Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Microalgae: Antiquity to era of integrated technology

⁎
Akash Patela,b, Bharat Gamia, Pankaj Patela, Beena Patela,
a
R & D Department, Abellon CleanEnergy Pvt. Ltd. Sydney House, Premchand Nagar Road, Ahmedabad-380015, India
b
Department of Biotechnology, Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan 384265, Gujarat, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Uncontrolled anthropogenic activities and technological revolution increase fossil fuel consumption at higher
Aquaculture rate that prompted researchers looking for alternative energy source to cover the current need and future
Biodiesel demand of energy. Biomass of terrestrial crops has been studied as a promising source of renewable energy in
Biofuel last few decades however large scale production is still questionable because of lower productivity, indirect use
CO2 Sequestration
of fossil fuel, lack of land availability and food vs. fuel conflict. These limitations of land based system fetch
High value products
opportunity to look into untapped potential use of microalgae with high biomass productivity from saline and
Microalgae
waste water stream. This unconventional way of feedstock generation can additionally produce value added
products apart from clean energy. This review presents current scenario of microalgae applications in biofuel
production and micro algae based high value bio-product industries leveraging environmental protection and
waste utilization benefits. Microalgae cultivation, harvesting and biomass conversion technologies for biodiesel
production have been reviewed based on adapting ancient learning to understand critical factors affecting
overall productivity and economic viability. Dedicated efforts from technical experts are still required for
economic viability of large scale biodiesel production in spite of positive finding at small scale. Several high
value bio-products from microalgae amplified magnetism of trades for investment in this field. Microalgae
cultivation intersects two key concern areas of global warming and water pollution control/water recycling by
CO2 sequestration and waste water utilization respectively. Integration of suitable upstream and downstream
processing technologies with multiple product portfolio would make the microalgae bio-refinery economical
viable.

1. Introduction
Increasing population and uncontrolled anthropogenic activity
created major problem for energy requirement [1]. World's oil produc-
tion is expected to decline in between one and tenth decades based on
current consumption scenario leaving burden on researchers to search
for alternative sources of energy [2]. The International Energy Agency
(IEA) has reported that global energy need is expected to increase by
55% from 2005 to 2030 at annual rate of 1.8% per year [3], with
Petroleum, natural gas, coal, hydro and nuclear are the basic sources of
this energy [4]. This exponentially increasing demand of energy and
gradually depleting conventional energy sources would lead to global
energy crisis for present and for future if unsolved. Beside this energy
crisis, the environmental impact of conventional energy sources has
become a major issue and created threat for mankind.
Transportation and energy producing sectors have significant role
in overall greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Petroleum diesel combus-
tion is also a major source of GHG as well as other major source of
other air contaminants including NOx, SOx, COs, particulate matter
and volatile compounds [5]. It is expected that the global energy
consumption would increase and resulting into more environmental
damage [6]. GHG emissions do not only increase the global warming
but also have major impacts on environment and human life. Some
amount dissolved in oceans would gradually increase turning of water
pH to more acidity affecting to the marine ecosystem biodiversity and
also to life on earth [7].
Renewable and green energy source are the only alternate to
address this energy crisis and pollution control. To find clean and
renewable energy sources is one of the most challenging problems for
mankind. Several countries and regions around the world are targeting
for CO2 reduction in order to meet the sustainability goals. Many
options are being studied with different degree of success and different
phases of implementations. For example solar energy, either thermal or
photo-voltaic, geothermal, wind, hydroelectric and bio-fuels [8]. Each
has its pros and corns depending on the area of application but one
important goal is the reduction of emission by replacing fossil fuels

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: beena.patel@abelloncleanenergy.com (B. Patel).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.081
Received 21 October 2015; Received in revised form 17 November 2016; Accepted 12 December 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Patel, A., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.081
A. Patel et al.
with renewable energy sources. Bio-diesel and bio-ethanol can replace
diesel and gasoline, respectively with little or no modifications required
for vehicle engines. Bio-diesel is a potential substitute for conventional
diesel fuel [9] which can be produced from oil via trans esterification
[10]. According to the US standard specification for bio-diesel
(American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM 6751), bio-diesel
is defined as a fuel comprised of mono alkyl esters of long chain fatty
acids from vegetable oils or animal fats [11]. Bio-diesel is the main
alternative of diesel fuel in European countries which is representing
more than three fourths part of overall bio-fuels production and it's still
in growing phase in Europe, Brazil, and United States [12]. Cost
effective biodiesel production without competing with vegetable oils
can be possible using non-edible oils like used oils, soap stocks, greases
and animal fats. However, the quantities of waste and animal origin oil
are not enough to address the current biodiesel demand. Land
availability is major challenge to grow feedstock without conflicting
with food and fodder demand. Micro algae are getting more interest
among the all possibilities at pilot scale and even at industrial scale as
feedstock for biodiesel without direct interfering to human consump-
tion [13]. Microalgae are also cultivated for proteins, sugars, essential
fatty acids, carotenoids or vitamins for human health, food additives
and cosmetics as well as diet supplements for aquaculture and animal
feed besides biodiesel production [14]. Fig. 1 shows product value
chain of microalgae. The inputs are constant while out puts are variable
in terms of numerous products. Algae take CO2, water and sunlight as
input however use of various processing technology leads to diverse
product portfolio (Fig. 1).
Biodiesel production from microalgae feedstock is the process of
extracting oil from algae cells and trans-esterified the lipids into methyl
esters. Many of the researchers described this process at more or less
depth [15–18]. Some researchers also explained different techniques
for cultivation, harvesting, extraction and processing of microalgae to
biodiesel production [19–21] and key factors affecting at each stage
[13]. Direct conversion of microalgae feedstock to biodiesel had been
described by Huang and his team [22]. Baliga and Powers also
discussed the designing parameters of cultivation system for biodiesel
production from microalgae in cold climates [23]. Frac and his team
reported the biodiesel production stages with estimation of possibility
and profitability of use of biodiesel [24].
This review article is structured into two major portions; (1)
microalgae as biofuel feedstock and (2) environmental and economic
Fig. 1. Product value chain of microalgae feed-stock.
2
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx
applications of microalgae. The former one includes the stages of
microalgae to biodiesel production process reviewed based on learning
from historical research to understand important factors affecting
overall productivity and economic viability along with technological
developments we have brought out in design and development of algae
reactor. The second one describes the high value microalgae products,
CO2 sequestration and waste utilization potential through combined
resource utilization to reduce environmental pollution. Thus this
review deals with current scenario of technological developments in
microalgae to biofuel with economic and environmental aspects to
identify major gaps and opportunities in this field that can be
addressed in near future.
2. Microalgae as bio-fuel feedstock
2.1. What are micro algae?
The earth was originated 4.5 billion years ago in solar system.
Amino acid and nucleic acid were originated after sequential events of
chemical modification and evolution in the earth's atmosphere as
protobiont in abiogenesis phase and started protobiology phase
between 3.5 and 4.0 billion years ago. Tree of life has established by
three domains: Ecobacteria, Cyanobacteria and Eukaryotes. The cya-
nobacteria, recently known as blue-green algae was first photosynthetic
autotrophs initiated oxygenic age of the earth during glycobacterial
revolution between 2.8 and 2.9 billion years ago later prochlorophytes,
glaucophytes and other lineages of algae were originated. The algae,
especially chlorophytes initiated overall evolution and development of
higher organism of the planet [25].
Microalgae are microscopic, unicellular or simple multicellular
prokaryotic or eukaryotic photosynthetic organism that can produce
biomass and oxygen by using sunlight as energy source, CO2 as carbon
source and inorganic salt. Some species can grow autotrophically and
produce organic molecules while others are heterotrophic in nature,
growing in dark on complex organic material for energy and carbon
sources. Cynobacteria from Cynophyceae are example of prokaryotic
microalgae and in similar way green algae from Chlorophyta and
diatoms from Bacillariophyta are example of eukaryotic microalgae
[26,27].
Microalgae can grow in almost all type of ecosystems like terrestrial,
aquatic marine or fresh water. Applied phycology originated with first
A. Patel et al.
microalgae culture establishment of Chlorella by Beijerinck in 1890
[28]. Many microalgae species were collected from variety of habitats
and analyzed by different countries. Different microalgae collection
center have been established with highly diversified culture collection.
For example university of Coimbra from Portugal have more than 4000
strains of fresh water microalgae, university of Texas having Algae
Culture Collection of 2300 strains of fresh water microalgae and many
sea water green and red microalgae, the National Institute for
Environmental Studies Collection in Asia and Japan having richness
of 2150 strains and 700 different species of algae [13].
2.2. Benefits of selecting microalgae for biodiesel production
• Microalgae are prokaryotic or eukaryotic organisms having simple
structure with high photosynthetic efficiency [13]. Researchers
studied more than 30,000 microalgae species in past decades from
different countries [28]. They can easily be adopted in different
environment conditions so that one can select species of choice
which is best suited to local environment or growth conditions as
biodiesel feedstock.
• Microalgae are the best producers of neutral lipids/oil at 20–50%
dry cell weight with 1–3 doubling/day [29], much higher than
conventional forestry and other aquatic plants requiring less land
area up to 49–132 times when compared to rapeseed or soybean
crops [30]. Thus they provide feedstock for verities of renewable
fuels like biodiesel, ethanol, methane, hydrogen etc. at reduced level
of particulate matter, CO, hydrocarbon and SOx emissions [31].
• Different compounds may also be extracted from microalgae like
large range of fine chemicals, Poly-unsaturated Fatty Acids (PFAs),
oil, natural dyes, pigments, sugars, antioxidants, bio-active com-
pounds with high industrial value in cosmetics, food and nutrition,
pharmaceuticals and pollution prevention sectors [26,32,33].
• Algae takes up CO2 from industrial flue gases for its growth as
breathe in metabolic process also known as bio-fixation of CO2[34]
resulting into GHG emissions reduction of an industry while
producing algal biomass [35]. Algae takes up essential nutrients
like ammonium, nitrates and phosphate ions from industrial waste
water effluents for its growth and removes from waste water stream,
a process known as bio-remediation process [34]. Therefore algae is
a right choice to cultivate for industries emitting CO2 and having
large volume of spent effluent water to meet pollution control
obligations of local authorities with market potential from algae
biomass and its products.
• Moreover, de-oiled cake of algal biomass can be processed for
production of livestock feed and organic fertilizer having high
Nitrogen: Phosphorus ratio [34].
• Microalgae perhaps leverage significant social and environment
benefits because they neither compete for arable land with food
crops for human consumption nor interfere with food security
concern [36]. They can grow in different environments like fresh
and brackish or marine water [37,38,23,39] and also tolerate
marginal lands like arid, semi-arid and desert which are not suitable
for other agriculture crops [29].
2.3. Historical exploration and evolution in microalgae production
system
Use of algae for food, feed and fuel was started before 1950s with
methane gas and shifted to a pick interest at 1970s energy crisis, when
research diverted to produce energy from gases like hydrogen and
methane [40]. With an objective to study the feasibility of low cost
biodiesel production from microalgae, the US department of Energy
(DOE) by National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) launched a
relatively small budget (about $25 million) program called ASP
(Aquatic Species Program) in 1978. Unfortunately the program was
closed in 1996 due to reduction in budget from DOE before the
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx
experiments touch the preliminary stages [13]. In summary of almost
20 year research, they concluded that commercialization of fuel
production from algae was too expensive and require long term
intensive research work because of low yield, uneconomic harvesting
processes and difficulties in maintaining potential species in the culture
system [41].
In recent time of unpredictable crude oil price paradox and
expected future demand with the urge of reduce GHG and non GHG
emissions, researchers have been inspired towards production of
biodiesel from microalgae in consortium, public and private sector's
investment in research and developments to progress potential and
cost effective technology for large scale oil production. Many enter-
prises are currently working on algae for fuel with few have already
entered in market for selling processing units for high tech algae
cultivation systems like photo bio-reactors with optimized control
system [13].
Researcher's interest has concentrated toward metabolic engineer-
ing and genetic studies on microalgae for development of organisms
with optimized yield and lipid productivities with high efficiency. In
spite of simple and non-differentiable cell system of microalgae genetic
engineering in microalgae is not yet successful. Transgenic algae can
create a considerable threat to the natural ecosystem to grow in open
environment with restriction [42]. However, risks for genetically
engineered algae research needs to be evaluated and supported with
its user's guidelines creating standards and certification supported by
local policies to promote its use in defined applications.
Presently it is hard to compete with conventional diesel economic-
ally without any incentive support; however researchers from academic
and industry are trying to make it commercially feasible. It would be
economic and feasible once crude would be deficit in time to come with
integration and exploration of various algae trains and varied waste
water stream to cultivate algae for fuel [13].
2.4. Lipid profiles and productivities of microalgae
Lipid content in microalgae varies between 1–70% but under
specific growth conditions some species accumulate lipid up to 90%
of dry weight [26,27,30,43]. Lipids from microalgae are generally
neutral, polar, non-polar, sterols, wax ester, prenyl derivative and
pyrrole derivatives. The storage lipids are in the form of
Triacylglyceride (TAG) which includes saturated and unsaturated fatty
acids [44]. Photon from light source stimulates synthesis of TAGs
which are stored in cytosolic lipid bodies and re-neutralize in the dark
for polar lipid synthesis [45].
As shown in Table 1, Chlorella emersonii, Chlorella vulgaris,
Dunaliella sp., Nannochloris sp. and Phaeodactylum tricornutum
can reach up to more than 50% lipid content with different productiv-
ity. On the other hand Dunaliella salina and Nannochloropsis oculata
have comparatively higher lipid productivity. Most of the microalgae
species have lipid content between 20–50% with variable productivity.
Chorella and Dunaliella can be good option for oil production. Fatty
acid profile of species has direct influence on bio-diesel production.
Fatty acid profile of lipid is species specific for example Cynophyceae
class contained C16:0,C18:0,C16:1 and C18:1 whereas
Nannochloropsis shows major part of C16:0, C16:1, C18:0 and C20:0
and Spirulina platensis contained highest amount of palmitic acid
C16:0 (66.05%) [46].
Lipid content can be influenced by growth parameters like nutrient
availability, environmental factors, cultivation type, growth conditions
[47]. It has also been observed that nutrient specific stress can induce
lipid production. Nitrogen starvation gives better lipid production
response at commercial stages among other induction conditions.
Changes in other growth factors like temperature, pH, heavy metal
stress and salinity can also influence the stimulation of lipid in
microalgae cell but all these parameter may not be regulated at large
scale system [48].
A. Patel et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx

Table 1
Microalgae lipid content and lipid productivity [13].

Microalgae species Lipid Content Lipid Productivity

(% dry weight (mg/L/day)
biomass)

Chaetoceros muelleri 33.6 21.8

Chaetoceros calcitrans 14.6–16.4/39.8 17.6
Chlorella emersonii 25.0–63.0 10.3–50.0
Chlorella sorokiniana 19.0–22.0 44.7
Chlorella vulgaris 5.0–58.0 11.2–40.0
Chlorella sp. 10.0–48.0 42.1
Chlorella pyrenoidosa 2.0 –
Chlorococcum sp. 19.3 53.7
Dunaliella salina 6.0–25.0 116.0
Dunaliella tertiolecta 16.7–71.0 – Fig. 2. Algae growth curve with nutrient concentration in batch culture.
Dunaliella sp. 17.5–67.0 33.5
Ellipsoidion sp. 27.4 47.3
Isochrysis sp. 7.1–33 37.8 efficiency in utilization of available resources. They may follow many
Monodus subterraneus 16.0 30.4 type of metabolisms like photoautotrophic by using light as a sole
Nannochloris sp. 20.0–56.0 60.9–76.5
energy source and convert it to complex organic molecules; hetero-
Nannochloropsis oculata. 22.7–29.7 84.0–142.0
Nannochloropsis sp. 12.0–53.0 37.6–90.0 trophic by using organic compounds as energy and carbon source;
Pavlova salina 30.9 49.4 mixotrophic by utilizing light for photosynthesis where organic com-
Pavlova lutheri 35.5 40.2 pounds and CO2 are essential and photo-heterotrophic using organic
Phaeodactylum tricornutum 18.0–57.0 44.8 compounds as carbon sources and light for photosynthesis. Microalgae
Scenedesmus quadricauda 1.9–18.4 35.1
Scenedesmus sp. 19.6–21.1 40.8–53.9
may shift from one to other type of metabolism depending on external
Spirulina platensis 4.0–16.6 – factors like physical or chemical stress. Microalgae sometime also
Spirulina maxima 4.0–9.0 – require vitamins and specific bio-molecules other than sunlight, CO2
Tetraselmis suecica 8.5–23.0 27.0–36.4 and salts as growth medium [49].
Tetraselmis sp. 12.6–14.7 43.4
Algae cultivation for specific product extraction requires monitoring
Source: Mata TM, Martins A a., Caetano NS. Microalgae for biodiesel production and
of cultivation system parameters, growth conditions, nutrient uptake
other applications: A review. 2010. profiling as successful indicators of quality biomass cultivation to
achieve product specification. Real time system monitoring is impor-
tant aspect for algae cultivation Microalgae can grow profusely under
suitable culture condition. Generally microalgae cell reproduce once in
As shown in Table 2, microalgae biomass shows higher oil yield a day or double the biomass in 3–4 h during exponential growth phase
with compare to other vegetable oil crops. Although the oil content in [30].
other vegetable crops and microalgae species do not show large Fig. 2 represents growth curve of microalgae grown in a batch
difference, however, the oil yield and biodiesel productivity is much culture by continuous line and nutrients concentration with dashed
higher in microalgae biomass with reference to land use factor [13]. line, where five different growth phases can be described: (A) lag phase;
Therefore algae producing entrepreneurs’ project should positively be (B) exponential growth phase (C) linear growth phase; (D) stationary
considered for bankability based on productivity, land use, waste water growth phase; (E) decline or death phase. (Fig. 3).
utilization and CO2 uptake footprint. Biochemical composition of microalgae cell varies at different
growth phases being higher sugar concentration and storage at
stationary phase while more proteins at exponential phase [50].
2.5. Biodiesel production stages from microalgae The main limitation in large scale algae cultivation is inability to
maintain selected species at a very high density. Culture lost may occur
2.5.1. Cultivation during scaling up to larger system with semi-sterile or less protected
Generally microalgae use sunlight and CO2 for photosynthesis environment. Algae cell culture loss can be achieved by removing
however they can change their internal biochemical pathways and unwanted organism by short term exposure of culture to extreme
physiological conditions to restrict growth of invading stray species by environment like pH and temperature than maintaining high cell
excreting variety of compounds as a stress response [28]. Microalgae concentration in closed cultivation reactor [51]. Abiotic factors like
are adapted to grow in specific environment for acquiring better

Table 2
Comparison of microalgae with other biodiesel feed stocks [13].

Source Seed oil content (%per weight biomass) Oil yield (Liter oil/ha year) Biodiesel productivity (Kg biodiesel/ha year)

Corn/Maize (Zea mays L.) 44 172 152

Soybean (Glycine max L.) 18 636 562
Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.) 28 741 656
Canola/Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) 41 974 862
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) 40 1070 946
Castor (Ricinus communis) 48 1307 1156
Palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) 36 5366 4747
Microalgae (low oil content) 30 58700 51927
Microalgae (high oil content) 70 136900 121104

Source: Mata TM, Martins A a., Caetano NS. Microalgae for biodiesel production and other applications: A review. 2010.

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A. Patel et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of raceway pond.

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of photo bio-reactor.

light, CO2, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, salt concentration, toxic
chemicals and biotic factors including pathogens like virus, bacteria,
fungi and other contaminant algae species influence growth of micro- Table 3
Open pond verses closed bio-reactor.1
algae in culture system. Microalgae are sensitive to temperature and
survive at 15–10 °C lower than optimum but sensitive to 2–3 °C higher Parameters Open pond Closed bio reactor
than optimum with loss of cell culture [51].
Agitation or mixing of microalgae culture at large scale is required Temperature control No Yes
CO2 utilization Less high
to homogenize the distribution of cell, heat, nutrient and gas transfer.
Gas transfer Poor better
However high speed of agitator or mechanical mixing causes shear Light efficiency Good Excellent
stress leading to cell damage and may death [52]. That's why the Sterility None Possible at certain level
Therefore level of turbulence can be optimized to maintain healthy Predator control Difficult Achievable
Productivity Low High
culture growth [53].
Surface/volume ratio Moderate High
Numerous authors have examined effects of different cultivation Water evaporation lost High Preventable
conditions on algae growth: Automation At certain level High
Environmental effect High Less or preventable
• Temperature of growth condition is completely linked with the Hydrodynamic stress on algae
Cost for scale up
Low
Low
High
High
metabolism and lipid productivities of any microalgae species.
Temperature also influenced uptake of carbon and nitrogen from
the medium by change in cytoplasmic viscosity [54–56]. The most
common changes observed by temperature variation are the level of raceway ponds are used for production of microalgae biomass under
unsaturated fatty acids in lipid membrane of microalgae cell open condition while close system includes highly controlled photo bio-
[45,57,58]. In case of N. oculata and C. vulgaris, both have reactors (PBR).
optimum temperature of 25 °C. Increasing the temperature from
20 to 25 °C resulted in two fold increase in lipid content in N.
oculata while temperature rise from 25 to 30 °C halves the lipid 2.5.1.2. Open race way ponds. Race-way pond is close looped channel
content to 50% in C. Vulgaris [59]. Temperature has also significant equipped with paddle-wheel for circulation and prevent sedimentation
effect on starch content in algae calls by altering the activity of starch [30].
degrading enzymes [60,61].
• Effect of pH alteration was observed on Pleurochrysis carterae by Generally, raceway channels are made up of concrete with different
Moheimani. Reduction in pH resulting from CO2 purging may length and diameter. Raceway ponds are cost effective to build and can
negatively affect culture growth [51]. Some microalgae species easily be maintained. However, they are highly susceptible from other
showed positive effect of increase in CO2 concentration by increase contaminants and environment around the pond. They require more
in biomass production and lipid accumulations [62]. energy to homogenize the nutrients than close systems. Moreover
• De Morais and Costa [63] reported that Scenedesmus obliquus and raceway pond requires large land area with uneven sunlight distribu-
Clorella kessleri cultures collected from coal power plant ash pond tion. Another major problem is to maintain the optimum temperature
have high potential for bio-fixation of CO2. and to control water evaporation rate. Despite of these limitations,
• Salinity also influences biochemical composition of algae cell. open ponds have several advantages for using municipal waste water
Saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids level increase in treatment or to utilize cheap and easily available flue gases as CO2
Dunaliella with increase in NaCl concentration from 0.4 to 4.0 M source if located near power plant [69,70].
[64]. In an another experiment on Dunaliella tertiolecta, intracel-
lular lipids and triglyceride concentration was increased with 2.5.1.3. Photo bioreactor (PBR). Photo bioreactors are completely
increase of NaCl concentrations from 0.5 to 1.0 M [65]. closed rectors with high control system and can be designed as
• Nitrogen taken up by algal cells from media undergoes rapid tubular, plate or bubble reactor to produce biomass of specific
assimilation to synthesis biochemically active compounds [66]. microalgae species [29]. Fig. 4 shows schematic diagram of photo
Illaman reported that reduction in nitrogen in culture media, bio-reactor where-in inputs like nutrients, water, CO2 and algae culture
increase the lipid content in C. emersonii, C. minutissima and C. as inoculant are first filled up to feeding vessel before feeding the photo
vulgaris by 63%, 56% and 40% dry weight of biomass respectively bioreactor vessel. They are mostly made up of glass type transparent
[67]. Generally, nitrogen stress reduces protein and chlorophyll and inert material. Harvesting separates biomass and nutrient media
content with species specific change in sugar and lipid content [68].

2.5.1.1. Open versus closed-cultivation systems. Open pond and close 1

Moheimani NR, McHenry MP, de Boer K, Bahri P. Biomass and Biofuels from
reactor are two major cultivation practices known for microalgae. Open Microalgae: Advances in Engineering and Biology. Springer International Publishing;
2015.

5
A. Patel et al.
followed by recycling of nutrient media and drying of biomass. The
main advantage is that one can easily observe and control over pH,
temperature, light, CO2 and other parameters of cultivation system
without water evaporation and other biological or chemical
contaminants. It allows higher cell concentrations with volumetric
productivities [13]. PBR also has few limitations like overheating,
oxygen transfer, bio-fouling, high building and operational cost, shear
stress by agitation and in scaling up. The PBRs and open raceway pond
cannot be compared stand alone. Where to use what depends on type of
algae, cultural conditions and end product quality to be looked at.
Table 3 describes basic parameters for both cultivation systems. One
should choose the method on the basis of species and expected end
product's quality and economic value.
2.5.2. Harvesting
Harvesting process represents biomass recovery from culture
media. The cost effective method for harvesting is essential for
commercial production of biodiesel as it contributes around 20–30%
of total production cost. This may include physical-chemical and
biological approaches for liquid-solid separation. The selection of
method is based on cell density, cell size and market value of end
product etc [13,19]. Commonly used microalgae harvesting techniques
include filtration, gravity sedimentation, flocculation and floatation,
centrifugation, electrolytic and ultrasonic aggregation etc.
2.5.2.1. Filtration. Filtration is most common method of choice for
solid-liquid separation being effective in larger size micro algae like S.
platensis but inadequate for small cell sized like Chlorella and
Dunaliella [71]. Rotary filters and micro strainers are primary
filtration methods in microalgae harvesting wherein micro strainers
with fine mesh screen offers easy access and cost effective filtration
[71]. Membrane filtration and ultra-filtration can also be useful as
secondary filtrations optional to add on primary filters with more
economic burden on harvesting process.
2.5.2.2. Gravity sedimentation. This method is low cost and energy
efficient process, normally used for separation of larger sized
organisms in sedimentation tank [36]. Gravity sedimentation is
suitable for low economic product. In some cases, this method
influences economics of final product at downstream stages.
2.5.2.3. Flocculation. Flocculation is applied to aggregate the
dispersed particles to form large particles which enhance the
sedimentation by gravitational or other centrifugal forces. There are
two type of flocculation processes in which auto flocculation by
carbonate salts with algae cell and chemical flocculation resulted
from neutralization of surface charge by adding some chemicals like
Alum (Al2 (SO4)3), ferric ions etc. Cationic polymers and alkali
substances are also used for flocculation which fluctuates pH [69].
However, removal of chemical flocculants from harvested biomass may
increase the cost to further downstream stages in case of costly and
quality conscious products.
2.5.2.4. Flotation. Floatation is the process in which solid particles
adhere to the air or gas bubble and carry them to the liquid surface. It
can be applied for the cell size less than 500 µm. It works on a
mechanism of interaction between negatively charged hydrophilic
surfaces of microalgae cells [69]. Ozonation dispersed flotation
increases lipid extraction by cell lysis and releasing bio-polymers
which are good coagulating agents for separation process. Expensive
process makes it unfavorable.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx
2.5.2.5. Electrolytic and ultrasonic aggregation. Electric field is
applied to take out algae cell particles from solution. Hydrogen ions
resulted from electrolysis of water adheres to microbial flock and
moves them to surface. This method has several benefits including
effectiveness, no other chemicals require, safety and environmental
compatibility [72]. Ultrasonic aggregation is also used for high
separation efficiency with approximately 20 times more dynamic
concentration [73].
2.5.3. Extraction
Lipid extraction is one of the crucial steps for bio-fuel production
system that adds into overall process economics. Extraction efficiency
depends on type of biomass (microalgae species), desired end product,
and method of extraction (physical, chemical or combination of
different methods). The extraction process should be effective, fast,
energy efficient, innocent to the lipid structure and easily expandable to
large scale [69]. Overall process includes removal of water from wet
biomass, extraction of lipids from cell and recovery or concentration of
the extracted lipids. Generally dry biomass is processed for lipid
extraction as water molecules do not allow intracellular oil to extract
out easily [73]. Sun drying, spray drying, drum drying and freeze
drying are method of choice for algal biomass drying [28] however,
selection of drying dependent on end product nature. For example,
microalgae biomass with high moisture content, sun drying is not
efficient and spray drying is too expensive for low value product.
2.5.3.1. Mechanical. There are several different ways for cell
disruption to release intracellular lipid molecule like cell
homogenizers, bed mills, autoclave and ultrasound are generally used
to break cell wall. Selection of method depends on type of cell wall and
nature of product to be extracted. Ultrasound and microwave assisted
cell disruption and extraction shows higher yield than conventional
method in case of extraction of oil from vegetable sources as it saves
time of extraction with no toxicity to end product [74].
2.5.3.2. Chemical. Chemical method for extraction of lipid is widely
adopted because of its simplicity with no need of expansive
instruments [36]. The most popular method is Bligh and Dyer
method and Soxhlet method [4,36]. Solvents selected for extraction
should be inexpensive, volatile, non-polar, nontoxic and poor extractor
of non-desired cell components. Several solvents like hexane, ethanol,
combination of hexane and ethanol, methanol and chloroform can be
used on the basis of biomass type and end product purity need [28].
Ethanol is used to extract few sugars, salts, amino acids, proteins and
pigments however, it is not desirable for lipid extraction. Piasecka and
his team reported that 9.34% lipid yield obtained from wet biomass of
chlorella protothecoides by Bligh and Dyer extraction method [75].
Mixture of dichloromethane and methanol were also used for high lipid
extraction in few species [76].
2.5.3.3. Super Critical Fluid (SCF). Super critical fluid extraction can
displace traditional solvent extraction practice as it displays low
toxicity, favorable mass transfer equilibrium and production of
solvent free extract. Moreover residues remains after extraction can
be used as animal feed and subjected to anaerobic digestion [4].
2.5.4. Processing
Currently three main methods are used for conversion of micro-
algae biomass to bio-oil (liquid fuel): Trans-esterification, thermal
liquefaction and pyrolysis. However, trans-esterification can only
produce biodiesel directly from extracted microalgae lipids.
A. Patel et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx

Fig. 5. Trans-esterification reaction.

2.5.4.1. Trans-esterification. Biodiesel is chemically fatty acid esters
synthesized by trans-esterification (exchange of ester) between
triglycerides present in oil of vegetable or animal origin and alcohol.
Overall trans-esterification reaction has three reversible steps;
conversion of tri-glycerides to diglycerides; di-glycerides to mono-
glycerides and finally monoglycerides to esters (called biodiesel) and a
by-product glycerol. Methanol is used as catalyst. Fig. 5 shows
complete overall trans-esterification reaction [13]. Generally acid
(Sulfuric, sulfonic and hydrochloric acid) or alkyl (NaOH and KOH)
catalysts are used for trans-esterification reaction while in few cases,
super critical fluids are also used to initiate the conversion [77,78].
Trans-esterification is more efficient, simplest and eco-friendly method
among other production methods [79].
2.5.4.2. Thermal liquefaction. Thermal liquefaction directly converts
wet algae biomass to liquid fuel. Conversion takes place at low
temperature (300–350 °C and high pressure 5–20 MPa) with
hydrogen as catalyst. Liquefaction results in production of 30–60%
dry weight of oil, however, the reactor and instruments for liquefaction
are too expensive. Dunaniella tertiolecta and Spirullina platensis have
shown yield of 42 and 30–80% dry weight basis of oil using thermal
liquefaction respectively [36].
2.5.4.3. Pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is a process where in thermal conversion
takes place in absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis chemically reduces tri-
glycerides to fatty acid alkyl esters at high temperature [80,81]. This
process requires additional equipment for separation of fraction.
Moreover, the product obtain after pyrolysis is similar to gasoline
containing sulfur which is less eco-friendly [82].
issue of carbon storage and supply along with GHG emission reduction
[85]. However, flue gases contain different compounds such as sulfur
oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), unburned residues, halogen acids,
CO, heavy metals and PM besides CO2 and very few species can tolerate
these compounds at high concentration. Some reports have shown
positive effects of flue gas compounds other than CO2 in microalgae
biomass productivity. Researchers of Seambiotic Ltd. from Israel tried
flue gas instead of pure CO2 and got 50% increase in productivity
possibly due to the existence of heavy metals, sulfates and nitrates act
as nutrients for algae [86].
Different microalgae species display different abilities of CO2
sequestration. Some species show different degree of tolerance to high
CO2 concentrations like Chlorococcum littorale a marine alga, can
grow easily at 40% CO2 concentrations [87] and Chlorella isolated from
hot springs can tolerate 40% CO2 concentration of industrial flue gases
up to 42 °C temperature [88]. Other microalgae species reported for
CO2 fixation include Scendesmus sp.[89], and Dunaliella tertiolecta
[90]. Table 4 shows summary of studies on CO2 sequestration by some
microalgae species.
Table 4 shows that, Haematococcus pluvialis can tolerate 34% CO2
concentration with CO2 fixation rate of 0.14 gL−1d−1. Other microalgae
species like Chlorella sp., Scenedesmus sp., Dunaliella sp. and
Spirullina sp. can also tolerate high CO2 concentration at different
fixation rate and can be used to utilize CO2 from coal-fired power plants
and other carbon emitting industrial processes. Scenedesmus incras-
satulus and Scenedesmus dimorphus shows higher fixation rate
compare to others.
Because of relatively low solubility of CO2 in water, mass transfer of
CO2 is one of the rate limiting factors in microalgae cultivation.
Common method for feeding CO2 is direct purging of pure CO2 or
Table 4
Potential microalgae species for CO2 sequestration.

3. Environmental and economic application of microalgae S. No Microalgae CO2 concentration CO2 fixation References
tolerance (%) rate (g
L-1d−1)
3.1. Environmental applications
1. Scenedesmus 0.03 1.50 [91]
3.1.1. CO2 sequestration incrassatulus
Carbon dioxide is one of the principle greenhouse gases responsible 2. Scenedesmus 0.03 1.27 [91]
dimorphus
for global warming. Till now, many technologies were used to capture
3. Spirulina platensis 15 0.92 [92]
CO2 including chemical and physical absorption, membrane separation 4. Chlorella sp. 5 0.7 [93]
and cryogenic distillation [83]. The CO2 captured needs to transport 5. Scenedesmus sp. 15 0.61 [94]
and us in a way that is environment friendly and energy saving. 6. Scenedesmus 10 0.55 [95]
Nowadays, biological fixation of CO2 has drawn much attention obliquus
7. Chlorella vulgaris 2 0.43 [96]
worldwide as the green algae Chlorophyta showed CO2 fixation ability 8. Dunaliella sp. 3 0.31 [97]
by using solar energy with an efficiency of 10–50 times greater than 9. Dunaliella 10 0.27 [98]
terrestrial plants [34]. Carbon is the main structural element for tertiolecta
microalgae as it is a key source for microalgae biomass production. 10. Chlorella vulgaris 10 0.25 [98]
11. Chlorella kessleri 18 0.16 [99]
The supply of atmospheric CO2 to microalgae culture through diffusion
12. Haematococcus 34 0.14 [100]
is insufficient for rapid growth at large scale cultivation system [84]. pluvialis
Therefore microalgae cultivation by utilizing flue gas can address the

7
A. Patel et al.
Fig. 6. Algae glass bio-reactor with PLC system.
from flue gases which has major limitation of absorption of CO2 in
liquid leads to loss in atmosphere and low carbon utilization efficiency
because of lower solubility of CO2 in water [101]. CO2 fixation and
biomass production efficiency can be improved by high aeration rate
and proper mixing which also increases CO2 mass transfer and excess
oxygen removal rate. However, it increases overall operational cost and
physical stress to the microalgae cell [102].
Closed PBRs can reduce the CO2 losses compared to open-culture
systems as they could prolong CO2 retention time and improve mass
transfer efficiency. A novel gas sparger of bubble tank was adopted in a
PBR by Chai and his group to increase CO2 mass transfer rate as well as
alleviate dissolved oxygen (DO) accumulation with 94% CO2 removal
efficiency [103]. A membrane-sparged helical tubular PBR was also
designed by Fan et al. [104] for carbon dioxide biofixation by C.
vulgaris. This kind of studies show that CO2 fixation with closed PBRs
is a better option compare to open system [105].
Ketheesan and Nirmalakhandan [106] reported highest CO2 con-
sumption in microalgae cultivation by airlift –driven raceway reactor.
Similarly Fulke et al. [107] also found that Chlorella sp. could
efficiently fix the CO2 gas up to 15% concentration with air lift
photo-bioreactor.
Another method to improve the utilization efficiency is to introduce
CO2 to the culture in soluble form. For this, some absorption liquids are
used to stabilize CO2 in form of carbonate and then supplied to algae.
Potassium carbonate is one of the cheap absorption liquid which can
reduce the energy requirement for purging of pure CO2[108].
Microalgae CO2 fixation at larger scale is influenced by various
factors like algae species and physico-chemical condition of cultivation
system.
Moreover, genetic engineering is also an option to control the
regulation of biosynthetic genes and its expression in microalgae cell
under different stress conditions for CO2 sequestration. Researchers
from Taiwan genetically modified the cyanobacterium, Synechococcus
elongatus PCC 7942, through transformation by genomic homologous
recombination with plasmid DNA vectors and found positive effects in
CO2 bio-mitigation and biomass production in a photo bioreactor
[109]. Significant genetic modifications in RuBisCO (Ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate carboxylase) gene and its functions should be investi-
gated more to increase the photosynthetic efficiency of microalgae
[110]. Another protein called carbonic anhydrase enzyme plays an
important role in CO2 fixation [111] which can be targeted for genetic
8
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx
engineering for better efficiency. Rishiram and their team also studied
the effect of calcite formation linked with CO2 fixation in microalgae
Chlorella sp. and Spirulina platensis and found that growth rate of
algae and efficiency of CO2 fixation were significantly higher when
coupled with calcite deposition in mini-raceway pond [111].
CO2 bio-fixation maximization efficiency requires optimization of
process parameters and efforts to develop potential microalgae strains
are still needed.
Algal industries like Algae Floating Systems, Inc. from San
Francisco, Algae. Tec from Australia [86] and Seambiotic Ltd. From
Israel [86] are developing carbon capture and sequestration system
from power plants and converting them to renewable fuel and other
valuable products. Abellon Clean Energy, India has developed 660 L
tubular glass reactors with Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
system which purges CO2 automatically as pH of the medium increases
and monitors online CO2, O2, pH, TDS and other growth parameters2
(Fig. 6). The reactor has been design for simulation trials for various
algae species growth and subsequent characterization of algal biomass
for its industrial applications.
3.1.2. Removal of NOx and SOx by microalgae
Besides the CO2 removal from flue gas, microalgae can also remove
NOx, SOx and some heavy metals from flue gas and thus help in
reduction of overall GHG emissions to the environment. Nagase et al.
reported the potential of NOx removal from flue gas by Dunaliella
tertiolecta with 65% NO removal efficiency. He also observed that NO
removal efficiency is closely associated with strain of microalgae and
level of dissolved oxygen [112–114]. Kao et al. also found the faster
growth rate and higher cell concentration in Chlorella sp. with higher
concentration of NOx in flue gas (i.e. flue gas from coke oven) [115].
Santiago et al. [116] found positive results by using counter-flow type
airlift reactor to overcome the problem of low NO dissolution in the
aqueous phase. He also reported that addition of Fe (II)-EDTA to the
culture of microalga Scenedesmus sp. enhances the NO fixation to a
greater degree than seen with bacterial denitrification systems. These
findings suggest that the NOx concentrations at sub inhibitory levels
2
“Design and Development of Dual Operating pilot Scale Bio Reactor System for
Comparative Simulations studies On Algal Cultivation” (October 2011 – September
2012) accessed from http://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/bio-fuel/R_D_biofuel-
Design- & -Devlopement….cultivation.pdf on 10th October 2015.
A. Patel et al.
could enhance the microbial growth. The study of DeNOx process on
Chlorella sp. C2 suggested that the adverse effect of nitrite on cell
growth could be ignored when 17.65–88.25 mM nitrite was utilized as
the nitrogen source [117].
Sulfur oxides (SOx) are also important components present in flue
gas, which directly contribute to degradation of the ozone layer and
acid rain formation. Matsumoto et al. [118] studied the negative
impact of pH fluctuation by presence of SOx on microalgae growth.
Kao had also reported that SOx in the flue gas served as a sulfur source
that support the growth of algae [115]. Studies show that NOx and SOx
might be used by microalgae as nutrients only when pH is stably
regulated [119]. Moreover, microalgae strains have their own tolerance
limits for SOx and NOx exposure [113].
3.1.3. Nutrient recycling from waste water
Effluent treatment plants (ETPs) are installed in manufacturing
units as a process of water recycling, recovery of useful chemicals and
to meet local environmental pollution guideline with improving
sustainability of the manufacturing facility [120].
Microalgae play an important role in nutrient recycling via phycor-
emediation. The term phytoremediation was introduced by John [69].
Microalgae take up nutrient from waste water for its growth and
thereby generate biomass. Moreover, algae release free oxygen into
waste water stream which enhance the aerobic degradation by other
microorganisms improving BOD and COD of waste stream. They
efficiently remove nitrogen, phosphorus and other toxic metals from
waste water and play an important role in tertiary phase of industrial
waste water treatment [39]. Microalgae also degrade more persisting
molecules such as hydrocarbons, antibiotics and heavy metals besides
common compounds present in waste water [121].
C. vulgaris was reported to remove nitrogen and phosphorus from
waste water with removal efficiency of 72% and 28% respectively [122].
Cyanobacteria can also assimilate glutamine, arginine and asparagine
amino acids from organic waste water source [123]. Moreover increase
in pH during growth of algae has disinfectant effect on waste water.
Other microalgae cultures widely reported for nutrient removal are
Chlorella[124,125], Spirullina species [126], and Scenedesmus [127].
Scenedesmus obliquus can also degrade the phenol at a concentration
of 1.5 mM (141 mg/L) and diachlorophenols in some cases [128]. In a
study of dairy wastewater treatment by microalgae, the nitrate level
could be reduced by 90%, phosphorus by 70%, ammonia by 90% and
COD by 60% using Chlamydomonas polypyrenoideum in 10 days in
250 mL flasks [129]. An alcohol distillery wastewater treated by
Chlorella sorokiniana could decreased the COD from 20 to 1.5 gO2/
L in 3 days in a 50 L PBR with 95% decrease in nitrate, 77% in
phosphate and 35% in sulfate [130]. Some microalgae species could
also treat oil refinery wastewaters and reduce the ammonium by 97%,
total nitrogen by 69% and total phosphorus by 90% in a three day batch
process [131].
Acid mine drainage (AMD) is one of the major cause of environ-
mental pollution in countries having mining industries. A study of
AMD wastewater treatment by cyanobacteria shown promising re-
moval of metals like Fe by 95%, Cu by 79–97%, Zn by 84–86%, Pb by
88%, Co by 59–83%, Ni by 22–62% and Mn by 28–45% [132].
Heavy metal pollutants are frequently found in industrial waste-
water. The heavy metal detoxification is regulated by class III metal-
lothioneins (MtIII) in microalgae which is discussed well in a review
focusing on heavy metal accumulation and detoxification by microalgae
[133]. Furthermore, a most recent review described well documented
list of heavy metal (Cd2+, Co, Cr3+, Hg2+, Ni2+, Cr2O7−2, Cu2+, Fe3+,
Pb2+ and Zn2+) remediation by different microalgae species via
detoxification and biosorption [134].
Thus, microalgae cultivation on wastewater offers additional ben-
efits for microalgae industry as well as wastewater treatment sectors.
Now it's necessary to use wastewater to reduce the cost of cultivation in
microalgae production. Different microalgae species and cultivation
9
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx
Table 5
Bio-active compounds from microalgae and their applications [14].
Species Product Applications
Dunaliella salina Carotenoid, β Health food, food
carotene supplement, feed
Haematococcus Carotenoids, Health food,
pluvialis astaxanthin pharmaceuticals, additives
Odontella aurita Fatty acid Pharmaceuticals, cosmetics,
baby food
Porphyridium Polysaccharides Pharmaceuticals, cosmetics,
Cruentum nutrition
Phaedactylum Lipids, Fatty acids Nutrition
Tricornutum
Lyngbya mujuscule Immune modulators Pharmaceuticals, nutrition
Source: Priyadarshani I, Rath B. Commercial and industrial applications of micro
algae – A review. Journal of Algal Biomass Utilization 2012; 3:89–100.
systems were studied for nutrients removal by microalgae. Despite of
these opportunities, many challenges have still to be overcome to
utilize the full potential of combined microalgae production with
wastewater treatment which include identification or development of
robust microalgae species, combination technology for microalgae
cultivation and downstream processing with water recycling.
3.2. Microalgae high value products
Microalgae are good bio-producers of fine chemicals and biologi-
cally active compounds which can be used as nutraceuticals, curative or
preventative drugs and cosmetics products for human consumption
(Table 5). Microalgae can produce high value products such as
polysaccharides, fatty acids, vitamins, antioxidants, pigments, carote-
noids depending upon species and physiological conditions [14].
3.2.1. Human health
People are more concerned about health and giving more attention
to nutritional value of regular diet. Traditionally nutritional supple-
ments are extracted from terrestrial plants. In last three to four decades
health benefits of aquatic microorganism like microalgae are being
investigated and appreciated [135]. Few species of microalgae have
high protein value compare to other legume crops.
Spirulina platensis gaining popularity among the best food supple-
ment worldwide. It contained 55–70% protein of total dry weight. It
has been used as food in Asia for more than 700–1000 years [135]. It is
also source of fatty acids [136], pigments [137,138] and vitamins
[139,140]. Spirullina food supplements also improve immunity and
help to prevent viral infection and cancer. Spirullina species also
known for production of clionasterol which stimulates production of
plasminogen- activating factor and thus prevent cardiovascular disease
[135]. Muriellopsis sp. can synthesis high level of carotenoids as lutein
which is generally used in treatment of degenerative drugs [141]. Polly
unsaturated fatty acids like eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahex-
aenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA) can be extracted from
Chlorella minutissima, Schizochytrium sp. and Parietochlorisincise
respectively [27]. These PUFAs have been used for treatment of chronic
inflammation, atherosclerosis, coronary heart diseases, hypertension,
cholesterol, cardio-vascular diseases and cancer [135].
Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Chlorella ellipsoidea can produce
polysaccharides complexes which contain sugars like glucose, man-
nose, galactose, arabinose etc [135]. Certain microalgae species can
produce UV- screening compounds like sporopollenine, scytonemin
and mycosporine which can be used in sun screen formulation [14].
Dunaliella sp. has become most popular because of lipid, protein,
glycerol and β-carotene content [135]. Israeli and Australian compa-
nies cultivate these type of microalgae for large scale production of
dietary supplements containing vitamin A and vitamin C [142].
A. Patel et al.
Moreover, carotenoids found in Spirulina and Dunaliella sp. are more
effective anti-cancer agents than β-carotene [141,143].
Vitamins like biotin and α-tocopherol can be synthesized by
cultivating Euglena gracilis and ascorbic acid by Prototheca morifor-
mis [27]. Microalgae like Ochromonas sp., Prymnesium parvum and
other blue green algae produce toxic compounds which may have wide
pharmaceutical and therapeutic application [144,145]. Various strains
of blue green algae are reported to produce intracellular as well as
extracellular metabolites with different biological activities like anti-
bacterial, antiviral, antifungal as well as antialgal. Large scale produc-
tion of these bioactive compounds depends on various factors like
temperature, pH, media components, light intensity and duration of
culture growth [146]. Astaxanthin produced by H. pluvialis protects
membrane phospholipids against peroxidation. H. pluvialis is ap-
proved by U.S. FDA for marketing as dietary supplements and also
approved in few European countries for human consumption. Health
benefits of astaxanthin include immuno-modulating functions, antic-
ancer activity, photo protection, anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular
health, reduce risk for neurodegenerative diseases, eye retina protec-
tion from oxidative damage and positive effects in age related macular
disease [135].
3.2.2. Aquaculture and animal feed
Increasing needs for protein and price volatility in fish meal market
in recent years led to search for new alternative sources. One such
highly nutritional and cost effective food component that can address
the questions raised in aquaculture is microalgae.
Microalgae can be used in aquaculture as live feed for bivalve
molluscs, for juvenile stages of abalone, some fish species and
crustaceans and for zooplanktons [147]. Microalgae species like
Isochrysis galbana and Tetraselmis suecica are used as best food for
larval bivalves. Scenedesmus and Chlorella can also be used as Artemia
food and rotifer Brachionus plicatilis cultivation respectively [50].
Use of microalgae as an aquaculture feed should devoid of toxicity,
easy to ingestion to make nutrients available, correct cell size and shape
and have sufficient biochemical and nutrient content [148]. Fish health
depends on amount of essential fatty acids present in microalgae as
food. Nutritional value of microalgae varies species to species and may
influenced by different culture conditions [142,149]. C. calcitrans, S.
costatum, Isochrysis sp., P. lutheri, T. suecica, C. muelleri, and
Thalassiosira pseudonana have good nutritional properties as mono-
species or with mix diet [142,150]. Combination more than one
microalgae species instead of monospecies provides better and ba-
lanced nutrition [43].
Predation by various protozoans like zooflagellates, ciliates, and
rhizopods and blooming of undesirable toxic species of blue-green of
red tide are major problems with culturing of marine microalgae. Few
algae species like chlorococcalean (green algae), such as Synechocystis
(freshwater algae) and Phaeodactylum (seawater algae) are detrimen-
tal for growth of bivalve molluscuss [50]. Monoculture cultivation of
microalgae for aquaculture feed is pathogen free and nutritionally well
balanced.
Recently, being a good producer of astaxanthin content, H.
pluvialis is popular in market for salmon and trout diet and for other
aquatic life like shrimp, prawns, and chickens [141]. Production of H.
pluvialis is carried out in large scale PBRs in completely controlled
conditions to stimulate synthesis of astaxanthin and finally harvested
by gravitational sedimentation and centrifugation [151].
4. Conclusion
Microalgae are getting more attention from academic and industrial
research as renewable energy feedstock coupled with higher sustain-
ability index. Many researchers and industries are showing positive
finding towards technological development in microalgae to bio-fuel
and other high value products. However, research is still needed for
10
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (xxxx) xxxx–xxxx
development of economically viable cultivation system with higher
yield, energy efficient processing and conversion system for large scale
sustainable bio-fuel production from microalgae. Fully optimized
culture system with controlled environment and utilization of cheap
carbon dioxide sources like flue gases from power plant with water
remediation can make large scale biofuel production from microalgae
economically and environmentally sustainable. Moreover, the optimi-
zation of nutrient level, light and growth conditions as well as
development of highly efficient microalgae strains are key concerns to
complete the milestones in this direction. Large scale biodiesel
production from microalgae biomass requires process optimization at
oil extraction and purification phases.
Although, solvent extraction methods provide highest lipid recovery
and lipid denaturation at higher temperature with environmental risk
of solvents released Solvent-free methods appear to be effective at
laboratory scale where more research is needed for commercial scale.
Eco-friendly and cost effective mechanical lipid extraction methods
have poor recovery with significant degradation of lipids. Sonication
and super critical fluid extraction are advanced techniques that
replaces traditional solvent extraction and mechanical practices with
added economical factor of higher energy consumption. Thus selection
of oil extraction method is one of the rate limiting step for biodiesel
production from microalgae feedstock. The combinative methods can
be an effective and promising way for oil extraction from microalgae
like partial cell disruption by mechanical or enzymatic cell degradation
followed by solvent extraction. This will be energy efficient and
environment friendly. Moreover, mathematical models can be devel-
oped for using solvent ratio to optimize lipid extraction.
High cost of technology in oil extraction can be overlooked if algae
cultivation process coexists with waste water generating and CO2
emitting industry which pays lots towards environmental penalty.
CO2 emission charges called Carbon price or carbon tax is the amount
that must be paid for the right to emit a tone of CO2. Industries
emitting such CO2 with high carbon tax could opt for algae cultivation
diverting CO2 into cultivation process as a source of carbon and thereby
offset at downstream high cost technological barriers. Further indus-
trial waste water treatment plants also add to the cost of water
purification. Instead, utilization of such waste water with suitable algae
cultivation system may further reduce economics on cost of cultivation
which may later be diverted to high cost efficient oil extraction process.
Establishing such waste utilizing projects need encouragement through
carbon finance.
Waste water utilization and CO2 sequestration from flue gas would
reduce production cost influencing GHG emissions reduction mandates
and effective waste utilization. Integration of all downstream proces-
sing technologies with multiple end products can make microalgae
cultivation an economic and environmentally sustainable process.
Considerable effort in technological development and technical exper-
tise are still needed to make algal biodiesel technically and economic-
ally viable. Integration of innovative policy supports and financing
schemes are also required to push market demand of microalgae
cultivation for bio-energy and bio-products in progressive direction.
Acknowledgment
Mr. Akash Patel is registered Ph.D. scholar (Registration No.
001945) working for his studies on “microalgae isolation, identification
and characterization for industrial applications”, at Department of
Biotechnology, Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University (HNGU),
Patan, India in association with Abellon Clean Energy Ltd to develop
environmental and economic feasibility of algal biofuel. This review is
part of the Ph.D. studies. Mr. Akash Patel is recipient of Prime
Minister's Fellowship Scheme for Doctoral Research jointly promoted
by Science & Engineering Research Board (SERB) and Govt. of India
(DST). Authors are thankful to HNGU and Abellon Clean Energy Ltd.
for their critical inputs and infrastructural support to accomplish the
A. Patel et al.
review. The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support from
DST, SERB and Abellon Clean Energy Ltd. through the Prime
Minister's Fellowship.
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