World and Indian Geography PDF

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me/Material_For_Exam
S18 World Geography Part - III

S19 World Geography Part - I
S20 World Geography Part - II and Doubt Clearing Session
S21 World Geography Part - IV
S23-IndianGeographyPart-11
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Indian
Geography Part - 1
By Dr. Roman Saini
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www.visionias.net
Topics To Be Discussed https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
1. Location
2. Indian Physiography
A. Himalayan Mountain System
B. Northern Plains
C. Peninsular Plateau
D. Indian Desert
E. Coastal Plains
F. The Islands
3. Soils in India
4. Lakes In India
5. Natural Vegetation in India
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1.
Location
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Introduction
➢ India is the seventh largest country in the world.
➢ Its mainland extends from Kashmir in the north to Kanyakumari in
the south and Arunachal Pradesh in the east to Gujarat in the
west.
➢ India’s territorial limit further extends towards the sea up to 12
nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the coast.
➢ The country covers an area of about 32,80,000 sq. km.
➢ The total length of the coastline is 7,517 km.
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➢ Its mainland extends between 8°4' and 37°6' N latitude and 68°7'
and 97°25' E longitude.
➢ Due to the great longitudinal extent of about 29°, there could be a
wide difference in local time of places located at two extreme
points of India.
➢ The sun rises about two hours earlier in the east (Arunachal
Pradesh) than in the west (Gujarat).
➢ the local time of longitude of 82°30'E has been taken as the Indian
Standard Time (IST).
➢ The IST is ahead of Greenwich Mean Time by 5 hours and 30
minutes.
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➢ The Tropic of Cancer (23°30' N) splits India into almost two

halves.
➢ The Indian peninsula southwards results in the division of the Indian
Ocean into two water bodies:
○ the Bay of Bengal in the East and
○ the Arabian Sea in the West.
➢ The size of India has enriched her with great physical diversity.
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Its Neighbours https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
A. West:
Its western border (LOC) with Pakistan extends up to 3,323 km
(separated by Radcliffe Line).
B. North-West:
India shares a 106 km border with Afghanistan in north-western
Kashmir which the Indian government officially regards as
Pakistan occupied Kashmir (PoK region).
C. East:
India's border with Bangladesh runs 4,096.7 km.
The border with Myanmar extends up to 1,643 km.
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D. Northeast :
The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the effective border between
India and the People's Republic of China and it traverses
4,057 km.
Bhutan is a landlocked country making 699 km long border with
India in Northeast.
The border with Nepal runs 1,751 km along the foothills of the
Himalayas.
E. South:
Sri Lanka in Southeast and Maldives in Southwest are two
neighbours with water borders.
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2.
Indian
Physiography
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Physical Division of India

➢ Based on the variations in its geological structure and
formations, India can be divided into three geological divisions.
1. The Peninsular Block
2. The Himalayas and other Peninuslar Mountains
3. Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain
➢ These geological regions broadly follow the physical features of
Indian and it can be divided into 6 physiographic regions.
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1. The Himalayas (Young fold mountains)

2. The Indo-Gangetic Plain (Monotonous or featureless topography)
3. The Peninsular Plateau (One of the most stable landmasses and
one of the oldest plateaus of the world)
4. The Coastal Plains (Sediments formed due to fluvial action)
5. The Indian Islands [Coral Islands: coral reef built up on atolls →
Lakshadweep; Tectonic: Interaction between Indian Plate and
Eurasian plate → Andaman and Nicobar Islands]
6. The Indian Desert
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2A.
Himalayan Mountain
System
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The Himalayan Ranges

➢ The Himalayas represent the loftiest and one of the most rugged
mountain barriers of the world.
➢ They form an arc which covers a distance of about 2,400 Km.
➢ They are series of several parallel or converging ranges.
➢ The ranges are separated by deep valleys generating a
highly dissected topography.
➢ The altitudinal variations are greater in the eastern half than
those in the western half.
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➢ The general orientation of these ranges is from northwest to the

southeast direction in the northwestern part of India.
➢ The southern slopes have steep gradients and northern slopes
have relatively gentler slopes.
➢ Majority of the Himalayan ranges fall in India, Nepal, and Bhutan.
➢ The Himalayas are not only the physical barrier, but they are also a
climatic, drainage, and cultural divide.
➢ On the basis of relief, alignment of ranges, and other
geomorphological features, the Himalayas can be divided into
different sections.
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A. Division From North To South

(Longitudinal)
➢ There are three main parallel ranges of Himalaya from North to
South
1. Himadri or Greater/Inner Himalayas
2. Himachal or Middle/Lesser Himalayas
3. Shiwaliks or Outer Himalayas
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i. Greater/Inner Himalaya - Himadri

➢ The northernmost range is known as the Great or Inner
Himalayas or the ‘Himadri.
➢ It is the most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks
with an average height of 6,000 metres.
➢ It contains all the prominent Himalayan peaks.
➢ For examples, one in the Nanga Parbat in the north-west and the
other in the Namcha Barwa in the north-east.
➢ The core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite.
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➢ A number of valleys lie between these ranges.

➢ It is perennially snowbound and a number of glaciers descend
from this range.
➢ Its average altitude is of 6,100 m above sea level and an average
width of about 25 km.
➢ There are many important passes for trade and transport in this
region.
➢ For example, an important trade route connecting Kalimpong (near
Darjeeling) with Lhasa in Tibet passes through Jelep La.
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State Passes of Greater Himalayas
Jammu and Kashmir Banihal Pass, Chang La, Khardung La,

Pir Panjal Pass, Burzil Pass, Zoji La, Aghil pass
Himachal Pradesh Baralacha La, Shipki La, Rohtang Pass, Debsa Pass
Uttarakhand Niti Pass, Lipu Lekh, Mana Pass, Muling Pass,

Mangsha Dhura
Sikkim Nathu La, Jelep La
Arunachal Pradesh Dihang Pass, Diphu Pass, Chankan Pass,

Bomdila Pass, Lekhapani Pass, Pangsang La
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ii. Middle/Lesser Himalaya - Himachal

➢ The range lying to the south of the Himadri and forms the most
rugged mountain system.
➢ The ranges are mainly composed of highly compressed and
altered rocks.
➢ The altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500 metres and the
average width is of 50 Km.
➢ The Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most important
range.
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➢ This range consists of the famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra,

and Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh.
➢ This region is well known for its hill stations.
➢ The attraction of tourism because the majority of the Himalayan
hill resorts like Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet, Nainital, Almora,
Darjeeling, etc. are located here.
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Important ranges of Region

Lesser Himalayas
The Pir Panjal Range Jammu and Kashmir
The Dhauladhar Range Himachal Pradesh
The Mussoorie Range Uttarakhand

The Nag Tibba Range
Mahabharat Range Nepal
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iii. Outer Himalayas - Shiwalik https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ It is located between the Great Plains and the Lesser Himalayas.

➢ Shiwaliks runs from the Potwar Plateau to the Brahmaputra
valley.
➢ They are an almost unbroken chain of low hills.
➢ They extend over a width of 10-50 Km and have an altitude
varying between 900 and 1100 metres.
➢ These ranges are composed of unconsolidated sediments,
gravels, and conglomerate deposits brought down by rivers
from the main Himalayan ranges located farther north.
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➢ These deposits were folded and hardened due to compression

offered by the northward movement of the Indian plate.
➢ When the rivers were able to cut their courses through the lakes
filled with conglomerate deposits, the lakes were drained away
leaving behind plains called ‘duns’ in the west and ‘duars’ in the
east.
➢ Hence, the longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and
the Shiwaliks are known as Duns.
➢ Dehradun, Kotli Dun, and Patli Dun are some of the well-known
Duns.
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Different Names of Siwaliks in Different Areas
Region Name of Shiwaliks
Jammu Region Jammu Hills
Arunachal Pradesh Dafla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi Hills
Uttarakhand The Dhang Range, Dundwa Range
Nepal Churia Ghat Hills
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B. Division From West To East

(Regional)
1. Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas
2. Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
3. Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
4. Arunachal Himalayas
5. Eastern Hills and Mountains.
➢ These divisions have been demarcated by river valleys.
➢ Indus and the Brahmaputra mark the easternmost and
westernmost boundary of the Himalayas respectively.
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i. Kashmir / Northwestern Himalayas

➢ This region is drained by the river Indus and its tributaries such
as the Jhelum and the Chenab.
➢ It comprises a series of ranges such as the Karakoram, Ladakh,
Zanskar, and Pir Panjal.
➢ The Kashmir Himalayas are also famous for Karewa formations
which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran, a local variety of
saffron.
➢ Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other
materials embedded with moraines.
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➢ Some of the important passes of the region are the following

1. Zoji La on the Great Himalayas,

2. Banihal on the Pir Panjal,
3. Photu La on the Zaskar and
4. Khardung La on the Ladakh range.
➢ Some of the important fresh lakes such as Dal and Wular and
saltwater lakes such as Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri are also in
this region.
➢ The southernmost part of this region consists of longitudinal
valleys known as ‘duns’.
➢ Jammu dun and Pathankot dun are important examples.
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ii. Himachal & Uttaranchal Himalayas

➢ This part lies approximately between the Ravi in the west and the
Kali in the east.
➢ It is drained by two major river systems of India i.e. the Indus and
the Ganga.
➢ The region is also known to have five famous Prayags i.e. river
confluences. (Will discuss in drainage system)
➢ The northernmost part of the Himachal Himalayas is an extension
of the Ladakh cold desert which lies in the Spiti subdivision of
district Lahaul and Spiti.
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➢ All three ranges of Himalayas (Greater, Lesser, and Shiwalik) are

prominent in this section also.
➢ The Lesser Himalayas is locally known as Dhauladhar in
Himachal Pradesh and Nagtibha in Uttarakhand.
➢ In this section of Lesser Himalayas, the altitude between
1,000-2,000 m especially attracted to the British colonial
administration.
➢ Subsequently, some of the important hill stations such as
Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kausani, etc. were developed in
this region.
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➢ The cantonment towns and health resorts such as Shimla,

Mussoorie, Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne, Ranikhet, etc. were also

developed.
➢ The two distinguishing features of this region from the point of
view of physiography are the following
○ Shiwalik
○ Dun formations
➢ Some important duns located in this region are the
Chandigarh-Kalka dun, Nalagarh dun, Dehradun, Harike dun and
the Kota dun, etc.
➢ Dehradun is the largest of all the duns.
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➢ In the Great Himalayan range, the valleys are mostly inhabited by

the Bhotias.
➢ These are nomadic groups who migrate to ‘Bugyals’ during
summer months and return to the valleys during winters.
➢ Bugyals are summer grasslands in the higher reaches of
Himalayas.
➢ The famous ‘Valley of flowers’ is also situated in this region.
➢ The places of pilgrimage such as the Gangotri, Yamunotri,
Kedarnath, Badrinath, and Hemkund Sahib are also situated in
this part.
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iii. Darjeeling & Sikkim Himalayas

➢ They are flanked by Nepal Himalayas in the west and Bhutan
Himalayas in the east.
➢ It is relatively small but the a most significant part of the Himalayas.
➢ Known for its fast-flowing rivers such as Tista.
➢ It is a region of high mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga and deep
valleys.
➢ The higher reaches of this region are inhabited by Lepcha tribes
while the southern part has a mixed population of Nepalis,
Bengalis, and tribals from Central India.
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➢ The British introduced tea plantations in this region.
➢ It was possible because of the advantages of physical
conditions such as
○ moderate slope,
○ thick soil cover with high organic content,
○ well distributed rainfall throughout the year, and
○ mild winters.
➢ In place of the Shiwaliks here, the ‘duar formations’ are
important which have also been used for the development of tea
gardens.
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iv. Arunachal Himalayas

➢ These extend from the east of the Bhutan Himalayas up to the
Diphu pass in the east.
➢ Some of the important mountain peaks of the region are Kangtu
and Namcha Barwa.
➢ These ranges are dissected by fast-flowing rivers from the north
to the south forming deep gorges.
➢ Some of the important rivers are the Kameng, the Subansiri, the
Dihang, the Dibang, and the Lohit.
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➢ These are perennial with the high rate of fall, thus, having the
highest hydroelectric power potential in the country.
➢ An important aspect of the Arunachal Himalayas is the numerous
ethnic tribal community inhabiting in these areas.
➢ Some of the prominent ones from west to east are the
1. Monpa,
2. Abor,
3. Mishmi,
4. Nyishi and
5. the Nagas.
➢ This region is rich in biodiversity.
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v. Eastern Hill & Mountains https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ These are part of the Himalayan mountain system having their

general alignment from the north to the south direction.
➢ They are known by different local names.
○ In the north, they are known as Patkai Bum, Naga hills, and
the Manipur hills.
○ And in the south, it is known as Mizo or Lushai hills.
➢ These are low hills inhabited by numerous tribal groups practising
Jhum cultivation.
➢ Most of these ranges are separated from each other by numerous
small rivers.
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Some Highest Peaks of the Himalayas
In India In Nepal
Kanchenjunga Mt. Everest
Nanga Parbat Maklu
Nanda Devi Dhaulagiri
Kamet Annapurna
Namcha Barwa Gurla Mandhata
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The Trans-Himalayas https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ These ranges lie immediately to the north of Great Himalayan

range.
➢ It is also called the Tibetan Himalaya because most of it lies in
Tibet.
➢ Its average altitude is 5800 m above mean sea level.
➢ It stretches for a distance of about 1,000 km in the east-west
direction.
➢ The Zaskar, the Ladakh, the Kailash, and the Karakoram are the
main ranges lies in trans-Himalayas
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Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas

➢ It extends in the west-east direction from the Indus gorge in the
west to the Brahmaputra gorge in the east.
➢ Its ranges take sharp southward bends at these gorges.
➢ These bends are called syntaxial bends of the Himalayas.
➢ The western syntaxial bend arises near the Nanga Parbat and
eastern syntaxial bend arise near the Namcha Barwa.
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➢ At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden southward

bend and form a chain of comparatively low hills which are
collectively called as the Purvanchal.
➢ These ranges run along the India-Myanmar Border extending
from Arunachal Pradesh in the north to Mizoram in the south.
➢ For examples, Patkai Bum Hills, Naga Hills, Manipur Hills, Jaintia,
Khasi and Garo Hills, and Mizo Hills.
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2B.
The Northern Plains
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Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains
➢ The northern plains are formed by the alluvial deposits brought by
the rivers – the Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, and their
tributaries.
➢ Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain is the largest alluvial tract of
the world.
➢ It extended for about 3,200 km from the mouth of the Indus to the
mouth of the Ganga. The plain accounts for 2,400 sq km.
➢ The deposition of alluvium in a vast basin lying at the foothills of
the Himalaya over millions of years formed this fertile plain.
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➢ The rivers coming from the northern mountains are involved in

depositional work.
➢ In the lower course, due to gentle slope, the velocity of the river
decreases which results in the formation of riverine islands.
➢ The boundary is bordered by the Shiwaliks in the north and the
southern boundary is a wavy irregular line along the northern
edge of Peninsular India.
➢ The western boundary is marked by Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges
and the eastern boundary is bordered by Purvanchal hills.
➢ With a rich soil cover combined with an adequate water supply and
favourable climate, it is agriculturally a very productive part of India.
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➢ The Northern Plain is broadly divided into three sections such as

1. The Western part of the Northern Plain is referred to as the

Punjab Plains.
Formed by the Indus and its tributaries, the larger part of this
plain lies in Pakistan.
This section of the plain is dominated by the doab.
2. The Ganga Plain extends between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers.
It is spread over the states of North India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P.,
Bihar, partly Jharkhand, and West Bengal.
3. To the east of Ganga plain, particularly in Assam lies the
Brahmaputra Plain.
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➢ The northern plains are generally described as flat land with no

variations in its relief.

➢ It is not true. These vast plains also have diverse relief features.
➢ According to the variations in relief features, the Northern Plains
can be divided into four regions. From the north to the south,
these can be divided into three major zones:
○ the Bhabar,
○ the Tarai
○ the Alluvial plains
➢ The alluvial plains can be further divided into the Bhangar and
Khadar.
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www.visionias.net
i. Bhabhar https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ It is a narrow, permeable, northernmost stretch of Indo-Gangetic

plain.
➢ It is about 8-16 km wide running in an east-west direction along the
foothills (alluvial fans) of the Shiwaliks.
➢ The streams and rivers coming from the mountains deposit heavy
materials of rocks and boulders disappear in this zone.
➢ Therefore, the area is marked by dry river courses during
summer (not in the rainy season).
➢ The area is not fit for agriculture and only big trees with large roots
thrive in this belt.
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ii. Tarai
➢ It is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested, narrow
tract to the south of Bhabar, running parallel to it.
➢ The Terai region is about 15-30 km wide.
➢ Most of the streams and rivers re-emerge without having any
properly demarcated channel, thereby, creating marshy and swampy
conditions in this belt.
➢ It accounts for a higher amount of rainfall than Bhabar.
➢ It consists of the thickly forested region that provides shelter to a
variety of wildlife.
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iii. The Alluvial Plains -

Bhangar & Khadar
➢ The south of Tarai is a belt consisting of old and new alluvial
deposits known as the Bhangar and Khadar respectively.
➢ These plains have characteristic features of the mature stage of
fluvial erosional and depositional landforms such as sand bars,
meanders, oxbow lakes, and braided channels.
➢ Most of these areas are subjected to periodic floods and
shifting river courses forming braided streams.
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➢ The largest part of the northern plain is formed of older alluvium

called Bhangar.
○ The soil in this region contains calcareous deposits locally
known as Kankar.
➢ The newer, younger deposits of the flood plains are called
Khadar.
○ They are renewed almost every year.
○ Therefore, it is very fertile, thus, ideal for intensive
agriculture.
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2C.
The Peninsular
Plateau
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Features of Peninsular Plateau

➢ The Peninsular plateau is a tableland composed of the old
crystalline, igneous, and metamorphic rocks.
➢ It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana
land and thus, making it a part of the oldest landmass.
➢ This Peninsular plateau has undergone recurrent phases of
upliftment and submergence accompanied by crustal faulting
and fractures.
➢ The plateau has broad and shallow valleys and rounded hills.
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➢ One of the distinct features of the peninsular plateau is the black

soil area known as Deccan Trap.
➢ This is of volcanic origin hence the rocks are igneous.
➢ Actually, these rocks have denuded over time and are responsible
for the formation of black soil.
➢ Peninsular India is made up of a series of peatland plateaus
such as the Hazaribagh plateau, the Palamu plateau, the Ranchi
plateau, the Malwa plateau, the Coimbatore plateau, and the
Karnataka plateau, etc.
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➢ Its extends between the following

○ Delhi ridge in the northwest,

○ the Rajmahal hills in the east,
○ Gir range in the west and
○ the Cardamom hills in the south.
➢ Aravali Hills lie on the western and northwestern margins of the
peninsular plateau.
○ These are highly eroded hills and are found as broken hills.
○ They extend from Gujarat to Delhi in a southwest-northeast
direction.
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Division of Peninsular Plateau

➢ The important physiographic features of this region are tors,
block mountains, rift valley, spurs, bare rocky structures, series of
hummocky hills and wall-like quartzite dykes offering natural sites for
water storage.
➢ On the basis of the relief features, this plateau can be divided into
three groups:
○ The Deccan Plateau
○ The Central Highlands
○ The Northeastern Plateau
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i. The Deccan Plateau

➢ The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass that lies to the south
of the river Narmada.
➢ This plateau is bordered by the following
○ the Western Ghats in the west,
○ the Eastern Ghats in the east and
○ the Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills in the north.
➢ The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and slopes gently
eastwards.
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Western Ghats
➢ The Western Ghats are continuous and can be crossed through
passes only.
➢ The Western Ghats are higher than the Eastern Ghats. Their
average elevation is 900–1600 metres as against 600 metres of
the Eastern Ghats.
➢ The Western Ghats cause orographic rain by facing the rain
bearing moist winds to rise along the western slopes of the Ghats.
➢ The height of the Western Ghats progressively increases from
north to south.
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➢ The Western Ghats are locally known by different names such as

○ Sahyadri in Maharashtra,
○ Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and
○ Anaimalai hills and Cardamom hills in Kerala.
➢ The highest peaks include the Anaimudi (2,695 metres) and the
Doda Betta (2,637 metres).
➢ Most of the Peninsular rivers have their origin in the Western
Ghats.
➢ The Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats meet each other at the
Nilgiri hills.
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Eastern Ghats
➢ The Eastern Ghats stretch from the Mahanadi Valley to the
Nilgiris in the south.
➢ The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous and irregular and
dissected by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal.
➢ Some important ranges in the Eastern Ghats include the Javadi
hills, Shevroy, the Palconda range, the Nallamala hills, etc.
➢ Mahendragiri (1,501 metres) is the highest peak in the Eastern
Ghats.
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ii. The Central Highland

➢ The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the
Narmada river covering a major area of the Malwa plateau is
known as the Central Highlands.
➢ The Vindhya range is bounded by the Central Highlands on the
south and the Aravallis on the northwest.
➢ The further westward extension gradually merges with the
sandy and rocky desert of Rajasthan.
➢ An extension towards the Rajmahal hills in the east.
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➢ The flow of the rivers draining this region, namely the Chambal,
the Sind, the Betwa and Ken is from southwest to northeast, thus
indicating the slope.
➢ The Central Highlands are wider in the west but narrower in the
east.
➢ The eastward extensions of this plateau are locally known as the
Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.
➢ The Chotanagpur plateau marks the further eastward extension,
drained by the Damodar river.
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iii. The Northeastern Plateau https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ An extension of the Northern Plateau is also visible in the

northeast– locally known as the Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau,
and North Cachar Hills.
➢ It is separated by a fault from the Chotanagpur Plateau.
➢ The force exerted by the northeastern movement of the Indian plate
at the time of the Himalayan origin, a huge fault was generated
between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau.
➢ Aftermath, this depression got filled up by the deposition activity
of the numerous rivers.
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➢ At present, the Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau stand

detached from the main Peninsular block.
➢ The Meghalaya plateau is subdivided into the following three hills
located from west to east
1. The Garo Hills
2. The Khasi Hills
3. The Jaintia Hills
➢ An extension of this is also seen in the Karbi Anglong hills of
Assam.
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➢ Similar to the Chotanagpur plateau, the Meghalaya plateau is

also rich in mineral resources like coal, iron ore, sillimanite,
limestone, and uranium.
➢ This area receives maximum rainfall from the southwest
monsoon.
➢ As a result, the Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface.
➢ Cherrapunji displays a bare rocky surface devoid of any
permanent vegetation cover.
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2D.
The Indian Desert
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The Indian Desert

➢ It lies to the northwest of the Aravali hills.
➢ It is an undulating topography with longitudinal dunes and
barchans.
➢ It has an arid climate with low vegetation mainly due to low
rainfall (Below 150 mm per year).
➢ It is also known as Marusthali because due to the above
characteristic features.
➢ Most of the rivers are ephemeral (lasting for a very short time).
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➢ Luni is the only large river in this region.

➢ Water deficit because due to low precipitation and high evaporation
in this region.
➢ On the basis of the orientation, the desert can be divided into two
parts:
○ the northern part is sloping towards Sindh and
○ the southern part towards the Rann of Kachchh.
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2E.
The Coastal Plains
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The Coastal Plains

➢ The Peninsular plateau is flanked by the stretch of narrow coastal
strips, running along
○ the Arabian Sea on the west and
○ the Bay of Bengal on the east.
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i. Western Coast
➢ The western coast, sandwiched between the Western Ghats and
the Arabian Sea, is a narrow plain.
➢ Extending from the Gujarat coast in the north to the Kerala coast
in the south, the west coast may be divided into following divisions
○ Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat,
○ Konkan coast in Maharashtra,
○ Goan coast in Karnataka and
○ Malabar coast in Kerala.
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➢ The western coastal plains are an example of the submerged
coastal plain.
➢ The western coastal plains are narrow in the middle and get
broader towards north and south.
➢ The rivers flowing through this coastal plain do not form any delta.
➢ Because of this submergence, it is a narrow belt and provides
natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours.
➢ For example, Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Nhava Sheva,
Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc.
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Kayal
➢ The Malabar coast has got certain distinguishing features in the
form of backwaters which is called ‘Kayals’.
➢ They are used for fishing, inland navigation and also due to its
special attraction for tourists.
➢ Every year the famous Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) is
held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala
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ii. Eastern Coast

➢ The plains along the Bay of Bengal are wide and level.
➢ As compared to the western coastal plain, the eastern coastal plain
is broader and is an example of an emergent coast.
➢ In the northern part, it is referred to as the Northern Circar, while
the southern part is known as the Coromandel Coast.
➢ Large rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna,
and the Kaveri have formed extensive delta on this coast.
➢ Lake Chilika is an important feature along the eastern coast.
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➢ There are well-developed deltas here, formed by the rivers
flowing eastward into the Bay of Bengal.
➢ Because of its emergent nature, it has less number of ports and
harbours.
➢ The continental shelf extends up to 500 km into the sea which
makes it difficult for the development of good ports and
harbours.
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2F.
The Islands
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The Islands
➢ There are two major islands groups in India such as:
1. In the Bay of Bengal
2. In the Arabian Sea
➢ The Bay of Bengal island groups consists of about 572 islands/islets.
➢ The two principal groups of islets include Ritchie’s archipelago and
the Labyrinth island.
➢ The entire group of island is divided into two broad categories – the
Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south.
➢ The islands of the Arabian sea include Lakshadweep and Minicoy.
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www.visionias.net
i. Andaman & Nicobar Islands https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ These are situated roughly between 6°N-14°N and 92°E -94°E.

➢ Both are separated by a water body which is called the Ten-degree
channel.
➢ It receives convectional rainfall and has an equatorial type of
vegetation.
➢ It is believed that these islands are an elevated portion of
submarine mountains.
➢ Barren Island is the only active volcano in India and it is situated in
the Nicobar islands.
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New Names of The Islands

➢ Following three Andaman And Nicobar Islands to be renamed
recently such as
1. Ross Island - Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island
2. Neil Island - Shaheed Dweep Island
3. Havelock Island - Swaraj Dweep Island
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ii. Lakshadweep
➢ Lakshadweep Islands are scattered between 8 to 12 degree N and
71 to 74 degree E longitude.
➢ Its entire island group is built of coral deposits.
➢ It is divided by the Eleventh-degree channel, north of which is the
Amini Island and to the south of the Cannanore Island.
➢ Minicoy is the largest island with an area of 453 sq. km.
➢ The Islands of this archipelago have storm beaches consisting of
unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles, and boulders on the
eastern seaboard.
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3.
Soils in India
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Soils
➢ Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which
develop on the earth’s surface.
➢ The major factors affecting the formation of soil are the following
1. Relief features,
2. Parent material,
3. Climate,
4. Vegetation and other life-forms and
5. Time.
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➢ Besides these, human activities also influence it to a large extent.

➢ Components of the soil are the following
1. Mineral particles,
2. Humus,
3. Water and
4. Air.
➢ The actual amount of each of these depends upon the type of
soil.
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Division of Soils
➢ On the basis of genesis, colour, composition, and location, the
soils of India have been divided into the following categories:
1. Alluvial soils
2. Black soils
3. Red and Yellow soils
4. Laterite soils
5. Arid soils
6. Saline soils
7. Peaty soils
8. Forest soils.
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Type Regions Rich in Lacks in Crops grown
Alluvial The plains of Potash and Nitrogen Large variety of

Gujarat, Lime and rabi and kharif
Punjab, Phosphorous crops such as
Haryana, wheat, rice,
UP, sugarcane, cotton,
Bihar, jute etc.
Jharkhand etc.
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Black Soil Deccan Lime, Phosphorous, Character of slow

Regur Soil Plateau which iron, nitrogen absorption and
Black- includes magnesia and loss of moisture,
Cotton parts of and organic retains the
Soil Maharashtra, alumina matter moisture for a very
Madhya long time, which
Pradesh, helps the crops,
Gujarat, especially, the rain
Andhra fed ones, to
Pradesh and sustain even
some parts of during the dry
Tamil Nadu. season.
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Red and Eastern and Iron and Nitrogen, Wheat,

Yellow southern part Potash Phosphorous rice,
of the deccan and cotton,
plateau, humus. sugarcane and
Orissa, pulses
Chhattisgarh
and southern
parts of the
middle Ganga
plain.
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Laterite Karnataka, Iron oxide Organic matter, Cashew Nuts,

Kerala, potash Nitrogen, tea,
Tamil Nadu, Phosphate coffee,
Madhya Calcium rubber
Pradesh,
Assam
Orissa hills.
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Arid and Western Soluble Humus, Only drought

Desert Rajasthan, salts, Nitrogen resistant and salt
north Gujarat phosphate tolerant crops
southern such as
Punjab barley,
rapeseed,
cotton,
millets,
maize and
pulses
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Saline and Western Sodium, Nitrogen and Unfit for agriculture

Alkaline Gujarat, Potassium, Calcium
deltas of Magnesium
eastern coast,
Sunderban
areas of West
Bengal,
Punjab and
Haryana
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Peaty Soils
➢ Found in the regions of heavy rainfall and high humidity where
there is a good growth of vegetation.
➢ Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 percent.
➢ These soils are heavy and black in colour.
➢ It occurs largely in the northern part of Bihar, the southern part
of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa,
and Tamil Nadu.
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Forests Soils
➢ The forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient
rainfall is available.
➢ They are loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in
the upper slopes.
➢ In the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they experience
denudation and are acidic with low humus content.
➢ The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile.
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Methods of Soil Conservation

➢ Check open cultivable lands on slopes from farming,
➢ Contour bunding,
➢ Contour terracing,
➢ Regulated forestry,
➢ Controlled grazing,
➢ Cover cropping,
➢ Mixed farming and crop rotation,
➢ Constructing a series of check dams.
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4.
Lakes In India
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Lakes
➢ A lake is a body of water having a considerable size,

localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land apart from a
river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain for the lake.
➢ Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, and therefore
they are distinct from lagoons.
➢ Lakes are also larger and deeper than ponds.
➢ Natural lakes are usually found in mountainous areas, rift
zones, and areas where glaciation is in progress.
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➢ Most lakes have at least one natural outflow in the form of a
stream or a river which helps in maintaining a lake’s average level
by allowing the drainage of excess water.
➢ India has many lakes and these differ from each other in the size
and other characteristics.
➢ Most lakes are permanent while some contain water only during
the rainy season like the lakes in the basins of inland drainage of
semi-arid regions.
➢ There are some of the lakes which are the result of the action of
glaciers and ice sheets, while the others have been formed by
wind, river action, and human activities.
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➢ Lakes of large extent are called the seas, like

○ the Caspian,
○ the Dead, and
○ the Aral seas.
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Classification of Lakes
i. Based on Salinity
1. Freshwater lakes
➢ Most of the lakes in the world are freshwater lakes fed by rivers
and with out-flowing streams e.g.
○ Great Lakes of North America,
○ Wular lake,
○ Dal lake etc.
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2. Saline/Salt Lakes
➢ Salt lakes are formed where there is no natural outlet or
where there is rapid evaporation of water and the drainage
surface of the water table has a higher-than-normal salt content.
➢ Intense evaporation in these lakes leads to negative
freshwater balance i.e more water is lost in evaporation than
what is gained from rivers. Therefore, these lakes are saline.
➢ Examples of salt lakes include the Great Salt Lake, the Aral
Sea, the Dead Sea, Sambhar Lake, Pangong Tso, etc.
➢ Playas or salt lakes are common features of desert
landscapes.
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ii. Based on Formation

1. Tectonic Lakes
➢ The movements of the Earth’s crust resulted in the
formation of the largest lake such as the Caspian Sea, and the
deepest, Lake Baikal.
➢ In India, Wular lake (Jammu & Kashmir) is the largest
freshwater lake formed due to tectonic activity.
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2. Volcanic Lakes
➢ These are lava-blocked lakes formed due to subsidence of a
volcanic land surface.
➢ Further, Crater and caldera lakes are formed during a
volcanic explosion.
➢ In any dormant or extinct volcanoes, rain falls straight into
the crater or caldera which has no superficial outlet and
results in the formation of a crater or caldera lake.
○ Example: Crater Lake, from the crater of Mazama Mountain,
Oregon, US.
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3. Oxbow Lake
➢ A meandering river across a floodplain forms cut-offs that later
develop into ox-bow lakes.
➢ Example: Kanwar Taal in Bihar (Asia’s largest freshwater
oxbow lake).
4. Glacial Lake
➢ Most of the freshwater lakes that are in the Himalayan region
are of glacial origin.
➢ Example: Gurudongmar Lake, Sikkim
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5. Lagoon
➢ Spits and bars form lagoons in the coastal areas.
➢ Examples: the Chilika lake, the Pulicat lake, the Kolleru
lake, etc.
6. Artificial Lake
➢ Lake that is made by man to store water for community use.
➢ Example: Guru Gobind Sagar (Bhakra Nangal Project).
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Use of Lakes
➢ A lake helps to regulate the flow of a river.
➢ During heavy rainfall, it prevents flooding and during the dry
season, it helps to maintain an even flow of water.
➢ Lakes can also be used for developing hydel power.
➢ They moderate the climate of the surroundings; maintain the
aquatic ecosystem, enhance natural beauty, help develop tourism
and provide recreation.
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5.
Natural
Vegetation
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www.visionias.net
Natural Vegetation https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Natural vegetation refers to a plant community which has grown

naturally without human aid and has been left undisturbed by
humans for a long time.
➢ This is termed as virgin vegetation.
➢ Thus, cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of
vegetation but not natural vegetation.
➢ The virgin vegetation, which is purely Indian are known as
endemic or indigenous species.
➢ But those which have come from outside India are termed as
exotic plants.
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➢ The term flora is used to denote plants of a particular region or

period.
➢ Similarly, the species of animals are referred to as fauna.
➢ This huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is due to the
following factors.
○ Relief - Land and Soil
○ Climate - Temperature, Precipitation, and Photoperiod
(Sunlight)
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www.visionias.net
Types of Vegetation in India https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ India is a land of the great diversity of natural vegetation.

➢ On the basis of common features such as chief vegetation type
and climatic regions, Indian forests can be divided into the
following types:
1. Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen forests
2. Tropical Deciduous forests
3. Tropical Thorn forests
4. Montane forests
5. Littoral and Swamp forests.
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www.visionias.net
1. Tropical Evergreen and https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
Semi Evergreen Forests

Location
➢ The western slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the
Northeastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
➢ The semi-evergreen forests are found in the less rainy parts
of these regions and mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous
trees.
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Climatic conditions
➢ Warm and humid areas with an annual rainfall of over 200
cm and annual mean temperature above 22°C.
Vegetation
➢ Tropical evergreen forests have no definite time for trees to
shed their leaves, flowering, and fruition.
➢ The important species found in these forests include rosewood,
mahogany, ebony, etc.
➢ The important species of semi-evergreen forests are white
cedar, hollock, and kail.
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2. Tropical Deciduous Forests

➢ Most widespread forests in India.
➢ They spread over regions which receive rainfall between 70-200
cm.
➢ On the basis of the availability of water, it is divided into the
following
A. Moist Deciduous forests and
B. Dry Deciduous forests.
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A. Moist Deciduous Forests

Location:
➢ The northeastern states along the foothills of Himalayas,
eastern slopes of the Western Ghats and Odisha.
Climatic conditions:
➢ Rainfall between 100-200 cm.
Important species:
➢ Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum,
sandalwood, etc.
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B. Dry Deciduous Forests
Location:
➢ Rainier areas of the Peninsula and the plains of Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar.
➢ During dry season begins, the trees shed their leaves
completely and the forest appears like a vast grassland with
naked trees all around. The rainfall ranges between 70 -100 cm.
Important species:
➢ Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc.
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3. Tropical Thorn Forests https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
Location:
➢ Semi-arid areas of southwest Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
➢ Rainfall of less than 50 cm. The plants remain leafless for the
most part of the year and give an expression of scrub
vegetation.
Important species:
➢ Babool, Ber, Wild Date Palm, Khair, Neem, Khejri, Palas, etc
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4. Montane Forests
➢ This type of forests can be classified into two types:

○ The northern mountain forests and
○ The southern mountain forests.
A. The northern mountain forests:
Location:
➢ Foothills of the Himalayas, higher hill ranges of
Northeastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal and
Uttaranchal.
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Important species:
➢ Oak, chestnut, pine, Deodar, Alpine forests and pastures.
➢ Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch, and rhododendrons, etc.
B. The southern mountain forests:
Location:
➢ The Western Ghats (especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and
Karnataka), the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris.
Important species:
➢ Magnolia, laurel, cinchona and wattle.
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5. Littoral and Swamp Forests

Location:
➢ About 70 % of this comprises areas under paddy cultivation.
➢ The Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Sundarbans of West
Bengal.
➢ The Mahanadi, the Godavari, and the Krishna deltas.
➢ The mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt marshes, tidal
creeks, mudflats, and estuaries.
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Wetlands in India
➢ The country’s wetlands have been grouped into the following eight
categories such as
1. The reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south together
with the lagoons and other wetlands of the southwest
coast;
2. The vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf
of Kachchh;
3. Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards
through Rajasthan (Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya
Pradesh;
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4. The delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast

(Chilika Lake);
5. The freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain;
6. The floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the marshes and
swamps in the hills of northeast India and the Himalayan
foothills;
7. The lakes and rivers of the montane region of Kashmir and
Ladakh; and
8. The mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island arcs
of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
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Mangrove Forests in India

➢ The mangrove forests are found in the areas of coasts
influenced by tides.
➢ Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the
plants submerged under water.
➢ The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the
Godavari, and the Kaveri are covered by such vegetation.
➢ In the Ganga Brahmaputra delta, Sundari trees are found which
provide durable hard timber.
➢ Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the delta.
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Thank You!
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Indian
Geography Part - 3
By Dr. Roman Saini
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www.visionias.net
Topics To Be Covered https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
A. Census of India
1. Census 2011
2. Socio-Economic Census
B. Urbanization
1. Basic Features
2. Related Issues
3. Rural-Urban Migration
C. Rural settlements
1. Affecting Factors
2. Classification
3. Problems
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D. Human Resource Development
1. Growth & Development
2. What is Human Development?
3. Pillars of Human Development
4. Approaches of Human Development
5. Measuring the Human Development
6. Human Development In india
E. Economic Activities
1. Primary activities
2. Secondary activities
3. Tertiary activities
4. Quaternary & Quinary activities
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A.
Census of India
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Introduction
➢ The census of India gives us the information regarding the
population of our country.
➢ A census is an official enumeration of population done
periodically.
➢ In India, the census was first conducted by the British Indian
government between 1867-72 and regular ten yearly (or
decennial) census have been conducted since 1881.
➢ Independent India continued the practice and 7 decennial
censuses have been conducted since 1951, the most recent
being in 2011.
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➢ The Indian census is the largest such exercise in the world (since
the Republic of China, which has a slightly larger population, does
not conduct regular censuses).
➢ Since then censuses have been held regularly every tenth year.
➢ The Indian Census is the most inclusive source of demographic,
social, and economic data.
➢ The 2011 Census data reveals that Uttar Pradesh with a
population size of 19.9 crore people is the most populous state
of India.
➢ Uttar Pradesh accounts for about 16.5 percent of the country’s
population.
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➢ On the other hand, the Himalayan state Sikkim has a population

of just about 6.1 lakh and Lakshadweep has only 65 thousand
people.
➢ Rajasthan, the biggest state in terms of area, has only 5.5 % of the
total population of India.
➢ Population density provides a better picture of the uneven
distribution. It is defined as the number of persons per unit area.
➢ The population density of India in the year 2011 was 382 persons
per square km.
➢ The population densities vary from 1028 persons per sq km in
West Bengal to only 17 persons per sq km in Arunachal
Pradesh.
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www.visionias.net
1. Census 2011 https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
State India/State/ Total Sex Density Decadal

/UT Code Union Territory population ratio growth rate
INDIA 1,210,193,422 940 382 17.64
Top 1 Uttar Pradesh 199,581,477 908 828 20.09
Top 2 Maharashtra 112,372,972 925 365 15.99
Top 3 Bihar 103,804,637 916 1,102 25.07
Bottom 3 Arunachal Pradesh 1,382,611 920 17 25.92
Bottom 2 Mizoram 1,091,014 975 52 22.78
Bottom 1 Sikkim 607,688 889 86 12.36
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www.visionias.net
Literacy Rates (2011) https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
State /UT India/State/ Literacy rate (%)

Code Union Territory
Persons Males Females
INDIA 74.04 82.14 65.46
Top 1 Kerala 93.91 96.02 91.98
Top 2 Mizoram 91.58 93.72 89.40
Top 3 Tripura 87.75 92.18 83.15
Bottom 3 Rajasthan 67.06 80.51 52.66
Bottom 2 Arunachal Pradesh 66.95 73.69 59.57
Bottom 1 Bihar 63.82 73.39 53.33

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2. Socio-Economic Caste Census

➢ SECC 2011 has three census components which were

conducted by three separate authorities but under the overall
coordination of Department of Rural Development in the
Government of India:
1. Census in Rural Area has been conducted by the
Department of Rural Development.
2. Census in Urban Areas is under the administrative jurisdiction
of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation.
3. Caste Census is under the administrative control of Ministry of
Home Affairs: Registrar General and Census Commissioner of
India.
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Objective:
➢ To make obtain authentic information that will enable caste-wise
population enumeration of the country and education status of
various castes and sections of the population to target Below
Poverty Line beneficiaries.
➢ On the contrasting side, all the personal information given in the
Socio-Economic Caste Census is open source for use by various
departments of Governments to grant and/or restrict benefits
to households.
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Seven criteria used by SECC to measure deprivations:
1. Households with only one room, kuccha walls, and kuccha roof
2. No adult member in the household between age 18 and 59
3. Female-headed household with no adult male member between
16 and 59
4. Households with the differently able member with no other
able-bodied adult member
5. SC/ST Households
6. Households with no literate adult above age 25 years
7. Landless households deriving a major part of their income from
manual labour
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B.
Urbanization
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Introduction
➢ According to the Census of 2001, the urban population of the
country was 286.11 million which constitutes 27.81% of the total
country’s population.
➢ However, the same as per 2011 census, it has risen to 377.16
million viz. 31.16 % of the total country’s population.
➢ The rate of urban growth in the country is very high as
compared to developed countries and the large towns are
becoming larger mostly due to continuous migration of
population to these cities.
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➢ By the year 2050, over half of India’s population is expected to
be urban dwellers.
➢ This creates severe pressure on existing urban infrastructure.
➢ The large population size is leading to the virtual collapse in
urban services.
➢ And it is followed by basic problems in the field of housing, slum,
water, infrastructure, quality of life, etc.
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1. Basic Features of
Urbanization in India
➢ Lopsided urbanization induces growth of Tier I cities.
➢ Urbanization occurs without industrialization and strong
economic base.
➢ Urbanization is mainly a product of demographic explosion and
poverty induced rural to urban migration.
➢ Rapid urbanization leads to higher growth of slum followed by
misery, poverty, unemployment, exploitation, inequalities, and
degradation in the quality of urban life.
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➢ Urbanization occurs not due to urban pull but due to rural push.
➢ The poor quality of rural-urban migration leads to poor quality of
urbanization.
➢ Distress migration begins urban decay.
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2. Issues Related to https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
Urbanization in India
1. Rural-Urban Migration has often been considered the major factor
for the growth of slums in urban areas.
2. The emergence of Slums is due to sudden and large scale influx
of migrants from rural areas to urban areas especially the
metropolises and state capitals.
3. Increase in Urban Transport Problems such as Traffic injuries
and fatalities, Environmental pollution, Roadway congestion, etc.
4. The waste management system is starved of resources to tackle
the increasing demands associated with growing urbanisation.
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5. Lack of water supply as no city has round the clock water supply in
India.
Irregular supply results in a vacuum being created in empty water
lines which often suck in pollutants through leaking joints.
6. The Drainage situation is equally bad in urban slums.
7. The sanitation problem is also high due to the lack of toilet
facilities in slums areas.
8. A new type of hazardous waste has come up in recent years, i.e.,
electronic waste generation.
It consists of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, plastics, glass, wood
and plywood, printed circuit boards, concrete, ceramics, rubber, and
other items.
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9. At present, Urban poverty is a major challenge before the urban

managers and administrators.
Urban poverty gets exacerbated by a substantial rate of population
growth, high rate of migration from the rural areas, and
mushrooming of slum pockets.
10. Haphazard growth of Real Estate Sector and it is laced with
black money, corruption, red-tapism, and land mafias and
corruption.
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www.visionias.net
3. Rural-Urban Migration https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Population flow from rural to urban areas is a result of many

factors such as:
○ High demand for labour in urban areas,
○ Low job opportunities in rural areas and
○ Unbalanced pattern of development between urban and rural
areas.
➢ In India, the population in cities is rapidly increasing.
➢ Due to low opportunities in smaller and medium cities, the poor
people generally bypass these small cities and directly come to the
megacities for their livelihood.
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C.
Rural
Settlements
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Rural Settlements
➢ Rural settlements are closely and directly related to land.
➢ These areas are dominated by primary activities such as
agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, etc.
➢ The settlements size is relatively small.
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1. Affecting Factors to
Rural Settlements
1. Water Supply:
➢ Normally rural settlements are located near water bodies
such as rivers, lakes, and springs where water can be easily
obtained and improves the livelihood.
2. Land:
➢ Since ancient times, people prefer to settle near fertile lands
suitable for agriculture.
➢ It supports the cultivation of various crops.
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3. Upland:
➢ This area is not prone to flooding was chosen in order to
prevent damage to houses and loss of life.
➢ Especially, in tropical countries, people build their houses on
stilts near marshy lands to protect themselves from flood,
insects, and animal pests.
4. Building Material:
➢ The availability of building materials such as wood, stone, etc.
near settlements is another advantage.
➢ Example, in African Savanna building materials, were mud
bricks.
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5. Defence:
➢ During the times of political instability, hostility, the war of
neighbouring groups villages were built on hills and islands
for defensive purpose.
➢ For example, in India, most of the forts are located on higher
grounds or hills.
6. Planned Settlements:
➢ These are constructed by governments by providing shelter,
water and other infrastructures on acquired lands.
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2. Classification of
Rural Settlements
➢ Rural settlements are classified on the basis of a number of criteria:
1. On the basis of Settling:
The main types are plain villages, plateau villages, coastal
villages, forest villages, etc.
2. On the basis of Functions:
There may be farming villages, fishermen’s villages etc.
3. On the basis of forms or shapes of the Settlements:
Rectangular, Linear, Circular, Star-like, T-shaped village,
Double village, Cross-shaped village, etc.
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3. Problems of Rural Settlements

1. Rural settlements in the developing countries are larger in
numbers and poorly equipped with infrastructure.
2. Supply of water to rural settlements in developing countries is
inadequate.
3. The general absence of toilet, clean-piped drinking water, and
garbage disposal facilities cause health-related problems in these
areas.
4. Absence of all season roads and lack of modern
communication network creates a unique problem of
connectivity.
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5. The houses in rural areas made up of mud, wood and thatch, they
are susceptible to damage during heavy rains and floods and
require proper maintenance every year.
6. Adequate health and educational infrastructure are not
sufficient to cater to the needs of the larger rural population.
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D.
Human Resource
Development
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Introduction
“Human development is a process of providing the people
with choices, increasing their opportunities for education, health
care, income, and empowerment,
and covering the full range of human choices
from a sound physical environment
to economic, social, and political freedom.”
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1. Growth & Development

➢ Both growth and development refer to a set of changes over a
period of time.
➢ The difference is that growth is quantitative and value-neutral.
➢ It may have a positive or negative. This means that the change
may be either positive (showing an increase) or negative (indicating
a decrease)
➢ Development means a qualitative change that is always
positive.
➢ This means that development cannot take place unless there is
an increment or addition to the existing conditions, positively.
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➢ Development occurs when positive growth takes place.

➢ Yet, positive growth may not always lead to development.
➢ Development occurs when there is a positive change in the
quality of lives of people.
➢ For example, if the population of a city increases from one lakh to
two lakhs over a period of time, we say the city has grown.
➢ However, if the basic facilities like housing, electricity, sanitation, and
other characteristics remain the same, then this growth has not been
accompanied by development.
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2. What is Human Development?

➢ The works of two South Asian economists, Mahbub-ul-Haq and

Amartya Sen are important in this regard.
➢ Dr. Mahbub-ul-Haq introduced the concept of human
development.
➢ He described human development as development that enlarges
people’s choices and improves their lives.
➢ These choices are not fixed but they keep on changing.
➢ People are central to all development under the concept of
Human Development.
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➢ The basic goal of development is to create conditions where

people can live their lives meaningfully.
➢ A meaningful life means that people must be healthy, be able to
develop their talents and skills, participate in society and be free to
achieve their goals.
➢ Leading a long and healthy life, being able to gain knowledge
and having enough means (to earn) to be able to lead a decent life
are the most important aspects of human development.
➢ Therefore, access to resources, health, and education are the
key areas in human development.
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3. Pillars of Human Development

1. Equity:
➢ Equity means to enable equal access to opportunities
available to everybody.
➢ The opportunities available to the people must be equal
irrespective of their gender, race, income, and caste.
2. Sustainability:
➢ Sustainability means to ensure continuity in the availability
of opportunities.
➢ To have sustainable human development, each generation
must have the same set of opportunities.
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➢ Example: Importance of girl education.

➢ If a community does not stress the importance of sending its girl

children to school, many opportunities will be lost to these young
women when they grow up.
3. Productivity
➢ Productivity means human labour productivity or productivity
in terms of human work.
➢ Such productivity must be constantly enriched by building
capabilities in people i.e, skilling them.
➢ Ultimately, it is people who are the real wealth of nations.
➢ Therefore, efforts to increase their knowledge, or provide better
health facilities ultimately leads to better work efficiency.
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5. Empowerment
➢ Empowerment means having the power to make choices.
➢ Such power comes from an increase in freedom and
capability.
➢ Good governance and people-oriented policies are the basic
prerequisites to empower people.
➢ The empowerment of socially and economically
disadvantaged groups is of special importance in a country
like India.
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4. Approaches to
Human Development
1. Income Approach
➢ It is one of the oldest approaches to human development.
➢ Human development is linked to the income of an individual.
➢ The main idea is that the level of income reflects the level of
freedom an individual enjoys/choices.
➢ So, this approach believes that higher the level of income,
higher will be the level of human development.
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2. Welfare Approach
➢ This approach looks at human beings as beneficiaries or
targets of all the developmental activities.
➢ The approach argues for higher government expenditure on
education, health, social secondary, and amenities that will
enable the welfare of its people.
➢ Therefore, the government is responsible for increasing
levels of human development by maximizing expenditure on
welfare.
➢ As per this approach, people are not participants in
development but only passive recipients.
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3. Basic Needs Approach

➢ International Labour Organisation (ILO) was the proponent of

this approach.
➢ Following six basic needs were identified such as
1. Health,
2. Education,
3. Food,
4. Water supply,
5. Sanitation, and
6. Housing.
➢ The question of human choices was ignored in this approach
and the emphasis is on the provision of basic needs of
defined sections.
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4. Capability Approach
➢ This approach is associated with Prof. Amartya Sen.
➢ This approach aims towards building human capabilities in the
areas of health, education, and access to resources as it is
the key to increasing human development.
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www.visionias.net
5. Measuring https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
the Human Development

➢ According to the Human Development Report 1993,
“Progressive democratization along with increasing empowerment of
people are seen as the minimum required conditions for human
development.”
➢ The Human Development Index (HDI) is a measure of average
achievement in key dimensions of human development.
➢ The Human Development Index simplifies and captures only part
of what human development entails.
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➢ It does not give information on inequalities, poverty, human

security, empowerment, etc.
➢ Components of HDI are the following:
1. Long and healthy life is the health dimension is assessed by
life expectancy at birth.
2. Being knowledgeable is the education dimension is measured
by mean of years of schooling for adults aged 25 years and
more and expected years of schooling for children of school
entering the age.
3. Having a decent standard of living and command over
resources, as reflected in the monthly per capita expenditure
adjusted with inflation and inequality.
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6. Human Development in India

➢ India has been ranked above 100 in terms of the Human
Development Index (HDI) for the last many years.
➢ With the composite HDI value in the range of 0.6 to 0.64, India
finds herself grouped with nations showing Medium human
development.
➢ Using the indicators selected by the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), the NITI Aayog also prepared the Human
Development Report for India.
➢ It used states and the UTs as the units of analysis.
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➢ Even every state government has also started preparing the state
level Human Development Reports, using districts as the units of
analysis.
➢ Final HDI report prepared by NITI Aayog with the three indicators
(as discussed above) and also discussed other indicators like:
○ Social empowerment,
○ Social distributive justice,
○ Economic attainment,
○ Accessibility,
○ Hygiene and various welfare measures are undertaken by the
state.
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Causes of Poor Performance of India

➢ Some of the major causes of India's poor performance in HDI are
the following:
1. Unequal distribution income,
2. High gender discrimination,
3. Child malnutrition and,
4. Inadequate implementation of government policies
[Allegation of corruption and misuse of funds]
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Measures Taken by India to Improve HDI

1. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan to achieve universal education from age 7
to 14 years.
2. Mid Day Meal scheme to eliminate malnutrition.
3. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan for the development of
secondary education in public schools throughout India.
4. Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) pertaining to
health, education, water, sanitation and food security at all levels.
5. National Health Mission (NHM) envisages achievement of
universal access to equitable, affordable, and quality health care
services.
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7. Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana and Ayushman

Bharat to provide a quality tertiary healthcare service and to
eliminate the regional imbalance in medical service.
8. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA) that aims to guarantee the 'Right to work'.
9. Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana is a skill development
programme for the youth and become employable and earn their
livelihood.
10. Deen Dayal Antyodaya Yojana is for helping the poor by providing
skill training.
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E.
Economic Activities
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What is Economic Activity?

➢ Human activities that result in the generation of income are
known as economic activities.
➢ Economic activities are broadly grouped into the following four
groups such as
1. Primary Activities,
2. Secondary Activities,
3. Tertiary Activities, and
4. Quaternary Activities.
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1.
Primary Activities
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Introduction
➢ Primary activities are directly dependent on the surrounding
environment.
➢ These refer to the utilization of earth’s resources such as land,
water, vegetation, building materials, and minerals.
➢ It, thus, includes hunting and gathering, fishing, pastoral
activities, forestry, agriculture, and mining and quarrying.
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1. Hunting and Gathering

➢ Gathering and hunting are the oldest form of economic activity
known.
➢ These are carried out at different levels with different orientations.
➢ Gathering is practised in regions with harsh climatic conditions.
➢ It often involves primitive societies, who utilize both plants and
animals to satisfy their needs for food, shelter and clothing.
➢ This kind of activity requires a small amount of capital investment
and operates at a very low level of technology.
➢ The yield (per person) is very low and little or no surplus is
produced.
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➢ Gathering is practised in:
1. High latitude zones which include northern Canada, northern
Eurasia, and southern Chile;
2. Low latitude zones such as tropical Africa, Amazon Basin,
Northern fringe of Australia and the interior parts of Southeast
Asia.
➢ Gatherers collect valuable parts of plants such as leaves, barks of
trees, and medicinal plants and after simple processing sells the
products in the market.
➢ For example, the Bark of a tree is used for quinine, tannin extract
and cork leaves supply materials for beverages, etc.
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2. Pastoralism
➢ At some point of time in history, with the realisation that hunting is
an unsustainable activity, human beings might have thought of
domestication of animals.
➢ The number of pastoral nomads has been decreasing and the
areas operated by them are shrinking.
➢ This is due to the following reasons
1. The imposition of political boundaries.
2. New settlement plans by different countries.
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Nomadic Herding or Pastoral Nomadism

➢ It is a primitive subsistence activity, in which the herders rely on

animals for food, shelter, clothing, tools, and transport.
➢ They move from place to place along with their livestock, depending
on the amount and quality of pastures, and water.
➢ Pastoral nomadism is associated with three important regions.
a. The core region extends from the Atlantic shores of North Africa
eastwards across the Arabian peninsula into Mongolia and
Central China.
b. The second region extends across the Tundra region of Eurasia.
c. In the southern hemisphere, there are small areas in South-west
Africa and on Madagascar island.
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Transhumance
➢ Transhumance is the process of migration from plain areas to
pastures on mountains during summers and again, migrating from
mountain pastures to plain areas during winters.
➢ For example, in mountainous regions such as the Himalayas,
Gaddis, Gujjars, Bakarwals, and Bhotiyas migrate from plains to
the mountains in summers and to the plains from the high altitude
pastures during the winters.
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3. Commercial Livestock Rearing

➢ Commercial livestock rearing is more organised and capital
intensive than Nomadic livestock rearing.
➢ Commercial livestock ranching is a part of western cultures and is
practised on permanent ranches there.
➢ These ranches cover large areas of land and are divided into a
number of parcels which are fenced in order to regulate the
grazing activity.
➢ This is a specialised activity in which only one type of animal is
reared on a particular farm.
➢ Important animals include cattle, sheep, goats, and horses.
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➢ Products such as meat, wool, skin, and hides are processed and
packed scientifically and exported to different markets across the
world.
➢ Hence, the rearing of animals in ranching is a scientifically
organised activity.
➢ It mainly emphasizes on breeding, genetic improvement, disease
control, and health care of the animals.
➢ Australia, Argentina, New Zealand, Uruguay, and the United
States of America are important countries where commercial
livestock rearing is practised on a large scale.
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4. Agriculture https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Agriculture is a primary activity. Two-thirds of India’s population

is still dependent on agriculture.
➢ In the world, 50 percent of persons are engaged in agricultural
activity.
➢ Agriculture or farming can be looked at as a system.
➢ The important inputs are seeds, fertilisers, machinery, and labour.
➢ Some of the operations involved are ploughing, sowing, irrigation,
weeding, and harvesting.
➢ The outputs from the system include crops, wool, dairy, and
poultry products.
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Dairy Farming
➢ It is the most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch

animals. It is also highly capital intensive.
➢ It is practised mainly near urban and industrial centres which
provides neighbourhood market with fresh milk and dairy products.
➢ Sheds for sheltering animals, storage facilities for fodder, feeding
and milking machines add to the cost of dairy farming.
➢ The largest belt is in North Western Europe, the second is Canada
and the third belt includes South Eastern Australia, New Zealand
and Tasmania.
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Mixed Farming
➢ This form of agriculture is found in the parts of the world that are
highly developed.
➢ For example, Eastern North America, North-western Europe, parts
of Eurasia, and the Temperate latitudes of Southern continents.
➢ Intercropping and crop rotation play an important role in
maintaining soil fertility.
➢ Equal emphasis is laid on both crop cultivation and animal
husbandry.
➢ Mixed farming is a capital intensive method and requires the skill
and expertise of the farmers.
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Market Gardening & Horticulture

➢ Specialization in the cultivation of high value crops such as
vegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for the urban markets.
➢ It is both capital and labour intensive.
➢ This type of agriculture is well developed in densely populated
industrial districts of north west Europe, the Mediterranean
regions, and north eastern United States of America.
➢ The regions where farmers specialise in vegetables only, this kind
of farming is known as Truck farming.
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➢ The distance of truck farms from the market is governed by the

distance that a truck can cover overnight, hence it is named as
Truck farming.
➢ Apart from market gardening, a modern development in the
industrial regions of Western Europe and North America is Factory
farming.
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5. Mining https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ The actual development of mining began with the industrial

revolution and its importance is continuously increasing.
➢ Mining activity is dependent on the two main factors such as:
1. Physical factors include the grade, size, and the mode of
occurrence of the deposits.
2. Economic factors such as the demand for the mineral,
technology available and used, capital to develop
infrastructure, and the labour and transport costs.
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Method of Mining https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Based on the mode of occurrence and the nature of the ore,

mining is of the following two types:
1. Surface Mining
2. Underground Mining
Surface Mining
➢ Surface mining is also known as open-cast mining.
➢ It is the easiest and the cheapest way of mining minerals, that
occur close to the surface of the Earth.
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➢ Overhead costs such as safety precautions and equipment
are relatively low in this method of mining and the output is
both large and rapid.
Underground Mining
➢ When the ore lies deep below the surface, the underground
mining method (shaft method) has to be used.
➢ In this method, vertical shafts have to be sunk, from where
underground galleries are used to reach the minerals.
➢ Minerals are extracted and transported to the surface
through these passages.
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➢ It requires specially designed drills, lifts, haulage vehicles,

ventilation system for safe and efficient movement of people and

material.
➢ This is a risky method as there will be poisonous gases, fires,
floods, and caving in lead to fatal accidents.
➢ The developed economies are retreating from mining,
processing and refining stages of production due to high labour
costs.
➢ While the developing countries with large labour force and
striving for a higher standard of living are becoming more
important.
➢ Several countries of Africa and few of South America and
Asia earn more than 50% of from minerals alone.
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2.
Secondary Activities
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Introduction
➢ Secondary activities involve adding value to natural resources by
transforming raw materials into valuable products.
➢ For example, Iron ore cannot be used directly from the mines but it
gets the value after being converted into steel and can be used for
making many valuable machines, tools, etc.
➢ Therefore, Secondary activities are concerned with manufacturing,
processing, and construction (infrastructure) industries.
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1. Manufacturing https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Manufacturing involves a full array of production from handicrafts

to moulding iron and steel and stamping out plastic toys to
assembling delicate computer components or space launch
vehicles and satellites.
➢ In each of these processes, the common characteristics are
○ application of power,
○ mass production of identical products and
○ specialised labour in factory settings for the production of
standardised commodities.
➢ Manufacturing may be done with methods that involve modern power
and machinery or it may still be very primitive.
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2. Characteristics of Modern https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
Large Scale Manufacturing

1. Specialisation of Skills/Methods of Production
2. Mechanisation
3. Organisational Structure and Stratification
4. Technological Innovation
5. Uneven Geographic Distribution
6. Access to Market
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8. Access to Raw Material

9. Access to Labour Supply
10. Access to Sources of Energy
11. Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities
12. Government Policies
13. Access to Agglomeration Economies/ Links between Industries
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3. Factors Affecting
Location of Industries
➢ The factors affecting the location of industries are the following
1. Availability of raw material,
2. Land,
3. Water,
4. Labour,
5. Power,
6. Capital,
7. Transport and market.
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➢ Industries are situated where some or all of these factors are

easily available.
➢ Sometimes, the government provides incentives like subsidised
power, lower transport cost, and other infrastructure so that
industries may be located in backward areas.
➢ Industrialisation often leads to the development and growth of
towns and cities.
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4. Classification of
Manufacturing Industries
➢ Manufacturing industries are classified on the basis of the
following factors
1. Size,
2. Inputs/raw materials,
3. Output/products and
4. Ownership.
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Size Input/Raw Output/Product Ownership

Materials
1. Cottage or 1. Agro Based 1. Basic 1. Public

Household Sector
2. Mineral 2. Consumer
2. Small Scale based Goods 2. Private
Sector
3. Large Scale 3. Chemical
Based 3. Joint Sector
4. Forest
Based
5. Animal
Based
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A. Industries Based on Size

➢ Following are the factors used to determine the size of the industry
1. Amount of capital invested,
2. Number of workers employed, and
3. Volume of production
➢ Accordingly, industries may be classified into the following three:
1. Cottage or household,
2. Small-scale and
3. Large-scale.
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i) Household Industries or https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
Cottage Manufacturing
➢ It is the smallest manufacturing unit and it requires less capital.
➢ The artisans use locally available raw materials and simple tools
to produce everyday goods in their homes with the help of their
family members or part-time labour.
➢ Finished products may be for consumption in the same
household or, for selling in local (village) markets, or, for barter.
➢ For examples, foodstuffs, fabrics, mats, containers, tools, furniture,
shoes, etc.
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ii) Small Scale Manufacturing https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ It differs from household industries by its production techniques

and place of manufacture a workshop outside the home/cottage
of the producer.
➢ This type of manufacturing uses locally available raw materials,
simple power-driven machines, and semi-skilled labour.
➢ It provides employment and raises the purchasing power of
local masses.
➢ Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesia, Brazil, etc. have
developed labour-intensive small scale manufacturing industries, in
order to provide employment to their population.
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iii) Large Scale Manufacturing
➢ Large scale manufacturing involves the following
○ a large market,
○ different types of raw materials,
○ enormous energy,
○ specialised workers,
○ advanced technology,
○ assembly-line mass production and
○ large capital.
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➢ This kind of manufacturing developed since last 200 years in the
United Kingdom, the north-eastern U.S.A. and Europe and now it
has been diffused to almost all over the world.
➢ On the basis of the system of large scale manufacturing, the world’s
major industrial regions may be grouped under two broad types,
namely:
1. Traditional large-scale industrial regions which are thickly
clustered in a few of the well-developed countries.
2. High technology large scale industrial regions which have
diffused in less developed countries.
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B. Industries Based https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
on Inputs/Raw Materials
➢ On the basis of the raw materials used, the industries are classified
such as:
1. Agro-based,
2. Mineral-based,
3. Chemical-based,
4. Forest-based and
5. Animal-based.
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i) Agro Based Industries https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Agro-processing involves the processing of raw materials from the

farm and the field into finished products for both rural and urban
markets.
➢ Major agro-processing industries are food processing, pickles,
fruits juices, sugar, beverages (tea, coffee, and cocoa), spices and
oils fats and textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.
➢ Agri-business is commercial farming on an industrial scale often
financed by business, whose main interests lie beyond agriculture.
➢ For example, large corporations involved tea plantation business.
➢ Agri-business farms are mechanized, large in size, highly structured,
reliant on chemicals and can be described as ‘agro-factories’.
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ii) Mineral Based Industries
➢ These industries use minerals as raw materials.

➢ Some industries use ferrous metallic minerals that contain
ferrous (iron) such as iron and steel industries.
➢ But some use non-ferrous metallic minerals such as aluminium,
copper, and jewellery industries.
➢ Many industries use non-metallic minerals like coal, Gypsum, etc.
such as cement and pottery industries.
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iii) Chemical based Industries

➢ Such industries use natural chemical minerals.
➢ For example, Mineral-oil (petroleum) is used in the petrochemical
industry.
➢ Salts, sulphur, and potash industries also use natural minerals.
➢ Chemical industries are also based on raw materials obtained
from wood and coal.
➢ Synthetic fibre, plastic, etc. are other examples of chemical-based
industries.
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iv) Forest Based Raw Material using Industries
➢ The forests provide many major and minor products which are
used as raw material.
➢ Following raw materials come from forests such as
○ Timber for the furniture industry,
○ Wood, bamboo, and grass for the paper industry,
○ Lac for lac industries
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v) Animal based Industries
➢ Leather for the leather industry and wool for woolen textiles are
obtained from animals.
➢ Besides, ivory is also obtained from the elephant’s tusks.
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C. Industries Based
On Output/Product
Basic Industries
➢ The machines and tools are made of iron or steel.
➢ The raw material for such machines and tools is iron and
steel. Which is itself an industry.
➢ The industry whose products are used to make other goods
by using them as raw materials are basic industries.
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Consumer Goods Industries

➢ Consumer goods industries produce goods that are consumed
by consumers directly.
➢ For example, industries producing tea, soaps and toiletries,
bread and biscuits, paper for writing, televisions, etc are
consumer goods or non-basic industries.
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D. Industries Based on Ownership

Public Sector Industries:
➢ These are owned and managed by governments.
➢ In India, there are numerous Public Sector Undertakings
(PSUs).
➢ Mixed economies have both Public and Private sector
enterprises.
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Private Sector Industries:

➢ These are owned by an individual or group of private
investors.
➢ These are managed by private organisations.
Joint Sector Industries

➢ These are managed by joint stock companies or sometimes
the public and private sectors together establish and manage
the industries.
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5. Smokestack Industries
➢ These are based on heavy industry, often located near coal-fields
and engaged in heavy engineering, metal smelting, chemical
manufacturing or textile production.
➢ Traditional industrial regions can be recognised by the following:
○ High proportion of employment in the manufacturing industry.
○ High-density housing, often of inferior type and are
characterized by poor services.
○ Unattractive environment like pollution, waste heaps, and so
on.
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6. Footloose Industries
➢ Footloose industries can be located in a wide variety of places.

➢ They are not dependent on proximity to any specific raw
material, weight losing or otherwise.
➢ They largely depend on component parts that can be obtained
anywhere.
➢ They produce in small quantity and employs a small labour
force.
➢ These are generally non-polluting industries.
➢ The important factor in their location is their accessibility by road
network.
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7. High Technology Industry

➢ High technology industries have the latest generation of
manufacturing activities.
➢ It is best understood as the application of intensive research and
development (R & D) efforts that leads to the manufacturing of
products of an advanced scientific and engineering character.
➢ Professional (white collar) workers make up a large share of the
total workforce.
➢ These highly skilled specialists greatly outnumber the actual
production (blue collar) workers.
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➢ Neatly spaced, low, modern, dispersed, office-plant-lab buildings

mark the high-tech industrial landscape.

➢ Planned business parks for high-tech start-ups have become part of
regional and local development schemes.
➢ High-tech industries which are self-sustained, regionally
concentrated, and highly specialised are called Technopolies.
➢ The Silicon Valley near San Francisco and Silicon Forest near
Seattle are examples of technopolies.
➢ Robotics on the assembly line, computer-aided design (CAD) and
manufacturing, electronic controls of smelting and refining processes,
and the constant development of new chemical and pharmaceutical
products are notable examples of a high-tech industry
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8. Iron and Steel Industry

➢ The iron and steel industry forms the base of all other industries
and therefore, considered as a basic industry.
➢ It is basic because it provides the raw material for other
industries such as machine tools used for further production of
goods.
➢ It may also be called as a heavy industry because it uses large
quantities of bulky raw materials (ores) and its products are also
heavy.
➢ Iron is extracted from iron ore by smelting in a blast furnace with
carbon (coke) and limestone.
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➢ The other raw materials besides iron ore and coking coal, essential
for iron and steel industry are: Manganese, limestone, dolomite,
and fire clay.
➢ The molten iron is cooled and moulded to form pig iron which is
used for converting into steel by adding strengthening materials
like manganese.
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9. Cotton-Textile Industry https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ The cotton textile industry has three sub-sectors i.e.

1. Handloom,
2. Powerloom and
3. Mill sectors.
Handloom Sector:
➢ Handloom sector is labour-intensive and provides
employment opportunities to semi-skilled workers.
➢ It requires a small capital investment.
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➢ This sector involves spinning, weaving, and finishing of the

fabrics.
Powerloom Sector:
➢ The powerloom sector introduces machines and becomes
less labour intensive and the volume of production
increases.
Cotton Textile Mills:
➢ Cotton textile mills are highly capital intensive and produce
fine clothes in bulk.
➢ Cotton textile manufacturing requires good quality cotton as
raw material.
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➢ India, the U.S.A, China, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, and Egypt

produce more than half of the world’s raw cotton.
➢ The industry has to face very stiff competition with synthetic
fibres hence it has now shown a declining trend in many
countries.
➢ With the scientific advancement and technological
improvements the structure of industries changes.
➢ For example, Germany recorded constant growth in the cotton
textile industry since the Second World War till the seventies but
now it has declined.
➢ It has shifted to less developed countries where labour costs are
law such as Bangladesh.
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Service Sector
Tertiary Activities Quaternary Quinary Activities
Activities
1. Trade and 1. Information Based 1. Specialists

Commerce
2. R&D Based 2. Decision Makers
2. Transport
3. Consultants
3. Communication
4. Policy Formulation
4. Banking & Finance
Services
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3.
Tertiary Activities
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Introduction
➢ Tertiary activities are activities related to the service sector.

➢ Manpower is the most important component of the service sector
as majority of the tertiary activities are performed by skilled labour,
professionally trained experts and consultants.
➢ Tertiary activities include both production and exchange.
○ The production, here, involves the ‘provision’ of services that
are ‘consumed’.
○ The exchange involves transport, trade and communication
facilities that are used to overcome distance barriers.
➢ The output is indirectly measured in terms of salaries and wages.
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➢ Tertiary activities, therefore, involve the commercial output of

services that are intangible rather than the production of tangible
goods.
➢ The main difference between secondary activities and tertiary
activities is that the expertise provided by services relies heavily
on specialised skills, experience and knowledge of the workers
rather than on the machinery, production techniques, and factory
processes.
➢ For example, the work of a teacher, doctor, lawyer, plumber,
electrician, technician, launderer, barber, shopkeeper, driver,
cashier, publisher, etc.
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Types of Tertiary activities

1. Trade & Commerce
➢ Trade is essentially buying and selling of items produced
somewhere else.
➢ All the services in wholesale and retail trading or commerce are
specifically intended for profit.
➢ The towns and cities where all these activities take place are known
as trading centres.
➢ Trading centres may be divided into Rural and Urban marketing
centres.
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i) Rural marketing centres
➢ These centres cater to nearby settlements which are quasi-urban
centres.
➢ And they serve as trading centres of the most rudimentary type.
➢ They act as local collecting and distributing centres.
➢ Most of these have wholesale markets (mandis) and also
retailing areas.
➢ Periodic markets in rural areas are found where there are no
regular markets and local periodic markets are organised at
different time intervals.
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ii) Urban marketing centres
➢ These centres have widely specialised urban services.
➢ They provide ordinary goods and services as well as many of the
specialised goods and services required by people.
➢ Urban centres, therefore, offer manufactured goods as well as
many specialised markets.
➢ For example, markets for labour, housing, semi or finished products.
➢ Services of educational institutions and professionals such as
teachers, lawyers, consultants, physicians, dentists, and veterinary
doctors are available in these areas.
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www.visionias.net
Types of Trading (based on scale) https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
i) Retail Trading
➢ This business activity is concerned with the sale of goods
directly to the consumers at the fixed rates.
➢ Most of the retail trading takes place in fixed establishments or
stores solely devoted to selling.
➢ For example, door-to-door, mail-order, street peddling,
handcarts, trucks, telephone, automatic vending machines, and
internet.
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ii) Wholesale Trading

➢ Wholesale trading constitutes bulk business through
numerous intermediary merchants and supply houses, unlike
retail stores.
➢ Some large stores including chain stores are able to buy
directly from the manufacturers.
➢ However, most retail stores procure supplies from an
intermediary source.
➢ Wholesalers often extend credit to retail stores to such an
extent that the retailer operates very largely on the
wholesaler’s capital
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2. Transport https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Transport is a form of service or facility by which people,

materials and manufactured goods are physically carried from
one location to another.
➢ Modern society requires speedy and efficient transport systems
to assist in the production, consumption, and distribution of
goods.
➢ Transport distance can be measured as
1. Km distance or actual distance of route length,
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2. Time distance or the time is taken to travel on a particular

route and
3. Cost distance or the expense of travelling on a particular
route.
➢ These acts as the determining factors for the selection of the mode
of transportation.
➢ Isochrone lines are drawn on a map to join places equal in terms
of the time taken to reach them.
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Factors Affecting Transport
➢ Demand for transport is influenced by the size of the
population of that area.
➢ The larger the population size, the greater will be the demand
for transport.
➢ Routes depend on factors such as
Location of cities, towns, villages, industrial centres and raw
materials, nature of the landscape between them, the pattern of
trade between them, type of climate, and funds available for
overcoming obstacles along the length of the route.
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3. Communication
➢ Communication services involve the transmission of words and
messages, facts and ideas over a network.
➢ Earlier, wherever the transport network were efficient,
communications was easily disseminated.
➢ Certain developments, such as mobile telephony and satellites,
have made communications independent of transport facilities.
➢ Some of the communication services are Radio, Television, Mass
media, internet, etc.
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4. Services
➢ Services usually occur at many different levels.
➢ Some are geared to people, some to industry, and some to both
industry and people.
➢ Services providers cater to the needs of individual consumers
who can afford to pay for them.
➢ For example, Lawyers, Teacher, physicians, etc.
➢ Personal services are made available to people to facilitate their
work in daily life.
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➢ The workers migrate from rural areas in search of employment

and are unskilled.
➢ These segment of workers engaged in services are generally
unorganised such as domestic services as housekeepers, cooks,
and gardeners.
➢ State and union legislation has established numerous
corporations to control and supervise the marketing of such
services like banking, financing, transport, telecommunication,
energy and water supply.
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4.
Quaternary &
Quinary Activities
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1. Quaternary Activities
➢ The Quaternary Sector along with the Tertiary Sector has
replaced most of the primary and secondary employment as the
basis for economic growth.
➢ Quaternary activities involve the process of collection,
production, and dissemination of information or even the
production of information.
➢ There has been very high growth in demand for and consumption
of information-based services such as mutual fund managers, tax
consultants, software developers, etc.
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➢ Over half of all workers in developed economies are in the

‘Knowledge Sector’.
➢ Like some of the tertiary functions, quaternary activities can also
be outsourced.
➢ They are not tied to resources, affected by the environment, or
necessarily localised by market.
➢ Quaternary activities are usually centred around Research and
Development and may be seen as an advanced form of services
involving specialised knowledge and technical skills.
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2. Quinary Activities
➢ It involves the highest level of decision-makers or policymakers.
➢ These are subtly different from the knowledge-based industries
that the quaternary sector in general deals with.
➢ Quinary activities are services that focus on
○ the creation, re-arrangement, and interpretation of new and
existing ideas;
○ data interpretation and
○ the evaluation and usage of new technologies.
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➢ These are often referred to as ‘Gold collar’ professions.

➢ They are special and highly paid skills of senior business
executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and
legal consultants, etc.
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Outsourcing
➢ Outsourcing or contracting out is the process of giving work to
an outside agency to improve efficiency and to reduce costs.
➢ When outsourcing involves transferring work to overseas
locations, it is described by the term offshoring, although both
offshoring and outsourcing are used together.
➢ Business activities that are outsourced include information
technology (IT), human resources, customer support and call
centre services and at times also manufacturing and engineering.
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➢ Outsourcing has resulted in the creation of a large number of

call centres which in turn, has created new jobs in many
developing countries.
➢ New trends in quinary services include ‘Home shoring’ and
knowledge processing outsourcing (KPO).
➢ The KPO industry is distinct from Business Process
Outsourcing (BPO) as it involves highly skilled workers unlike
BPO’s.
➢ Examples of KPOs include research and development (R & D)
activities, business research, e-learning, Intellectual property (IP)
research, legal professions, and the banking sector.
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www.visionias.net
Digital Divide https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Opportunities emerging from the Information and Communication

Technology based development is not uniformly distributed
across the globe.
➢ While developed countries, in general, have leaped forward, the
developing countries have lagged behind and this is known as
the Digital divide.
➢ Similarly, digital divides exist even within countries.
➢ For example, in large countries like India and Russia, it is inevitable
that certain areas like metropolitan centres possess better
connectivity and access to the digital world in comparison to the
peripheral rural areas.
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Thank you!
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Indian
Geography Part - 4
By Dr. Roman Saini
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Topics To Be Covered
A. Agriculture in India
1. Types of Farming
2. Branches of Agriculture
3. Farming based on Water Availability
B. Irrigation System in Indian Agriculture
C. Crops of India
1. Kharif
2. Rabi
3. Zaid
D. Agricultural Development in India
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E. Land resource in India
1. Land use Categories
2. Land-use Changes
3. Agricultural Land use in India
F. Industries in India
1. Iron & Steel
2. Aluminum Smelting
3. Cotton Textile
4. Sugar
5. Petrochemical
6. Fertilizer
7. Cement
8. IT & Electronics
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A.
Agriculture
in India
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Introduction
➢ India is an agriculture-dependent country.
➢ Two-thirds of its population is engaged in the agricultural
occupation.
➢ Agriculture is a primary occupation which produces most of the
food that we consume.
➢ Agriculture produces also a raw material for various industries.
➢ The farming type varies from subsistence to commercial type.
➢ At present, across India, the following farming systems are
practised.
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1. Types of Farming
➢ Farming is practised in various ways across the world.
➢ Depending upon the geographical conditions, the demand for
produce, labour, and level of technology, farming can be
classified into two main types.
➢ These are the following
1) Subsistence farming
2) Commercial farming
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1) Subsistence Farming
➢ This type of farming is practised to meet the needs of the
farmer’s family.
➢ Traditionally, low levels of technology and household labour are
used to produce on small output.
➢ Subsistence farming can be further classified as
1. Primitive subsistence farming
2. Intensive subsistence farming
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A. Primitive Subsistence Farming

➢ Primitive subsistence agriculture is a type of farming is still practised
in few areas of India with the help of primitive tools like a hoe and
digging sticks, and family/community labour.
➢ It depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and
suitability of other environmental conditions to the crops grown.
➢ Primitive subsistence agriculture includes shifting cultivation and
nomadic herding.
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Primitive Form of Cultivation Area

Khil Himalayan
Bewar or Dahiya Madhya Pradesh
Valre or Waltre South-eastern Rajasthan
Pama Dabi or Koman or Bringa Odisha
Kuruwa Jharkhand
Podu or Penda Andhra Pradesh
Kumari Western Ghats
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Shifting Cultivation
➢ Shifting cultivation is practised in the thickly forested areas of
Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of southeast Asia and
Northeast India.
➢ These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of
vegetation.
➢ A plot of land is cleared by felling the trees and burning them.
➢ The ashes are then mixed with the soil and crops like maize,
yam, potatoes, and cassava are grown.
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➢ After the soil loses its fertility, the land is abandoned and the
cultivator moves to a new plot.
➢ Shifting cultivation is also known as ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
➢ This type of shifting allows Nature to replenish the fertility of the
soil through natural processes.
➢ The land productivity is low as the farmer does not use fertilizers
or other modern inputs.
➢ It is known by different names in various parts of the country.
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Slash & Burn Farming Area
Jumming Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland
Pamlou Manipur
Dipa Bastar district of Chhattisgarh, and in Andaman and

Nicobar Islands.
Milpa Mexico and Central America,
Conuco Venezuela
Roca Brazil
Masole Central Africa
Ladang Indonesia
Ray Vietnam
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B. Intensive Subsistence Farming

➢ Intensive Subsistence farming is practised in areas of high
population pressure on land.
➢ It is labour intensive farming where high usage of biochemical
inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher production.
➢ This form of farming is best developed across the world and
practically confined to the monsoon lands of Asia.
➢ It is found in the regions of China, Japan, Korea, India, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka, the greater part of South-East Asia.
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2) Commercial Farming
➢ The Commercial type of farming is the use of higher usage of

modern inputs.
➢ For examples, High yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers,
insecticides, and pesticides in order to obtain higher productivity.
➢ The degree of commercialization of agriculture varies from one
region to another region.
➢ For example, rice is a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab,
whereas, in Odisha, it is a subsistence crop.
➢ The Plantation is also a type of commercial farming.
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Plantation
➢ In this type of farming, a single crop is grown on a large area.
➢ The plantation has an interface of agriculture and industry.
➢ Plantations cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive
inputs, with the help of migrant labourers.
➢ All the produce is used as a raw material in the respective
industries.
➢ Major plantations are found in the tropical regions of the world.
➢ Rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and Sri Lanka
are some examples.
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➢ In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana, etc. are

important plantation crops.
➢ Tea in Assam and North Bengal, coffee in Karnataka are some
of the important plantation crops grown in these states.
➢ Since the production is mainly for the market, a well-developed
network of transport and communication connecting the
plantation areas, processing industries, and markets play an
important role in the development of plantations.
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➢ The characteristic features of Plantation type of farming are the

following :
○ Large estates or plantations,
○ Large capital investment,
○ Managerial and technical support,
○ Scientific methods of cultivation,
○ Single crop specialisation,
○ Cheap labour, and
○ A good transport network which links the estates to the factories
and markets for the export of the products.
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2. Branches of Agriculture
➢ Vermiculture: The cultivation of earthworms, especially in order

to use them to convert organic waste into fertilizer.
➢ Tissue culture: The growth in an artificial medium of cells
derived from living tissue.
➢ Apiculture: Apiculture is the practice of keeping bees as well as
the manufacturing of honey and beeswax.
➢ Sericulture: the production of silk and the rearing of silkworms
for this purpose.
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➢ Pisciculture: Breeding of fish in specially constructed tanks and

ponds.
➢ Horticulture: Growing vegetables, flowers and fruits for
commercial use.
➢ Viticulture: The cultivation of grapes.
➢ Floriculture: The cultivation of flowers
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3. Farming Based On Water Availability

Irrigation Farming
➢ It is to protect the crops from adverse effects of soil
moisture deficiency which often means that irrigation acts as
a supplementary source of water over and above the rainfall.
Rainfed Farming
➢ It is further classified on the basis of the adequacy of soil
moisture during cropping season into the following two:
○ Dryland Farming
○ Wetland Farming
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i) Dryland Farming
➢ It is largely confined to the regions having annual rainfall less than

75 cm.
➢ These regions grow hardy and drought-resistant crops.
➢ For example, ragi, bajra, moong, gram and guar (fodder crops).
➢ In these regions practise various measures of soil moisture
conservation and rainwater harvesting.
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ii) Wetland Farming
➢ The rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement of plants

during the rainy season.
➢ Such regions may face flood and soil erosion hazards.
➢ These regions grow various water-intensive crops such as rice,
jute, and sugarcane and practise aquaculture in the freshwater
bodies.
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B.
Irrigation System
in Indian Agriculture
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Irrigation in India
➢ Irrigation refers to the process of supplying water to the dry
land as supplementation of rainwater.
➢ It is mainly aimed at cultivation.
➢ There are various types of systems of irrigation practices in
India.
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Types of Irrigation
➢ Less than 50 % of the land is irrigated across the country.
➢ Irrigation in India is mainly classified into the following types
1. Well Irrigation
2. Tank Irrigation
3. Canal Irrigation
4. Drip Irrigation
5. Surface Irrigation
6. Sprinkler Irrigation
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www.visionias.net
1. Well Irrigation https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Areas:
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
➢ There are various types of wells such as
○ Shallow Wells: From the shallow wells water is not always
available as the level of water goes down during the dry months.
○ Deep Wells: More suitable for the purpose of irrigation as water
from them is available throughout the year
○ Tube Wells: A deep tube utilizes electricity for pumping water, it
can irrigate a much larger area (about 4000 hectares) than a
surface well.
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2. Tank Irrigation
➢ Areas:
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana (mainly in
Southern India)
➢ Reservoirs are made by constructing dams.
➢ Tanks are constructed for storing water.
➢ From these tanks, water is carried to the field through canals.
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3. Canal Irrigation
➢ Areas:
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar
➢ Around 40% of the total irrigated land in India is irrigated by the
canal irrigation.
➢ In many places during the rainy season, there would be a flood in
the rivers. The flood water is usually carried to the field through
canals.
➢ They supply water only when there is a flood in the rivers, and
therefore, are of no use during the dry season when water is
required the most.
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Perennial Canal Irrigation:

➢ In order to supply water throughout the year, reservoirs are
constructed for storing water.
➢ Using these reservoirs, water can be supplied to the fields
whenever there is demand for it.
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www.visionias.net
4. Drip Irrigation https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Also known as Trickle Irrigation or Micro Irrigation

➢ An irrigation method that saves water and fertilizer by allowing
water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either onto the soil
surface or directly onto the root zone, through a network of valves,
pipes, tubing, and emitters.
➢ It is achieved through narrow tubes that deliver water directly to
the base of the plant.
➢ Modern drip irrigation was initially developed in Germany in 1860.
➢ Mainly, bamboo is used to hold and distribute water in drip irrigation
in India. Plastic tube is also used.
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5. Surface Irrigation
➢ Water moves over and across the land by simple gravity flow in
order to wet it and to infiltrate into the soil.
➢ It is also called as Flood Irrigation.
6. Sprinkler Irrigation
➢ It is also known as Overhead Irrigation
➢ Water is piped to one or more central locations within the field
and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers.
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C.
Crops of India
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Cropping Seasons of India

Cropping Time period Major Crops Cultivated
Season
Northern States Southern States
Kharif June - September Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Rice, Maize, Ragi,

Maize, Jowar, Tur. Jowar, Groundnut.
Rabi October - March Wheat, Gram, Rice, Maize, Ragi,

Rapeseeds and Groundnut, Jowar
Mustard, Barley
Zaid April - June Vegetables, Vegetables,

Fruits, Rice,
Fodder Fodder
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1. Kharif Crops
➢ These are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of

the country and these are harvested in June to September.
➢ Important crops: Paddy, Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Tur (Arhar), Moong,
Urad, Cotton, Jute, Groundnut and Soybean.
➢ Most important areas of rice cultivation: Assam, West Bengal,
coastal regions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Maharashtra particularly the Konkan coast along with
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
➢ In states like Assam, West Bengal, and Odisha, 3 crops of paddy
are grown in a year. These are Aus, Aman and Boro.
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2. Rabi crops
➢ This season begins with the onset of winter in October and
November and ends in March and April.
➢ The low-temperature conditions during this season facilitate the
cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops such as wheat,
barley, peas, gram and mustard.
➢ The availability of precipitation during winter months due to the
western temperate cyclones helps in the success of these crops.
➢ The success of the green revolution in northern India has been an
important factor in the growth of the abovementioned rabi crops.
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3. Zaid crops
➢ This crops season is in between the rabi and the Kharif seasons,
there is a short season during the summer months known as the
Zaid season.
➢ Some of the important crops produced during ‘Zaid’ are
watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables, and fodder crops.
➢ This type of distinction in the cropping season does not exist in
southern parts of India.
➢ In these regions, the temperature is high enough to grow tropical
crops during any period in the year provided the soil moisture is
available.
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Important Crops
Food Crop Fibre Crop Plantation Beverage

Crops Crop
Wheat The four major Sugarcane Tea
Rice fibre crops Oilseed Coffee
Maize grown in India Rubber
Millets are Cotton,
Pulses Jute, Hemp
and natural
Silk.
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1) Rice
➢ Rice is the staple food crop consumed by the majority of the
people in India.
➢ Our country is the 2nd largest producer of rice in the world after
the Republic of China.
➢ It is a Kharif crop.
➢ Growing zones:
The plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the
deltaic regions.
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➢ Other zones:
Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.
➢ Climatic conditions:
1. High temperature (above 25°C)
2. High humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm.
➢ In the fewer rainfall regions, it grows with the help of irrigation.
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2) Wheat
➢ Wheat is the second most important cereal crop.
➢ It is the chief food crop, in north and north-western part of the
country.
➢ It is a Rabi crop.
➢ Growing zones:
The Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest and black soil region of the
Deccan.
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➢ Other zones:
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, and parts of
Madhya Pradesh.
1. A cool growing season and bright sunshine at the time of
ripening.
2. It requires 50 - 75 cm of annual rainfall, evenly distributed
over the growing season.
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3) Millets
➢ Millets are known as coarse grains, they have very high
nutritional value.
➢ Important millets grown in India are Jowar, Bajra, and Ragi.
➢ Ragi
○ It is very rich in Calcium, Iron and other micro-nutrients and
roughage.
○ Major Ragi producing States: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jharkhand, and
Arunachal Pradesh.
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➢ Bajra
○ It grows well on shallow black soil and sandy soils.
○ Major Bajra producing States: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Haryana.
➢ Jowar
○ It is the third most important food crop with respect to area
and production and it is grown in rainfed areas.
○ Major Jowar producing States: Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh.
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4) Maize
➢ Maize crop which is used both as food and fodder.
➢ It is a Kharif crop and also grows during Rabi season.
1. Requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C
2. Grows well in old alluvial soil.
➢ Major maize producing States:
Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and
Madhya Pradesh.
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www.visionias.net
5) Pulses https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Pulses are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.

➢ Our country is the largest producer as well as the consumer of
pulses in the world.
➢ Major pulses that are produced in India are tur (arhar), urad,
moong, Masur, peas, and gram.
It needs less moisture and survives even in dry conditions.
➢ Major pulse producing States:
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and
Karnataka.
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6) Cotton
➢ Cotton is one of the main raw materials for the cotton textile
industry.
➢ It is a Kharif crop.
➢ Major cotton producing States:
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar
Pradesh.
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It grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan
plateau and requires
1. High temperature,
2. Light rainfall or irrigation,
3. 210 frost-free days and
4. Bright sunshine for its growth.
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7) Jute
➢ Jute is known as the golden fibre.

➢ Major jute producing States: West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha,
and Meghalaya.
➢ Applications: It is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn,
carpets, and other artifacts.
1. It grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains
where soils are renewed every year.
2. It requires high temperature during the time of growth.
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www.visionias.net
8) Sugarcane https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Our country is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after

Brazil.
➢ Sugarcane is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop.
➢ It can be grown on a variety of soils.
1. A hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C
2. Annual rainfall between 75 cm and 100 cm.
➢ The major sugarcane producing States: Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
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9) Oilseeds
➢ Oilseeds crops together occupy about 14 percent of the total
cropped area in the country.
➢ Major oilseed crops that are growing in India are Groundnut,
rapeseed and mustard, soybeans and sunflower.
➢ Major growing zones:
Drylands of Malwa plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Telangana, Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
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10) Tea
➢ Tea is an important beverage crop introduced in India, initially by

the British.
➢ It is a labour-intensive plantation crop.
This plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates
endowed with
○ Deep and fertile well-drained soil,
○ Rich in humus and organic matter.
○ Warm and moist frost-free climate throughout the year.
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➢ Major tea producing States:

Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
➢ Other States:
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh, and
Tripura.
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11) Coffee
➢ Coffee is a tropical plantation crop.
➢ There are three varieties of coffee that are Arabica, Robusta, and
Liberica.
➢ India grows mainly arabica coffee which is known in the world for
its good quality.
➢ Major growing areas:
The Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
➢ Karnataka State alone accounts for more than two-thirds of the
total production of coffee in the country.
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www.visionias.net
12) Rubber https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Rubber is an important industrial raw material.

➢ Rubber is an equatorial crop but under special conditions, it is also
grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas.
1. A moist and humid climate
2. Rainfall of more than 200 cm
3. Temperature above 25°C.
➢ Major growing regions: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Andaman and Nicobar islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya.
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D.
Agricultural
Development in India
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Introduction
➢ Agricultural Development refers to efforts made to increase farm

production in order to meet the growing demand of the
increasing population.
➢ This can be achieved in many ways such as
○ Increasing the cropped area,
○ Increasing the number of crops grown,
○ Improving irrigation facilities,
○ Use of fertilisers and high yielding variety of seeds,
○ Mechanisation of agriculture.
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➢ The ultimate aim of agricultural development is to increase food
security.
➢ Agriculture has been the backbone of the Indian economy and its
share in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has registered a
decreasing trend from 1951 onwards.
➢ In 2010-11, about 52 % of the total workforce was employed in
the agriculture sector which makes more than half of the Indian
population dependent on agriculture for sustenance.
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Agricultural Development
Since Independence
➢ Before Independence, the Indian agricultural economy was largely
practicing subsistence farming.
➢ The first half of the 20th century witnessed severe droughts and
famines.
➢ Therefore, after Independence, the immediate goal of the
Government was to increase food grains production by
1. Switching over from cash crops to food crops,
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2. Intensification of cropping over the land already under
cultivation and
3. Increasing cultivated area by bringing cultivable and fallow
land under the plough.
➢ Agricultural production stagnated during the late 1950s, in order to
overcome this problem, Intensive Agricultural District
Programme (IADP) and Intensive Agricultural Area Programme
(IAAP) were launched.
➢ But two consecutive years of droughts during the mid-1960s
resulted in the food crisis in the country.
➢ Consequently, foodgrains were imported from other countries
including the USA (PL-480).
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➢ By mid-1960s, India introduced package technology comprising
HYVs, along with chemical fertilisers in fertile and irrigated areas
of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and
Gujarat.
➢ This strategy of agricultural development paid dividends instantly
and increased foodgrains production at a faster rate.
➢ This spurt of agricultural growth was termed as ‘Green Revolution’.
➢ This also gave a fillip to the development of a large number of
agro-inputs, agro-processing industries, and small-scale
industries in India.
➢ This strategy of agricultural development made the India self-reliant
in foodgrain production.
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➢ However, this also led to regional disparities in agricultural
development in the country till the 1970s, after which the technology
spread to the Eastern and Central parts of the country.
➢ The Planning Commission of India initiated agro-climatic
planning in 1988 to promote regionally balanced agricultural
development in the country.
➢ Emphasis was given to the need for diversification of agriculture
and harnessing of resources for the development of dairy
farming, poultry, horticulture, livestock rearing, and
aquaculture.
➢ Initiation of the policy of liberalisation and free market economy
in the 1990s influenced the course of development of Indian
agriculture.
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➢ Lack of development of basic infrastructure in rural areas, withdrawal

of subsidies and price support, and impediments in availing of the

rural credits may lead to inter-regional and inter-personal
disparities in rural areas.
Way Forward:
➢ To make agriculture successful and profitable, proper thrust should
be given to the improvement of the condition of marginal and
small farmers.
➢ The keyword today is “gene revolution”. Which includes genetic
engineering.
➢ In fact, organic farming is much in vogue today because it is
practised without factory-made chemicals such as fertilisers and
pesticides.
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➢ Hence, it does not affect the environment in a negative manner.

➢ Indian farmers should diversify their cropping pattern from cereals
to high-value crops.
➢ This will increase incomes and reduce environmental degradation
simultaneously.
➢ Because fruits, medicinal herbs, flowers, vegetables, biodiesel crops
like jatropha and jojoba need much less irrigation than rice or
sugarcane.
➢ India’s diverse climate can be harnessed to grow a wide range of
high-value crops.
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Problems of Indian Agriculture

➢ Dependence on Erratic Monsoon: Irrigation covers only 33% of the
area.
➢ Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness: Modern
agricultural methods are very expensive.
➢ Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings: More than
60 percent of the ownership holdings have a size smaller than one
ha.
➢ Lack of Commercialisation: A large number of farmers produce
crops for self-consumption.
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➢ Degradation of Cultivable Land: Faulty strategy of irrigation and

agricultural development.
➢ Lack of proper Land Reforms
➢ Low productivity
➢ Vast Underemployment
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E.
Land Resource
in India
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1. Land Use Categories

➢ Land-use records in India are maintained by the Land Revenue
Department.
➢ The land use categories add up to reporting area which is slightly
different from the geographical area.
➢ The Survey of India is the body responsible for measuring the
geographical area of administrative units in India.
➢ The land-use categories as maintained in the Land Revenue
Records are as follows :
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i) Forests:
➢ It is important to note that area under actual forest cover is
different from area classified as the forest.
➢ The latter is the area which has been identified and
demarcated by the Government for forest growth.
ii) Barren and Wastelands:
➢ The land which may be classified as a wasteland such as barren
hilly terrains, ravines, desert lands, etc. normally which cannot
be brought under cultivation with the available technology.
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iii) Land put to Non-agricultural Uses:

➢ Land utilized for settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure
(roads, canals, etc.), industries, shops, etc., are included in this
category.
➢ An expansion in the secondary and tertiary activities would
lead to an increase in this particular category of land-use.
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iv) Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands:
➢ Most of this type of land is owned by the ‘Panchayat’ of that
village or the Government.
➢ Only a small proportion of this type of land is privately owned.
➢ The land owned by the village panchayat is classified as
‘Common Property Resources’.
v) Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves (Not
included in Net sown Area):
➢ The land under fruit trees and orchards are included in this
category.
➢ Much of this type of land is privately owned.
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vi) Culturable Wasteland:
➢ Any land that is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five
years is included in this category.
➢ Through reclamation practices, it can be brought under
cultivation.
vii) Current Fallow:
➢ This is the land that is left without cultivation for one or less
than one agricultural year.
➢ To left the land fallow is a cultural practice adopted for giving
‘rest’ to the land
➢ The land regains lost fertility through natural processes.
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viii) Fallow other than Current Fallow:

➢ This is also a cultivable land which is left uncultivated for more
than one year but less than five years.
➢ If the land is left uncultivated for more than five years, it
would be classified as culturable wasteland.
ix) Net Area Sown:

➢ The physical extent of land on which the crops are sown and
harvested is known as the net sown area.
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Common Property Resource

➢ CPRs can be defined as

○ natural resource belonging to a community
○ where every member has the right of access and usage with
specified obligations
○ without anybody having property rights over them.
➢ For examples: Pasture lands, Community forests, village water
bodies and other public spaces where a group larger than a
household or family unit exercises rights of use and carries the
responsibility of management.
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2. Land-use Changes
➢ Land-use in a region, to a large extent, is influenced by the nature

of economic activities carried out in that region.
➢ At this stage, one needs to appreciate three types of changes that
an economy undergoes, which affect land-use patterns such as
1. The size of the economy
It grows over a period of time, as a result of increasing
population, change in income levels, available technology, and
associated factors.
As a result, the pressure on land will increase with time and
marginal lands would come under use.
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2. Secondly, the composition of the economy would undergo a
change over a period of time.
This type of change is common in developing countries, like
India, Brazil, etc.
This process would result in a gradual shifting of land from
agricultural uses to non-agricultural uses.
3. Thirdly, though the contribution of the agricultural activities
reduces over time, the pressure on land for agricultural
activities does not decline.
As in developing countries, the share of population dependent
on agriculture usually declines much more slowly compared
to the decline in the sector’s share in GDP.
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3. Agricultural Land Use in India

➢ Agriculture is a purely land-based activity, contribution of land with

respect to agricultural output is more compared to its
contribution to the outputs in the other sectors.
➢ Thus, the lack of access to land is directly correlated with incidences
of poverty in rural areas.
➢ Unlike the other activities, quality of land has a direct bearing on the
productivity of agriculture.
➢ In rural areas, apart from its value as a productive factor, land
ownership also has a social value and serves as a security for
credit, natural hazards or life contingencies, and also adds to the
social status.
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➢ Estimation of the total stock of agricultural land resources (i.e.

total cultivable land) can be arrived at by adding up the following
1. Net sown area,
2. Culturable wasteland, and
3. All fallow lands.
➢ There has been a greater decline in cultivated land, in spite of a
corresponding decline of the cultivable wasteland.
➢ Thus, there is an urgent need to evolve and adopt land-saving
technologies.
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➢ The advantage of this kind of technology can be taken to increase

the output from the limited patch of land along with an increase in
the demand for labour significantly.
➢ India is land scarce but labour abundant country therefore, a high
cropping intensity is desirable.
➢ It is demanded not only for fuller utilisation of the land resource but
also for tackling unemployment in the rural economy.
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F.
Industries
in India
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Classification of Industries
➢ The industrial sector is considered to be the backbone of

development in general and particularly for economic development.
➢ Industries are classified in a number of ways such as
1. On the basis of capital investment, size and labour force
employed
2. On the basis of ownership
3. On the basis of the utility of their products
4. On the basis of raw materials used by them
5. On the basis of the nature of the products that are produced.
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➢ On the basis of capital investment, size and labour force

employed, industries are classified as:

1. Large scale,
2. Medium scale,
3. Small scale and
4. Cottage industries.
➢ On the basis of ownership, industries are categorized as :
1. Public sector,
2. Private sector, and
3. Joint and cooperative sector
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➢ Industries are also classified on the basis of the utility of their

products such as :
1. Basic goods industries,
2. Capital goods industries,
3. Intermediate goods industries and
4. Consumer goods industries.
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➢ On the basis of raw materials used by them, industries can be
classified as :
1. Agriculture based industries,
2. Forest-based industries,
3. Mineral-based industries, and
4. Industrially processed raw material based industries.
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➢ Another common classification of industries is based on the nature

of the products that are manufactured. They are the following:
1. Metallurgical Industries,
2. Mechanical Engineering Industries,
3. Chemical and Allied Industries,
4. Textile Industries,
5. Food Processing Industries,
6. Electricity Generation,
7. Electronics and Communication Industries, etc.
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Location of Industries
➢ Nature of Industrial locations is complex.
➢ These are influenced by the availability of labour, raw material,
capital, power, and market, etc.
➢ Manufacturing activity usually tends to locate at the most
appropriate place where all the factors of industrial location are
either available or can be arranged at a lower cost.
➢ Sometimes, industries are located within or near the cities.
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➢ Cities provide markets and also services such as banking,
insurance, transport, labour, consultants and financial advice, etc.
are readily available to the industry.
➢ Many industries intend to come together to make use of the
advantages offered by the urban centres which are known as
Agglomeration economies.
➢ Gradually, a large industrial agglomeration takes place.
➢ The key to the decision of the factory location is based on least
cost model.
➢ Government policies and availability of the specialised labour
also influence the location of industry.
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1. Iron and Steel Industry

➢ There is a crescent-shaped region in India, comprising parts of
Chhattisgarh, Northern Odisha, Jharkhand and western West
Bengal, which is extremely rich in high-grade iron ore, good quality
coking coal and other supplementing raw materials.
➢ The Indian iron and steel industry consists of both large integrated
steel plants as well as Mini steel mills.
➢ It also includes rolling mills, secondary producers and ancillary
industries.
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Iron and Steel Industry

Integrated Steel Location Raw material obtained from
Industry
The Tata Iron and Steel About 240 km Iron Ore: Noamundi and Badam Pahar;
Plant (TISCO) away from Coal: Joda mines in Odisha;
Kolkata Coking coal: Jharia and west Bokaro
coalfields
The Indian Iron and Steel West Bengal Coal: Singhbhum in Jharkhand;
Company (IISCO) Water: Barakar River, a tributary of the
Damodar
Visvesvaraya Iron and Kemmangundi Limestone and manganese: Local;

Steel Works Ltd. (VISL) in the Baba Water: Bhadravati river
Budan hills
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Integrated Steel Location Raw material obtained from
Industry
Rourkela Steel Plant (1959) Sundargarh district Coal: Jharia (Jharkhand);
with Germany of Odisha Iron: Sundargarh and Kendujhar;
Water: Koel and Shankh rivers
Bhilai Steel Plant (1959) Durg district of Coal: Korba and Kargali coal fields;
with Russia Chhattisgarh Iron ore: Dalli-Rajhara mine;
Water: Tandula Dam
Durgapur Steel Plant (1962) West Bengal Iron ore: Noamundi;

with United Kingdom Water: Damodar Valley Corporation
Bokaro Steel Plant (1962) Bokaro in Iron ore: Rourkela region;

with Russia Jharkhand Water: Damodar Valley Corporation
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Other Integrated Steel Plants
➢ New steel plants which were set up during the Fourth Plan period
are away from the main raw material sources.
➢ Example: All three plants are located in South India:
1. The Vizag Steel Plant at Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh
is the first port-based plant which started its operations in 1992.
2. The Vijayanagar Steel Plant at Hospet in Karnataka was
developed using indigenous technology. This uses local
limestone and Iron ore.
3. The Salem Steel Plant in Tamil Nadu: It was commissioned in
1982.
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2. Aluminum Smelting
➢ After Iron and Steel Industries, Aluminium smelting is the second
most important metallurgical industry in India.
➢ It is light, a good conductor of heat, resistant to corrosion,
malleable and becomes strong when it is mixed with other metals.
➢ It is used to manufacture utensils, aircraft, and wires.
➢ It has gained popularity as a substitute for copper, steel, zinc and
lead in a number of industries.
➢ Bauxite is the most important raw material used in the smelters
is a very bulky, dark reddish coloured rock.
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➢ Aluminum smelting plants in the country are located in
1. Odisha,
2. Kerala,
3. West Bengal,
4. Uttar Pradesh,
5. Chhattisgarh,
6. Maharashtra and
7. Tamil Nadu.
➢ The regular supply of electricity and an assured source of raw
material at minimum cost are the two prime factors that decide the
location of this industry.
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3. Cotton Textile Industry

➢ The cotton textile industry is one among the traditional industries
of India.
➢ India was famous worldwide for the production of muslin, a very
fine variety of cotton cloth, chintz, calicos and other different
varieties of fine cotton cloth.
➢ The development of this particular industry in India was due to
several factors.
➢ One, India is a tropical country and cotton is the most comfortable
fabric for a hot and humid climate.
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➢ Second, a large quantity of cotton was grown in India.

Availability of abundant skilled labour required for this industry.

➢ In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was established in Mumbai.
➢ Later, two more mills, the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Mill were
established in Ahmedabad.
➢ The cotton textile industry in India can be broadly divided into two
sectors:
1. Organised sector and
2. Unorganised sector.
➢ The decentralised sector includes clothing produced in handlooms
(including Khadi) and powerlooms.
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Locations of Cotton Industry:
➢ Cotton is a “pure” raw material which does not lose weight in the
process of manufacturing.
➢ So other factors like labour, the power to drive the looms, capital
or market may determine the location of the industry.
➢ At present, the major trend is to locate the industry at or close to
markets as it is the market that decides what kind of cloth is to be
produced.
➢ The major centres of the cotton textile industry are Ahmedabad,
Bhiwandi, Nagpur, Solapur, Kolhapur, Indore, and Ujjain.
➢ All these centres are the traditional centres that are located close
to the cotton producing regions.
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➢ Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu are the leading cotton

producing states.
➢ Karnataka, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab are the other
important cotton textile producers.
➢ Tamil Nadu has the largest number of mills and most of them
produce yarn rather than cloth and Coimbatore has emerged as
the most important centre with nearly half the mills located there.
➢ Thanjavur, Chennai, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin,
Ramanathapuram and Salem are the other important centres.
➢ In Karnataka, the cotton textile industry is well developed in the
cotton producing areas in the north-eastern part of the state.
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➢ Mysuru, Davangere, Hubballi, Bellary, and Bengaluru are

important centres.
➢ Other important centres are Secunderabad, Hyderabad and
Warangal in Telangana and Guntur in Andhra Pradesh.
➢ In Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur is the largest textile centre.
➢ Some of the other important centres are Saharanpur, Modinagar,
Hathras, Agra, and Lucknow.
➢ In West Bengal, the cotton mills are mainly located in the Hugli
region. Serampore, Howrah, Kolkata and Shyamnagar are the
important centres.
➢ Cotton textiles are facing tough competition from synthetic cloth.
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4. Sugar Industry
➢ The sugar industry is the second most important agro-based
industry in India.
➢ India is the second largest producer of both sugarcane and cane
sugar which contributes about 8 percent of the total sugar
production in the world.
➢ Besides, khandsari and jaggery or gur are also prepared from
sugarcane.
➢ This industry provides employment for more than 4.5 lakh persons
directly and also a large number of farmers indirectly.
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➢ The sugar industry is a seasonal industry because of the seasonal
nature of raw materials.
➢ Development of the modern sugar mill dates back to 1903 when a
modern mill was started in Bihar.
Location of the Sugar Industry:
➢ Maharashtra is a leading sugar producer in the country and
produces more than one-third of the total production of the
sugar in the country.
➢ The second largest producer of sugar is Uttar Pradesh.
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➢ The sugar factories are concentrated in two belts in Uttar Pradesh –

○ Terai region and
○ Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
➢ The major sugar producing centres in the Ganga -Yamuna doab
area are Ghaziabad, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut,
Baghpat, and Bulandshahr districts;
➢ While Basti, Kheri Lakhimpur, Gonda, Gorakhpur, Bahraich are
important sugar-producing districts in the Terai region.
➢ In Tamil Nadu, sugar factories are located in Vellore, Coimbatore,
Tiruvannamalai, Villupuram and Tiruchchirappalli districts.
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➢ Mandya, Belagavi, Ballari, Shivamogga, Vijayapura and Chitradurga

districts are the major producers in Karnataka.
➢ The industry is distributed in the coastal regions i.e. West Godavari,
East Godavari, Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh and
Nizamabad and Medak districts of Telangana.
➢ The other States which produce sugar are Bihar, Haryana, Punjab,
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
➢ Champaran, Saran, Muzaffarnagar, Siwan, Darbhanga, and Gaya
are the important sugarcane producing districts in Bihar.
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➢ The relative significance of Punjab has declined, although

Gurdaspur, Sangrur, Jalandhar, Patiala and Amritsar are major
sugar producers.
➢ In Haryana, sugar factories are located in Rohtak, Yamuna Nagar,
Hisar and Faridabad districts.
➢ The sugar industry is comparatively new in Gujarat.
➢ Sugar mills are located in the cane growing tracts of Surat, Rajkot,
Junagarh, Amreli, Valsad and Bhavnagar districts.
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5. Petrochemical Industry
➢ This group of industries has been witnessing very fast growth in

India.
➢ Numerous items are derived from crude petroleum oil which
provides raw materials for many new industries, they are collectively
known as petrochemical industries.
➢ This group of industries can be divided into four sub-groups:
1. Polymers,
2. Synthetic fibres,
3. Elastomers, and
4. Surfactant intermediate.
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➢ Mumbai is the main hub of the petrochemical industries.
➢ There are 3 organisations that are working in the petrochemical
sector is under the administrative control of the Department of
Chemicals and Petrochemicals such as
1. First is the Indian Petrochemical Corporation Limited (IPCL)
which is a public sector undertaking.
It is responsible for the manufacture and distribution of the
various petrochemicals like chemicals, polymers, fibres, and
fibre intermediates.
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2. Second is the Petrofils Cooperative Limited (PCL), which is a

joint venture of the Government of India and Weaver’s
Cooperative Societies.
It produces polyester filament yarn and nylon chips in its two
plants located at Naldhari and Vadodara in Gujarat.
3. Third is the Central Institute of Plastic Engineering and
Technology (CIPET) which is involved in imparting training in
the petrochemical industry.
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6. Fertilizer Industry
➢ The fertiliser industry is centred around the production of
nitrogenous fertilisers (mainly urea), phosphatic fertilisers, and
ammonium phosphate (DAP) and other complex fertilisers.
➢ They have a combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and
potash (K).
➢ The third i.e. potash is totally imported as the country does not
have any reserves of commercially usable potash or potassium
compounds in any form.
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➢ After the Green Revolution, the fertiliser industry expanded to
several other parts of the country.
➢ Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, and Kerala
contribute towards half of the fertiliser production.
➢ Other significant producers are Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan,
Bihar, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Goa, Assam, Delhi, Madhya
Pradesh and Karnataka.
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7. Cement Industry
➢ Cement is an essential component for construction activity such
as building houses, factories, roads, airports, bridges, dams and for
other commercial establishments.
➢ This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials like silica,
limestone, and gypsum.
➢ Apart from rail transportation, coal, and electric power are
needed.
➢ The industry has strategically located plants in Gujarat that have
suitable access to the market in the Gulf countries.
➢ In 1904, the first cement plant was set up in Chennai.
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8. Information Technology &

Electronics Industry
➢ The Information Technology (IT) revolution opened up new
possibilities of social and economic transformation.
➢ The IT and IT-enabled business process outsourcing (ITES
BPO) services continue to be on a robust growth path.
➢ IT industry has emerged as one of the fastest growing sectors in
the economy.
➢ The Indian government has created a number of software parks
in the country and as a result, the IT software and services industry
account for almost 2 percent of India’s GDP.
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➢ The electronics industry covers a wide range of products from
transistor sets to cellular telecom, papers, telephone exchange,
radars, computers, and many other equipment required by the
telecommunication industry.
➢ Bengaluru has emerged as the IT capital of India.
➢ Other important centres for electronic goods are Mumbai, Delhi,
Hyderabad, Chennai, Kolkata, Pune, Lucknow, and Coimbatore.
➢ By 2010-11 (STPI) Software Technology Parks of India have
come up in more than 46 locations at different centres of India.
➢ However, the major industry concentration is at Bengaluru,
Chennai, Noida, Mumbai, Hyderabad, and Pune.
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➢ A major impact of the IT industry has been on employment

generation.
➢ It is encouraging to know that more than 30 percent of the people
employed in this sector are women.
➢ The continuing growth in the software and hardware is the key to the
success of the IT industry in India.
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Major Industrial Regions

1. Mumbai-Pune Region,
2. Hugli Region,
3. Bengaluru-Tamil Nadu Region,
4. Gujarat Region,
5. Chotanagpur Region,
6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region,
7. Gurugram-Delhi-Meerut Region,
8. Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Region,
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9. Ambala-Amritsar Region,
10. Saharanpur-Muzaffarnagar-Bijnor Region,
11. Indore-Dewas-Ujjain Region,
12. Jaipur-Ajmer Region,
13. Kolhapur-South Kannada Region,
14. Northern Malabar Region,
15. Middle Malabar Region,
16. Adilabad-Nizamabad Region,
17. Allahabad-Varanasi-Mirzapur Region,
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18. Bhojpur-Munger Region,
19. Durg-Raipur Region,
20. Bilaspur-Korba Region, and
21. Brahmaputra Valley Region.
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Thank you!
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Indian
Geography Part - 5
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www.visionias.net
Topics To Be Discussed https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
A. Mineral Resources in India

1. What are minerals?
2. Classification of minerals
3. Characteristics of Minerals
4. Where are these minerals found?
5. Distribution of minerals in India
6. Conservation of Minerals
B. Major Minerals
C. Energy Resources in India
1. Conventional sources
2. Non conventional sources
3. Conservation of Energy resources
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D. Transport and Communication

1. Land Transport - Road and Railway
2. Water Transport
3. Air Transportation
4. Oil and Gas pipeline
5. Communication Network
E. International Trades
1. Basis of International Trade
2. Types of International Trade
3. Gateways of international Trade - Ports
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A.
Mineral Resources
in India
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www.visionias.net
1. What are Minerals? https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Minerals are an indispensable part of our lives.

➢ In all stages of development, human beings have used minerals for
their livelihood, decoration, festivities, religious and ceremonial
rites. Even the food that we eat contains minerals.
➢ Geologists define mineral as a “homogenous, naturally occurring
substance with a definable internal structure.”
A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with
definite chemical and physical properties.
➢ Minerals are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the
hardest diamond to the softest talc.
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➢ Rocks are combinations of homogeneous substances called
minerals.
➢ Some rocks, for instance, limestone, consisting of a single
mineral only, but the majority of the rock consist of several
minerals in varying proportions.
➢ A particular mineral that will be formed from a certain combination
of elements depends upon the physical and chemical
conditions under which the material forms.
➢ This, in turn, results in a wide range of colours, hardness, crystal
forms, lustre, and density that a particular mineral possesses.
➢ These properties are used to classify the minerals.
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2. Classification of Minerals
Minerals
Metallic Non-Metallic
Ferrous Non-Ferrous Organic Inorganic
(Contain Iron) (Fuel Minerals)
Iron, Zinc, Copper, Coal, Mica, Graphite,

Steel, etc. Bauxite, Gold, Petroleum, Limestone, etc.
etc. Natural gas,
etc.
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3. Characteristics of Minerals
➢ Minerals have certain characteristics such as
○ These are unevenly distributed over space.
○ There is an inverse relationship in quality and quantity of
minerals i.e. good quality minerals are less in quantity as
compared to low-quality minerals.
○ The third main characteristic is that all minerals are exhaustible
over a period of time.
➢ Thus, they have to be conserved and not exploited as they do not
have the second crop.
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4. Where are these minerals found?

➢ Minerals are usually found in “ores”.
➢ The term ore is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral
mixed with other elements.
➢ The mineral content of the ore must be in sufficient
concentration to make its extraction commercially viable.
➢ The type of formation or structure in which they are found
determines the relative ease with which mineral ores may be
mined. This also determines the cost of extraction.
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➢ Minerals generally occur in the following forms:

1. In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the
cracks, crevices, faults or joints.
○ The smaller occurrences are called ‘veins’ and the larger is
called ‘lodes’.
○ Major metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead etc. are
obtained from veins and lodes.
2. In sedimentary rocks, a number of minerals occur in beds or
layers.
○ They have been formed as a result of deposition,
accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata.
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○ Coal and some forms of iron ore have been concentrated as
a result of long periods under great heat and pressure.
○ Another group of sedimentary minerals includes gypsum,
potash salt and sodium salt.
○ These are formed as a result of evaporation, especially in
arid regions.
3. Another mode of formation involves the decomposition of surface
rocks, and the removal of soluble constituents, leaving a
residual mass of weathered material containing ores.
○ Bauxite is formed this way.
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4. Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley

floors and the base of hills.
○ These deposits are called ‘placer deposits’ and generally
contain minerals, which are not corroded by water.
○ Gold, silver, tin, and platinum are most important among
such minerals.
5. The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, but most
of these are too widely diffused to be of economic significance.
○ However, common salt, magnesium, and bromine are
largely derived from ocean waters.
○ The ocean beds, too, are rich in manganese nodules.
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Rat-Hole Mining
➢ Most of the minerals in India are nationalised and their extraction is
possible only after obtaining due permission from the
government.
➢ But in most of the tribal areas of north-east India, minerals are
owned by individuals or communities.
➢ In Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal, iron ore,
limestone, dolomite, etc.
➢ Coal mining in Jowai and Cherapunjee is done by a family
member in the form of a long narrow tunnel that is known as
‘Rat-hole’ mining.
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5. Distribution of Minerals in India

➢ India is fortunate to have fairly rich and varied mineral resources.

However, these are unevenly distributed.
➢ The mineral resources provide the country with the necessary base
for industrial development.
➢ Broadly speaking, peninsular rocks contain most of the reserves of
coal, metallic minerals, mica and many other non-metallic
minerals.
➢ Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in the old crystalline
rocks of the peninsular plateau region.
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➢ Over 97 percent of coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar,

Mahanadi, Sone, and Godavari.
➢ Petroleum reserves are located in the sedimentary basins of
Gujarat and Mumbai High i.e. offshore region in the Arabian Sea
and in Assam.
➢ New reserves have been found in the Krishna-Godavari and
Kaveri basins.
➢ Rajasthan with the rock systems of the peninsula has reserves
of many non-ferrous minerals.
➢ The vast alluvial plains of north India are almost devoid of
economic minerals.
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➢ These variations exist largely because of the differences in the
geological structure, processes and time involved in the
formation of minerals.
➢ Minerals are generally concentrated in three broad belts in
India.
➢ There may be some sporadic occurrences here and there in
isolated pockets.
➢ These belts are the following:
1. The North-Eastern Plateau Region
2. The South-Western Plateau Region
3. The North-Western Region
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Mineral Belt
www.visionias.net
States covered Minerals found
https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
Himalayan Belt Jammu and Kashmir, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Bismuth, Bauxite,
Uttarakhand, Assam Antimony, Nickel, Cobalt, Tungsten,
precious stones, gold, silver, gypsum,
limestone, dolomite
Chotanagpur Jharkhand, Bihar, Coal, Mica, Manganese, Chromite,

Belt Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Ilmenite, Bauxite, Iron, Copper,
West Bengal Dolomite, china clay, Limestone
Midland Belt Chhattisgarh, Madhya Manganese, Bauxite, Mica, Copper,

Pradesh, Andhra Graphite, Limestone, Lignite and Marble
Pradesh, Maharashtra
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Mineral Belt States covered Minerals found
Western Belt Rajasthan, Gujarat, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Uranium, Mica,
Maharashtra Manganese, Asbestos, precious
stones, mineral oil and natural gas
Southern Belt Andhra Pradesh, Gold, Iron ore, Chromite, Manganese,
Karnataka, Tamil nadu Lignite, Mica, Bauxite, Gypsum,
Asbestos, Dolomite, Ilmenite,
Limestone
Southwestern Goa, Karnataka, Kerala Iron ore, Ilmenite, Zircon, Monazite,
Belt Garnet, Bauxite, Mica, Limestone
Indian Ocean Continental shelf region Mineral oil, natural gas
Belt of Arabian sea and Bay
of Bengal
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6. Conservation of Minerals
➢ The challenge of sustainable development requires the

integration of quest for economic development along with
environmental concerns.
➢ Traditional methods of resource use results in generating an
enormous quantity of waste, as well as, create other environmental
problems.
➢ Hence, sustainable development calls for the protection of resources
for future generations.
➢ There is an urgent and imminent need to conserve the resources.
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➢ The alternative energy sources like solar power, wave, wind,

geothermal energy are inexhaustible resources.
➢ These should be developed to replace the exhaustible resources.
➢ In the case of metallic minerals, the use of scrap metals will
enable and promote recycling of metals.
➢ Use of scrap is especially significant in metals like lead, copper,
and zinc in which India’s reserves are meagre.
➢ Promoting the use of substitutes for such scarce metals may also
reduce their consumption.
➢ Export of strategic and scarce minerals must be reduced, so that
the existing reserve may be utilized for a longer period.
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B.
Major Minerals
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1) Iron Ore
➢ India is endowed with abundant resources of iron ore.
➢ It has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia.
➢ The two main types of Iron ore found in our country are the
following:
1. Haematite
2. Magnetite
➢ Both have great demand in the international market due to its
superior quality.
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➢ The iron ore mines occur in close proximity to the coal fields in
the north-eastern plateau region of the country which adds to
their advantage.
➢ About 95 percent of total reserves of iron ore is located in the
States of Karnataka, Goa, Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
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State
www.visionias.net Mines Type of Iron Production
https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
Karnataka Chikmagalur (Baba Budan Hills, Haematite, 25%

Kudremukh), Magnetite
Bellary(Sandur)
Odisha Cuttack, Keonjhar, Haematite 22%
Sundargarh (Bonaigarh),
Koraput, Mayurbhanj (Badampahar)
Chhattisgarh Bastar (Bailadila), Durg Haematite 20%
(Dalli-Rajhara)
Goa North Goa Magnetite, 16%
Haematite
Jharkhand Bonai Ragne, Singhbhum, Magnetite, 14%
Naomandi, Daltonganj, Hazaribagh, Haematite
Ranchi, Gorumahisani
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www.visionias.net
2) Manganese https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Manganese is an important raw material for the smelting of iron

ore and also used in the manufacturing of ferroalloys.
➢ Manganese deposits are found in almost all geological formations,
however, it is mainly associated with Dharwar rock system.
➢ Odisha is the leading producer of Manganese.
➢ Major mines in Odisha are located in the central part of the iron ore
belt of India, particularly in Sundergarh, Gangpur, Bonai,
Kendujhar, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir.
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➢ Karnataka is another major producer and here the mines are
located in Dharwad, North Canara, Ballari, Belagavi,
Chikkamagaluru, Shivamogga, Chitradurga, and Tumkur.
➢ Maharashtra is also an important producer of manganese which
is mined in Bhandara, Nagpur, and Ratnagiri districts.
➢ The disadvantage to these mines is that they are located far from
steel plants.
➢ The manganese belt of Madhya Pradesh extends in a belt in
Balaghat-Chhindwara-Mandla-Nimar and Jhabua districts.
➢ Goa, Telangana, and Jharkhand are other minor producers of
manganese.
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3) Bauxite
➢ Bauxite is a non-ferrous mineral.

➢ India has less non-ferrous metallic minerals except bauxite.
➢ Bauxite is the ore that is used in the manufacturing of Aluminium.
➢ Bauxite is found mainly as tertiary deposits and is associated with
laterite rocks occurring extensively either on the plateau or hill
ranges of peninsular India and also in the coastal tracts of our
country.
➢ Odisha is the largest producer of Bauxite.
➢ Kalahandi and Sambalpur are the leading producers of Bauxite in
Odisha.
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➢ The other two areas which have significant production are Bolangir
and Koraput in the same state.
➢ The peatlands of Lohardaga in Jharkhand also have rich
deposits.
➢ Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra are
other major producers.
➢ Bhavnagar and Jamnagar in Gujarat also have major deposits.
➢ Chhattisgarh has bauxite deposits in Amarkantak plateau while
Katni-Jabalpur area and Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh have
major deposits of bauxite.
➢ Goa, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka are minor producers of bauxite.
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4) Copper
➢ Copper is an indispensable metal in the electrical industry, used
for making wires, electric motors, transformers, and generators.
➢ It is alloy-able, malleable and ductile metal.
➢ It is also mixed with gold to provide tensile strength to jewellery.
➢ The Copper deposits mainly occur in
○ Singhbhum district in Jharkhand,
○ Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts in Rajasthan and
○ Balaghat district in Madhya Pradesh.
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➢ Minor producers of Copper are the following
○ Chitradurga and Hasan districts (Karnataka),
○ Agnigundala in Guntur District (Andhra Pradesh), and
○ South Arcot district (Tamil Nadu).
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5) Gold
➢ Gold, a precious metallic mineral, is commonly used in jewellery
making.
➢ India has very limited reserves of gold, therefore, India’s annual
production is low.
➢ Gold mines in the country are confined to a few areas like Kolar
and Hatti in Karnataka, where mining is very expensive because
the mines are among the deepest in the world.
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6) Mica
➢ Mica is the important one, among the non-metallic minerals
produced in India.
➢ The other minerals extracted for local consumption are Limestone,
Phosphate, and Dolomite.
➢ Mica is mainly used in the electrical and electronic industries.
➢ It can be split into thin sheets which are both tough and flexible.
➢ Mica in India is produced in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Jharkhand, and Rajasthan followed by Tamil Nadu, West
Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh.
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➢ Mica deposits also occur in

○ Mysore and Hassan districts of Karnataka,
○ Madurai, Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli and Kanyakumari in
Tamil Nadu,
○ Alleppey in Kerala,
○ Ratnagiri in Maharashtra,
○ Purulia and Bankura in West Bengal.
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7) Asbestos
➢ The name ‘Asbestos’ denotes the combination of two different
minerals, namely,
○ Amphibole and
○ Chrysotile.
➢ Chrysotile accounts for 80% of Asbestos of commercial use.
➢ Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of Asbestos in India.
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https://t.me/UPSC_PDF https://t.me/UPSC_PDF
8) Diamond
➢ The precious stone diamond, a metallic mineral, is used in making

jewellery and also used to make various instruments.
➢ They are very hard, therefore they are used in drilling hard rocks
and cutting glasses.
➢ Production of diamonds happens at the following places in India:
○ Panna mines of Madhya Pradesh and
○ Golconda mines in Andhra Pradesh.
➢ It has reduced considerably in recent times. However, the
diamond-processing industry is well developed in Surat (Gujarat)
due to which India imports diamonds for processing and exports the
processed diamonds.
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9) Limestone https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Limestone is used for a variety of purposes in the following

industries
○ cement industry (maximum use),
○ Iron and steel industry and
○ chemical industries.
➢ However, limestone is also used in industries like paper, sugar,
glass, rubber, fertilizers, and ferromanganese.
➢ Over three-fourths of the total limestone production in India is from
six states, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, and Tamil Nadu.
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10) Dolomite
➢ Limestone with more than 10% of Magnesium is called Dolomite.
➢ True Dolomite has about 45% of Magnesium content.
➢ Dolomite is used in Iron and Steel industry (more than 90%),
followed by Fertilizer (4%), Glass (2%) and steel (1%).
➢ Chhattisgarh is the leading producer of Dolomite.
➢ Followed by Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and also exists in other
states.
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C.
Energy Resources
in India
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Introduction
➢ Energy can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum,

natural gas, uranium and from electricity.
➢ Fuels mineral are essential for the generation of power, as
power is the essential prerequisite for agriculture, industry,
transport, and other sectors of the economy.
➢ Energy resources can be classified as the following
○ Conventional sources
○ Non-conventional sources
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➢ Conventional sources: It includes firewood, cattle dung cake, coal,

petroleum, natural gas, and electricity (both hydel and thermal).
➢ Non-conventional sources: It includes solar, wind, tidal,
geothermal, biogas, and atomic energy.
➢ Firewood and cattle dung cake are the most common form of fuels
in rural India.
➢ According to one of the estimate, more than 70 percent energy
requirement in rural households is met by these two (Firewood
and cattle dung cake).
➢ Continuation of these is becoming increasingly difficult due to
decreasing forest area.
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1.
Conventional
Sources of Energy
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1) Coal
➢ It is one of the important minerals which is mainly used in the

smelting of iron ore and generation of thermal power.
➢ Coal occurs in rock sequences mainly of two geological ages,
namely:
○ Tertiary deposits and
○ Gondwana deposits.
➢ Coal is found in a variety of forms depending on the degrees of
compression and the depth and time of burial.
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➢ Peat
○ Decaying plants in swamps produce peat which has low
carbon and high moisture contents.
○ Therefore, low heating capacity.
➢ Lignite Coal
○ It is a low-grade brown coal which is soft because of
high moisture content.
○ The main lignite reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu and
are used for generation of electricity.
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➢ Bituminous Coal
○ Coal that has been buried deep and subjected to increased
temperatures results in the formation of bituminous coal.
○ It is the most widely used coal in commercial activities.
○ Metallurgical coal is high-grade bituminous coal is used for
smelting iron in blast furnaces.
○ About 80 percent of the coal deposits in India is of bituminous
type and is of non-coking grade.
➢ Anthracite coal
○ It is the highest quality hard coal.
○ Found only in some parts of Jammu Kashmir in India. Rest of
the requirement is met through imports from Australia etc.
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Deposition of Coal
➢ The most prominent Gondwana coal fields of India are located in
Damodar Valley.
○ They lie in Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt and the important coal
fields in this region are Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, and
Karanpura.
○ Jharia is the largest coal field followed by Raniganj.
➢ The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain
coal deposits
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➢ The most important coal mining centres are the following
○ Singrauli in Madhya Pradesh (part of Singrauli coal field lies in
Uttar Pradesh),
○ Korba in Chhattisgarh,
○ Talcher and Chanda–Wardha, Kamptee and Bander in
Maharashtra,
○ Rampur in Odisha, and
○ Singareni in Telangana and
○ Pandur in Andhra Pradesh.
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➢ Tertiary coals occur in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and

Nagaland. It is extracted from
○ Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewling and Langrin (Meghalaya),
○ Makum, Jaipur and Nazira in upper Assam,
○ Namchik – Namphuk (Arunachal Pradesh) and
○ Kalakot (Jammu and Kashmir).
➢ Besides, the brown coal or lignite occur in the coastal areas of
Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Gujarat, and Jammu and Kashmir.
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2) Petroleum (Mineral oil) https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Petroleum is the major energy source in India after coal.

➢ Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of liquid and
gaseous states varying in chemical composition, colour and
specific gravity.
➢ It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery
and raw materials for a huge number of manufacturing industries.
➢ Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for many industries.
➢ Its numerous by-products are processed in petrochemical industries
such as fertiliser, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines,
vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap, and cosmetics.
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➢ Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with fault

traps and anticlines in the rock formations of the tertiary age.
➢ In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it occurs where oil is
trapped in the crest of the upper fold.
➢ The oil-bearing layer is a porous sandstone or limestone through
which oil may flow.
➢ The oil is prevented from sinking or rising by intervening
non-porous layers.
➢ Petroleum is also found in the fault traps between porous and
non-porous rocks.
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Deposition of Petroleum
➢ About 63 percent of India’s petroleum production is from Mumbai
High, 18 percent from Gujarat and 16 percent from Assam.
➢ Ankleshwar is the most important field of Gujarat.
➢ Assam is the oldest oil-producing state of India.
➢ Digboi, Naharkatiya, and Moran-Hugrijan are important oil fields
in the state.
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Oil Refineries
➢ Oil extracted from the wells is crude oil and contains many
impurities.
➢ It cannot be used directly. It needs to be refined.
➢ There are two types of refineries in India:
○ Field-based and
○ Market-based.
➢ Digboi is an example of field-based and Barauni is an example
of market-based refinery.
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3) Natural Gas
➢ Natural gas is a major clean energy resource found in association
with or without petroleum.
➢ It is used as an industrial raw material as well as a source of
energy in the petrochemical industry.
➢ Natural gas is considered an environment-friendly fuel because
of low carbon dioxide emissions and is, therefore, the fuel for the
present century.
➢ Use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG ) for vehicles to replace
liquid fuels has gained wide popularity in the country.
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Reserves of Natural Gas

➢ Large reserves of natural gas were discovered in the
Krishna-Godavari basin and are now commercially
operationalized.
➢ Along the west coast, the reserves of the Mumbai High and other
nearby fields are supplemented by finds in the Gulf of Cambay.
➢ Andaman and Nicobar islands are also important areas potentially
having large reserves of natural gas.
➢ The 1700 km long Hazira-Vijaipur Jagdishpur cross country gas
pipeline links Mumbai High and Bassein with the fertilizer, power
and industrial complexes in western and northern India.
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4) Electricity
➢ Electricity has such a wide range of applications in today’s world

that, its per capita consumption is considered as an index of
development.
➢ Electricity is generated mainly in two ways:
○ by running water which drives hydro turbines to generate
hydro electricity; and
○ by burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas
to drive turbines to produce thermal power.
➢ Once generated the electricity is exactly the same.
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i. Hydro Electricity
➢ It is generated by fast flowing water which is a prominent
renewable resource.
➢ Our country is endowed with an immense amount of hydroelectric
potential and positions fifth in the world, in terms of exploitable
hydroelectric energy.
➢ India has a number of multi-purpose projects like the Bhakra
Nangal, the Kopili Hydel Project, Damodar Valley Corporation, etc.
producing hydroelectric power.
➢ The power generated from hydroelectric plants is used for several
purposes like Irrigation, Household electricity, Industries etc.
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➢ Hydropower is a versatile, flexible technology that at its smallest

can power a single home, and at its largest can supply industry and
the public with renewable electricity on a national and even regional
scale.
➢ There are four broad hydropower typologies such as:
1. Run-of-river Hydropower:
● A facility that channels flowing water from a river through a canal
or penstock to spin a turbine.
● Typically a run-of-river project will have little or no storage
facility.
● Run-of-river provides a continuous supply of electricity (base
load) with some flexibility of operation for daily fluctuations in
demand through water flow that is regulated by the facility.
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2. Storage Hydropower:
● It is typically a large system that uses a dam to store water in a

reservoir.
● Electricity is produced by releasing water from the reservoir
through a turbine, which activates a generator.
● Storage hydropower provides base load as well as the
ability to be shut down and started up at short notice
according to the demands of the system (peak load).
● It can offer enough storage capacity to operate
independently of the hydrological inflow for many weeks or
even months.
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3. Pumped-storage Hydropower:
● It provides peak-load supply, harnessing water which is
cycled between a lower and upper reservoir by pumps which
use surplus energy from the system at times of low demand.
● When electricity demand is high, water is released back to
the lower reservoir through turbines to produce electricity.
4. Offshore hydropower:
● A less established but growing group of technologies that use
tidal currents or the power of waves to generate electricity
from seawater
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➢ These technologies can often overlap.
➢ For example, storage projects can often involve an element of
pumping to supplement the water that flows into the reservoir
naturally, and run-of-river projects may provide some storage
capability.
➢ Classification of Hydro Projects based on Installed Capacity:
1. Micro: Up to 100 KW
2. Mini: 100 KW to 2 MW
3. Small: 2 MW to 25 MW
4. Mega: >= 500 MW
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ii. Thermal Electricity

➢ Thermal power is the largest source of power in India.
➢ There are distinctive sorts of Thermal power plants based on the fuel
used to create the steam like coal, oil, gas and Diesel.
➢ It is generated by using petroleum, coal, and natural gas.
➢ The thermal power stations use non-renewable fossil fuels for the
generation of electricity.
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2.
Non-Conventional
Sources of Energy
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Non - Conventional Sources of Energy

➢ Fossil fuel sources such as petroleum, coal, natural gas and nuclear
energy use exhaustible raw materials.
➢ Sustainable energy resources are only renewable energy sources
like wind, solar, hydro, geothermal and biomass.
➢ The non-conventional energy sources will provide more
sustainable, eco-friendly, and cheaper energy after the initial
cost is taken care of.
➢ India is blessed with an abundance of sunlight, water, wind and
biomass.
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1) Nuclear Energy Resources

➢ Important minerals used for the generation of nuclear energy are
Thorium and Uranium.
Uranium:
○ India has no significant reserves of Uranium. All needs are met
through imports.
○ India imports thousands of tonnes of uranium from Russia,
Kazakhstan, France, etc.
○ Uranium deposits occur in the Dharwar rocks.
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○ Some Uranium reserves were recently discovered in parts of
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana between Seshachalam
forest and Srisailam [Southern edge of Andhra to Southern
edge of Telangana].
Thorium:
○ Thorium is estimated to be about three to four times more
abundant than uranium in the Earth’s crust.
○ It is mainly refined from monazite sands as Monazite contains
2.5% thorium.
○ Monazite is a reddish-brown phosphate mineral containing
rare earth metals.
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○ Monazite is widely scattered on the Coast of Kerala.

○ Thorium is predicted to replace uranium as nuclear fuel in
nuclear reactors but only a few thorium reactors have been
completed yet.
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2) Solar Energy
➢ India is a tropical country.
➢ It has enormous possibilities of tapping solar energy.
➢ Sun rays are tapped using photovoltaic cells which can be
converted into energy known as solar energy.
➢ The two effective processes considered to be very effective to tap
solar energy are
1. Solar thermal technology and
2. Photovoltaics technology.
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➢ Solar thermal technology has some relative advantages over

other sources of non-renewable energy.
➢ It is environment-friendly, cost competitive, and easy to
construct.
➢ Solar energy is 7 percent more effective than oil or coal-based
plants and 10 percent more effective than nuclear plants.
➢ The western part of India has greater potential for the development
of solar energy in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
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3) Wind Energy
➢ Wind energy is an absolutely inexhaustible and pollution-free
source of energy.
➢ The mechanism of extracting energy from blowing wind is
simple. The kinetic energy of wind is converted into electrical
energy using turbines.
➢ The permanent wind systems such the trade winds, westerlies and
seasonal wind like monsoon acts as a source of energy.
➢ Besides these, local winds, sea, and land breezes can also be
used to produce electricity.
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➢ The country’s potential for wind power generation exceeds 50
Gigawatts, of which one fourth can be easily harnessed.
➢ The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamilnadu from
Nagercoil to Madurai.
➢ Apart from these, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala,
Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have important wind farms.
➢ Nagercoil and Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of wind
energy in the country.
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4) Tidal & Wave Energy

➢ Ocean currents are considered to be the storehouse of infinite
energy and can be used to generate electricity.
➢ Floodgate dams are built across inlets.
➢ During high tide, water flows into the inlet and gets trapped when
the gate is closed.
➢ After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the water retained by the
floodgate flows back to the sea via a pipe that carries it through a
power-generating turbine.
➢ Large tidal waves are known to occur along the western coast of
India.
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➢ Hence, India has great potential for the development of tidal

energy along the coasts but so far utilisation is been limited.
➢ In India, the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat
on the western coast and Gangetic delta in Sundarban regions
of West Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.
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5) Geothermal Energy
➢ When the magma from the interior of the earth, comes out on the
surface, tremendous heat is released.
➢ This heat energy can successfully be tapped and converted to
electrical energy.
➢ Apart from this, the hot water that gushes out through the geyser
wells is also used in the generation of thermal energy.
➢ It is popularly known as Geothermal energy.
➢ Therefore, geothermal energy refers to the heat and electricity
produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth.
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➢ Geothermal energy exists because the Earth becomes
progressively hotter with increasing depth.
➢ High temperatures are found at shallow depths where the
geothermal gradient is high.
➢ Groundwater in such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and
becomes hot.
➢ It is so hot that when it rises to the earth’s surface, it turns into
steam.
➢ This particular steam is used to drive turbines and generate
electricity.
➢ There are several hundreds of hot springs in India which could
be used to generate electricity.
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➢ Two experimental projects have been set up in India:
1. One is located in the Parvati valley near Manikaran in
Himachal Pradesh and
2. the other is located in the Puga Valley, Ladakh in order to
harness geothermal energy.
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6) Shale Gas
➢ Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks formed at the bottom
of ancient seas and it is an organic-rich mud.
➢ Subsequent sedimentation and the resultant pressure and heat
transformed the mud into shale and also produced natural gas
from the organic matter contained in it.
➢ Over long periods of geologic time, some of the gas migrated to
adjacent sandstones and was trapped in them, forming
conventional gas accumulations.
➢ The rest of the gas remained locked in the non-porous shale
rocks.
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➢ In India, potential shale gas sites are Gondwana,

Krishna-Godavari, Cambay, and Cauvery Basins.
Hydro-fracturing or Fracking
➢ Shale rock is sometimes found 3,000 metres below the
surface of Earth.
➢ After deep vertical drilling, there are some techniques to drill
horizontally for considerable distances in various
directions to extract the gas-rich shale.
➢ A mixture of water, sand and chemicals, is then injected into
the well at very high pressures to create a number
of fissures in the rock to release the gas.
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➢ The process of using water for breaking up the rock is known as

‘hydro-fracturing’ or ‘fracking’.
➢ The chemicals help in water and gas flow and tiny particles
of sand enter the fissures to keep them open and allow the
gas to flow up to the surface.
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7) Coal Bed Methane (CBM) https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ It is an unconventional form of natural gas found in coal deposits

or coal seams.
➢ Large quantities of gas are absorbed on the internal surfaces of
the micro pores within the coal itself.
➢ This gas can be accessed by drilling wells into the coal seam
and pumping large quantities of water in order to saturate the
seam.
➢ Coal bed methane contains a small amount of heavier
hydrocarbons such as propane or butane.
➢ India has an estimated 700-950 billion cubic metre of coalbed
methane resources.
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8) Bio-energy https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Bio-energy refers to energy derived from biological products, that

includes agricultural residues, municipal, industrial and other wastes.
➢ Bio-energy is a potential source of energy conversion which can
be converted into heat energy, electrical energy or gas for
cooking.
➢ Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to produce
biogas for domestic consumption in rural areas.
➢ Decomposition of organic matter yields gas which has higher
thermal efficiency in comparison to kerosene, dung cake and
charcoal.
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➢ Biogas plants are set up at municipal, cooperative, and
individual levels.
➢ One such project converting municipal waste into energy is Okhla
in Delhi (Waste To Energy).
➢ The plants using cattle dung are known as ‘Gobar gas plants’ in
rural India.
➢ These provide twin benefits to the farmer in the form of energy and
improved quality of manure.
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3. Conservation of https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
Energy Resources
➢ Energy is a basic requirement for the economic development of
a nation.
➢ Every sector of the national economy like agriculture, industry,
transport, commercial and domestic – needs the input of energy.
➢ As a result, the consumption of energy in all forms has been
steadily rising all over the country along with economic growth.
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➢ Promotion of energy conservation and increased use of

renewable energy sources are the twin planks of sustainable
energy utilization.
➢ India is presently one among the least energy efficient countries
in the world.
➢ Therefore, we have to adopt a cautious approach for the
judicious use of our limited energy resources.
➢ After all, “Energy saved is Energy produced”.
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D.
Transport &
Communication
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www.visionias.net
1. Land Transport https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
A. Road
➢ India has the second largest road networks in the world with a
total length of about 54.8 lakh km.
➢ Every year about 85 percent of passenger and 70 percent of
freight traffic are carried by roads.
➢ For the purpose of maintenance and construction, roads are broadly
classified as:
1) National Highways (NH),
2) State Highways(SH),
3) Major District Roads and
4) Rural Roads.
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1) National Highways
➢ The main roads that are constructed and maintained by the Union
Government are known as the National Highways.
➢ These roads are mainly meant for inter-state transport and
movement of defence men and material in strategic areas.
➢ These also connect the state capitals, important ports, major
cities, railway junctions, etc.
➢ The length of the National Highways has increased from 19,700 km
in 1951 to 1,31,326 km in 2018.
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➢ The National Highways constitute only about 2.7 percent of the

total road length but carry more than 40 percent of the road
traffic.
The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI)
○ It was operationalised in 1995.
○ It is an autonomous body under the Ministry of Surface
Transport.
○ It is responsible for the development, maintenance, and
operation of National Highways.
○ This is also the apex body, dedicated to improving the quality of
the roads designated as National Highways.
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2) State Highways
➢ These roads are constructed and maintained by state
governments.
➢ They connect the state capitals with district headquarters and
other important towns.
➢ These roads are connected to the National Highways.
➢ They constitute about 4 percent of total road length in the
country.
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3) District Roads
➢ These roads are the connecting link between District
Headquarters and the other important nodes in that district.
➢ They account for almost 14 percent of the total road length of the
country.
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4) Rural Roads
➢ These roads are vital for providing links in rural areas.
➢ About 80 percent of the total road length in India are categorised
as rural roads.
➢ There is regional variation in the density of rural road because
they are influenced by the nature of the terrain.
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Other Roads
➢ Other roads include Border Roads and International Highways.
The Border Road Organisation (BRO)
➢ It was established in May 1960.
➢ It was established with the intent to accelerate economic
development and strengthening defence preparedness
through the rapid and coordinated improvement of strategically
important roads along the northern and north-eastern
boundary of the country.
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The international highways:

➢ They are meant to promote the better and harmonious
relationship with the neighbouring countries by providing
effective links with India for transportation of both people and
Goods.
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B. Rail Transport
➢ Indian Railways network is one of the longest in the world.

➢ It facilitates the movement of both freight and passengers and
contributes to the growth of the economy.
➢ Indian Railway was started in 1853 when a line was constructed
from Bombay to Thane covering a distance of 34 km.
➢ Indian Railways is the largest government undertaking in the
country.
➢ The very large size puts a lot of pressure on a centralised railway
management system.
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➢ Thus, in India, the railway system has been divided into 16 zones.
➢ On the basis of the width of track of the Indian Railways, three
categories have been made:
1. Broad gauge:
The distance between rails in broad gauge is 1.676 metre.
2. Metre gauge:
The distance between rails is one metre.
3. Narrow gauge:
The distance between the rails is 0.762 metre or 0.610 metre.
It is generally confined to hilly areas.
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Railway Zone Headquarters

Central Mumbai CST
Eastern Kolkata
East Central Hajipur
East Coast Bhubaneswar
Northern New Delhi
North Central Allahabad
North Eastern Gorakhpur
North East Frontier Maligaon (Guwahati)
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Railway Zone Headquarters

North Western Jaipur
Southern Chennai
South Central Secunderabad
South Eastern Kolkata
South East Central Bilaspur
South Western Hubli
Western Mumbai (Church Gate)
West Central Jabalpur
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2. Water Transport
➢ Waterway is an important mode of transport for both passenger
and cargo traffic in India but it’s potential is yet to be tapped.
➢ It is the cheapest means of transport and is most suitable for
carrying bulky and heavy material.
➢ It is an eco-friendly and fuel-efficient mode of transport.
➢ The water transport is of two types–
1. Inland waterways
2. Oceanic waterways
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1) Inland Waterways
➢ It was the chief mode of transport before the introduction of
railways.
➢ It is facing tough competition from road and railway transport.
➢ Diversion of river water for irrigation purposes, frequent droughts,
etc. has made them non-navigable in large parts of their
courses.
➢ India has more than 14,500 km of navigable waterways,
contributing about 1% to the country’s transportation.
➢ It comprises rivers, backwaters, canals, creeks, etc.
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➢ At present, more than 5,685 km of major rivers are navigable by

mechanised flat bottom vessels.
➢ For the development, regulation and maintenance of national
waterways in the country, the Inland Waterways Authority was set
up in 1986.
➢ The Inland Waterways Authority has also identified 10 other
inland waterways which could be upgraded.
➢ The Authority has identified 111 potential National Waterways,
among them prominent ones are the following:
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Waterways
Waterway Stretch Specification

NW 1 Allahabad-Haldia Navigable by mechanical boats up to Patna
(1,620 km) and by ordinary boats up to Haridwar.
Divided into three parts for developmental
purposes–
1. Haldia-Farakka (560 km),
2. Farakka-Patna (460 km),
3. Patna-Allahabad (600 km)
NW2 Sadiya-Dhubri Brahmaputra is navigable by steamers up

(891 km) to Dibrugarh (1,384 km) which is shared by
India and Bangladesh.
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Waterways Stretch Specification
NW3 Kottapuram-Kollam It includes 168 km of west coast

canal along with Champakara
(205 km)
canal (14 km) and
Udyogamandal canal (23 km).
NW 4 Muktyala-Vijayawada Specified stretches of Godavari

(1078 km) and Krishna rivers along with
Kakinada Puducherry stretch of
canals (1078 km)
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2) Oceanic Transport
➢ India has a vast coastline of approximate 7,517 km, including

islands.
➢ There are 12 major and 185 minor ports which provide
infrastructural support to these routes.
➢ Approximately 95 percent of India’s foreign trade by volume
and 70 percent by value moves through ocean routes, therefore,
they play a major role in India’s economy.
➢ These are also used for the purpose of transportation between
the islands and the rest of the country, apart from international
trade.
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3. Air Transportation
➢ It provides the fastest means of movement from one place to the

other.
➢ Air transport in India began in 1911 when airmail operation
commenced over a small distance of 10 km between Allahabad
and Naini.
➢ The Airport Authority of India is responsible for providing safe,
efficient air traffic and aeronautical communication services in the Air
Space of India.
➢ To assist the Indian exporters and make their export more
competitive, the government had introduced an Open Sky Policy
for cargo in April 1992.
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4. Oil and Gas Pipelines

➢ Pipelines are the most efficient, economical and convenient

mode of transporting liquids and gases over long distances and
even solids can also be transported by pipelines after converting
them into the slurry.
➢ Asia’s first cross country pipeline covering a distance of 1,157
km was constructed by OIL, this pipeline connects Naharkatiya
oilfield in Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar.
➢ An extensive network of pipelines has been constructed in the
western region of India of which Mumbai High- Koyali,
Ankleshwar-Koyali and Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) are the
most important ones.
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➢ Recently, a 1256 km long pipeline connecting Mathura (U.P.) with
Salaya (Gujarat) has been constructed and it supplies crude oil
from Gujarat to Punjab (Jalandhar) via Mathura.
➢ OIL is constructing a 660 km long pipeline from Numaligarh to
Siliguri.
➢ The ambitious “Urja Ganga” gas pipeline project (between
Jagdishpur- Haldia, Bokaro- Dhamri) aims to provide piped
cooking gas to residents in Varanasi by 2020.
➢ And in another year after that, it would cater to the needs of people
in Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, and West Bengal.
➢ Government is also planning to extend it into the North-Eastern
States.
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5. Communication Networks
➢ Initially, the means of communication were also dependent on the
means of transportation.
➢ Invention of the post office, printing press, telegraph, telephone,
satellite, etc. has made the communication much faster and easier.
➢ On the basis of quality and scale, the mode of communication can
be divided into following categories:
○ Personal Communication System,
○ Mass Communication System and,
○ Satellite Communication.
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www.visionias.net
1) Personal Communication System https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Among all the personal communication systems available, the

internet is the most effective and advanced one.
➢ It enables the user to establish direct contact through e-mail to
get access to the world of information and knowledge.
➢ It is increasingly used for e-commerce and carrying out economic
transactions.
➢ It provides efficient access to information at a comparatively low
cost through the internet and e-mail.
➢ It equips us with the basic facilities of direct communication.
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www.visionias.net
2) Mass Communication System https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
Radio
➢ Radio broadcasting started in India, in the year 1923, by the
Radio Club of Bombay.
➢ All India Radio broadcasts a variety of programmes related to
education, information, and entertainment.
Television (T.V.)
➢ Initially, the Television services were limited only to the National
Capital where it began in 1959.
➢ Television broadcasting has emerged as the most effective
medium for disseminating information and educating masses.
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(3) Satellite Communication
➢ Satellites are the mode of communication in themselves as well

as they regulate the use of other means of communication.
➢ Satellite images can be used for the weather forecast,
surveillance of border areas, monitoring of natural calamities,
etc.
➢ For example, the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System,
(NAVIC) is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system that
provides accurate real-time positioning and timing services.
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E.
International Trade
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www.visionias.net
Introduction https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
➢ Trade means the voluntary exchange of goods and services and

it may be conducted at two levels such as:
1. International
2. National
➢ International trade is the exchange of goods and services among
different countries across the national boundaries.
➢ Countries need to trade in order to obtain commodities that
they cannot produce themselves or they can purchase elsewhere
at a lower price.
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➢ International trade is the result of specialisation in production.

➢ It benefits the world economy if different countries practise
specialisation and division of labour in the provision of services
or production of commodities.
➢ Each kind of specialisation can potentially give rise to trade.
➢ Thus, international trade is based on the principle of comparative
advantage, transferability, and complementarity of goods and
services.
➢ In principle, it should be mutually beneficial to the trading
partners.
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1. Basis of International Trade

1. Difference in national resources:
• Geological structure (topographical difference)
• Mineral resources
• Climate conditions
2. Population factors:
• Cultural factors (art and craft works)
• Size of the population (large volume of internal trade)
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3. Stage of economic development

4. Extent of foreign investment
5. Transportation service
6. Volume of Trade
7. Composition of Trade
8. Direction of Trade
9. Balance of Trade
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2. Types of International Trade

Bilateral Trade:
➢ Bilateral trade is done between two countries with each other.
➢ They enter into an agreement to trade some specified
commodities amongst them.
➢ For example, Country A may agree to trade some raw material
with an agreement to purchase some other specified item to
Country B or vice versa.
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Multilateral Trade:
➢ Multilateral trade is conducted with many trading countries.
➢ The same country can trade with a number of other countries.
➢ The country may also grant the status of the “Most Favoured
Nation” (MFN) to some of the trading partners.
Free Trade
➢ The act of opening up economies for trading is known as free
trade or trade liberalisation and it is done by bringing down
trade barriers like tariffs.
➢ It allows goods and services originating from anywhere across
the world to compete with domestic products and services.
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3. Gateway of International Trade:
Ports
➢ The chief gateways of the world of international trade are the ports
and harbours.
➢ Cargoes and travelers pass from one part of the world to another
using these ports.
➢ Types of the port are categorised on the following basis
1) On the basis of cargo handled
2) On the basis of location
3) On the basis of specialisation of functions
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1) On the basis of Cargo Handled
Industrial Ports:
➢ These ports specialise in bulk cargo like grain, ore, sugar, oil,
chemicals, and similar materials.
Commercial Ports:
➢ These ports handle general cargo like packaged products and
manufactured good. These ports also handle passenger traffic.
Comprehensive Ports:
➢ Such ports handle bulk and general cargo in large volumes.
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2) On the basis of Location
Inland Ports:
➢ These ports are located away from the sea coast.
➢ They are linked to the sea through a canal or a river.
Out Ports:
➢ These are the deep water ports that are actually built away
from the actual ports.
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3) On the basis of specialisation of functions
Oil Ports:
➢ These ports deal in the shipping and processing of oil.
Ports of Call:
➢ These are the ports which originally developed as calling
points on main sea routes, where ships used to anchor for
refueling, watering, and taking food items.
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Packet Station (Ferry Ports):

➢ These packet stations are exclusively concerned with the
transportation of passengers and mail across water bodies
covering short distances.
Entrepot Ports:
➢ They act as the collection centres where the goods are
brought from different countries for export.
Naval Ports:
➢ These are ports which have only strategic importance.
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www.visionias.net
Major Sea Ports https://t.me/Material_For_Exam
Ports Located Description

Kandla Port Head of Gulf of The port is specially designed to receive large
Kachchh quantities of petroleum and petroleum products and
fertiliser.
Mumbai Port Mumbai Natural harbour and the biggest port of the
country.
Jawaharlal Nhava Sheva Satellite port to relieve the pressure at the

Nehru Port Mumbai port. It is the largest container port in India.
Mormugao Port Goa It gained significance after its remodelling in 1961 to

handle iron-ore exports to Japan.
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New Mangalore Karnataka Karnataka is the major hinterland for this port.
Port
Kochchi Port Vembanad Queen of the Arabian Sea is also a natural

Kayal, Kerala harbour.
Kolkata Port Kolkata The port has lost its significance considerably
on account of the diversion of exports to the other
ports such as Visakhapatnam, Paradip and its
satellite port, Haldia.
Haldia Port Kolkata It has been constructed to reduce the

congestion at Kolkata port.
Paradip Port Cuttack It has the deepest harbour specially suited

to handle very large vessels.
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Visakhapatnam Andhra It is a land-locked harbour, connected to the sea by a
Port Pradesh channel cut through solid rock and sand.
Chennai Port Chennai It is the oldest ports on the eastern coast.

It is an artificial harbour built in 1859.
It is not much suitable for large ships because of the
shallow waters near the coast.
Ennore Port Tamil Nadu To relieve the pressure at Chennai port.
Tuticorin Port Tamil Nadu To relieve the pressure of Chennai port.
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Airports
➢ Air transport plays an important role in international trade.
➢ It is very expensive and unsuitable for carrying heavy and bulky
commodities.
➢ This factor ultimately reduces the participation of this sector in
international trade as compared to the oceanic routes.
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Thank you!

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S18 World Geography Part - III

➢ The Tropic of Cancer (23°30' N) splits India into almost two

Physical Division of India

1. The Himalayas (Young fold mountains)

The Himalayan Ranges

➢ The general orientation of these ranges is from northwest to the

A. Division From North To South

i. Greater/Inner Himalaya - Himadri

➢ A number of valleys lie between these ranges.

State Passes of Greater Himalayas

Jammu and Kashmir Banihal Pass, Chang La, Khardung La,

Uttarakhand Niti Pass, Lipu Lekh, Mana Pass, Muling Pass,

Sikkim Nathu La, Jelep La

Arunachal Pradesh Dihang Pass, Diphu Pass, Chankan Pass,

ii. Middle/Lesser Himalaya - Himachal

➢ This range consists of the famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra,

Important ranges of Region

The Dhauladhar Range Himachal Pradesh

The Mussoorie Range Uttarakhand

Mahabharat Range Nepal

➢ It is located between the Great Plains and the Lesser Himalayas.

➢ These deposits were folded and hardened due to compression

Jammu Region Jammu Hills

Arunachal Pradesh Dafla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi Hills

Uttarakhand The Dhang Range, Dundwa Range

Nepal Churia Ghat Hills

B. Division From West To East

i. Kashmir / Northwestern Himalayas

➢ Some of the important passes of the region are the following

1. Zoji La on the Great Himalayas,

ii. Himachal & Uttaranchal Himalayas

➢ All three ranges of Himalayas (Greater, Lesser, and Shiwalik) are

➢ The cantonment towns and health resorts such as Shimla,

Mussoorie, Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne, Ranikhet, etc. were also

➢ In the Great Himalayan range, the valleys are mostly inhabited by

iii. Darjeeling & Sikkim Himalayas

iv. Arunachal Himalayas

➢ These are part of the Himalayan mountain system having their

Some Highest Peaks of the Himalayas

➢ These ranges lie immediately to the north of Great Himalayan

Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas

➢ At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden southward

➢ The rivers coming from the northern mountains are involved in

➢ The Northern Plain is broadly divided into three sections such as

1. The Western part of the Northern Plain is referred to as the

➢ The northern plains are generally described as flat land with no

variations in its relief.

➢ It is a narrow, permeable, northernmost stretch of Indo-Gangetic

iii. The Alluvial Plains -

➢ The largest part of the northern plain is formed of older alluvium

Features of Peninsular Plateau

➢ One of the distinct features of the peninsular plateau is the black

➢ Its extends between the following

○ Delhi ridge in the northwest,

Division of Peninsular Plateau

i. The Deccan Plateau

➢ The Western Ghats are locally known by different names such as

ii. The Central Highland

➢ An extension of the Northern Plateau is also visible in the

➢ At present, the Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau stand

➢ Similar to the Chotanagpur plateau, the Meghalaya plateau is

The Indian Desert