Michelle Lee PDF

A Call to Martyrdom: Function as Method and Message in Revelation
Author(s): Michelle V. Lee

Source: Novum Testamentum, Vol. 40, Fasc. 2 (Apr., 1998), pp. 164-194
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A CALLTO MARTYRDOM:FUNCTION AS METHOD
AND MESSAGEIN REVELATION
by
V. LEE
MICHETLLE
Notre Dame, IN
The recent interestin the genre apocalypsehas refocusedattention

on one of the most enigmaticbooksof the Bible,the book of Revelation.
A particularlyinterestingquestionarisesin terms of its function.Some
proposalsdescribethe messageof the text as a heavenlyand/or future
knowledge, while others concentrate on its method, which includes
motivatingthe recipientsthrough such means as fear or a recreation
of the revelatoryexperience. But scholars have increasinglycome to
recognizethat the two, though distinct,are cruciallyinterrelated.In this
essay I propose that one way to understandthe functionof Revelation
involvesa combinationof method and messageand that this is revealed
throughan examinationof its structure.Specifically,Revelationexhibits
a chiastic structurewhich both interpretsthe central message of the
book and compels the audience to follow this message. The message
is that throughGod's sovereigntyover the universe,Christ'sdeath and
resurrectionprovidethe model wherebythe saintsunderstandtheir own
deathsas the prerequisiteto eternallife. The methodis providedthrough
a structurewhich allows the audience to participatein the revelatory
experienceand also compelsthem to choose sides in the battle between
good and evil. The work culminatesin chs. 13-14, where the believers
must decide whether to serve the beast or Christ. This is a para-
doxical decisionin which saving one's life in the presentmeans eternal
damnation,but losing one's life willinglyleads to eternal life.
I. Previous
Research: and Genre
Structure
Scholars have utilized a variety of methods in attemptingto define
the structureof the book. Some have approachedit from a literary
or generic standpoint.For example,J.W. Bowman described it as a
seven-actplay.' M.H. Shepherdarguedthat it was based upon a litur-
"TheRevelationto John: Its DramaticStructureand Message,"Int 9 (1955)436-53.
C KoninklijkeBrill NV, Leiden, 1998 Novum TestamentumXL, 2

METHODAND MESSAGE
IN REVELATION 165
gical pattern.2 Many have examined important structural indicators

within the text. For several interpreters, the scrolls provide an impor-
tant marker.3 Adela Yarbro Collins and others have emphasized the
structural significance of the series of sevens.4 W.R. Kempson and
Christopher Smith have drawn attention to key phrases such as "in
the Spirit."5 The problematic nature of Revelation's repetitions has
led to the identification of the literary techniques of interlocking and
intercalation.6
Because of the abundance of structural features, it is no surprise that
there is a corresponding plethora of suggested structures. Kempson
observes that there are almost as many proposed structures as com-
mentators.7 The difficulty of organizing the work has led at least one
commentator to caution against attempting to find a definitive scheme.8
Others have concluded that Revelation is the compilation of sources
edited by the author.9Most current commentators would view Revelation
as a unity, although Yarbro Collins points out that an overall unity
does not exclude the use of sources or the possibility of editing.'0
One method of analyzing the overall structure of Revelation, which
I will use, has been the identification of an overarching chiasmus. The
interpretative potential of chiastic structures lies not only in finding a
2
ThePaschalLiturgyandtheApocalypse (Richmond:John Knox, 1960).
3 David L. Barr, "The Apocalypseof John as Oral Enactment,"Int 40 (1986) 246-
49; AdelaYarbroCollins,TheCombat Mythin theBookof Revelation
(Missoula,MT: Scholars
Press, 1976) 19-32;GiintherBornkamm,"Die Kompositionder apokalyptischen Visionen
in der OffenbarungJohannis,"Studien zu AntikeundUrchristentum
(Munich:Kaiser, 1959)
204-22.
4 Yarbro
Collins, Combat Myth, 13-29; Barr, "Apocalypse,"244-45.
5 in the Revelation
Theology of John, unpublishedPh.D. dissertation,SouthernBaptist
TheologicalSeminary(Louisville,Kentucky,1982);ChristopherR. Smith,"The Structure
of the Book of Revelationin Light of ApocalypticLiteraryConventions,"NovT36 (1994)
373-93.
6 An
example of interlockingis the dual functionof the seven messages.They are
both a continuationof the epistolaryintroductionand a part of the subsequentvision-
ary account. See especially the works of Adela Yarbro Collins, TheApocalypse, New
Testament Message 22 (Wilmington,DE: Michael Glazier, Inc., 1979); Combat Myth.
Intercalationis the insertionof a unit in betweentwo formalunitsthat essentiallybelong
together.It breaksup the forwardmovementof the text and causesthe readerto view
the text as a whole. Elisabeth SchusslerFiorenza, The Bookof Revelation-Justice and
Judgnent(Philadelphia:FortressPress, 1985) 172.
7 Revelation,
38.
8 Robert H.
Mounce, TheBookof Revelation (GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1977) 46-47.
9 E.g., M.-E. Boismard,"'L'Apocalypse',ou 'Les Apocalypses'de S. Jean," RB 56
(1949) 507-41; Josephine MassyngbaerdeFord, Revelation, AB 38 (Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, 1980).
'0 "TheApocalypse(Revelation),"TheNewJerome BiblicalCommentay
(EnglewoodCliffs,
NJ: PrenticeHall, 1990) 999.

166 V. LEE
MICHELLE
coherent arrangementof the text, but also in uncoveringthe purpose

of the work throughthe identificationof correspondingthemes and the
significanceof the centeringmovement.
I.A. PreviousProposals
for a ChiasticStructureof Revelation
Earlier chiastic structuresinclude the ones by Kenneth A. Strand
and ElisabethSchiisslerFiorenza."lThe idea that the book may follow
a centering movement rather than a forward progressionshould be
considered, especially given the difficultyof trying to find a logical
linear or semi-lineardevelopment. Strand's proposal emphasizes the
importanceof the centeras the turningpoint in the account.He locates
it between chs. 14 and 15, dividingthe book into one half with a his-
torical setting and a second with an eschatological-judgment setting.
A Prologue (1:1-11)
B Church Militant (1:12-3:22)
C God's SalvatoryWork in Progress
Historical (4:1-8:1)
Series Da Trumpet Warnings (8:2-
11:18)
Db Aggression by Evil Forces
(11:19-14:20)
Da' Plague Punishments (15:1-

16:21)
Eschatological- Db' Judgment on Evil Forces
Judgment (17:1-18:24)
Series C' God's Salvatory Work Completed
(19:1-21:4)
B' Church Triumphant(21:5-22:5)
A' Epilogue (22:6-21)
AlthoughI questionwhetherone may so preciselycharacterizethe two

halvesas "Historical"and "Eschatological-Judgment," there does appear
to be some type of shift in perspective.Even though in my structure
I will proposethat this shift occurs slightlyearlier,between chs. 13 and
14 instead of chs. 14 and 15, the emphasisof the visions appears to
" Kenneth A. Strand, "ChiasticStructureand Some Motifs in the Book of Revela-

tion," AUSS 16 (1978) 401-08 (also The OpenGatesof Heaven,2nd ed. [Ann Arbor
Publishers:Ann Arbor,Michigan,1972]);SchiisslerFiorenza,Reelation,159-80.Another,
earlierattemptwas by Nils Lund, Chiasmusin theNew Testament
(ChapelHill: University
of North CarolinaPress, 1942) 325-26.

METHOD AND MESSAGEIN REVELATION 167
change at this approximate point from the persecution of the faithful

to their vindication and the judgment of the unrighteous.
However, I would suggest that for a work as long as Revelation, a
chiasmus containing a greater numbers of units would be more per-
suasive. Because Strand identifies only four pairs for the entire work,
this leads to somewhat broad categories (e.g. "God's Salvatory Work
in Progress") which make the structure hermeneutically less helpful.
Furthermore, Craig Blomberg suggests that if an extended chiasmus
contains at least five elements, it is very likely that it is "an intended
pattern."'2 The structure proposed in this article contains ten elements.
Another difficulty relates to the purpose and position of the judg-
ments. The presence of an odd number of judgments causes problems
for any chiastic structure which tries to place them in opposition to one
another. Strand positions the trumpets across from the plagues, but
the seal judgments become part of another section, "God's Salvatory
Work in Progress" (4:1-8:1). It would be more convincing if one could
find a unified purpose for the judgments.
Schiissler Fiorenza's proposal forms part of a larger argument for
the structure of Revelation. In addition to the chiasmus, she utilizes
other compositional techniques including intercalation, the pattern of
seven, and the two scroll visions. She finds the surface structure ordered
according to an ABCDC'B'A' pattern.
A 1:1-8
B 1:9-3:22
C 4:1-9:21; 11:15-19
D 10:1-15:4
C' 15:1, 5-19:10
B' 19:11-22:9
A' 22:10-22:21
She finds the center of the book to be the prophetic scroll and the
main function of Revelation "the prophetic interpretation of the politi-
cal and religious situation of the community."'3 This assessment, how-
ever, is somewhat vague. In addition, Strand rightly comments that
it is unclear as to why 10:1-15:4 should represent the basic "interpre-
tation" of the situation of the community over other, more explicit
sections such as the seven letters.'4
At the same time, Schiissler Fiorenza has identified an important
12 Criswl TheologicalReview4 (1989) 4-8.

13
Revelation,175-76.
14 "Revelation," 406.

168 V. TL.F.
MICHELLE
aspect of the book by stressingthat the chiasticstructureis a reflection

of the way in which Revelationis "theologically-thematicallyconceived."
It is controlledby a theological intention which does not lie behind
the text but "manifestsitself in the form-contentconfigurationof a
work."'5The structureof Revelationmay be theologicallyconceived as
opposedto chronologicallyordered.This means the workmay be some-
thing other than an event-driven,forwardmoving narrative.
Thus, the significanceof chiastic structuresis not only as a means
of orderingthe text, but also as a way to providean alternativeunder-
standingof its function.I will attemptto show the Apocalypseexhibits
the "theological"patterning which Schiissler Fiorenza suggests, but
even goes beyond this purpose.
I.B. Genreand the Functionof Revelation

It seems that any structurewhich seeks to reconstructthe author's
intent not only must account for the possibilityof such a scheme, but
should also explainhow it influencesthe meaningof the text. It should
be more than organizational,since the abundance of markerswould
make many structurespossible.
A good startingpoint is the recent work on the genre apocalypse
since most scholarsseem to agree that Revelationqualifiesas an exam-
ple of this genre.16The most widely cited definitionof the genre con-
tinues to be the one proposed by John J. Collins and the Apocalypse
WorkingGroup of the Genres Projectof the Society of BiblicalLiter-
ature, which is as follows:"'Apocalypse'is a genre of revelatoryliter-
aturewith a narrativeframework,in which a revelationis mediatedby
an otherwordlybeing to a human recipient,disclosinga transcendent
reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological
world."'7
salvation,and spatialinsofaras it involvesanother,supernatural
The group used this definition as a master paradigmby which they
compiled a list of qualifyingworks.
15Revelation,163-64.
16 Those who are
againstclassifyingRevelationin this way usuallyarguefor its identi-
ficationas a prophecy.For a defenseof Revelationas an apocalypse,seeJohnJ. Collins,
"Pseudonymity,HistoricalReviews and the Genre of the Revelationof John," CBQ.39
(1977)329-343;and Smith, "Revelation,"378-81. AlthoughI suspectthat futureresearch
will reveal the importanceof its propheticcharacterin the determinationof function,
I do not have the space to take up this issue in the present article. I would add that
prophecyand apocalypseneed not be mutuallyexclusivecategories.SchiisslerFiorenza
makes a strong case for highlightingboth of these aspects.Revelation, 159-80.
17 "Introduction:Towardsthe Morphologyof a Genre,"Semeia14 (1979) 9.

The paradigmatic approach provides the basis for Christopher Smith's

recent proposal.'8 Analyzing a group of representative apocalypses based
upon the SBL group's definition, such as Fourth Ezra and the Martyrdom
and Ascension of Isaiah, he concludes that these works contain a set
of structural conventions which we can also discern in Revelation. Thus,
he argues that the Apocalypse is structured according to a combination
of the recurring phrase "in the Spirit" and the conjoined references
to guide and seer. He finds four main divisions as follows:
(Prologue 1:1-1:8)
"In the Spirit"on Patmos
Letters 1:9-3:22
"In the Spirit"in Heaven
Heavenly journey 4:1-9:21 + 11:14-19
Transition 10:1-10:11
Historical Vision 11:1-13 + 12:1-16:21 + 19:11-21:8
"In the Spirit"in the Widerness
Babylon Vision 17:1-19:10
"In the Spirit"on a Mountaintop
Jerusalem Vision 21:9-22:9
(Epilogue 22:10-22:21)
Smith's use of generic considerations in addition to previously recog-
nized structural techniques is one of the main strengths of his work.
However, the main weakness is that it is not clear what effect the struc-
ture has on interpretation. Furthermore, since the conventions are not
uniform throughout the text, it seems less likely that they were specifi-
cally intended by the author as structural indicators. He explains that
this is part of the reveal/conceal dialectic identified by David Aune as
it "conceals" the message which it purports to "reveal" by making it
more difficult for the reader to follow where the author is going. The
reveal/conceal dialectic, as I will argue below in more detail, is an
important aspect of Revelation. But the dialectic is not meant to make
the revelation difficult as much as it requires a special understanding
of the means by which one can "decode" the message. The message
appears to be "concealed," but only to the uninitiated. Through devices
such as ring composition and chiasmus, the audience "decodes" the
message and so is made to feel that they are participating in the revel-
atory experience.
18 Smith, "Revelation" (see n. 5).

170 MICHELLE
V. LEE
Another proposalwhich discussesfunctionis David Hellholm'stext-

linguistic approach.19He concludes that divine authorizationof the
message is the characteristicfunction of an apocalypse.2Revelation's
climax occurs in 21:5-8:
And he who sat upon the throne said, "Behold,I make all things new." Also he
said, "Writethis, for these words are trustworthyand true."And he said to me:
"It is done! I am the Alpha and the Omega, the beginningand the end. To the
thirstyI will give water without price from the fountainof the water of life. He
who conquersshall have this heritageand I will be his God and he shall be my
son. But as for the cowardly,the faithless,the polluted, as for murderers,forni-
cators, sorcerers,idolaters,and all liars, their lot shall be in the lake that burns
with fire and brimstone,which is the second death."
For Hellholm this passageis the climax because it representsthe inter-

section of the highest levels of the pragmatics(function)and semantics
(content)of the text. He views pragmaticsas a combinationof threats
and promisesand the embedmentof communicationlevels.21 The seman-
tics are the positiveand negativepropositionsof unity with God in the
new worldand eternalseparationfrom God throughthe "seconddeath."
Since the passagerepresentsthe highestlevel of communicationembed-
ment with the Supreme Divinity on the throne giving the message
directlyto John, it provides the highest level of authorization.At the
same time it contains the summaryof the Apocalypsein the form of
threats and promises to the faithless and faithful. The combination
of divine authorizationand the message itself makes the passage the
climax of the entire work.22
The concept of communicationembedment is intriguing.I would
also concur that 21:5-8 is central to the message of John's visions and
that divine authorizationis a crucialpart of the book. But since divine
authorizationcould also characterizeotherliteraryforms,notablyproph-
ecies, it may not be the primaryfunction.
19"The Problem of
Apocalyptic Genre and the Apocalypse of John," Semeia36
(1986) 27.
20
Hellholm, "Apocalypseof John," 45.
21 He identifiessix communicationlevelsin Revelation:level one-between the author
and the generalChristianaudience(1:1-3and 22:18-19);level two-between the author
and the more specifiedgroup of seven churches(1:4);level three-between other-worldly
mediatorsand the author(Jesus himselfin chaps. 1-3; angelic revealers/orJesus Christ
in the rest of the book); level four-between the "Heavenlyscroll" and the author
(6:1-22:5);level five-between the other-worldlymediatorsand the author within the
"Heavenlyscroll";level six-between God himselfon the throne and the authorwithin
the "Heavenlyscroll"with the commandto the authorto write down the words of the
SupremeDivinity (21:5-8)."Apocalypseof John," 43-44.
22
Hellholm, "Apocalypseof John," 46.

The concept of function has been an important topic in regards to

the genre apocalypse. The original SBL group did not include a defini-
tion of function, and so a second group later added the statement,
"... intended to interpret present, earthly circumstances in light of the
supernatural world and of the future, and to influence both the under-
standing and the behavior of the audience by means of divine author-
ity."23This addition was helpful, but many have demonstrated the need
to refine it further.
In particular, recent discussion of the genre has centered around a
function which goes beyond a rational grasp of the "message" of the
text. Yarbro Collins' work has played an early and influential role in
this area. She argued that Revelation served a cathartic function for
an audience suffering from a "perceived crisis" of persecution under
the Roman Empire.24 Part of the significance of her work was that it
showed that the function of Revelation could go beyond a cognitive
grasp of "message" to involve the direct experience of the audience.
Hans Dieter Betz has made the suggestion that apocalypses might be
favorably compared with the Greek mythos,especially in the way it
engages the recipients. The mythoswas distinctive in its ability to "per-
suade the soul," especially through fear (<p6poo).By causing people to
see the suffering of the wicked, it forced them to make a choice between
a good and wicked life. In this way the mythosused fear, as opposed
to rational argument (logos),to convince people to lead good lives.25
These examples reflect what Lars Hartman and Hellholm have
called the illocutionary aspect, that is, what the text does in saying
what it does. They propose that in the case of apocalypses, typical illo-
cutionary functions include exhortation and consolation.26John Collins,
however, suggests an even more "specific and distinctive" illocutionary
function which consists of "method rather than of message" and which
23
Adela Yarbro Collins, "Introduction:Early ChristianApocalypticism,"Semeia36
(1989) 7.
24
ThePowerof theApocalypse
Crisisand Catharsis: (Philadelphia:Westminster,1984).
25
"The Problemof ApocalypticGenrein Greekand HellenisticLiterature:The Case
of the Oracle of Trophonius,"Apocalypticism WorldandtheNearEast,
in theMediterranean
ed. David Hellholm, 2nd ed. (Tiibingen:J.C.B. Mohr, 1989) 588.
26 Lars Hartman,"Surveyof the Problemof ApocalypticGenre,"Apocalypticsm in the
Mediterranean WorldandtheNearEast,ed. David Hellholm(Tiibingen:J.C.B. Mohr, 1983)
329-43; David Hellholm, Das Visionenbuch desHennasals Apokalypse,ConiectaneaBiblica
13:1 (Lund:Gleerup, 1980) 52-58; "Apocalypseof John," 27. See also the comments
by John J. Collins, "ApocalypticTechnique: Setting and Function in the Book of
Watchers,"CBQ44 (1982)91-111; andJames C. VanderKam,"ApocalypticLiterature,"
TheCambridge Companion to BiblicalInterpretation,
ed. John Barton(Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress,forthcoming).

172 MICHELLEV. LEE
he calls an "apocalyptictechnique."He bases this upon the recogni-

tion of two levels of communication,one between the participantsin
the text and the other between the author and reader,which together
constitute the message of the book as a whole.27He concludes that
this "apocalyptictechnique lies in the transpositionof the frame of
referencefrom the historicalcrisis experiencedby the author"to the
transcendentworld portrayedin the text. This transpositionserves as
a distractionfrom the immediate crisis and allows for a "definitive,
eschatologicalresolution in the transcendentworld." It provides not
only a sense of awe, but also instillsconvictionin the revealedknowl-
edge it imparts.28
The idea of an "apocalyptictechnique,"or perhaps an "apocalyp-
tic experience,"deserves serious consideration.There may be addi-
tional ways in which the text involves the recipientsin the experience
of the transcendentworld, such as YarbroCollins'catharsis.But I sug-
gest the "message"of the text remains a vital aspect of its function.
Thus, the "apocalypticexperience"consistsof "methodandmessage."
The oral and performanceoriented nature of Revelation is a fur-
ther indicationof the importanceof the audience'sexperiencein under-
standing the work.29In performanceoriented works, the hearer sees
himself or herself as part of the world of the text and identifieswith
the understandingof reality presentedin the text.30Participationand
identificationare centralconcepts.In Revelation,the realizationof the
"hidden"and supernaturalworld behind the believers'visible circum-
stancesprovidesnot only an alternative,but the true understandingof
their situation.31They lear to see the world from the transcendent
27 Hellholmalso describesthese two levels of

communication,what he calls the "text-
external level" between sender and receiver,or author and readers,and the "textintemal
level" between the dramatic within the text itself. "Apocalypseof John" (see
personae
n. 20) 34.
28
J. Collins, "ApocalypticTechnique"(see n. 27) 97, 110-11.
29
E.g., David E. Aune, "The ApocalypseofJohn and the Problemof Genre,"Semeia
36 (1986) 65-96; Barr, "Apocalypse,"243-56.
30
Joanna Dewey, "The Gospel of Mark as an Oral-AuralEvent: Implicationsfor
Interpretation,"TheNew LiterayCritcismandtheNew Testament, ed. ElizabethStruthers
Malbon and Edgar V. McKnight (Sheffield:SheffieldAcademic Press, 1994) 145-63.
Dewey drawsupon the work of WalterOng, Interfaces of the Word'Studiesin theEvolution
of Consciousness (Ithaca,NY: CornellUniversityPress, 1977);Orality
andCulture andLiteracy
(London:Methuen, 1982).
31For more on the importanceof the transcendentin apocalypses,see in addition
toJ. Collins,"Apocalyptic," Jean Carmignac,"Qu'est-ceque l'Apocalyptique? Son emploi
a Qumran," RevQ 10 (1979) 3-33; and C. Rowland, The OpenHeaven(New York:
Crossroad,1982).

METHOD AND MESSAGE IN REVELATION 173
perspective and realize that choices must be made through the correct
understanding of their situation as part of the heavenly battle between
good and evil.
The "reveal/conceal" dialectic, which I have already mentioned
above, is an important part of this experience. According to Aune, this
was a pervasive characteristic of ancient Mediterranean revelatory lit-
erature, which included but was not limited to apocalypses. The tech-
nique allowed the author both to present and to obscure the message,
resulting in the "paradox that the hidden, now revealed, nevertheless
remains concealed." One of its main purposes was to maximize audi-
ence participation in the revelatory experience. Aune cites David Hell-
holm's identification of the technique of communication embedment,
but also observes the use of devices such as ring composition and
chiasmus. Such devices, he argues, allow the audience to progress
"from the periphery of the revelatory experience to the 'innermost' or
highest mystery which the author wishes to communicate." The audi-
ence participates in the revelation by decoding or deciphering the mes-
sage for themselves. The use of first-person narrative further enhances
participation.32
The reveal/conceal dialectic provided a means for the audience to
experience the revelation. In this way, the reception of the message is
as important as the message itself. It may not be a choice between the
two, but rather the combination which influences the audience. There-
fore, I suggest that we need to look more at the "apocalyptic tech-
nique" or "apocalyptic experience" as an interpretative key.
Literary structure is a means to discovering this technique since struc-
ture guides the audience's understanding of the text. In Revelation, this
takes the form of a chiasmus which "reveals" the essential message the
author wishes to communicate by interpreting the transcendent reality
presented in the visions. Specifically, this message is an exhortation to
martyrdom through a paradox in which death leads to life and life
leads to death. But the work also enables the audience to participate
in the revelation by decoding the message and making the decision to
worship Christ over the beast. Thus the chiastic structure both inter-
prets the revelation and allows them to be a part of the revelatory
experience.
32
Aune, "Apocalypse," 88-90.

174 MICHELLE
V. LEE
II. The ChiasticStructureof Revelation
A ProposedChiastic Structureof Revelation

John's introductionto his prophecy
A (1:1-20) Prologue:
B (2:1-3:22)Present the messageto the seven churches
situation:
C (4:1-5:14)Thefundamental eternal worshipof God and the Lamb-
paradigm:
worthinessof the Lamb throughdeath
D (6:1-17)Judgmentanddefeatof God'senemies(firstpair):the seal judgments-
focus on Christ
E (7:1-17) Thefaithful the 144,000 and the great multitudefrom
believers:
the tribulation
F (8:1-10:11)Judgmentanddefeatof God'senemies pair):the trum-
(second
pet judgments-the nature of judgment
G (11:1-19) Thefalsepowerof thebeast:defeatthroughresurrection
H (12:1-6) Twowomen: salvationthroughthe woman clothed
with the sun
I (12:7-18)Judgmentand defeatof God'senemies(thirdpair):
the dragon thrown down to the earth by
Michael
J (13:1-18)Momentof Decision:the beast and its wor-
shipers
J (14:1-20)Momentof Decision:the Lamb and his fol-
lowers
I' (15:1-16:21)Judgment
anddefeatof God'senemies
(third
pair):
the bowl judgments-focus on God
H' (17:1-6) Twowomen: killingof the saintsby Babylon
G' (17:7-18) Thefalsepowerof thebeast:defeatby the King of Kings
F' (18:1-24)Judgment anddefeatof God'senemies pair):lamentover
(second
the fall of Babylon
E' (19:1-10) Thefaithfulbelievers:
the bride of the Lamb
D' (19:11-21)Judgmentanddefeatof God'senemies(firstpair):Christ overcomes
the beast and the false prophet
C' (20:1-10) Thefundamental
paradigm:eternaldamnationof Satan and his allies-
worthinessof the saints throughdeath
B' (20:11-22:5)Futuresituation:
the new heaven, new earth, and New Jerusalem
Final exhortationto heed the prophecy
A' (22:6-21)Epilogue:
I will begin with a brief descriptionof the units in order to set the
context for the overall structureby providingthe unifyingtheme for
each section. More detailed explanationwill be given in the following
part on the contributionof each chiastic pair. Where appropriate,I

will also mention formal indicators that unify a particular section, such
as inclusions and keywords. An inclusion marks the boundaries of a
unit. Keywords unify a passage through the repeated presence of an
element throughout the unit. This is usually a lexical item, but "key-
word" can be a broad category which includes phonological, morpho-
logical, syntactic, and logical/rhetorical similarities.33However, almost
all keywords identified here will be lexical items.
Furthermore, although a chiastic structure may seem rigid, Revelation
can still be understood in a more flexible way. The chiasmus could be
one of several ways in which the work was to be understood. The pres-
ence of multiple structures is not unlikely. Charles Talbert argues
that other ancient works, such as those of Vergil and Horace, contain
double and even triple structures.34In an alternative structure, the divi-
sions and groupings could vary, and a unit could serve a different func-
tion. For example, considering the literary function of the "woman
clothed with the sun," I will argue that within the chiastic structure
the motif is best divided into two sections, one which emphasizes her
position as mother of the Messiah (12:1-6), and another which high-
lights her role as mother of the persecuted saints (12:7-18). However,
a different structure may want to unify these sections to focus on her
overall role in the eschatological drama. Therefore, my description of
the individual units is not intended to be a rigid classification of
the text, but rather will explain the function of each section within the
chiasmus.
II.A. Descriptionof Units

A - Prologue:1:1-20
The prologue identifies the purpose of the work. It is a "revelation,"
or &anocdXyvt;c received by John (1:1) and is intended for the seven
churches that are in Asia (1:4). In this passage,John describes his com-
missioning, including his instructions by the one like a Son of Man.
The imminent return of Christ adds a note of extreme urgency to the
message. Eleven occurrences of ecxa (1:4 [2], 11, 12, 16, 20 [5]) pro-
vide lexical cohesion for the unit.
33 H. Van Dyke Parunak, "Transitional Techniques in the Bible," JBL 102 (1983)
528-29.
34 "Artistry and
Theology: An Analysis of the Architecture ofJn 1,19-5,47," CBQ32
(1970) 363.

176 MICHEILE V. LEE.F
B - Present situation2:1-3:22
This section containsthe messagesto the churches.It describestheir
present situationthrough various combinationsof praise and censure.
But it also contains a future aspect throughwarningsand promisesof
judgments and rewards given according to their behavior. Although
specific to each church, the basic message of the letters is that one's
presentbehaviordetermineswhat happensto that person in the future.
Thus personalresponsibilityis a part of the message to the believers.
The letters follow a similarpattern.35Each begins with an address
and the commandto write, t a&yyWXp -; EV....cKK.XTia;yp&avov. This
is followedby the propheticmessengerformula,xraSekyet and a third
section introducedby ol8a and concludedby an exhortation.The last
two parts, which are sometimesinterchanged,are the call to hear the
message ("Letanyone who has an ear to hear listen to what the Spirit
is saying to the churches")and a promise to those who "conquer"
(VIK&dO).
C - Thefindamental paradigm:4:1-5:14
This section orientsJohn and his audienceto the criticaleternaland
heavenly perspectiveas characterizedby the praise of God and the
Lamb.John ascendsto heaven,where he receivesa vision of the throne
of God. The four living creaturesgive continous praise to God, and
the elders worship him and declare his worthiness.But the Lamb is
also declared to be worthy to receive eternal worship. Through his
death he ransomsGod's people to be a kingdomand priestsand so is
worthyto open the sealedscroll.Reflectingthe importanceof the throne
motif, the repetitionof the keywordOp6vos(19 times) provides lexical
cohesion for the unit.
D - Judgment anddefeatof God'senemies (firstpair):6:1-17
As the Lamb opens the seals, the judgmentsbegin. The seal judg-
ments are diverse,with the firstfour releasingthe four riderswho carry
out judgmenton the earth, the fifth leadingto the vision of the martyrs
crying for vengeance, and the sixth resultingin a cosmic catastrophe
of such magnitudethat all the people on earth seek refuge from the
wrath of God and the Lamb. An inclusionthrough the use of apviov
(6:1, 16) identifiesthis as a distinctunit.
35ElisabethSchiisslerFiorenza,"Composition
and Structureof the Bookof Revelation,"
CBQ39 (1977) 351-52.

E - Thefaithfil believers:7:1-17
In contrast to those who fear the wrath of the Lamb, this section
describes the faithful believers who obtain salvation. It is generally
viewed as forming an interlude between the opening of the sixth and
seventh seals. The sealing of the 144,000 marks their special status.
The great multitude praise God and the Lamb for their salvation, and
one of the elders tells John of their eternal bliss.
F- udgmentand defeatof God'senemies(secondpair): 8:1-10:11
Following the interlude, the judgments continue with the opening of
the seventh seal, which leads to the seven trumpets. Unlike the seals,
which focused upon the Lamb and contained a more varied collection
of judgments, this series highlights the role of the angels and focuses
upon a graphic description of the effect of the judgments upon the
earth. For example, in the first plague, a third of the earth is burned
up; in the second, a third of the sea turns to blood; in the third, a
third of the waters turns bitter, killing many people; in the fourth the
heavens are struck and the third of the day and night are without light;
in the fifth, locusts torture the people on earth; in the sixth, the four
angels kill a third of mankind. The uniform effort to quantify the de-
struction is unique to this series.
The emphasis upon the effect of judgment continues in the part on
the little scroll, the contents of which are not explicitly revealed but
are described as being "bitter to the stomach, but sweet as honey" in
the mouth (10:9). Rather than trying to determine its precise contents,
I suggest that one literary function of this description is to make a
statement on the nature of judgment as being both bitter and sweet.
This thematically unifies the part with the trumpet judgments as state-
ments on the nature of judgment. The only uses of tricpaivo in Reve-
lation provide a lexical link between the account of the little scroll
(10:9, 10) and the trumpets (8:11) and further indicate the connection
between the two passages as descriptions of judgment.
G - Thefalse powerof the beast:11:1-19
This part focuses upon the beast's killing of the two witnesses, fol-
lowed by their vindication through resurrection. It is set in the context
of the worship of God and God's temple. The passage shows the beast's
power to kill can be overcome through resurrection. Thus, it demon-
strates that God is ultimately more powerful than the beast, reinforc-
ing the importance of the eternal perspective. The appearances of vaog
in 11:1, 2 and 19 form an inclusion for this unit.

178 MICHELLEV. LEE
H - Two womne 12:1-6

This section describesthe woman clothed with the sun. It is a brief
section that highlightsher heavenly origin and her significanceas the
mother of the Messiah, the one who will "rule all the nations with a
rod of iron" (12:5).Althoughthe dragontries to devourthe child, God
preservesboth the child and his mother.
I - Judgmentand defeatof God'senemies(thirdpair): 12:7-18
In this unit, Michael defeats the dragon and throws him to earth
along with his angels.The persecutionof the believersthen resultsfrom
the dragon'swrath. Therefore, even as the victory song in v. 10-12
celebrateshis defeat, the pursuitof the woman and her other children,
who are the saints, illustrates this persecution. But even then, the
dragon'swrathis temporarysince"heknowsthathis time is short"(12:12).
J - Momentof decision:13:1-18
The two beasts are the subject of this section. The people of the
earth worship the first beast and receive its "mark"from the second
beast. Those who do not are martyred.The worshipof the beast and
the decision to receive the mark form the core idea of this unit.John
exhorts the audience to stand firm by saying, "Here is a call for the
endurance and faith of the saints" (13:10). The concentrateduse of
Orplov(16 times) provides cohesion for the unit.
' - Momentof decision:14:1-20
In contrastto the worshipersof the beast who receive its "image,"
the Lamb stands on Mount Zion with the 144,000 who have his and
his father'snames on their foreheads.They worshipthe Lamb through
a song which only the redeemed can learn (14:3).The angels declare
that the time of judgmenthas come, and those who receivedthe beast's
mark will experience God's wrath. The Son of Man and the angels
then carry out the harvest of the earth. In the midst of this promise
of redemptionand judgment on earth,John once again exhorts the
hearers to faithfulness,saying, "Here is a call for the endurance of
the saints, those who keep the commandmentsof God and hold fast
to the faith of Jesus" (14:12).
I' - Judgmentand defeatof God'senemies(thirdpair): 15:1-16:21
The third series of judgments focuses attentionon God as a unify-
ing motif. The seven plagues are introducedas the "wrath of God"
(15:1; 16:1).They are so severe that the people curse God (16:9, 11,
21). But the songs of Moses and the Lamb explain that his judgments
are "justand true" (15:3).In additionto the numerousoccurrencesof

0e6; (13 times), John calls God ntavTxopaTocp(15:3; 16:7, 14), King of
the nations (15:3), and holy (15:5; 16:5).
H' - Two women.17:1-6
This section contains a short description of the whore. John reveals
that Babylon, as the "mother of whores and of earth's abominations"
(17:5), is responsible for the corruption of humanity and the persecu-
tion of the saints. She leads kings and the inhabitants of the earth
astray and becomes "drunk" with the blood of the saints. She does this
through her cooperation with God's enemies, as seen by the way she
sits upon the beast.
G' - Thefalse power of the beast:17:7-18
From the vision of the whore, John moves to the explanation of the
mystery of Babylon and the beast. The beast will win the devotion of
the inhabitants of the earth, but the Lamb will overcome it. Furthermore,
even though the whore begins as the beast's ally, it will ultimately turn
against her. Eight uses of Oipiov provide lexical cohesion.
F' - Judgmentand defeatof God'senemies(secondpair): 18:1-24
The lament or dirge presents a vivid depiction of the extent of
Babylon's ruin and the torment and grief over her fall. Kings, mer-
chants, shipmasters and sailors all mourn her destruction. She is de-
scribed as the "dwelling place of demons" (18:2) and her punishment
as just repayment for her deeds (18:6).
E' - Thefaithful believers:19:1-10
In contrast to the mourning on earth, there is rejoicing in heaven
over Babylon's fall. The whore who corrupted the earth with her for-
nication (19:2) stands in stark contrast to the bride who is preparing
to marry the Lamb (19:8). The vision portrays the marriage of the
Lamb as a reward for the faithful. The bride has made herself ready
and so is clothed in "fine linen, bright and pure," which is "the right-
eous deeds of the saints" (19:7-8). The angel blesses those who are
invited to the marriage supper of the Lamb (19:9).
D' - Judgmentand defeatof God'senemies(firstpair): 19:11-21
Instead of the Lamb, Christ now appears as a fearsome warrior who
comes with the armies of heaven. This section finds coherence through
the activity of the rider on the white horse. He engages in battle, strik-
ing down the nations and throwing the beast and the false prophet
into the lake of fire. A concentrated use of military language and im-
agery identifies this as a distinct unit: toXcEGO (19:11), lt6?Heo; (19:19),

180 MICHELLE V. LEE
(19:18), and
aopd&zueia (19:14, 19 [2]), bpo(paia (19:15, 21), XtXiapXoS
inos; (19:11, 14, 18, 19, 21).
C' - Thefundamentalparadigm.20:1-10
This section relatesthe eternalfate of Satan and his partnersin con-
trast to the future reigning of Christ and the saints. The angel binds
Satan for a thousandyears and throws him into the pit. The martyrs
come to life and reign with Christ for this period. After the thousand
years, Satan is releasedbut is throwninto the lake of fire, where along
with the beast and the false prophet, he will receive eternal torment.
Significantly,this passage describesthe lake of fire and sulfur as the
place of eternal torment, "day and night foreverand ever" (20:10).Its
literary function, therefore, is different from other references.In D'
(19:20),Christ casts the beast and the false prophet into the lake. As
the place of their defeat, it is explainedas "the lake of fire that burns
with sulfur."The third referenceto the lake (in B') describesit in yet
anotherway, in relationshipto humanity.In 20:14 (B')it is the second
death, which is the fate of the faithless. In Section C', however, its
significanceis as the place of eternal punishmentfor Satan, the beast
and the false prophet.
B' - Futuresituation:20:11-22:5
This unit describeshumanity'sdestiny. Those whose names are not
written in the book of life are thrown into the lake of fire, which the
audiencenow learnsis the second death (20:14).But the faithfulreceive
the rewardof the New Jerusalem.Many of the promisesgiven in the
lettersto the churchesare explicitlyfulfilledin this section, such as the
tree of life (2:7; 22:2), immunity from the second death (2:11; 3:5;
20:11-15) and the arrival of the New Jerusalem (3:12; 21:2). As the
letters containedboth warningsand promises,B' describesthe reward
for those who heeded the warningsand the punishmentfor those who
did not. An inclusion through the use of pcpo(onov (20:11; 22:4) for-
mally distinguishes the section.
A' - Epilogue:22:6-21
The concludingsection containsthe final instructionsfromJohn and
his heavenly guides. The exhortationsgenerally refer to keeping the
words of the prophecyin order to receive the reward.The words are
describedas "trustworthyand true,"and the urgencyof Christ'sreturn
is repeated.The repeatedreferencesto "prophets"or "prophecy"(22:6,
7, 9, 10, 18, 19) bring cohesion to the unit.

II.B. The Significance

of the ChiasticStructure
Keeping in mind the basic thrust of each section, I will coordinate

the two halves or "panels"of the chiasmusand demonstratehow each
pairing contributesto the overall function of the book. Each pair in
the chiasmus exhibits an identifiableconceptualcorrespondence.The
concept or concepts which tie each set of passagestogether then con-
tribute a fundamentalpart of the hortatorymessagewhich climaxesin
the central pairing. The pairs highlight the dualism characteristicof
apocalypsesthrough direct contrastsbetween God/Satan, Christ/the
beast, the eternal/temporary,the worshiperson the respectivesides of
good and evil, etc. They also develop the importantmotifs of death,
resurrection,reigning, and judgment. Various lexical and structural
parallelsare the source of more concrete support.Lexical parallelsin
the form of individualwords, phrases,or sentencesare significantbe-
cause they highlightkey ideas, and they become even more important
since all are unique to each pairing,indicatingtheir intentionalplace-
ment as surface markers.Both lexical and structuralparallelsprovide
surface evidence for the correspondencebetween sections and deter-
mine the conceptualbasis for this connection.
As stated above, the purpose of the chiasmus appears to be both
interpretativeand hortatory.On the one hand, it interpretsthe cen-
tral message of the text, the paradoxicalrelationshipbetween life and
death in a universe under God's sovereignty.At the same time, it in-
volves the audience by showing them the need to decide their loyal-
ties and pushing them to make this criticaldecision.
A - A' Prologue- Epilogue:1:1-20 and 22:6-21
The sections provide the basic framework and contain the key
themes: 1) the sovereigntyof God and Christ(1:8; 22:13);2) the immi-
nence of Christ'sreturn and the predictedevents (1:3, 7; 22:6, 7, 12,
20); which makes even more urgent 3) the exhortationsto heed the
prophecy (1:3; 22:7). In this way, they lay the foundationby explicitly
declaringGod's sovereigntyand the inevitabilityof his final triumph,
the importanceof Christ and his soon return,and the urgent need to
follow the message of the prophecy. This is the basis for the tran-
scendent perspectivewhichJohn will portraythrough his visions, and
so he frames the work by orientingthe audience to the basic outlook
they will need to understandthe revelation.
There are severalimportantlexical clues which connect the sections
together and highlightthese key emphases.The importanceof John's
propheticrole is reflectedin the book's only occurrencesin which he

182 MICHEILL V. T.EE
is identified by name (1:1, 4, 9; 22:8), including two prominent self-

identifications:by/ 'Ioa6vvwn(1:9) and Kayco'IoDavvgS(22:8).36Another
importantlexical clue is the use of eyrS; in 1:3 and 22:10. This term
does not appear anywhere else, even though imminency is a promi-
nent motif of the book. Both reveal the nearness of the end, 6 yap
icatpobgyg in 1:3 and 6 lcKatp6yap Yir6 ?oTtv in 22:10. Along these
same lines but even more strikingis the exact and unique repetition
of the phrase 86eiat xoti 8boXot;avtob 6 yevaeoan?vx'raX in 1:1 and
Sei
22:6. The phrase drawsattentionto a core part of the revelation,that
the events of the vision will undoubtedlycome to pass, and it explic-
itly states the imminence of the approachingevents and the urgency
of the prophecy.
B - B' Presentsituation- Futuresituation.2:1-3:22 and 20:11-22:5
John now becomes more specificin regardto the presentand future
situationsof the believers.He contraststheir currentstate, as described
in the seven lettersto the churches,and their future state in the com-
ing of the new heaven, new earth, and New Jerusalem. The letters
state the promise for those who endure (B), and the New Jerusalemis
the fulfillmentof that promise (B'). Conversely,since the letters also
contain warningsfor those who do not (B), the second death in the
lake of fire is the fulfillmentof this aspect (B').
There are severalinterestingparallelsinvolvingkey terms and con-
cepts which reflectthe prominentpresent-future,or promise-fulfillment
motif of this pairing.Since the New Jerusalemis God's promiseto the
faithful, it is significantthat 'Iepo-ooakigis found only in 3:12 and
21:2, 10. Their participationin the New Jerusalemstandsin contrastto
those whose fate is the second death, and the promiseof immunityfrom
the second death is given in 2:11 and fulfilledin 20:14-15 and 21:6-8.
Again, the specific identificationof the lake of fire and sulfur as the
second death for disobedienthumanity is the unique contributionof
the passage in B' (20:14).Interestingly,referencesto the second death
occur only in these sections and in 20:6 (Section C'), but in both B
and B', parallelconstructionsare used:rxoOava&rou xo eure'xpovin 2:11
and 6 Oavarog6 8Ei?tpoSin 20:14 and 21:8, whereasit appearsin 20:6
in a differentform, 68?icrepo;OavaxoS.
Lastly, escape from the second death depends upon having one's
name written in the book of life. In B, we are told that the one who
overcomeswill not have his or her name erased from this book (3:5)
36 The others are 1:1, 4.

and as a result this person will not be harmed by the second death
(2:11).In B', we have this prophesiedjudgment scene, when the book
of life is opened and those whose names are not in it are sentenced
to the second death in the lake of fire (20:11-15).Not only is there a
significant thematic correspondencein terms of promise-fulfillment,
there is also strikingverbal one. These passagescontain the only two
uses of Pii5Ao;in a work in which Ptpliov has been used 22 times,
includingfour other referencesto the book of life.37
Building upon the present-future,promise-fulfillmentmotif, these
lexical and conceptualparallelsstress the importanceof having one's
name written in the book of life in order to escape the second death
and inherit the promise of the New Jerusalem. It includes the motif
of personal responsibilityby demonstratingthat the believers' fate
depends upon their decision to remain faithful.John has moved from
an introductionof the transcendentperspectiveand general exhorta-
tion to heed the prophecy (A, A') to a more specific admonitionto
endure through a coming tribulationin order to receive the promise.
C - C' Thefundamental
paradgm: 4:1-5:14 and 20:1-10
The next sectionsfurtherorient the saints to the proper perspective
by revealingsome importanttruthsabout the greatercosmic aspect of
their situation: 1) the fundamentalconflict is an opposition between
God and Satan; 2) the eternal takes precedence over the temporary;
3) death can be a noble event leadingto eternallife and a futurereign.
Matching three-partstructureshighlightthese themes:
SectionC (4:1-5:14)
a (4:1-11) God and Satan: God is worthy to be worshiped;he is
seated upon the throne
b (5:1-12) worthinessthrough death: the Lamb is worthy to be
worshipedbecause he was slain
c (5:13-14) eternal worshipof God and the Lamb
SectionC' (20:1-10)
a (20:1-3) God and Satan: Satan thrown into the Abyss
b (20:4-6) worthinessthroughdeath:the ones who were slainreign
with Christ
c (20:7-10) eternal torment of Satan and his allies
The first subsections(a) contrastGod and Satan. God is seated upon
the throne in splendor, attended by the elders and the four living
37 13:8; 17:8; 20:12; 21:27.

184 MICHELLEV. LEE
creatures,whereasSatan is cast into the Abyss by an angel and bound

for a thousand years. The second subsections(b) illustratethe theme
of worthinessbased upon death. When the angel asks who is worthy
to open the scrolls,John begins to weep because no one is found. But
one of the elders explainsthat the Lamb is worthy, and in the follow-
ing hymn (5:9-10)we learn that the Lamb'sworthinessoccurs through
his death. His death also ransoms God's people, makes them a king-
dom and priests and allows them to rule on the earth (5:9-10).The
reign comes to pass when those who were beheaded are resurrected
and reign with Christ for a thousand years (20:4). Finally, the third
subsections(c) returnto the comparisonbetween God and Satan, but
now God and the Lamb are eternallyworshiped,while Satan and his
company receive eternal torment in the lake of fire. As noted earlier,
20:10 specificallyidentifiesthe lake of fire and sulfur as the place of
eternal torment.
The outer passages(a, c) emphasizethe contrastbetween God and
Satan, particularlyfrom the perspectiveof eternity.In the "a" subsec-
tions, the magnificentthrone-roomvision displaysa holy God who is
worthy to receive praise. However, Satan is so ineffectivethat he is
defeated by an angel. In Section C.c, the Lamb comes alongsideGod
to receive eternalworship,whereasC'.c revealsthe fate of Satan, who
joins the beast and the false prophet in eternal torment.
The central subsections(b) make an importantstatementabout the
significanceof martyrdom.Just as the Lamb is worthy because he was
slain (5:9),so also are the martyrsworthy because of their deaths. The
promise of reigning and being priestsis given in 5:10 and fulfilledin
20:6 on the condition of their deaths. The text specificallylimits the
reign to those who were killed for holding to the testimony of Jesus
and not receivingthe mark of the beast (20:4). In this way the addi-
tional hortatoryeffect of this section is to encouragethe saintsto faith-
fulnesseven to death because they know thatjust like the Lamb, their
death is not permanent,but ratherwill lead to their triumphin resur-
rection and in ruling. They also will become worthy through martyr-
dom to receive an eternal reward.
D - D' Judgment anddefeatof God'senemies(firstpair):6:1-17
and 19:11-21
This is the first of three pairings which demonstrateGod's sover-
eignty and ability to overcome evil. Each series of judgments is posi-
tioned across from a defeat of his enemies (D-D', F-F', I-I').Although
the overall intent of these pairingsseems to be to illustrateGod's un-

questioned superiority, each also has a distinctive thrust which sets it

apart from the other two.
This first pairing focuses upon the role of Christ. In Section E the
Lamb opens the seals, releasing the judgments. The direct participa-
tion of the Lamb in this way distinguishes this series from the other
judgments which are related to the activity of the angels or God. The
series then ends with the people of the earth crying out for protection
from the wrath of God and the Lamb (6:16). The corresponding Section
E' describes Christ as the King of Kings and the Lord of Lords lead-
ing his army in triumph over the beast and the false prophet and their
armies.
The two sections also correspond through the application of military
imagery, which also corresponds to Christ. The first four seals release
the four horsemen, including the rider on the 'itnoS; e'UI6cwho rides
out "conquering, and to conquer" (6:2). This motif continues in Section
E' with the battle between the armies of heaven conquering the armies
of God's enemies. Christ himself is now presented as riding upon a
'nroS; euKOc6 followed by his armies on 'it1notXe?'KOt((19:11-14) as he
defeats the beast and the false prophet. This phrase occurs nowhere
else in Revelation. He is likewise portrayed as a conqueror through
various imagery such as his "sharp sword," "armies," and his rule "with
a rod of iron" (19:15, 19). In this way, the sections show that Christ is
both the Lamb who was slain and the triumphant, conquering Messiah.
E - E' Thefaithful believers:7:1-17 and 19:1-10
Attention now shifts to Christ's people and his relationship with them.
Section E focuses upon the 144,000 who are specially marked as belong-
ing to him (7:1-8) and a great multitude who praise God and the Lamb
for their salvation (7:9-17). Section E' anticipates the marriage of the
Lamb and contains more praise from a "great multitude." Reflecting
the emphasis upon the people of God, the uses of 6XXoSxokX;, found
only in 7:9 and 19:1, 6, provide an important lexical link between
the sections.
The sections highlight the believers' intimate relationship with Christ.
In each part, a new aspect of their relationship to the Lamb is intro-
duced. According to 7:17, he will be their shepherd, and in 19:7-9 we
learn that they are his bride. The ones who have come out of the
tribulation wear robes made "white in the blood of the Lamb" (7:14),
just as the bride is "clothed with fine linen, bright and pure" (19:8).
Finally, the declarations of praise by the great multitude all begin
with similar ascriptions of salvation (fi ocozpia) to God and the Lamb

186 MICHEILE V. LEE
(7:10; 19:1). The presence of these salvationstatementsis even more

impressivesince the only other occurrenceof il otlipia is in a sen-
tence that is structurallydifferentfrom the other two (12:10).The con-
nections between the Lamb, the believers,and their salvationprovide
furthermotivationto stand fast in their faith throughthe promise not
only of salvation,but also a continuingand intimate relationshipwith
the Lamb.
F - F' Judgmentand defeatof God'senemies(secondpair): 8:1-10:11
and 18:1-24
Whereasthe firstjudgment-defeatcombinationemphasizedChristas
conqueror,this second pairingdraws attentionto a more general eval-
uation of judgment. Section F is also distinguishedfrom the first set of
plaguesthroughthe prominentroles of the angels.Overall,the trumpets
emphasizethe destructiveeffectsof judgment upon the people and the
earth. As described above, these plagues stand out in the way they
quantifyand focus on the level of destruction.
The theme of the nature of judgment continues in the account of
the angel and the little scroll. Again, the contents of the bittersweet
scroll are difficultto determine,and its symbolicfunctionmay be more
importantwithin the chiasticstructure.In this regard,it is noteworthy
that the lament over the judgment of Babylon contains both "bitter"
and "sweet"aspects.
The extendedaccountof the responsesto the fall of Babylonis strik-
ing and unparalleledin Revelation.Her fall causes great mourningby
kings, merchants,and seafarers(18:9, 11, 15, 19). The "woe" state-
ments in 8:13 (F) and 18:10, 16, 19 (F') furtherhighlighta "bitter"
aspect to her fall, with added emphasisthroughthe Apocalypse'sonly
repeated uses of ooati.At the same time, judgment is "sweet"because
it involves the vindication of those who suffered under her influence,
as seen in the rejoicing over her fall (18:20).
In addition, the detailed description of her ruin corresponds to the
destructive nature of judgment portrayed through the trumpets. For
example, she becomes a haunt for evil spirits and every unclean and
detestable bird (18:2); she is thrown down with violence (18:21); and
she is overcome by plagues of death, mourning and famine (18:8). The
dirge emphasizes the swiftness of her destruction in that it comes in
"one hour" (18:10, 17, 19). Thus the lament over Babylon vividly illus-
trates both the destructive and bittersweet motifs in Section F.
By focusing upon the nature of judgment, this pairing emphasizes
the reality and horror of the coming judgment and exhorts the believers

to protect themselves from this event. An important distinction of this

pair is that it draws attention to humanity's response to the events and
therefore highlights the responsibility of each individual to avoid the
coming judgment by making the correct choices. There are the numer-
ous references to the people's mourning over Babylon's judgment in
Section F'. But at the same time, the voice from heaven warns God's
people to "come out" of her so that they will not receive her plagues
(18:4). Section F also describes two contrasting responses to God. In
8:3-4, the prayers of the saints go up before God, whereas in 9:20-21,
humanity refuses to repent and stop worshiping demons and idols. By
describing the nature of judgment and the believer's individual respon-
sibility to secure immunity from it, these sections push them even
closer to the important decision they must make to serve Christ through
martyrdom.
G - G' Thefalse powerof the beast:11:1-19 and 17:7-18
This pairing reveals the deception behind the power of the beast.
Despite its ability to kill and rule as a king, it is defeated through God's
power of resurrection and Christ's as the King of Kings. The similar
statements describing the beast's rising up from the Abyss to challenge
God's servants, Tx ONpiovxT avaplaivov ?K t; ap6aov)& in 11:7 and Tx
eiKr
Oripiov... &valpaivev ap aaoooin 17:8, highlight the prominence
of the beast in this pairing, especially since these phrases occur nowhere
else in Revelation.
The beast's rising up from the Abyss provides an interesting coun-
terpart to God's raising of his servants. The beast kills the two wit-
nesses, but they are resurrected and ascend to heaven. Although the
beast has the power to kill on earth, God is mightier. The motif of
victory through resurrection provides a way for the believers to see
their own triumph through a future resurrection. This points to the
work of Christ, and the mention of the place where the Lord was
crucified (11:8) reminds the believers of his death. But the raising of
the two witnesses is central to this passage because it demonstrates
that resurrection applies to God's servants and not just Christ.
The limitations of the power of the beast continue in Section G'.
The beast has earthly power as the eighth king and as the one who
receives the authority of the ten kings who are yet to come. However,
Christ is not one of many kings, but rather the King of Kings, and he
conquers the ten (17:14). The right of God and Christ to rule is also
seen in the ending of Section G, where the voices in heaven declare
that the eternal kingdom of God and Christ has now come, an event

188 V. LEE.
MICHELLE
which includes the judgment of the dead and the rewardingof God's
servants(11:15-18).The arrivalof the kingdomdemonstratesthat the
coming of the beast cannot stop this event. In contrastto the inevita-
bility of God's kingdom, Section G' twice qualifiesthe beast's earthly
reign by statingthat it goes on to destruction(17:8, 11) and even says
that its kingdomis part of God's purposes(17:17).
The culminatingeffect of the visions is to demonstratethe inferior-
ity and untrustworthynature of the beast. Its power is limited since
even death can be overcome by resurrection.It is weaker than Christ,
the conqueringKing and Lamb who was slain for their sake. Further-
more, God's vindication of his servants contrasts sharply with the
beast's betrayal of the harlot (17:16). By showing that the beast is a
false "savior"and that death at its hands can be overcome by resur-
rection, these sectionsexhort the readersto choose God's and Christ's
kingdomwith its rewardsover the beast's rule and judgment.
H - H' Twowomen12:1-6 and 17:1-6
The attention now focuses on two communities.This pairing con-
traststwo women, the woman clothed with the sun, who is most likely
Israel,38and the harlot Babylon. Although both women appear else-
where, the similar literaryfunctions of the passagesjustify this corre-
spondence. Specifically,both passagesgive the basic identificationsof
the women:
1) Bothcontainelaborate of thewomen.
descriptions
The first woman is clothed with the sun, has the moon under
her feet and wears a crown of twelve stars (12:1).The second is
dressedin purpleand scarletand gold, preciousstones, and pearls
in 12:1 and 17:4
(17:4).The repetitionof yuvf and ptiepSEIpSliXRv
enhances this correspondence.39
2) Both womenare mothers.
The woman clothed with the sun gives birth to the one who will
eventuallyrule the nations(12:5),whereasthe latteris "the mother
of whores and of earth's abominations"(17:5).
to God and his people.
3) Both are dqfinedin termsof theirrelationship
The first woman gives birth to the Messiah, the one who will
save God's people (12:5),but the harlot is drunkwith the blood
of the saints (17:6).
38 Mounce, Revelation,236.
39 In this context, the two women are distinguishedfrom the bride in ch. 19, who
is described in the aorist as leptilX,rat (19:8). However, this does not necessarily mean
thatJohn did not intend other types of comparisonswith the bride.

to God'senemies.
4) Both are definedin termsof theirrelationship
The whore cooperates with God's enemies, since she sits on the
beast (17:3). But the woman is a threat to his enemies, and the
dragon attempts to devour her child. The woman herself must
flee to the wilderness where she will be protected by God.
5) Both are locatedin the desert.
The woman clothed with the sun flees to the desert (12:6), which
is also the place of John's vision of the harlot (17:3).
These passages identify the women and their respective roles. The pair-
ing contrasts salvation through the woman's child as opposed to per-
secution and death by the whore and her offspring. It provides the
saints with a perspective which enables them to see their salvation as
already taking place in heaven even as they suffer tribulation on earth.
An additional purpose of the descriptions of the two women might have
been to help the saints identify themselves as true children of Zion
instead of the offspring of the whore, drawing attention to the heav-
enly origins of the redeemed community.
I - I' udgmentand defeatof God'senemies(thirdpair): 12:7-18 and
15:1-16:21
The distinctive emphasis of this judgment-defeat pairing is a direct
contrast between the power of God and Satan and their respective
abilities to judge or persecute those who do not worship them. This
pair specifically states that Satan's vengeance is against those who
"keep the commandments of God and hold to the testimony of Jesus"
(12:17), while God's judgments are against those who worship the beast
(16:2) and who killed God's servants (16:6).
In Section I, Michael defeats Satan and throws him down to earth
with his angels. This is not Satan's final defeat, and it results in his
persecution of the woman who has fled to the desert and the rest of
her offspring, who are the saints. The persecution of the saints will be
intense, since the dragon is filled with fury (12:12). But the rescue of
the woman illustrates how even the earth itself can come to the aid of
God's servants (12:16). Therefore Satan's power is ultimately charac-
terized by weakness since he is defeated by an angel ("he was not
strong enough"-12:8), the saints ("they overcame him by the blood
of the Lamb and because of the word of their testimony"-12:11), and
the earth. His power is also temporally limited since even he knows
that his time is short (12:12).
By contrast, Section I' glorifies God in his holiness and majesty
through the song of Moses and the song of the Lamb. The various

190 V. LEE
MICHELLE
titles further emphasize this aspect: tavxoKpaT)op (15:3; 16:7, 14); King
of the nations (15:3);Holy One or holy (15:5; 16:5).It also emphasizes
the fearful and terrible nature of his wrath on the faithless.We are
explicitlytold that the bowl judgments are God's wrath on the earth
(15:1, 7; 16:1, 19, 21). More than any other series, this one empha-
sizes the terriblehuman sufferinginvolvedin the judgment. It contains
graphic descriptionsof the agony produced by the judgments,?4with
the result that the people curse God three times because the plagues
are so severe (16:9, 11, 21). Furthermore,the plagues directlypoint to
the finite nature of Satan's rule as the kings gather for Armageddon
(16:14, 16). The contrast between the limited power of Satan and
the terribleintensity of God's judgment, along with the assuranceof
God's ultimatevictory, urges the believersto choose Satan'sfury over
God's wrath.
- J' TheDecision:13:1-18 and 14:1-20
Now that the saints understand the true nature of the situation
throughthe revelationof this transcendentperspectiveand have been
shown their accountabilityfor their decisions, these climactic sections
compel them to the decisivemomentin which each personmust choose
whetherto worshipGod by followingChristor worshipSatan and the
beast. They starklyportray this as a choice between martyrdomand
eternal life or earthly life and eternal torment. The structuralsimilar-
ities display this correspondence,with matching ABA' chiastic struc-
tures highlightingthe central focus.
J (13:1-18)
Section
a (13:1-7)the beast from the sea and its worshipers
b (13:8-10)death at the hands of the beast-a call for endurance
a' (13:11-18)the beast from the earth who carriesout the killingof
the saints
Section
J' (14:1-20)
a (14:1-5) the Lamb and his followers,the 144,000
b (14:6-13) eternaltormentat the handsof God-a call for endur-
ance and a promise of blessingfor those who die
a' (14:14-20)the one like the Son of Man who carriesout the harvest
40
E.g., 16:9, 10-11.

These sections portraythe protagonistswith their respectivefollow-

ers. SectionJ presents the two beasts. The first has been resurrected
(a), and in amazementthe whole world follows it. The second carries
out the work of the first, includingkilling those who will not receive
the mark and worship the first beast (a'). In the opposite section (J'),
the Lamb standsvictoriouslyon Mt. Zion with the 144,000 who have
his and his Father'snames on their foreheadsinstead of the mark of
the beast (a), and the one like the Son of Man brings forthjudgment
in the harvest of the earth (a').41At the same time, the twin chiasms
point to central subsections(b) which compare death at the hands of
the beast with the second death for those who are not faithful. All
whose names are not in the book of life will face death in the present
(J.b), but judgment, ruin and eternal tormentawait those who receive
the mark of the beast (J'.b).
At this point, the choice for the saintsis clear-the beast or Christ,
eternal torment or martyrdom.Significantly,both of the central sub-
sections conclude with similarexhortationsto endure, "Here is a call
for the endurance and faith of the saints" (*6l EaToV i1 noRtOVi ij
KiCa
ntia1C; &iva'yov [13:10]); and "Here is a call for the endurance of the
saints,those who keep the commandmentsof God and hold fast to the
ib vi ojovil T&v&yiovecaiv, oi TrpoVT?e;vTa
faith of Jesus" (&6E ; rox
xoD 0eo0 Kai riv ntioltv 'Ilaooi [14:12]). These twin statements are the
most strategicallylocated ones in the book since they are the conclu-
sions of the centralsubsectionswithin the central sectionsof the book.
They are the most critical ones in terms of position and probably
also in terms of content. John tells the audience this is the precise
situation-the decision to serve the beast or Christ in the face of
martyrdom-which will decide their ultimate fate. The sentences are
even more strikingsince John steps out of his normal mode of nar-
rating the visions to exhort the hearersdirectly,a move which has not
gone unnoticedby commentators.42
In this way, the climax of the book is the decisionto serve the beast
" The
identity of the one like the Son of Man has long been debated. Many see
him as an angel (e.g., Ford, Revelation, 250; Yarbro Collins, Apocalypse, 105). Others
believe he is Christ(AustinFarrer,TheRevelationof St.JohntheDivine[Oxford:Clarendon
Press, 1964] 166; Mounce, Revelation, 279;J.P.M. Sweet, Revelation [Philadelphia,1979]
231). The specificidentificationof the figure is not crucial at this point. The position
of the pericope seems to indicate that this is a second referenceto Christ. However,
he could also be an angel, the helper of Christ who carriesout his work,just as the
second beast does the work for the first beast.
de SaintJean (Paris:Delachaux et Niestle, 1981)
42 E.g., Pierre Prigent, L'Apocalypse
229.

192 MICHELLEV. LEE
or Christ. The saints have received a transcendentperspectiveof the

situationas one in which God is in control of the universeand death
leads to eternal life. They have also been warned about the impor-
tance of makingthe right choice. The text pushes the hearersinto this
decision since there is no neutral ground. Their participationin the
revelatory experience now includes the decision of which side to
follow. But the "choice" has been presented to them in an explicit
manner which makes clear what the more desirableoption is: God or
Satan, good or evil, eternalbliss or eternaltorment,life or death. They
can choose the beast and live, but face the certaintyof eternal tor-
ment, or choose Christ and die, but receive the promised reward.In
this way, Revelationclimaxesin the decision to face martyrdomwill-
ingly for Christ'ssake. As participantsin the revelation,the audience
also becomes participantsin the decision. The call for the endurance
and faith of the saintsis for all who take part in the revelation.Thus,
the chiasm "reveals"the mysteries of heaven by interpretingJohn's
visions, and at the same time it compels the saints to answer the call
to follow Christ even to death.
III. Concluding
Reflections
I have attemptedto demonstratethat Revelation combines method
and message as the essentialpart of its function. Through a chiastic
structureit exhorts the audience to follow the example of Christ to
martyrdomin order to obtain the promised resurrection.The chiasm
interpretsJohn's visions as an explanationof a transcendentrealityin
which the true battle happens not on earth, but in heaven between
God and ChristagainstSatan and the beast. The believersthen under-
stand their roles in terms of this cosmic drama, the outcome of which
has alreadybeen determinedby God's omnipotence.This gives them
the assuranceof final victory, but also provides them with the means
to interprettheir earthly situation.Persecutiondoes not mean defeat.
Rather, their deaths are an integralpart of God's mysteriousplan of
salvation.Martyrdomleads to an eternal reward,just as the Lamb is
worthy because he was slain. Revelation exhorts the saints to endure
throughthe promisesof an eternalrewardgained throughmartyrdom.
It shows them that they are in control of their ultimate destiny, no
matter how dire their earthly circumstancesmay seem because they
are the ones who decide whether they will gain eternal life or suffer
eternal torment.
But the functionof Revelationgoes beyondthe contentof its message.

I have argued that throughthe reveal/conceal dialecticthe author has

incorporateda meansby which the audiencecan participatein the revel-
atory experience. By followingthe chiasm, they are able to "decode"
this paradox of death leading to eternallife, and life leading to eternal
death. As Aune notes,John's visions are rarelyaccompaniedby expla-
nations. He suggests this reflects the author's attempt to maximize
audience participationby requiringgreater ingenuityand imagination
on their part.43I propose the chiastic structureis the primaryvehicle
for interpretingthe visions.44I would also add that substructures,such
as in C-C' andJ-J', providedeven more opportunityfor continuedrev-
elatory experiences,since it would allow people to find more nuances
toJohn's messagein subsequentperformances.It seems likely the work
was composed in such a way so that the audience would not grasp
everythingthe first time, but would gain a greater understandingor
deeper experiencewith each performance.
Furthermore,as the audienceparticipatesin the revelation,they are
compelledto make a personaldecisionin the battle between good and
evil. The chiasm allows the believersto take part in the cosmic drama,
culminatingin the center with the decision to serve either the beast or
Christ. Participationmeans respondingto the call for the endurance
and faith of the saints. They must choose whether to accept or refuse
the call to follow Christ'sexample of martyrdom.
Although I have identifiedchiasm as the primarymeans of struc-
turing Revelation,this may not be the only method. In Part II, I men-
tioned the possibilityof multiplestructures.SchiisslerFiorenzasees this
possibilityas well, and she commentsconcerningthe specific function
of chiasticstructuresin Greekand Roman literature,"Accordingto the
compositionalrules of tragedy,the climax falls near the center of the
action, and the denouementcomes near the end. The narrativepoetry
of republicanRome follows the same compositionalrules."45No one
would argue that some type of conclusionor resolutionoccursnear the
end of Revelation,with the final defeat of God's enemies and the com-
ing of the New Jerusalem. Furthermore,Hellholm's identificationof
43Aune,
"Apocalypse,"85-86.
4
Athough some may questionwhether the audience could recognizesuch a large
structure,recent researchon the oral skillsof people of the ancient Mediterreansug-
gests that they would have had this ability(e.g., PaulJ. Achtemeier,"OmneVerbum
Sonat:
The New Testamentand the Oral Environmentof Late WesternAntiquity,"JBL 109
[1990] 3-27). Talbert has compiled an impressivelist of ancient workswhich scholars
argue contain major chiasticstructures("Artistryand Theology,"360-61).
45Revelation,176.

194 MICHELLEV. LEE
a climax at the point of divine authorization of the message from the

throne also seems justified. The structure presented here describes a
function more directly aimed at the audience not only because it focuses
upon an interpretation of the revelation, but also because it compels
the audience to make a response. It seems to point to a hortatory or
moral climax because it causes the audience to evaluate the revelation
and make a decision, differentiatingit from for example, a more descrip-
tive structure which follows a progressive unfolding of John's visions.
Since it has a different purpose, the chiastic structure can complement
rather than conflict with structures that follow a more forward move-
ment of the text.
Finally, I have tried to give greater consideration to the affective
dimension of the book, an area to which Betz, Yarbro Collins and
others have called attention.4 Although Betz does not draw any firm
conclusions in regards to the relationship between the Greek mythosand
apocalypses, one can see similarities with Revelation, particularly in
the way it highlights the choice between good and evil and persuades
the "soul," and perhaps also in the way it utilizes (p[po;. As I have
attempted to demonstrate in this essay through a structural analysis, an
important part of the "apocalyptic technique" or "apocalyptic experi-
ence" involves not only the presentation of information, but the active
involvement of the audience. The text draws them into this strange
world, causes them to identify their own place in the cosmic drama
and forces them to choose sides in the battle between good and evil.
As they experience the revelation, they also make the choice to serve
Christ and reject the beast. In this way the effect on the emotions and
will of the hearer is a dimension of Revelation which goes beyond a
rational grasp of its "message."
Revelation will always be a fascinating, puzzling and enigmatic book.
The way in which it combines method and message adds to the diffi-
culty of its interpretation but also increases the excitement and chal-
lenge of trying to grasp its meaning.47
46 See SchiisslerFiorenza,who describesit as a "poetic-rhetorical

work"(Revelation,
181-203).She, like others,pays more attentionto the symbolicdimensionof Revelation
than I have been able to in this essay.
47 I would like to thank the followingpeople for readingvariousdraftsand making
many valuable suggestions:Josephine MassyngbaerdeFord, A. Boyd Luter,Jerome
H. Neyrey, Robert Saucy, and David Turner. Their time and commentsare greatly
appreciated.


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A Call to Martyrdom: Function as Method and Message in Revelation

Author(s): Michelle V. Lee

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The recent interestin the genre apocalypsehas refocusedattention

"TheRevelationto John: Its DramaticStructureand Message,"Int 9 (1955)436-53.

C KoninklijkeBrill NV, Leiden, 1998 Novum TestamentumXL, 2

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gical pattern.2 Many have examined important structural indicators

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coherent arrangementof the text, but also in uncoveringthe purpose

Da' Plague Punishments (15:1-

AlthoughI questionwhetherone may so preciselycharacterizethe two

" Kenneth A. Strand, "ChiasticStructureand Some Motifs in the Book of Revela-

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change at this approximate point from the persecution of the faithful

12 Criswl TheologicalReview4 (1989) 4-8.

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aspect of the book by stressingthat the chiasticstructureis a reflection

I.B. Genreand the Functionof Revelation

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The paradigmatic approach provides the basis for Christopher Smith's

18 Smith, "Revelation" (see n. 5).

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Another proposalwhich discussesfunctionis David Hellholm'stext-

For Hellholm this passageis the climax because it representsthe inter-

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The concept of function has been an important topic in regards to

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he calls an "apocalyptictechnique."He bases this upon the recogni-

27 Hellholmalso describesthese two levels of

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II. The ChiasticStructureof Revelation

A ProposedChiastic Structureof Revelation

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II.A. Descriptionof Units

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H - Two womne 12:1-6

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II.B. The Significance

Keeping in mind the basic thrust of each section, I will coordinate

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is identified by name (1:1, 4, 9; 22:8), including two prominent self-

36 The others are 1:1, 4.

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37 13:8; 17:8; 20:12; 21:27.

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creatures,whereasSatan is cast into the Abyss by an angel and bound

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questioned superiority, each also has a distinctive thrust which sets it

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(7:10; 19:1). The presence of these salvationstatementsis even more

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to protect themselves from this event. An important distinction of this

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These sections portraythe protagonistswith their respectivefollow-