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List of Figures................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
List of Tables................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Section 1........................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Functions of the components as a part of the system..................................................................................6
1.1.1 Brake Disc.............................................................................................................................................................. 6
1.1.2 Caliper..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 In-service conditions and loading modes of the components...................................................................7
1.2.1 Brake Disc.................................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.2 Caliper........................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Section 2........................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Material Selection of Components using CES Software............................................................................... 9
2.1.1 Brake Disc.............................................................................................................................................................. 9
2.1.2 Caliper.................................................................................................................................................................. 11
2.2 Relevant Surface conditions of the components.......................................................................................... 12
2.2.1 Disc Brake................................................................................................................................................................. 13
2.2.2 Caliper........................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Section 3......................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
3.1 Influence of material on manufacturing route for Disc and Caliper....................................................13
3.2 Manufacturing route of the components........................................................................................................ 15
3.2.1 Disc Brake................................................................................................................................................................. 15
3.2.2 Caliper........................................................................................................................................................................ 15
3.3 Micro structural changes of the components during manufacturing process.................................15
Section 4......................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
4.1 Advanced material Selection using CES Software....................................................................................... 17
4.1.1 Disc Brake........................................................................................................................................................... 17
4.1.2 Caliper.................................................................................................................................................................. 19
4.2 Advantages and disadvantages of the advanced materials.....................................................................20
4.2.1 Disc Brake................................................................................................................................................................. 20
4.2.2 Caliper........................................................................................................................................................................ 20
Section 5......................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
List of Tables
The Disc has machined braking surfaces on each side which provides the frictional surface to stop the
vehicle wheel mounted to the rotor hub by wheel lug nuts and studs. The wheel bearings in the hub
allow the wheel to freely rotate and keeping it concentric to the axle. There are two type of disc
brakes- Solid and Vented as the name describes Solid Disc is with material throughout the disc and is
heavy but vented discs are having vents made in order to quick heat transfer and to reduce the weight
of the disc for providing more fuel efficiency for the vehicle. [ CITATION Erj04 \l 2057 ].
1.1.2 Caliper
The caliper is the housing that holds the piston and the brake pads .it is connected to the fluid power
pack system and when brake is applied, the fluid force is converted to mechanical force making the
pads on the piston/caliper squeeze the rotor. The caliper is attached to the stationary part of vehicle
such as axle casing or stub axle. The caliper is cast in two parts and assembled with pistons. The
friction pads are held in position by retaining pins, spring plates etc. For fluid flow, passages are
drilled in the caliper housing and are connected to one another for bleeding[ CITATION Abh14 \l 1033
].
Fixed caliper brakes are disc brakes that use a caliper which is fixed in a position and does not slide or
move. The calipers have piston with friction pads on both sides of the disc. The number of pistons may
be 2 or 4 according to the vehicle. But in floating/sliding caliper, the outside half of the caliper on
which one brake shoe is fixed will move inline opposite to the piston of the other caliper applying a
uniform braking from each side on the disc. Normally, floating calipers are with single
piston[ CITATION Erj04 \l 1033 ].
Figure 3 : Cross Section view of Fixed Caliper Disc Brake Assembly [ CITATION Chi04 \l 1033 ]
Figure 4 - Cross Section view of Sliding Caliper Disc Brake [ CITATION Puh85 \l 1033 ].
“The work a disc brake has to do and the heat it has to dissipate during braking are directly
proportional to the weight of the vehicle and speed when the brake is operated” [ CITATION Bre14 \l
1033 ].
Force limit – The magnitude of braking for to be applied on the disc for a smooth operation.
Deflection limit – The allowable deflection of the brake components.
Wear limit - the wear limit of the brake disc and shoes allowed for safe operation.
Temperature limit – force, deflection & wear depends on the allowable temperature.
Tyre Traction limit - The uniform wear of brakes determines the life of tyres as well.
ANOOP VELLITHIRUTHYNHALIL AYYAPPAN 5349292
8 M11 MAE – ADVANCED MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND MATERIALS
Data taken from edu-point (Oder, 2009) along with the result for analysing the loading modes of Disc
and Calliper.The complete vehicle data is shown in Appendix-2.
From Oder (2009), Normal Force on the Disc – 9125.5 N & Brake disc temperatures – 350°C. The
stresses due to Centrifugal loads are 185 MPa and the Maximum thermal Stress is 170 MPa.
The temperature above is considered for the particular vehicle model with a certain mass and
velocity. But in general, the heat dissipated can range 300 - 800°C [ CITATION Bel11 \l 1033 ].
The common disc damages or fading and reasons are as follows[ CITATION Ano14 \l 1033 ]:-
Warping – This is caused by excessive heat making the disc material soft and allows reshaping
and is caused due to undersized disc and excessive braking, keeping the overheated disc in
contact with pads creating uneven cooling or due to asymmetric assembly of pads.
Scarring – caused due to damaged pads and is the uneven assimilation of material on the disc
surfaces which softens the disc due to irregularity in cooling and affecting the friction
coefficient between the pads and disc. During the replacement of worn brake pads, the discs
are machined off a thin layer in order to remove the scars on the discs.
Cracking- “The brake disc is a heat sink”. During operation, the disc undergoes various cycles of
mechanical and thermal stresses. The uneven distribution of the masses due to wears will
create imbalance in the operation and the cumulative effects will lead to cracking or permanent
damage of the discs.
The following properties are expected with a brake disc for smooth operation[ CITATION LiS14 \l
1033 ].
Wear Resistance
Compressive Strength
Rigidity with Low weight
High thermal capacity ,Low thermal expansion , Fast Cooling & Thermal Stability
Abrasive Resistance
Capacity to bear high mechanical and thermal stresses
1.2.2 Caliper
The forces of the working fluid are acting on the calipers and the surface forces between the pads and
the disc also acts on the caliper. During braking the pressure is 1.14 MPa apart from the force 233N
and surface pressure of 0.03 MPa (Oder, 2009).
Floating callipers malfunctions due to sticking which occur due to accumulated dirt and corrosion.
This makes the brake pad to rub on the disc even when the brake is disengaged. This affects mileage
and cause excessive wear on both disc and calliper. The Calliper must possess high stiffness, wear
resistance, Rust prevention [ CITATION Ano14 \l 1033 ].
ANOOP VELLITHIRUTHYNHALIL AYYAPPAN 5349292
9 M11 MAE – ADVANCED MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND MATERIALS
Section 2
Compressive Strength
Friction coefficient
Wear resistance
Thermal conductivity
Specific gravity
σc/ρ Vs α .
Price Vs ρ
Where
σc – Compressive Strength (Pa)
ρ - Density (kg/m3)
α – Thermal Expansion Coefficient (strain/°C)
Price – GBP/kg
Figure 5 : Graph of Specific Compressive Strength Vs Thermal Expansion Coefficient (CES 2013)
Comparing Graphs in Figure 5 and Figure 6, Grey Cast Iron is selected as the Material for Brake Disc
which fulfills the Mechanical Property requirement and with low price which will be desirable for the
mass production of Grey Cast Iron Brake Disc.
2.1.2 Caliper
According to Oder( 2009), the calliper is subjected to the reaction forces of the applied braking force
so it should potray high stiffness with fratigue strength and toughness against Fracture during
frequent operation. Thus the following Indices are considered.
Where
K1c – Fracture Toughness at 107 cycles (Pa m 0.5 )
σe – Fatigue Strength (Pa)
ρ - Density (kg/m3)
Price – GBP/kg
Figure 7 : Graph of Specific Fatigue Strength Vs Specific Fracture Toughness (CES 2013)
Comparing Graphs in Figure 7 and Figure 8, Grey Cast Iron is selected as the Material for Caliper
which fulfills the Mechanical Property requirement and with low price which is desirable for the mass
production of Caliper by Casting.
Iron in metallic form comprise more than 2% of dissolved carbon (steel comprise less than 2%) but
Grey cast Iron contain less than 4.5%.Taking its cost, simplicity to manufacture and thermal stability,
gray cast iron is the ideal material for automotive brake discs and calipers. The parts are
manufactured in the foundry with stringent chemistry and cooling cycles to control the shape, form of
the precipitation of the excess carbon and material distribution. This seizes distortion in machining,
damps vibration, provide good wear characteristics and resist cracking in frequent operations
(Maleque, 2010).
As explained in Sections 1.2.1 and 1.2.2, the Disc and caliper are frequently subjected to Mechanical
and Thermal stresses and is always prone to Corrosion and Abrasive wear. The surfaces of the Disc
and Caliper must possess surface qualities for provide smooth service.
The frictional surface to be machined to 125 Micron Surface Finish (ISO N8) and should possess a
Brinell hardness of 200(Oder, 2009).
The non frictional contact areas are machined for imparting self cleaning during rotation. The surfaces
are either fine machined or coated with anti-rust paint[ CITATION Puh85 \l 1033 ].
2.2.2 Caliper
The piston bores in the Caliper are hardened and machined to high surface finish in order to eradicate
damages in operation. The fluid power lines are drilled with extreme care and without wear. The
contact surfaces are machined and the un-machined caliper body is left exposed with anti-rust
coatings[ CITATION Puh85 \l 1033 ].
Section 3
Grey cast Iron has selected as the Material for both Brake Disc and Caliper, which are used in common.
The manufacturing routes for disc and caliper are different as the Geometry explains, the disc is made
as a single piece but the caliper is made of two distinct pieces and machined[ CITATION Puh85 \l 1033
].
The available manufacturing routes are selected with the aid of CES Edupack 2013 / Process Universe:
Edu level 2 –Shaping.
The following Limits are considered as per reference with “Manufacturing process overview Process
Selection via CES” from CU Moodle (p 45).
Limits:
Shape: - Circular Prismatic, Non Circular Prismatic, Solid 3D , Hollow 3D (for both Disc & Caliper)
Physical Attribute:- Range of Selection Thickness : 0.01 – 0.03 m ( Considering Solid & Vented)
Surface Roughness:- A
Process Characteristics : Primary Machining Process , Machining Process, Cutting Process Economic.
Attributes (all low):- Relative tooling Cost, Relative equipment Cost, Labor Intensity.
Figure 9 : Available Manufacturing Routes for Grey Cast Iron (CES 2013)
The Graph is plotted against the Relative Cost per Index Unit for each processes of Grey Cast Iron.
Figure 10 : Graph of Relative Cost Index per Unit of Gray Cast Iron Process (CES 2013)
ANOOP VELLITHIRUTHYNHALIL AYYAPPAN 5349292
15 M11 MAE – ADVANCED MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND MATERIALS
Figure 11 shows the manufacturing of Gray cast iron discs by Resin Impregnated Sand Casting for
obtaining the best surface and material qualities under stringent chemical inspection. The Casting is
heat treated for stress relieving and then machined on a CNC machining centre for obtaining the
desired shape and surface finish. Thorough inspection is performed for material disparity in
machining before the final machining for fixing holes and dimples are performed on the CNC drilling
machine[ CITATION EBCnd \l 1033 ].
3.2.2 Caliper
The Gray Cast Iron Calipers are manufactured by Sand Casting or Investment Casting- for
precision[ CITATION Puh85 \l 1033 ]. The Sliding/floating calipers are cast in two halves separately
(Internal & External). The castings are inspected for
porosity and lean walls and stress relieved .The mating surfaces, bores for piston and fluid lines are
machined with High precision CNC Special purpose Machines with the aid of specialized jigs and
Fixtures [ CITATION Matnd \l 1033 ].
Grey cast iron (GCI) comprises more Carbon or Silicon than white cast irons, and requires a less cooling
rate. It’s called ‘grey’ cast iron due to the appearance of a fractured surface and not because of their
colour. GCI are quite ductile and possess unreflective fracture surfaces[ CITATION Uni13 \l 1033 ].
Figure 12 : Grey Cast Iron Graphite Flakes in Ferrite matrix (CU Moodle, 2014)
Gray cast iron has randomly oriented graphite flakes, which creates brittleness and poor ductility in
the material. It is extensively used for manufacturing engine blocks, brake disks, brake drums and
housings. It has excellent machine ability and wears resistance characteristics along with damping
capability (CES 2013).
Graphite particles are elongated and randomly oriented as in GCI, and are shorter and thicker, and
have rounded edges. This graphite flakes in GCI starts crack propagation and growth making it
relatively weak and brittle. Figure 12 & 13 represents Microscopic view of GCI[ CITATION Daw01 \l
1033 ].
Figure 13 : Three Dimensional shape of Graphite in GCI - 50 microns [ CITATION Daw01 \l 1033 ]
GCI contains carbon in free form and graphite flakes which cause discontinuity in ferrite causing the
easy forming of chips while machining.
Light weight
High thermal Capacity and low thermal expansion.
Mechanical strength against stress and wears.
For plotting the graph in CES 2013, the following Limits were taken
Maximum density – 7.05e3 kg/m^3 ( Minimum of GCI for being light weight)
Minimum service Temperature - 450°C ( Maximum of GCI)
Minimum Compressive Strength – 1.1e9 (Maximum of GCI)
The Tree was selected for Fibers and Composites for advanced materials.
Figure 14 : Graph Specific Compressive Strength vs Thermal expansion coefficient ( CES ,2013)
Studying Table 1 in Appendix-1, it concluded that Carbon Fiber Disc brakes are the best alternative
material for the replacement of Gray Cast Iron brakes Discs.
4.1.2 Caliper
The current material of manufacture of Caliper is also Grey Cast Iron and the properties are
summarized in Section 4.2.1.
Where
K1c – Fracture Toughness at 107 cycles (Pa m 0.5 )
σe – Fatigue Strength (Pa)
ρ - Density (kg/m3)
The Tree is limited to Ceramics, Composites and alloys along with limits taken as in section 4.2.1.
Figure 16 : Graph specific Fatigue Strength Vs Specific Fracture Toughness (CES 2013)
4.2.2 Caliper
Advantages of Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites:-
Less density hence less weight compared to GCI Calipers that increases the fuel efficiency
(Maleque, 2010).
High Yield strength, Compressive Strength, Fatigue Strength & Fracture Toughness imparting
durability compared to the GCI Calipers (CES 2013).
Superior hardness, Surface Finish and anti-oxidizing.
Cast ability and Machinability featuring any desirable design.
No moisture absorption[ CITATION Ked14 \l 1033 ].
Section 5
Ceramic is heat resistant up to 1000°C thus making it 60times durable than the standard cast iron
discs. Ceramic composites require the ceramic materials-carbon fiber is combines with silicon for
strength. During manufacturing, the strong Carbon fiber interweaving of filaments is mixed with the
heat moldable resin and chopped pieces of raw carbon fibers.
Automated machines pour the carbon fiber into the aluminum molds in the shape of the disc
rings. The first filling station fills the mold cavity in halfway (Figure 18).
Workers then fit a slotted belt around the mold and inserts aluminum cores into the slots
(Figure 19).These cores will form a ventilation channel into the disc ring to keep the disc from
overheating.
Figure 18 : Pouring of Carbon fiber into the Moulds [ CITATION Brend \l 1033 ]
Now the mold moves to the next filling station where the remainder of the cavity is filled by
carbon fiber. A roller levels the top (Figure 20). The workers closes the mold and small press
pushes down the cover to lightly compact the contents (Figure 21).
Figure 20 : Filling and leveling of Ceramic in the Die[ CITATION Brend \l 1033 ]
The mold enters a large press which applies 2000kg of pressure while heating to 200°C .This
compacts carbon fiber and transforms the resin powder into plastic(Figure 22).
Figure 22 : Mould entering large press for Treatment[ CITATION Brend \l 1033 ]
Once the mold is cooled down enough to be handled, workers submerge it in cold water for 5-8
minutes making the disc ring to be pulled out of the cores.
A computer guided laser then examines the mold to make sure that every last core has been
removed. When everything is clear, they open the top and bottom sections of the mold and
extract the disc rings.
Computer guided machines then smooth out the rough areas and drill tiny ventilations holes.
Then disc ring is put into an oven for 2 days and by gradually heating to 1000°C causing
chemical changes transforming the plastic into carbon (Figure 23).
Next, in a high heat resistant crucible the disc is placed on five mounts inside the crucible. Then
in the middle a funnel into which they pour a ceramic material-fine silicon powder. They load
the crucible into the oven for 24 hours gradually heating to 1700°C , melting the silicon. Then it
applies low level suction drying the now liquid silicon into the disc ring. This makes an
exceptionally hard material called silicon carbide (figure 24 & 25).
Figure 24: Crucible for Disc heating with Silicon[ CITATION Brend \l 1033 ]
After a computer guided drill bores mounting holes, the disc ring goes to a chamber where it
receives a coat of protective paint. The paint shields the carbon in the disc from oxygen which
is critical because oxygen burns carbon at high heat. This anti-oxidation treatment significantly
increases the life of brake discs. The paint is cured in a oven leaving behind a white residue. A
robot sands it off then polishes the entire disc ring surface.
Every single brake disc undergoes a meticulous inspection. A sophisticated machine takes
thousands of high definition photographs of the surface which the computer then analyses in
micron level detail.
To complete the brake disc, they fix the bell, a circular component in the middle of which
connects the brake discs to the vehicle. The ball is either made of Aluminum or stainless steel
or bolted in the mounting ring of the disc ring.
5.1.2 Caliper
The Aluminum Metal Matrix Composite (AMMC) Calipers are manufactured by High Pressure Die
Casting process (CES 2013). Figure 28 is a schematic of High Pressure Die Casting.
With high pressure, the molten metal is injected into the die (die machined with precision and are
water cooled) through spruces and runners. The high pressure is maintained until the casting is
completely cooled down and ejected thereafter. The casting is machined for precision using special
machines and tools. Figure 29 shows the same Caliper manufactured with GCI and AMMC.
Figure 29 : Caliper with Grey Cast Iron (left) and Aluminum Matrix Composite with Nextel Ceramic
fiber (right)[ CITATION Kai06 \l 1033 ]
Abhang, S. R., & Bhaskar, D. P. (2014, Febraury 4). Design and Analysis of Disc Brake. 1-3. Pune, India.
Retrieved July 14, 2014, from IJETT: http://www.ijettjournal.org/volume-8/number-4/IJETT-
V8P231.pdf
Belhocine, A., & Bouchetara, M. (2011). Study of the Thermal Behaviour of Dry Contacts in the Brake
Discs. MECHANIKA (pp. 271-278). Algeria: University of Sciences and Technology of Oran.
Brembo. (2014, July). Retrieved July 18, 2014, from Brembo: www.brembo.com
Dawson, S., & Hollinger, I. (2001). The eggect of Metallurgical Variables on the Machinability of
Compact Graphite Iron. Swedon: Society of Automotive Engineers.
EBC . (n.d). EBC Brakes Corporate Video . Retrieved August 10, 2014, from youtube:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e0GbTN0wVYU
Kedari, S. (2014). Metal Matrix Composites. Retrieved August 11, 2014, from scribd:
http://www.slideshare.net/kedarisantosh/metal-matrix-composite
Li, S., & Youg-chen, L. (2014, July 15). The Disc Brake Design and Perfomance Analysis. Huai'an, China.
Retrieved July 15, 2014, from IEEE: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?
tp=&arnumber=5768733
Maleque, M., Dyuti, S., & Rahman, M. (2010). Material Selection Method in Design of Automotive Brake
Disc. Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering (pp. 2322-2326). London: WCE 2010.
Matech. (n.d). Double Bore Brake Caliper Line in Mexico made by Matech Industrial Co., Ltd. Retrieved
Aug 11, 2014, from youtube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hh9hunj14ic
Oder, G., Reibenschuh, M., Lerher, T., Sraml, M., Sanec, B., & Potrc, I. (2009, January). Retrieved July 14,
2014, from edu-point: http://edu-point.eu/digitaledition/adveng/AE0301/AE0301_095_102.pdf
Pehle, M. (n.d.). Wear and Damage Charecteristics on Friction Brakes. Retrieved July 15, 2014, from
BPW: http://www.bpw.co.uk/downloads/technical/V-SB%203902801e_Disc%20Brake%20Wear
%20and%20Damage.pdf
ANOOP VELLITHIRUTHYNHALIL AYYAPPAN 5349292
30 M11 MAE – ADVANCED MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND MATERIALS
Puhn, F. (1985). Brake Handbook. USA: HP Books.
Yazar, G., Ozel, G., & Bilozi, E. B. (2011, June 7). Retrieved July 14, 2014, from srcibd:
http://www.scribd.com/doc/61157444/Brake-Design-Report
Comparing the Properties of Grey Cast Iron with Carbon Fiber (values taken from CES 2013).
Appendix-2
Vehicle Data
Data Considered for the calculation of Parameters taken for Brake Disc and Caliper Loading (Oder,
2009).