Neurons and Nervous

Systems
Angelika Varga
research fellow
Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology
24 & 29-05-2017
45 Neurons and Nervous Systems

• 45.1 What Cells Are Unique to the

Nervous System?
• 45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and
Transmit Electrical Signals?
• 45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate
with Other Cells?
• 45.4 How are neurons organized into
information-processing system
(neural networks)?
45.1 What Cells Are Unique to the Nervous System?

Nervous systems have two categories

of cells:
Neurons, or nerve cells, are
excitable—they generate and transmit
electrical signals, called action
potentials.
Glia, or glial cells, provide support and
maintain extracellular environment.
Figure 45.2 Neurons have many and various forms

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.2 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.1 What Cells Are Unique to the Nervous System?

Most neurons have four regions:

• Cell body—contains nucleus and
organelles
• Dendrites—bring information to the
cell body
• Axon—carries information away from
the cell body
• Axon terminal—synapse at tip of
axon; release neurotransmitters
Figure 45.1 Regions of a typical neuron

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.1 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.1 What Cells Are Unique to the Nervous System?

In the CNS oligodendrocytes

produce myelin and insulate axons.
Schwann cells insulate axons in the
PNS.
Astrocytes contribute to the blood–
brain barrier, which protects the
brain.
Microglia provide the CNS with
immune defenses.
Figure 45.3 Wrapping Up an Axon

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.3 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

One of the most common demyelinating disease: multiple sclerosis

Source: http://hu.depositphotos.com/60857889/stock-illustration-multiple-sclerosis.html
45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?
Figure 45.6 Ion Transporters and Channels (Part 1)
Figure 45.6 Ion Transporters and Channels (Part 2)

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.6 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Membrane potential is a charge difference

across the membrane, with the inside of the
cell negative relative to the outside.
Resting potential is the steady state
membrane potential of a resting neuron.

An action potential, or nerve impulse, is a

rapid, large change in membrane potential.
Action potentials are generated by openings
and closings of ion channels.
45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Voltage causes electrically charged

particles, ions, to move across cell
membranes.
Major ions in neurons:
• Sodium (Na+)
• Potassium (K+)
• Calcium (Ca2+)
• Chloride (Cl–)
Figure 45.5 Measuring the Membrane Potential

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.5 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Ion channels and ion transporters in

the membrane create the resting and
action potentials.
Sodium–potassium pump—moves
Na+ ions from inside, exchanges for
K+ from outside. Establishes
concentration gradients.
The Na+-K+ pump is an antiporter, or
sodium-potassium ATPase, as it
requires ATP.
45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?
Figure 45.6 Ion Transporters and Channels (Part 1)

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.6 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Ion channels in the membrane are

selective and allow some ions to
pass more easily.
The direction and size of ion
movement depends on the
concentration gradient and the
voltage difference of the membrane.
These two forces acting on an ion are
its electrochemical gradient.
Figure 45.6 Ion Transporters and Channels (Part 2)

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.6 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Potassium channels are open in the

resting membrane and are highly
permeable to K+ ions.
K+ ions diffuse out of the cell along the
concentration gradient and leave
behind negative charges within the
cell.
K+ ions diffuse back into the cell
because of the negative electrical
potential.
45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

The potassium equilibrium potential

is the membrane potential at which
the net movement of K+ ceases.
The Nernst equation calculates the
value of the potassium equilibrium
potential by measuring the
concentrations of K+ on both sides of
the membrane.
Figure 45.7 Using the Nernst Equation (Part 1)

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.7 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

Figure 45.7 Using the Nernst Equation (Part 2)

Figure 45.18 Knee-jerk reflex

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.7 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

Figure 45.7 Equilibrium membrane potential: The Goldman (Hodgkin-Katz) Equation

LIFE 10e © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Alan L. Hodgkin Sir Andrew F. Huxley

Figure 45.18 Knee-jerk
(1914-1998) reflex
(1917-2012)
45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Patch clamping allows ion channels

and their properties to be studied.
A patch clamp electrode is placed
against the membrane and a seal
forms with applied suction.
Ion movement and the opening and
closing of ion channels are recorded
as electric currents.
Figure 45.8 Patch Clamping

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.8 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Some ion channels are “gated”: Open

and close under certain conditions:
• Voltage-gated channels respond to
change in voltage across membrane
• Chemically-gated channels depend
on molecules that bind or alter
channel protein
• Mechanically-gated channels
respond to force applied to
membrane
Figure 45.9 Membranes Can Be Depolarized or Hyperpolarized

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.9 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Graded membrane potentials are

changes from the resting potential.
Graded potentials are a means of
integrating input — the membrane can
respond proportionally to depolarization
or hyperpolarization.

• Neuromuscular junctions
• Sensory system
• Generation of action potentials
Figure 45.10 The Course of an Action Potential (Part 1)

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.10 (Part 1) © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

Figure 45.10 The Course of an Action Potential (Part 2)

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.10 (Part 2) © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

Figure 45.10 The Course of an Action Potential (Part 3)

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.10 (Part 3) © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels are

responsible for action potentials—sudden,
large changes in membrane potential.
If a cell body is depolarized, voltage-gated
Na+ channels open and Na+ rushes into
the axon. The influx of positive ions
causes more depolarization.
45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

A threshold is reached at 5–10 mV above

resting potential.
Many voltage-gated Na+ channels open, the
membrane potential becomes positive,
and an action potential occurs.
The axon returns to resting potential as
voltage-gated Na+ channels close and
voltage-gated K+ channels open.
45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Voltage-gated Na+ channels cannot

open during the refractory period.
Na+ channels have two gates:
• Activation gate—closed at rest but
opens quickly at threshold
• Inactivation gate—open at rest and
closes at threshold but responds
more slowly. Gate reopens 1–2
milliseconds later than the activation
gate closes
45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Voltage-gated K+ channels contribute

to the refractory period by remaining
open.
The efflux of K+ ions makes the
membrane potential more negative
than the resting potential for a brief
period.
The dip after an action potential: After-
hyperpolarization or undershoot.
Figure 45.11 Action Potentials Travel along Axons

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.11 (Part 1) © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

An action potential is an all-or-none

event—positive feedback to voltage-
gated Na+ channels ensures the
maximum action potential.
An action potential is self-regenerating
because it spreads to adjacent
membrane regions.
Figure 45.11 Action Potentials Travel along Axons (Part 1)

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.10 (Part 2) © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

Figure 45.11 Action Potentials Travel along Axons (Part 2)

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.10 (Part 3) © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

Myelination by glial cells increases the

conduction velocity of axons.
The nodes of Ranvier are regularly spaced
gaps where the axon is not covered by myelin.
Action potentials are generated at the nodes and
the positive current flows down the inside of the
axon.
45.2 How Do Neurons Generate and Transmit Electrical Signals?

When local current flow reaches the next node,

the membrane is depolarized—another axon
potential is generated.
Action potentials appear to jump from node to
node, a form of propagation called saltatory
conduction.
Up to 100 m/sec in myelin-wrapped axon
Figure 45.12 Saltatory Action Potentials (Part 1)

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.12 (Part 1) © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

Figure 45.12 Saltatory Action Potentials (Part 2)

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.10 (Part 2) © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

Neurons communicate with other

neurons or target cells at synapses.
In a chemical synapse chemicals
from a presynaptic cell induce
changes in a postsynaptic cell.
In an electrical synapse the action
potential spreads directly to the
postsynaptic cell.
45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

Electrical synapses couple neurons

electrically through gap junctions.
Presynaptic and postsynaptic
membranes are only a few
nanometers apart. Connexons form
pores that connect the cytoplasm and
allow ion flow.
Transmission is very fast and
bidirectional.
45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

• 6 subunits
• 4 transmembrane
domens each
• Molecules under 1 kDa
is freely diffuse

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connexon
45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

Electrical synapses are less common

in vertebrates because they:
• Do not allow temporal summation
• Require a large area of contact
between the membranes
• Cannot be inhibitory
45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

NEUROSCIENCE 3e, Figure 5.1 © 2004 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

The neuromuscular junction is a

chemical synapse between motor
neurons and skeletal muscle cells.
The motor neuron releases
acetylcholine (ACh) from its axon
terminals.
The postsynaptic membrane of the
muscle cell is the motor end plate.
45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

The synaptic cleft is the space

between the presynaptic and
postsynaptic membranes.
An action potential causes release of
the neurotransmitter ACh when
voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open
and Ca2+ enters the axon terminal.
Vesicles release ACh into the synaptic
cleft.
Figure 45.13 Chemical Synaptic Transmission Begins with the Arrival of an Action
Potential

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.13 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

Synaptic function involves many

proteins:
• Vesicle formation
• Transport of NTs into vesicles
• Anchoring of vesicles
• Docking of vesicles
• Fusion of vesicular and cell membranes
• Endocytosis of vesicles membrane for recycling
45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

Where does the NTs come from?

• is synthetized in the terminals (e.g. Ach)
• is synthetized in the cell body (e.g. peptide NTs)
45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

The postsynaptic membrane responds

to ACh.
ACh diffuses across the cleft and
binds to ACh receptors on the motor
end plate.
These receptors allow Na+ and K+ to
flow through and the increase in Na+
depolarizes the membrane.
Figure 45.14 Chemically Gated Channels

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.14 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

Synapses between motor neurons and

muscle cells are excitatory. ACh
always causes depolarization.
Other synapses can be inhibitory if
the postsynaptic response is
hyperpolarization.
A neuron has many synapses and may
receive different chemical messages.
45.3 The postsynaptic cell sums the excitatory and inhibitory input

Source: http://mcdb.colorado.edu/courses/3280/images/synapse/integration.gif
Figure 45.15 Postsynaptic potentials are summed over space and over time

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.15 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

Postsynaptic receptors open or close

ion channels.
Ionotropic receptors: Ion channels; if
a neurotransmitter binds it causes a
change in ion flow. Responses are
fast and short lived.
Metabotropic receptors: Induce
signaling cascades that lead to
changes in ion channels. Responses
are slower and longer lived.
45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

Main neurotransmitters in the CNS:

• ACh—in skeletal muscles and CNS
• Glutamate—an excitatory amino acid
• Glycine and GABA—inhibitory amino
acids
• Monoamines
• Peptides
45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

Source: http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/neuro/c7.48.1.neurotransmitters.jpg
45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

The action of a neurotransmitter

depends on the receptor to which it
binds.
Each neurotransmitter has multiple
receptor types. For example, ACh
has two:
• Nicotinic receptors are ionotropic and
mainly excitatory
• Muscarinic receptors are
metabotropic and mainly inhibitory
45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

Glutamate receptors are divided into

classes because they can be
activated by other chemicals.
Two ionotropic glutamate receptors
are:
• NMDA
• AMPA
Figure 45.16 Two Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors

LIFE 9e, Figure 45.16 © 2011 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?

Neurotransmitters are cleared from the cleft

after release in order to stop their action in
several ways:
• Diffusion
• Reuptake by adjacent cells
• Enzymes present in the cleft may destroy
them (e.g. acetylcholinesterase acts on
Ach)
45.3 How Do Neurons Communicate with Other Cells?
Drugs treat the nervous system by modulating
synaptic interactions.
Agonists mimic or potentiate the effect of a
neurotransmitter (e.g. morphine is an agonist
at the endorphin receptor, therefore blocks
pain).
Antagonists block the actions of a
neurotransmitter (e.g. propanolol acts on β-
adrenergic receptor)
45.4 How are neurons organized into information-processing
system?

Neurons are organized into neural

networks.
Afferent neurons carry sensory
information into the nervous system
from sensory neurons that convert
stimuli into action potentials.
Efferent neurons carry commands to
effectors such as muscles, glands.
Interneurons store information and
communicate between neurons.
45.4 How are neurons organized into information-processing
system?

Networks vary in complexity.

Nerve net—simple network of neurons.
Ganglia—neurons organized into
clusters, sometimes in pairs.
Brain—the largest pair of ganglia.
45.4 How are neurons organized into information-processing
system?

Central nervous system (CNS)—

consists of cells found in brain and
spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)—
neurons and support cells found
outside the CNS.
Monosynaptic vs polysynaptic spinal reflexes

Source: http://www.easynotecards.com/uploads/914/71/1c7a7974_150bb922c9b__8000_00004361.png
Figure 45.18 A monosynaptic spinal reflex: Knee-jerk reflex

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.18 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

A polysynaptic spinal reflex: withdrawal reflex

Source: http://www.easynotecards.com/print_list/53332
Figure 45.19 Brains vary in size and complexity

LIFE 10e, Figure 45.19 © 2014 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.