Nepal, Bhutan and Laos
† Asian Development Bank for work carried out in Nepal,
Information Systems
Sri Lanka and Tajikistan
† G. Pettifer: terrain model illustrations † World Bank (IDA) for work carried out in Nepal,
† C. Massey: rock slope stability. Philippines and Ethiopia
† International Finance Corporation (IFC) for work carried
I. Hodgson reviewed and commented on the entire book and
out in Tajikistan
his contribution is gratefully acknowledged. M. Sweeney † Islamic Development Bank for work carried out in
and C. Manby acted as reviewers for the Geological Tajikistan
Society Publishing House and provided useful comments. † United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) for
P. G. Fookes acted in the capacity of Peer Reviewer and work carried out in China
has written a Foreword to the document. His overall gui- † SNV Netherlands for work carried out in Bhutan
dance and encouragement are especially gratefully acknowl- † Department of Public Works and Highways, Philippines
edged. M. Holt provided updated information on satellite † Ministry of Transport, Tajikistan
imagery. All maps and drawings were prepared by K. Jones. † Department of Roads and Railways, Libya
† Azerroadservice, Azerbaijan
The following were significantly involved in one or more
† Ministry of Education, Azerbaijan
of the illustrated projects: † Department of Local Infrastructure Development and
Agricultural Roads, Nepal
† Department of Roads, Nepal
P. G. Fookes N. Carruthers † Department of Roads, Bhutan
D. Petley P. Ward † Road Development Authority, Sri Lanka
R. Blong J. Dowling † Ministry of Public Works and Transport, Laos
R. Mason C. Lawrance † Ethiopian Roads Authority
C. Massey S. Sharma † IKRAM, Malaysia
C. Chant N. Man Shakya † Geotechnical Engineering Office, CEDD, Hong Kong
J. Henley X. Chonephetsarath † Rio Tinto for work carried out in Guinea
D. Wise S. Sysouvanthong † Ok Tedi Mining Ltd (Broken Hill Proprietary) and
J. Hart B. Siliphon Xstrata Frieda River Ltd for work carried out in Papua
C. Chant L. Ayalew New Guinea
P. Quinlan S. Tiwari † ArcelorMittal, Liberia Limited
M. Molinari † Konkan Railway Corporation Ltd, India

This book has been developed from an original
document prepared by Scott Wilson Ltd (now URS Scott
Wilson Ltd) for the Department for International Develop-
ment (DFID) UK. D. Salter played a key role in facilitating
the original document and his continued support, enthusiasm
and encouragement are gratefully acknowledged.
Most of the illustrations contained herein are taken from
projects carried out in the humid tropics and subtropics,
Figures showing details from engineering drawings
have often been simplified and may only be appropriate
for the examples from which they have been derived.
These should not be used for design without modification
to suit site-specific conditions and materials. The publisher,
the editor and URS Scott Wilson Ltd cannot accept respon-
sibility for the use of material contained in this book by a
third party.

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 How to use this book
This book covers the design, construction and maintenance
of mountain roads in the humid tropics and subtropics
and focuses on slope stability aspects. It concentrates on
low-cost, low-volume roads, but many of the techniques
described are equally applicable to higher road
classifications.
The book is split into four parts.
Part A. Landslides and mountain roads
Part B. Site investigation
Part C. Design and construction
Part D. Slope management
An Index and a Glossary of Terms are also provided.
References quoted are listed at the end of each Section.
Note that references are only indicative, that is, they do
not represent a comprehensive listing. The reader should
carry out their own literature searches if a more comprehen-
sive bibliography is required.
Part A describes and illustrates the background to
landslide and slope instability problems affecting roads
in hilly and mountainous areas of the humid tropics and
subtropics. Basic considerations of hazard and risk are
discussed.
Part B contains a description and review of techniques of
site investigation, ranging from desk study, through field
mapping to ground investigation and monitoring.
Part C provides practical advice on a range of issues that
relate to the design and construction of alignments, slopes,
retaining structures, drainage and erosion protection works.
Part D focuses on slope inspections, works prioritization
and emergency management during road maintenance and
operation.
Most practitioners will probably not wish to read this
book cover to cover, but prefer to focus on aspects most
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immediately relevant to them. Consequently, Activity
Flow Charts 1–4 have been prepared. These flow charts
provide summary recommendations of the activities that
should be undertaken when:
† designing new roads to minimize slope instability
(Flow chart 1);
† forming new slopes during road construction and road
improvement (Flow chart 2);
† maintaining slopes during road operation (Flow chart 3);
and
† responding to slope and retaining wall failures that occur
during road operation (Flow chart 4).
The relevant sections of this book, where each activity is
described, are indicated in the flow charts. Project phasing
and construction procurement are not referred to in the
flow charts, and are discussed in Section A2.
Each of the disciplines of geology and civil engineering,
including their various specializations and subdivisions
such as geomorphology, engineering geology, geotechnical
engineering and hydrology, for example, offers techniques
and skills that can contribute variously to the design, con-
struction and maintenance of mountain roads. Multi-
disciplinary teams are most common on large and complex
construction projects but guidance may be required in com-
piling these teams, or in seeking the advice of a specialist
following an instability event during road operation for
example. Consequently, Table 1 shows the broad range of
tasks that each of these specialists might ordinarily under-
take. However, there will be much variation and many
exceptions according to training and experience, and each
situation will require careful team selection. The definitions
of the various specialists listed in Table 1 are provided in the
Glossary.
 xii
Flow chart 1: Design of new roads to minimise slope instability

Aerial photo/LiDAR Reconnaissance Preliminary GI Detailed GI

interpretation B2.2 surveys B3.1 B4 B4

Satellite imagery Reference condition

Desk interpretation B2.3 Geographical Route corridor
Geographical Field mapping B3.2 Alignment and Earthworks Flow
study Information selection
Information mapping carriageway C2 chart 2
B2 Terrain modelling and Landslide hazard System B2.7 C1.2
System B2.7 B3 design C1.3
classification B2.4 & 5 mapping B3.3

Landslide susceptibility Engineering geological

mapping B2.6 mapping B3.4

Flow chart 2: Design and construction of new slopes (for new road construction and road improvement)

Reference condition Soil slope

Assessment of mapping B3.2 stabilisation C3

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

slope materials, Field Slope
Ground
Landslide risk Landslide hazard movement Earthworks Rock slope
landslide mapping investigation Drainage C6 Erosion control C7
management A4 mapping B3.3 monitoring C2 stabilisation C4
causes and B3 B4
mechanisms A3 B5
Engineering geological Retaining
mapping B3.4 structures C5

Flow chart 3: Maintenance of existing slopes

Routine slope
maintenance D1.3.1

Planning Preventative slope Routine inspection Preventative

slope Slope maintenance D1.3.2 D1.4.1 maintenance D1.6.1 Maintenance
maintenance Inspection Prioritisation
maintenance Flow chart 4 Procurement
categories D1.3 Emergency slope maintenance D1.4 D1.6
D1.2 Detailed inspection Emergency and remedial D1.7
D1.3.3 & flow chart 4 D1.4.2 maintenance D1.6.2

Remedial slope maintenance

D1.3.4 & flow chart 4

Flow chart 4: Slope or retaining wall failure during road operation

Carry out
Routine YES For soil slopes
Low ground
maintenance D1.3.1 Proceed to C2, C3.2-C3.8
Instability investigation C5, C6 & C7
Failure occurs: Engineering design and
Detailed report D1.4.2 B4 Slope
cut slope; fill slope; prioritisation Remedial maintenance construction
inspection Moderate Is a For rock monitoring
natural slope or based on risk (next dry season) D1.3.4 of stabilisation slopes C4
D1.4.2 Engineering ground B5
retaining wall A4.2, D1.5 & D1.6 investigation NO and
geological map if Emergency maintenance reinstatement
High/ required? For retaining
required B3.4 (immediate) D1.3.3 measures
very high walls C5

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 Table 1. Common specialist skill sets for the assessment of terrain and slope stability and the design of mountain roads

Specialist Terrain Landslide Identifying Ground Slope stability Design of engineering works
classification mapping areas of future investigation assessment &
(B2.4 & 2.5) instability (B4) analysis

protection (C4.3 – C4.5)

Soil slope stabilisation
sensing (B2.2 & B2.3)

Retaining walls (C5)

Rock slopes (C4.2)
observation (B3.4)

Soil slopes (C3.2)

Earthworks (C2)

protection (C7)
Alignment (C1)
sensing & field

stabilisation &

Drainage (C6)
(B2.6 & B3.3)
From remote

From remote

(C3.3–C3.8)
Interpreting
observation

Supervising

Rock slope
From field

Planning

Erosion

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

Geologist

Geomorphologist

Engineering geologist

Geotechnical engineer

Civil engineer
(roads & structures)

Drainage engineer

Bio-engineer/forester

Main skill fields Some skills likely Some skills possibly Skills unlikely

xiii
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