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CONVERTER
CLASSIFICATION
Converter Classification
First Quadrant Converter

 Load Current 𝒊𝑳
flows into the load
(+)
 Load Voltage is (+)
 Rectifier
 First Quadrant Converter
 Consider this Half Wave Rectifier with an 𝑹
Load, which is a first quadrant converter
 First Quadrant Converter
 Consider this Half Wave Rectifier with an 𝑹𝑳
Load.

Is this a first
Quadrant
Converter?
Second-Quadrant Converter

 Load Voltage is (+)

 Load Current 𝒊𝑳 flows
out of the load (-)
 Inverter.
Second-Quadrant Converter
 Second-Quadrant Converter
 𝑬 forces current through 𝑳, load voltage 𝒗𝑳 = 𝟎.

di
Closed switch case: 0L  Ri  E
L
L
dt
i (0)  I
L 1

E R R

i  I e  (1  e )
 t  t
L L
L 1
R
0  t  kT
t  t  kT , 1

i (t )  I
L 1 2
 Second-Quadrant Converter
di
 When Switch is open V L S
 Ri  E L
L
dt
i (t )  I
L 1 2

R
V E R

i Ie  (1  e )
 t  t
L S L
L 2
R
0t t 2

t  (1  k )T
2
First and Second Quadrant Converter
 First and Second Quadrant Converters can be
combined to form this converter.
First and Second Quadrant Converter
 𝑺𝟏 and 𝑫𝟒 operate as a first-quadrant
converter.

 𝑺𝟒 and 𝑫𝟒𝑫𝟏 operate as a second-quadrant

converter
Second Quadrant Operation

S4 closed S4 open
Third and Fourth Quadrant Converter
 The load voltage is always negative, but the load
current is either positive or negative
 Third Quadrant Operation

S3 closed S3 open 𝒊𝑳, 𝒗𝑳 are always negative

 Fourth Quadrant Operation

S2 closed load current +, load voltage – (zero)

S2 open load current +, load voltage negative, (-Vs)
 Four-Quadrant Converter
 Load Current can be positive or negative
 Load Voltage can be positive or negative

 For fourth quadrant operation, reverse E.

Summary of a four-quadrant converter
Summary of the conducting devices
 Switching for regulation?

SWITCHING-MODE
REGULATORS
 Linear Regulators
 A linear regulator
works by taking
the difference
between the
input and output
voltages, and just
burning it up as
waste heat.

 The larger the difference between the input and output

voltage, the more heat is produced.
 Linear Regulators
 With typical efficiencies of 40%, and reaching as
low as 14%, linear voltage regulation generates a
lot of waste heat which must be dissipated with
bulky and expensive heat sinks.
 This also means reduced battery life for your
projects.
 Switching Mode Regulator
 In a switching mode regulator, the transistor is
operated in switching mode rather than the
linear mode.
 The power loss in the transistor is minimized.
 High efficiency, low power dissipation, and high
power density.
 For example, nowadays a 12VIN, 3.3VOUT
switching mode synchronous buck step-down
supply can usually achieve >90% efficiency v.s
less than 27.5% from a linear regulator.
 Switching Mode Regulator
 Switching regulators are commercially
available as integrated circuits.
 The designer can select the switching
frequency by choosing the values of 𝑹 and 𝑪
of frequency oscillator.
Types:
o Buck Regulators
o Boost Regulators
o Buck-Boost Regulators
o Cúk Regulators
Comparison Example: DC-DC Converters
GOAL: To construct a 500W DC-DC converter!
 Input = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 100V
 Output = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 : 50V, 10A (max 500W)

Things to consider:
 Maximum efficiency and Regulation
 Comparison Example: DC-DC Converters
Method 1: Voltage Divider

𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 1000W
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 500W
𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 500W
 Conversion loss is high  Efficiency is low!

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑾
𝜼= = = 𝟓𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑾
 Comparison Example: DC-DC Converters
Method2: Using a Linear Mode Regulator

𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 1000W

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 500W
𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 500W

 This type of linear regulators generally find more

application at low power levels.
 Good load regulation
Comparison Example: DC-DC Converters
Method3: Switching Voltage Regulator.
 If the switch is closed for half of the period, the
average value of 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 is one-half of the source
voltage.

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 500W

𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 0W
𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 1000W
(ideally)
Comparison Example: DC-DC Converters
Method3: Switching Voltage Regulator.
 The duty cycle (D) is defined as the fraction of the
time the switch is ON.

For the desired output of

50V, a duty cycle of
D=0.5 is required
𝑇𝑠
1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐷𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑠 0
 Switching Converters
 Instantaneous power absorbed by the switch is
the product of voltage and current.
 When the switch is open, power absorbed by it
is zero because the current in it is zero.
 When the switch is closed, power absorbed by
it is zero because the voltage across it is zero.
 Since power absorbed by the switch is zero for
both open and closed conditions, all power
supplied by the 100V source is delivered to
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, making the circuit 100% efficient.
 Switching Converters

But wait!! The output is not

pure DC!!

 Yes!!. In addition to the desired DC average

output, the output waveform also contains
undesirable harmonics of the switching
frequency.
 These harmonics must be removed, such that
the output voltage is essentially equal to the
DC component (A low-pass filter is required)
 Switching Converters

Low pass filter

 Ideally, L and C are loss-less elements  100%

efficiency.
 Our goal now is to develop a general analytical
approach for the analysis of DC-DC converter
 Low Pass Filter and Output
 It is impossible to build a perfect low-pass filter
that allows the dc component to pass but
completely remove the components at the
switching frequency and its harmonics.
 Constant V.S Variable Frequency Operation
Constant-Frequency Operation:
 The switching frequency is kept constant, and the
ON-time(𝑡1 ) is varied. The width of the pulse is
varied, and this type of control is known as PWM
(Pulse Width Modulation) Control.
Variable-Frequency Operation:
 The switching frequency is varied, and either the
ON-time or the OFF-time is kept constant. This is
called Frequency Modulation.
BUCK CONVERTERS
Step-Down operation
 BUCK Converter
 Used in circuit where the DC output needs to be
lower than the DC input voltage.
 The DC input can be derived from rectified AC or from
any DC supply.
 The switching transistor between the input and
output of the Buck Converter continually switches on
and off at high frequency.
 To maintain a continuous output, the circuit uses the
energy stored in the inductor L, during the on periods
of the switching transistor, to continue supplying the
load during the off periods.
 BUCK Converter Operation
 The circuit consists of a switching transistor, together
with the inductor-capacitor-diode circuit.

 As the transistor switches ON and OFF the inductor

and capacitor store and release energy.
 BUCK Converter Operation
Transistor ON Period:

 The load is supplied

current by the
source.
 Diode (𝑫𝟏 ) is reverse
biased.
 Inductor( 𝑳𝟏 ) and
capacitor(𝑪𝟏 ) store
energy
 BUCK Converter Operation
Transistor OFF Period:

 The energy stored in

the magnetic field
around 𝑳𝟏 is released
back into the circuit.
 Diode (𝑫𝟏 ) is forward
biased.
Buck Converter
Mode 1 Operation

Mode 2 Operation
Buck Regulator
 BUCK Converter Operation

 The output contains some ripples.

 If the ON time and OFF times are equal, output = 0.5 x
input.
Inductor Current During Turn-On Transient
 Buck Regulator
 Output voltage is less than the input voltage.
 Buck Regulator: Summary
 The peak-to-peak ripple current is

 The peak-to-peak ripple voltage is

Summery for Continuous Current Case
 The critical value of inductor is

 The critical value of capacitor is

 An IC Boost Converter

BOOST CONVERTERS
Step-Up operation
 Boost Converter
 Output voltage is equal to, or greater than its
input voltage.
 Important to remember that, as power (P) =
voltage (V) x current (I), if the output voltage is
increased, the available output current must
decrease.
 The DC input to a boost converter can be from
many sources as well as batteries, such as
rectified AC from the mains supply, or DC from
solar panels, fuel cells, dynamos and DC
generators.
Boost Converter
 Boost Converter Operation

 Both MOSFETs and BJTs can be used, the choice

being determined by the current, voltage,
switching speed and cost considerations
 Operation at Switch ON
 When the MOSFET
conducts, the
inductor L1 stores
energy in its
magnetic field.
 Virtually no current
flows from the
source to the
remainder of the
circuit, because of
much higher
impedance
 Operation at Switch OFF
 When the MOSFET is
turned OFF, the sudden
drop in current causes
L1 t produce a back
e.m.f in the opposite
polarity to the voltage
across L1 during ON
period.
 This higher voltage (VIN +VL), now that there is no current
path through the MOSFET, forward biases D1.
 The resulting current through D1 charges up C1 to
VIN +VL minus the small forward voltage drop across D1,
and also supplies the load.
 Cont. Operation with MOSFET ON
 During steady state,
the diode is reverse
biased (due to a
higher voltage at the
output) when the
MOSFET conducts.
 The charged
capacitor supplies the
load with voltage
(VIN +VL)
 C1 is recharged each time the MOSFET switches off, so
maintaining an almost steady output voltage across the
load.
Boost Regulator
 Boost Regulator: Summary
 The peak-to-peak ripple current is

 The peak-to-peak ripple voltage is

Summery for Continuous Current Case
 The critical value of inductor is

 The critical value of capacitor is

 Buck-Boost Regulator
 The output voltage could be less than or
greater than the input voltage.

 The polarity of the output voltage is opposite

to the polarity of the input voltage(Vs) –
Inverting Regulator
 Mode-1 Operation
 Q1 turned ON: Input current flows through the
inductor L and Q1 linearly.
 Mode-2 Operation
 Q1 turned OFF: Current flowing 𝑳 now flows
through 𝑳, 𝑪, 𝑫𝒎 and the 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅.
Buck-Boost Regulator
 Buck-Boost Regulator: Summary
 The peak-to-peak ripple current is

 The peak-to-peak ripple voltage is

Summery for Continuous Current Case
 The critical value of inductor is

 The critical value of capacitor is

ANY QUESTIONS?

Anyone willing to to present?

 Time allowed : 5 mins

 Topic : Any
 Bonus Points : +3
 References
 Chapter 5: “DC-DC Converters” from ‘Power
Electronics, Circuits, Devices and Applications’
by M.H Rashid
 http://www.learnabout-
electronics.org/PSU/psu33.php
 http://www.eng.uwi.tt/depts/elec/staff/rdefour
/ee33d/index.html