Master in Biomedical Engineering

Biomechanics and Human Physical Capabilities

Thurmon E. Lockhart, Ph.D, Virginian Tech

Final Project: Welding Ergonomics

By: Steven Rojo 04/23/2019

1
 Table of Content

Abstract —————————————————————————————— 3

1. Introductions —————————————————————————— 4

2. Methods & Materials ——————————————————————— 7

2.1. Materials——————————————————————————— 7

2.2. Methods ——————————————————————————— 7

3. Results ————————————————————————————— 10

4. Analysis ———————————————————————————— 13

4.1.1. EEPP ————————————————————————— 13

4.1.2. REBA ————————————————————————— 14

4.1.3. Biomechanical Analysis —————————————————— 16

5. Conclusion & Improvements ————————————————————— 19

5.1. Plasma Cutting ———————————————————————— 19

5.1.1. Overview ———————————————————————— 19

5.1.2. Suggestions ——————————————————————— 19

5.2. Welding ——————————————————————————— 19

5.2.1. Overview ———————————————————————— 19

5.2.2. Suggestions ——————————————————————— 20

5.3. Sorting/Selecting ———————————————————————— 20

5.3.1. Overview ———————————————————————— 20

5.3.2. Suggestions ——————————————————————— 21

6. References ———————————————————————————— 22

2
 Abstract

This project analyzed the standard practices of workers in a welding shop. What is striking about

this undertaking was the multitudes of jobs and tasks that are involved in the shop that surrounds

the simplistic concept of welding. While these tasks are vital for the overall shop, many of them

can be straining on the workers given the stresses that they demand. The primary goal of the

project was to analyze several vital tasks of that workers in the welding field must perform. The

overall project followed an ergonomic approach to the topic by taking into consideration the

forces and risks that are often seen in similar situations of high stress and hazards. To carry this

out, an understanding of the conditions was undertaken, a general layout of the work that is

involved was noted and the forces of these tasks were determined. This was performed by

finding the energy expenditure for each of the tasks, creating a REBA analysis for each of them

and finding the biomechanical forces that each task inflicts on the workers. At the end of the

project an overall assessment was performed and possible suggestions were constructed to

address the problems that arose while discussing the advantages and disadvantages that

accompany them.

3
 Introduction

Being one of the primary building component in the modern world, second only to concrete

pouring, welding is a: high demand, heavy operating, and technique intensive skill. Even with

advance technology being integrated into the field, the basic principles of welding are still

practiced in industry and the requirements never been higher than before. These principles follow

welders from putting up fences, creating towers that pierce the sky and constructing foundations

submerged under the ocean.

The job of the welders was evaluated due to the various risks that are involved in everyday

operation within a shop and the stresses that their job mandates. To be specific, the critical tasks

that were analyzed were: welding on a standard welding bench, picking up/ moving components

on the ground, and cutting material via a plasma cutter. These tasks were chosen based on these

being the most prevalent tasks that are included in everyday activity and the ones that lack

machinery assistance in physical operations.

Welding is a difficult path of work with several factors contributing to it with high temperatures,

burdensome objects being moved, and the user being in close proximity to hazards regularly.

The workers are required to wear PPE that includes safety glasses, fireproof jackets, pants, and

closed toed shoes, but in the 100+ degree heat in the area partnered with the heating elements

that are being worked with, heat related injuries are a constant risk for even the most experience

worker. In addition, focus on the task-at-hand is imperative to not risk a removal of said hand

when working with the cutters being used.

Objectives:

4
The goal of the project is to recognize the ergonomic stresses that workers that weld face on the

job, and to comprise solutions to address these problems to decrease the odds of injury and

possibly improve performance.

Risk Factors

• Climate: The shop had an indoor and outdoor component, with the indoor having an A/C

unit and access to the outside via a garage door. The outdoor area is limited in shade,

leaving the area exposed to the elements, notably the Sun. During the Summer season,

high temperatures mixed with high heat stemming from the welders, torches, grinders and

forge opens the avenue of heat related injuries.

• Fire Risk: Loose papers and foliage from the outside is highly compromised to being

ignited from the sparks that are emitted from the grinders and welders.

• Noise: Long duration of grinder use and the hammering on the anvils are risky given their

ability of reaching levels of 110 dB during use [1], when compared to threshold levels

reaching 85 dB

• Vibration: The risk is limited to use of the saws and the grinders. Proper use of the

devices indicates minor vibration being transferred to the user.

• Electric Shock: The various electrical components in the shop are all grounded with

routine maintenance of the outlets given the specialty outlets required for the heavy

equipment.

• Manual Loading: Heavy loads, equipment and components are needed to be transported

across the shop for use and storage with heavy stress being a risk.

• Organization: The equipment and building supplies are kept in assigned areas, however,

with multiple projects being carried out simultaneously with no proper place for storage,

5
 walking areas may become cluttered. In addition, working areas are prone to become

temporary storage areas.

• Inhalation: The breathing of the fumes and particulates from the working area may be a

trigger for those that are sensitive to such things. There is a ventilation system inside the

building, but close proximity to the working area increases the risk of breathing in

irritants.

6
 Methods & Materials

Materials

The project was carried out by performing an analysis of common activities involved in the

welding process that includes a breakdown of the statures that workers utilize during preparatory

stages and working conditions. These include the observation of the selection of components,

cutting of material to desired size, and welding parts on a metal project. The interaction between

human and machine was recognized during the observation and literature information was

utilized to fill the open questions on the matter that would not be able to be answered by simple

observations. In addition, guidance from those experience in the field acted as support to the

project to properly select and analyze aspects of the field.

Methods

The project analyzed three tasks that are involved in welding utilizing several ergonomics tools

to identify possible areas of concern and to aid in evaluating the degree of concern:

◊ A REBA analysis was performed as it is designed to assess the various unpredictable working

postures found during the welding workforce and be able to include the effects of handling loads

in unstable postures. In addition, it provides an evaluation of various body-part that is held in

prominence. The range of flex that the appendages operate under are used to create an evaluation

that is dictated by Table A and B to find the scores for the pose.

7
Table A and Load Table B and Coupling

These scores are then inputted into Table C to find the REBA score. Combined with an action

score for the activity being performed, the risk level is determined.

Table C and Activity Score REBA: Action Levels

◊ A biomechanical breakdown in the form of a free-body diagram of the positions undertaken.

The forces at the joints and appendages were calculated to study the effects that the posture and

loads had on the users and be able to estimate the percentage of the population that would be able

to carry out these tasks with no risk.

8
◊ An Energy Expenditure Prediction Program (EEPP) of the tasks was conducted to be able to

measure the appropriate rest time that is dictated by the work that they performed. The basis of

this stems from the physical capacity that a standard worker has for the job and their available

energy output. The formulas require to calculate proceeds as the following:

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑀 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑏 ( )
min

𝑇 = 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (min) = 5700 ∗ 10−3.1∗𝑀/𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

(𝑀 − 3.5)⁄
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑇 ∗ 𝑀 − 1.5

9
 Results

To begin the data collection, pictures of workers engaging in normal activity were taken and via

the tools previously mentioned, they were analyzed and possible improvements were provided.

Figure 1.

Included in the image to the right, a worker is utilizing a plasma

cutter to cut through a metal component for one of their projects.

The worker locks their legs and bend their waist and spinal

column. The arms are crossed to provide stability to the hand to

maintain direct control and movement across the metal is dictated

by movement of the spine and legs. This method is to ensure that

the hands are steady and the cut is perfectly straight, which is

aided with guide rails on larger pieces. Potential danger from heat

exposure is minimal despite the torch reaching temperatures exceeding 20,000 degrees Celsius

[2], which is due to the short period of time spent with the plasma cutter in action and the

efficacious nature of the cut being directed to the metal. Based on the path of travel, the sparks

emitted by the torch are projects away from the user to and also provides amble air supply for the

continuation of cutting.

Figure 2:

Included here is a worker welding in an upright position by welding a segment of metal onto

their project. This is achieved by holding the segment in a gloved hand and utilizing their other

hand to lay down preliminary welds. These welds are known as “tack welds” which are minor

welds that have minimal penetration into both pieces of interest, so that upon inspection it allows

for adjustments to be performed to correct for position and angling. The worker is wearing

10
 proper PPE and is aided with wearing a light sensitive

welding helmet that is equipped with auto-shading

capability. The position that the welder is engaged in

allows the sparks to be project away from them and

gives them a direct area of work to proceed with the

project. However, the foot placement combined with

the strain from having a straight back and holding the

components in their hand may possibly result in fatigue

if engaged for extended periods of time.

Figure 3:

The welding table is subject to being a work area and a

temporary storage area for the work that is needed, as it

provides a relatively even surface to lay parts on and an

easily accessible platform to ground the welders to.

Occasional smoothing of the tables is performed to

increase the quality of the work capable of being performed that is caused from routine usage of

the table. Loose wires, sparks from grinders, and deposits of material from connections are the

main culprits for this uneven surface.

Figure 4:

The worker pictured is preparing to weld a “stem” onto their

arranged “petals” to create a metallic rose. They are bending

their back to obtain a proper sight of the work in front of them

while compensating for the table’s height. Slight problems

11
with their footing is that the cords traverse in-between their legs while they are about to start

welding. The worker is also using a very rough portion of the table to situate the project which

could make the upcoming welds uneven. Despite wearing gloves that don’t conduct electricity

[3], by placing them in close proximity to the welding location increases the risk for burns and

limits the dispersion of sparks to improve vision.

12
 Analysis

Energy Expenditure Prediction Program (EEPP)

These workers that were studied were under several constraints that primarily involved time,

which limited their ability to properly work for 2 hours 5 days a week in the middle of the day.

Breaks, water fountains and cooled rest areas were available to them. While working in the shop,

they are free to utilize any available work area and traverse the 1200 square meter work site, but

often use no more than 2 square meters per worker. With each task that was mentioned, the

standard posture undertaken possesses its own stress load for the worker that determines the

appropriate amount of time that should be allocated for rest periods following a duration of work.

Plasma cutting:

Reaching the 2-kg plasma cutter across the metal for an average distance of .5 meters across the

metal for an average time of 6 seconds, requires 3.6 Kcal/min.

Mean male Max = 13.1 Kcal/min

T=5700*10-3.1*2.4/13.1= 801 min

(3.6 − 3.5)⁄
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑅𝑡 = 801 ∗ 3.6 − 1.5 = 38 𝑚𝑖𝑛

The tasks of using the plasma cutter constantly would result in 38 minutes of rest for 801

minutes of worked. Thank goodness that this task is often done in short burst and is present in

the preparation period of the job.

Welding:

13
Holding a 3-kg welding handle and welding positioned upright while holding another piece of

metal for attachment for an average 20 seconds in a confined area while wearing insulted

equipment in a heated environment, requires 8 Kcal/min.

Mean male Max = 13.1 Kcal/min

T=5700*10-3.1*8/13.1= 72.9 min

(6
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑅𝑡 = 72.9 ∗ − 3.5)⁄6 − 1.5 = 50.5 𝑚𝑖𝑛

This task requires roughly 50.5 minutes of rest for 73 minutes of working. Due to the increased

heat that the worker performs under, the duration that they can work is heavily decreased.

Sorting/Selection:

A major component of the job is sifting through material and resources to search for the needed

tools or supplies for the job. The position chosen was an individual who was trying to select a

specific bolt and nut that was in a lower container unit. Observations of the scene found that the

individual spent 5 minutes in an unstable position lifting and moving 5 kg bins, boxes and

canisters. This resulted in a required 10 Kcal/min to perform this task.

Mean male Max = 13.1 Kcal/min

T=5700*10-3.1*10/13.1= 24.5 min

(6
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑅𝑡 = 72.9 ∗ − 3.5)⁄6 − 1.5 = 18.7 𝑚𝑖𝑛

For this task that was quite cumbersome, the worker would have to rest for roughly 19 minutes

for the 24.5 minutes they would spend looking for their supply if they had continued in their

current position.

REBA

REBA is a method to estimate the risks associated with a appendages from performing a task.

14
Plasma Cutting:

Taking into account the stresses that the specific tasks required, values that dictate the risk factor

are inserted into Table A and B. These are entered into Table C to determine the activity score

and then compared in the Action Level Table.

Trunk 3 Upper Arm 1

Neck 2 Lower Arm 2

Legs 1 Wrist 2

Table A 4 Table B 2

Table C 4 Activity +1

REBA Score: 5

The REBA score dictates that the action level is a 2 and that the risk is Medium with any further

assessment being necessary.

Welding:

Trunk 1 Upper Arm 2

Neck 1 Lower Arm 2

Legs 1 Wrist 3

Table A 1 Table B 4

Table C 2 Activity +1

REBA Score: 3

The REBA score dictates that the action level is a 1 and that the risk is Low with additional

assessment may become necessary.

15
Sorting/Selection:

Trunk 4 Upper Arm 4+1-1

Neck 2 Lower Arm 2

Legs 2+1 Wrist 1+1

Table A 7 Table B 6

Table C 9 Activity 0

REBA Score: 9

The REBA score dictates that the action level is a 3 and that the risk is High with additional

assessment being necessary soon.

Biomechanical Analysis

The biomechanical analysis is the study of the effect that forces have on the body given the

posture that is enacted and the external forces that the body is enduring.

Plasma Cutting:

The risk of injury has for cutting has already been laid out to be medium due to the bending of

the hip across the metal. Included below in a force drawing of Figure 1 is a figure that is holding

the plasma cutter and is in a starting position. The position that the

figure would work into is movement of the legs and hip to keep the

hands on the same plane of travel.

16
 Task Joint Strength Demand (% Pop. Capable)
Elbow Shoulder Torso Ankle
100 100 98 97
Wrist Hip Knee
97 96 98
Estimated L5/S1 Low Back Loads (lb) Leg Loads (%)
Compression Shear Left Right
403.6 40 46 53

Welding:

The risk of injury in the second operation was found to low with the

continued support of the weights in the hands for extended period of

time. In the image to the left, is a force diagram of a worker who is

conducting a weld in an upright position while holding the welding gun

in its right hand and a metal piece in its left.

Task Joint Strength Demand (% Pop. Capable)

Elbow Shoulder Torso Ankle
100 99 99 97
Wrist Hip Knee
98 97 98
Estimated L5/S1 Low Back Loads (lb) Leg Loads (%)
Compression Shear Left Right
291.4 43 35 64

Sorting/Selecting:

17
The risk of injury for the third task was found to be high in prior analyzation due to the

cumbersome position that the worker was in. The bending

of the neck and the hip while lifting causes an increase in

the compression and the shear faced. The image to the right

follows a selection of parts that are low to the ground for the

worker that has them utilizing one hand to grab and move

pieces with their right hand while supporting themselves

with their left on their leg.

Task Joint Strength Demand (% Pop. Capable)

Elbow Shoulder Torso Ankle
100 100 95 74
Wrist Hip Knee
97 85 78
Estimated L5/S1 Low Back Loads (lb) Leg Loads (%)
Compression Shear Left Right
445.3 121 65 34

18
 Conclusions & Improvements

Plasma Cutting:

According to the EEPP, the task was found to be accessible to the large population and has a

large rest time that would realistically be unneeded at 38 minutes for 801 minutes of work. When

compared to the REBA results, it was determined that the risk is medium (5) and assessment in

the process is needed due to the strain it inflicts on the worker’s trunk and neck. With the

biomechanical analysis, the task was found to have a compression on the lower spine at 403.6

pounds of force, but it’s within a range that is capable of being performed by the vast population.

There is a slight more force applied to the right leg due to the worker shifting body weight on

that leg when moving across the metal during the cutting.

Suggestions:

To aid in the energy expenditure, an administration control could be enacted to have the user

have arm rests on the table so that they can reduce the arc in their back when bending over the

table. This opens the possibility of being cumbersome to the worker to actually cut the material

by having them only having a platform for their arms when work near the center of the table is

being carried out. Additionally, a change to the angle of the cutting table could be implemented

so that the table is the one compensating to reduce risk on the user. The disadvantage of this

would be multiple people would have to be using the same angle of tilt when their needs could

be different from one another.

Welding:

According to the EEPP, the task was determined to be accessible to a large population and has a

moderate rest time of 50 minutes for 73 minutes of work. Combined with the results from the

REBA analysis which found the task to be low (3), the welding portion that workers perform

19
may require additional assessments in the future. The biomechanical portion of the tests found

that the lower back had a load of 291.4 pounds with a shear of 43 pounds. Based on the

placement of the legs, the right leg was found to endure roughly 2/3 of the load while an

estimated strain from the task being capable from almost all members of the population.

Suggestions:

A similar solution could be carried out on welding by implementing a change in the position of

the welding project. If the worker could have the selected metal piece be attached onto the

project without having to manually hold it in place, then they would not have adjusted their

footing to compensate for it. As Figure 4 demonstrated, welding could be carried out on a table

to allow for the welder to focus their efforts on the single tasks. A possible solution would be the

use of assistance, which would result in the welds to be achieve greater precision and penetration

and a superior placement of the secondary pieces as each member would be devoted to one task

at a time. The disadvantage of this is the overall man hours spent in the shop would be doubled

as multiple people would be aiding in other projects instead of carrying out their own.

Sorting/Selection:

From the EEPP that was performed on the task, it was calculated that the task is prone to fatigue

quickly as it requires 19 minutes of rest for 24.5 minutes spent in carrying it out. While this is a

difficult portion of the job, it is reserved for brief periods and a majority of sorting is done in

positions much more comfortable for the worker. When the REBA was carried out, this

particular task was found to have high risk (3) with assessments being reserved for the

immediate future to address the issue. When taking into account the biomechanical assessment of

the sorting, it was determined that the compression was 445.3 pounds which was a noticeable

20
increase from the prior two jobs, but the shear was 121 pounds. This shear number was three

times than that of the previous jobs, drawing concerns of the load onto the L5/S1vertebrae.

Suggestions:

To solve the problem related to the energy expenditure, an implementation on an administrative

control could beneficial. Specifically, the equipment that was found to be located on the ground

could be moved to shelving that is specified for storage. This would also limit the time workers

would spend looking for their needed supply, lowering the strain on their lower back even more

so. In addition, the workers could also implement a squatting stance when they are required to

peer low to the ground to minimize the stresses normally faced. Another aspect that could be

implemented which would improve the EEPP and the biomechanical test results would be a brief

lesson to the workers on proper lifting strategies so that the stress would be redirected onto their

legs in favor of their lower back [4]. This would have the benefit of not having to implement

pricey changes to the facility and improves the quality of the standard worker present.

21
 Reference

1 – Noise Level Measurements from NCBI

2 – The Welding Institute

3 – Lincoln Electric PPE

4 – The Effects of Training on Back Pain from NCBI

22