‘THE EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT OF THE JINN FROM PRE-ISLAM TO ISLAM by Amira El-Zein Mentor: Irfan Shahid, Ph.D. Abstract This dissertation studies the evolution of the concept of the jinn [spirit beings] from pre-Islam to Islam. It traces the changes introduced to this concept in Islam as well as the continuation of certain themes. This interdisciplinary study relies heavily on documentation drawn from a variety of primary sources, including the works of Arab historians, geographers, poets, philosophers, and commentators on the Qur'an. It contains a wealth of stories which testify to the strong belief in the jinn during pre-Islam and Islam. ‘The study is oriented toward the history of religions rather than toward literature. The texts of poets and historians of both historical periods have been analyzed from the point of view of history of religion rather than from the point of view of the literary © Literary themes and: forms were considered only when they yielded to a better understanding of the creeds of people of both pre-Islam and Islam. In addition to its primary concentration on religion and history, the study also embraces the fields of cultural anthropology, comparative religion, and theoretical research on the concept of religion.There have been very few comprehensive studies on the concept of the jinn. It is hoped that this study will open the door to future research on the concept of the jinn, especially from an Islamic point of view. Islam deepened beliefs in the jinn. It introduced the idea of sj beings equal to humans in faith, intelligence and responsibility. For the first time, a strict monotheism such as Islam asserts that spirit beings exist, that they share our lives and dwell in a world parallel to our own, Studying the concept of the jinn in Islam therefore illuminates the originality of Islam itself as the last of the three revealed religions, -iveACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are not words good enough to express my sincere gratitude to the members of my dissertation committee: Dr. Irfan Shahid, my mentor; Dr. Karin Ryding, Dr. Barbara Stowasser, and Dr. Halim Barakat. ‘The four are Masters in their fields. Their encouragement, their support, their guidance, their patience, and their co-operation were a gift from heaven, ‘The good parts of this work are due to their great help and to their wonderful commitment to my work, Inconsistencies and errors are mine alone. My gratitude goes also to my loving and caring family, to my husband Munir and my daughter Kinda who often had to put up with my frequent bouts of depression and my usual absent-mindedness. The two are my beloved angels who were always beside me during the difficult moments of writing this dissertation. Finally my thanks goes to Elizabeth Johnson for her wonderful help, for taking time from her many commitments to review my manuscript so thoroughly. ‘Thanks to everyone. God bless you all.Preface ‘THE CHOICE OF A TOPIC This research studies the evolution of the concept of the jinn from pre-Islam to Islam in the Arab-Muslim world, It is a topic that has been neglected in the field of Islamic studies. It is possible to find in primary sources and in some secondary sources scattered information on the jinn. Some of these sources mention the jinn incidentally as spiritual entities; other sources delve sometimes into comparisons between angels and jinn on one hand, and demons and jinn on the other hand, However, in general, none of these studies, whether on pre-Islam or on Islam, devote a comprehensive study to the concept of jinn. Jinn are confused in these studies sometimes with angels and sometimes with demons. Very few works view them as intermediary beings, neither demons nor angels. The present author hopes to fill a gap in this field and to offer as much as possible a comprehensive study in the field of the jinn. ‘The lack of research concerning the topic of the jinn is all the more astonishing when one realizes that the belief of Muslims in the jinn has always been very strong throughout the ages. ‘The belief in these spiritual entities is an integral part of the Mustim religion. One cannot assert his or her Islam without asserting the existence of the jinn. Islam as a monotheism has incorporated the dim into its theology and transformed their existence into one of the most oiesophisticated doctrines of its kind in the history of religions. Studying the topic of the jinn therefore illuminates the particularity of Islam which, as the last of the three revealed religions, asserts that humans and jinn are equal in faith, responsibility, and rationality. This research focuses mainly on the concept of the jinn from a religious point of view. By religion is meant the human way of participating in the unknown. Religion is conceived of as part of a wider culture and it cannot be studied and compared in isolation but only as part of and in relation to a larger whole. The present research is not a literary study. The literature of both pre-Islam and Islam is examined from the point of view of the history of re'igion rather than from the point of view of the literary critic, ‘The author does not highlight literary themes and forms but rather the history of creeds. Literary themes and forms become interesting only when they can help in understanding the evolution of the belief in the jinn from pre-Islam to Islam. Despite the fact that it aims to be comprehensive, this research is in fact limited in time. It deals with the evolution of the concept of the jinn. from pre-Islam to medieval Islam. It deals only occasionally with the belief in the jinn today. The issue of belief in the jinn today deserves a study by itself in the future. It would be interesting, for example, to interview people and to investigate their beliefs in these spiritual entities, -vii-METHODOLOGY AND DATA ‘The present study investigates the concept of the jinn from different perspectives, especially in Part Il. First, it relies heavily on material drawn from official Islam, that is the Qur'an, the hadith and the exegeses of a number of commentators of the Qur'an. Second it uses what can be termed ‘popular Islam’ such as the Tales of the Prophets, It delves only occasionaly into an important part of popular Istam, that is, the Arabian Nights. This work is a hhuge one. It would be possible in the future to devote a separate study to the Jinn in the Arabian Nights. Thirdly, this research views the concept of the jinn from the perspective of what can be termed ‘gnostic Islam, that is the texts of sufis and jshrigi(illuminist) philosphy such as Ibn Sind and Ikhwén al-safa’ Fourth, this research relies on the texts of of historians, analysts, Beographers, lexicographers, compilers of anecdotes, and poets. This kind of material can be defined as attempting to be scientific, but still relying essentially on official Islam, that is, the Qur'an and the hadith. Secondary sources were used mainly to illuminate the evolution of the concept of the jinn in other cultures and civilizations. The concept of spiritual entities is a universal concept present in all cultures. No deep study of a jous idea is possible without comparing it to similar ideas in other civilizations and religions. ‘The author of this research has tried to make the research interdisicplinary by referring constantly to the fields of cultural anthropology, comparative religions, history of religions, and general analysesof religion, ‘The author based her research upon a large amount of documentation gathered from primary sources. At the outset, there was no unique text dealing with the jinn. Indeed, the data on the jinn is not to be found in one or two or three sources. It is scattered, a sentence or two here, a sentence or two there, throughout a wide variety of sources. ‘The first step, therefore, was to collect the material, The second was to interpret this material and then try to form some general deductions based on it. ‘The present study contains a large quantity of stories. By focusing on the story, one is focusing on how the human experience is connected with the invisible embodied in the jinn. Through the story, one is looking for the sacred; in the historical, one finds also the a-temporal ‘When one says that one is studying the evolution of the concept of the Jinn, it is important to remember that in themselves the jinn have no lory. If the people of pre-Islam and Islam believe that they exist as these stories clearly show, historians cannot go to the spiritual entities in order to investigate them, All that can be established is the human conception of the jinn. To see how this human conception of the jinn evolved from pre-Islam to Islam, the author apy cd the same outline to both historical periods. The same structure is carried from pre-Islam to Islam. In doing so, the author hopes to show the progress of this human conception of the jinn, its metamorphosis from pre-Islam to Islam, and the persistance of some themes in Islam. vik.TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments Preface Preliminary Chapter 1. Introduction 2. The search for a definition in primary SOUrCeS «sess. Lexicopraphers. Historians. Geographers. Encycopediss. Qu comentators. Philosophers and Sufis. Contemporary definitions. 3. The question of borrowing, 4, A glance atthe religions of . ‘The spiritual beings of Mesopotamia, in Persia, in ancient Judaism. 5. The Palmyrene clue ‘The Aramiac hypothesis. The Arabic hypothesis, The Latin hypothesis. 6. Summary son. 7. Endnotes... PART ONE ‘THE JINN IN PRE-ISLAM Chapter One: Introduction to the jinn in pre-Islam 1. Definition oti cources eee 3. Arabia as a geographic unit .. 4, The cult of ancestors .. 5. The worship of stones 6. The worship of idols. 7. The worship of stars 8. Christianity and Judaism in pagan Arabia . 9, Diversity within paganism, 10. Endnotes Chapter Two: Place of the jinn in pre-Islam 1, Place as the dwelling of the supernatural 2. Wilderness as a favourite place for the jinn 3. Ancient civilizations as alternate places for the jinn ea4, Imaginary places: ‘Abgar 5. The jinn dwell everywhere a 6. Summary . a 7. Endnotes 64 Chapter Three: Kinds of the jinn in pre-Istam 65 1. GI senna 68 a 1 3. Shiga, 3) 4, Shaytin see 70 5. Summary . n “The Blurring of genders: th question of androgyny. The blurring of species: the question of hybrid creatures, (72 Encnipgcs seen 8 Chapter Four: Nature of the jinn in pre-Islam 16 1. Relation of jinn to angels 76 Difficulty of the topic. Belief in angels in pre-Islam. Angels and goddesses. Angols,jim, snd All. Angels and humans. 2. Relation of Jinn to animals . 83 Tntroduction Spiritual entities and animal power inthe ancient Near East, The Jinn as serpents, The Jinn as other animals 3. SuMMArY. ne 94 4, Endnote 97 Chapter Five: Interaction of jinn with humans in pre-Islam 99 1, Power of the jinn. 2. Organisation ofthe jin. ncn 103 3. Acts of violence: Wars and kidnaping 106 4. Stories of love and marriage 108 5. Intrusion of the jinn against the body and the mind . 109 Against the body. Against the mind. He Sacrifices offered to the Summary .. . Endnotes .. body and mind. ene Chapter Six: Special interaction of the j 1. Interaction of jinn with seers = Divination in the Jahilivah . Position and role of a. Kahin or Katinah, Divination and question of gender. Close encounters. with humans 126 axis2, Interaction of jinn with poet 137 ‘The question of inspiration. Relation of the poet to his own jinni or h 3. Poetry of the jinn. 143 4. Summary : Inspiration and Divination, 145 5. Endnote: PART TWO ‘THE JINN IN ISLAM 1583 Chapter One?Introduction to Istam 154 1. Definition 154 2. Sources 3. The transition from the Jahiliyah to Islam . 4, The cultures that participated in the formation of Islam... Christan and Jewish influence. Persian influence, Hellenistic influence. Competition between two cultures, Indian influence. ‘Sabians and Muslim theology. 156 5. Islam between particularism and universalis 176 6. Continuity and change in the concept of jinn. . 180 ‘Complexity of the Muslim concept of jinn, Persistence of the belief in the jinn, 7. Endnotes .. Chapter two: Place of jinn in Islam 1. Jinn of seas and istands 2. ‘The place of Nusaybine ~ 190 3. Different dwellings for Muslim 194 4, The filthy and macabre places 198 5. Place as fantasy: The city of Brass . 195 6. Summary. 197 7, Endnotes . 199 Chapter three: Kinds of jinn in Islam 200 1. Alnasnas . 201 . 204 206 . 207 209 + xii-6. Shaytan 7. Summary . 8. Endnotes Chapter Four: Nature of the jinn in Islam 1, Introduction 2. Relation of jinn to angels .. ‘Zinn and angels in Islamic cosmogony. The role of angels in Islam, ‘The case of Iblis Similarities and differences between jinn and 210 angels. 3. The elements which compose the jinn. 248 4, The animal nature of the jinn 248 ‘bls (Satan) andthe serpent. Jin as serpents in Islam . Jinn as, 269 215 Chapter Five: Interaction of jinn with humans in Islam 218 1, Introduction 218 2. Similarities and differences between humans and jinn from an Islamic point of view .. Muslim jinn and Muslim humans worship God. Prophets sent for both humans and jinn. Jin and humane on the Day of Judgmennt 3. The concept of the jinn as qarin and gain... 4, Violence between jinn and humans: Wars and kidnapings.. ‘A historical hatred between humans and jinn. Quarrels and wars bbeowcen jinn and humans. Islam forbids he killing of Must jinn. 5. Marriages between jinn and humans in Islam... 6. Stories of possesion and madness . 285 7. The question of sacrifices offered to the jinn in Islam 307 8. The procedures of exorcisms ‘The use ofthe Qur'an as protection. 9, SuMMALY ws 10. Endnotes Chapter Six: Special interactions of jinn with humans in Islam 325 1, Introduction oe 2, Interaction of jinn and prophets. Muhammad. Ids (Enoch). The call of Christ to jinn and humans. avid. Solomon. 3. Interaction of finn and SUfis waren xiii -Introduction. The world of jinn as described by al-JTlf. Abd al Qadir al-Jilani and the jinn. Ibn “Arabi. Other sufis. 4, Imeraction of jinn and poets. nue Poets and poetry in the Qur'an Muslim poets and their jinn. ‘Muslim jinn compose poetry. 6. EMdNOt€S rrnnene General conclusion 364 Introductioi = snnnennes 364 1. The jinn in Pre-Islam, Spirits of Nature or Totems? 364 Relation of jinn to idols and divinities. The jinn within the theory of Animism and Totemism, which theory to choose? 2. Conclusion on jinn in Islam ..rnnnnnnnnsnnee ‘The incomprehension ofthe Orientalists, Jinn and humans in parallel worlds. Jinn as metaphores in Islam, 3. Endnotes.nnnnnns Bibliography 386 oxiv-PRELIMINARY CHAPTER THE SEARCH FOR AN ORIGIN OF THE JINN 1, INTRODUCTION ‘The aim of this first chapter is to explore the origin of the word ‘jinn’ and to trace the historical evolution of the concept. It is a search into "that which breaks through the surface of language to grasp the potency of meaning" (Amsler 198: 10). Where did this word come from? Is it an Arabic word o1 ita loan word that entered the Arabic language ata certain point in time? This search is necessary in order to clarify the general scope of this research project which is the historical development of the notion of jinn from its origin in pre-Islamic times to its evolution and metamorphosis under Islam. It is necessary in this search to ascertain all the historical facts available with regard to the place and time of the rise of the term ‘jinn.’ But at the same time, given the complexities and heterogeneity of the information on the origin of the word, it is also advisable to move away from positivist attitudes to probabilistic explanation, According to Malkiel: Creative etymology presupposes, on the part of its practitioner, a desire to transcend the domain of the obvious and the highly probable and to operate in the hazardous realm of the increasingly conjectural (1968:177).‘The search into the origins of this word and its multiple definitions starts naturally with the primary sources which offer a rich corpus of information on the jinn, ‘Arab lexicographers, geographers, historians, encyclopedists, philosophers, and commentators on the Qur’én have all looked into the meaning of ' Much of the material encountered in the primary sources is repetitive, since there is a general trend for one author to copy another. But one still encounters in these sources the most pertinent definitions and analyses of the word ‘jinn. 2. THE SEARCH FOR A DEFINITION IN THE PRIMARY SOURCES 2.1. Lexicographers The exploration begins in the primary sources with the lexicographers, since "etymology is afterall a lexical subdivision” (Ibid. :127). In Lisin al-"arab (The Language of the Arabs), Ibn Manzi (d.711/1311), one of the most prolific Arab lexicographers, provides ample information concerning the meaning of the root jun.n.: "It means “to be veiled, to be covered.” The phrase “ajannahu al-layl” (which is the form IV causative derivation) means “the night covered him,” janfn is “the buried.” al-jandn is “the heart hidden by the chest.” ‘Then Ibn Manzir comes to the noun “finn” which he defines as follows: “The jinn have been given this name because they are veiled from human sight” (n.d, vol. 13: 92),Ibn Manzir adds this information: "Jan is the father of the jinn. The jinn are his progeny. The jinn are also called ‘jinnah” (Ibid.:96-97). Ibn ManzGr also gives this rather curious definition of the jinn: "Jinn are the metamorphosis of the jan" (Ibid. vol. 3:55). This definition was not encountered in any other Arab lexicographer’s work. Turning to another lexicographer, Ibn Faris (d. 359/969), in his Mu‘jam ‘magiyis al-lughah (Dictionary of the Patterns of the Language) can be found a ‘more detailed and sophisticated analysis concerning the root "jz.n." Ibn Faris writes, "whenever the letter jim and the letter ‘nin’ occur together, they always express the same meaning: ‘to be veiled" (n.d. vol. 1:421-20). Ibn Faris provides several examples to illustrate this concept of veiling. His examples are somewhat more specul fe than those of Ibn Manzir. For example, jannah (Paradise) is that place where Muslims go after this life. It is a place hhidden from them for the moment, Juniin is madness, because it covers reason’ (Ibid.). In the work of another lexicographer, al-Zamakhshari (d, 538/143), one notes, in Asis_al-balghah, (The Basis of Rhetoric) supplementary details conceming the word jinn.’ Thus, nakhlah majniinah means "a tall palm tree” (1955:66).. In Taj alanis (The Crown of the Bride) of al-Zabsdi (d, 790/1205) one reads that: "The words 9:165). n, jinna, and jan are all synonymous” (1969. vol.2.2, Historians Is the definition of jinn in the works of Arab historians different from that of Arab lexicographers? The latter, of course, mention the jinn as veiled creatures. But some of them link the meaning of “jannah” to the jinn. Thus, al-Tabari (4, 1173 A.D.) asserts that these creatures are called jinn because they are khuzzfn al-jannah (the guardians of paradise) (1960. vol. 1:81). The same interpretation is given by another historian, Ibn Kathir (4. 74/1373) who also suggests that the meaning of jinn is derived from jannah (paradise) (1982, vol. :5). The same interpretation is given again in al-KAmil ft al-tirikh (The Perfect in History) (1965. vol. 1:24) of Ibn al-Athir (4. 294/906). 2.3. Geographers The historian and geographer Mas*tidi (d. 584/1188) defines the jinn in these terms: "Jinn are pure souls which tell of things to come" (1965. vol. 2:150-52), ‘Thus, Mas didi links the term jinn’ with divination, In “Aja'ib_al-makhlgat (Wonders of the Creatures), al-Qazwini (d. 1208/1793) describes the jinn as follows: "The jinn are fiery transparent animals capable of taking different shapes” (.4.:255). In hayat al-hayawan al-kubra (The Great Life of Animals), al-Damiri (d. 694/1295), provides supplementary details: “The jinn are ajsim (bodies) composed of ait intelligent, imperceptible to our senses, capable of appearing under diverse forms and carrying out heavy labors” (n.d. vol. 1: 203).2.4, Encyclopedists Two examples from the encyclopedists provide insights into the definition of the word ‘jinn’ One definition is from al-Mawsiah (Encyclopedia) of al-Tahdnawt (d. 1158/1745). In it, the author defines the jinn as follows: ‘The jinn are ‘arwah mujarradah (disembodied souls) that are able to act upon elements, Itis also possible to call angels jinn because jinn is a word which means invisible beings who are veiled from human sight (1969. vol. 2:53). Another encyclopedist of Turkish origin, sash Kubri Zadeh (b. 1495 A.D.), like the historian Mas‘ddi, links the jinn to the act of divination, He wrote “divination is how human souls communicate with the souls of the jinn” (1968. Vol 1:364).. 2.5. Qur'dn commentators In the Quran, the word "jinn" occurs often either in conjunction with the word ‘ins’ (human), or in opposition to it. In both cases, jinn are described in the Holy Book as intelligent, reasoning, and invisible, One of the most intriguing definitions of the jinn can be found in the diverse interpretations of the Qur'an, Thus al-Baydawi (d. 1286 A.D.) states in his Tafsir (Exegesis) that: Jinn are bodies which are intelligent, reasoning ( “Aqilah), invisible, in which fire prevails more than air. Ttis also alleged that they are a category of pure spirits. Others allege that they are human soulseG separated from their bodies (1974. vol. 2:553).1 ‘Two other commentators of the Qur'an link the definition of the jinn to their interaction with humans. Thus, “Abd al-Karim al-Qishari (b. 986 A.D.) states that: "al-Nas (people) is a word which refers to both jinn and humans" (1971. vol. 6:356) while Sayyid Quib who wrote in the late fifties adds: "Jinn are beings which have the ability to live on this earth with humans. But we do not know how" (n.d. vol. 6:118). As for al-Alist (4, 1924) he repeats in his monumental exegesis of the Qur'dn the well-known definition of the jinn: inn belong to this category of beings that cannot be seen" (n.d, vol. 7:26). 2.6. Philosophers and Sufis Muslim philosophy speaks little of the jinn. It is known that the Muttazilites refused to admit the existence of the jinn, Al-Tahnawi in his Mawsii‘ah (Encyclopedia) already mentioned, explains in detail how the Mur tazilites denied the existence of the jinn (1969. vol. 2). In general, itis rather difficult to find a text which defines the jinn in Muslim philosophy, other than the falsafah ishrgiyyah (philosophy of illuminism) of which Avicenna (d. 428/1037) was the main representative.2 Itis possible to find a definition of the term ‘jinn’ in the esoteric ing of the Ikhwan_al-saffi (Brethren of Purity) who, in their letters, offer this definition: “Jinn are bodies in which the elements of air and fire prevail" (1964:188).-7- Sufis dealt in depth the question of the jinn, especially the great sufi Ibn “Arabi (d. 1240) who, in his monumental work, al-Futiht_al-makkivyah (Meccan ‘Transfigurations) analyses their nature, and provides this rather curious definition of them: “The jinn have the at lity of speech like humans, despite the fact that they are made of only fire and air" (n.d. vol. 3: 2.7. Contemporary definitions Do the historians, commentators and writers of today in the Arab world add new insights and original points of view in their new definitions of the jinn? The fact is their definitions are hardly different from those of their predecessors, except for the rather dualistic approach offered by some of them. In general, they merely repeat the old patterns. A few examples suffice to demonstrate this. ‘The contemporary author Dawid Dawid for example, writes: "Jinn are evil spirits” (1981:376), while Salah al-"Alf adds this remark: "Jinn is not a proper name. Itis a species” (1964:6). Riyid “Abdallah writes: "Jinn are intermediate beings. That means that they share some features with angels and others with humans” (1985:31). Another contemporary writer, “Umar al-Ashgar, gives this rather perplexing definition of the jinn: Sinn are entities that people encounter without knowing that they are Jinn. These entities can be souls, creatures from the invisible world or men from space (1985:11).4-8- In general, it seems that there is, from old Arabic sources to modern ones, difficulty in defining the concept of jinn. ‘There are, of course some shared features that keep reappearing in these definitio invisible, airy, fiery, intelligent, powerful. However, in general, the authors seem rather uncertain about their definitions, acknowledging the lack of clarity in such a topic and the mystery that envelops it. It is this vagueness that led the historian Jawad Ali to make the following comment on the topic of the jinn: Till now, no researcher has given us a clear definition of the jinn, Some researchers believe that this term refers to the name of an old ‘Arab deity, while others think that it is a loan word of foreign origin (1970. vol.'6: 707). 3. THE QUESTION OF BORROWING With this comment, Jawad “Alf raises many questions about issues of clarity and borrowing. Noticeably, the primary sources never deal with this last issue. Rather, they all seem to agree on its Arabic origin. It is the Western sources which deal with this question in depth. But itis also noticeable that ‘Westen sources offer no new definition of the jinn. In Lane’s Lexicon one reads a repetition of Arab definitions of the jinn (1863, vol, 1:462), In general, these sources limit themselves to what was mentioned in the primary references. An exception is to be found in The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, where one reads: Sinn are the inhabitants of the subtle world, some of whom are ‘non-central’ beings like the non-human creatures of this world, ‘whilst others are ‘central’ beings, like 1aen, jinn with free will,endowed with the Intellect and capable of grasping Reality, and thus capable of being saved (1989:210). Some Westem writers try to explain the origin of ‘the term jinn in a more ‘scientific’ way like the English anthropologist W. R. Smith, who wrote: ‘The jinn, like demons and their kind, serve conveniently to explain whatever is not due to ‘natural’ causes, or that has a supernatural origin, and cannot be associated with ‘any of the known gods or spirits (1927:538).5 Hence, if one tums to Western sources, it is not in the hope of finding new definitions of the word ‘jinn.’ It is rather to find an answer to the ‘question raised by Jawad “Alt: is the word an Arabic one or not? Was the Arabian concept of jinn influenced by other similar concepts in the area or not? 4, AGLANCE AT THE RELIGIONS OF THE AREA Before answering the question as to whether or not jinn is an Arabic term, one should recall a prominent historical fact true since time immemorial in the Near East, namely that this region has never been a closed one, ‘The Arabs were not as isolated as has been commonly supposed. Trade and invasion had a direct bearing on the life and thought of the Arab people. In general, itis even possible to assert that religion and commerce were always closely connected in all the Semitic lands. ‘The Arabs were not secluded from the cultural influences of Western Asia, nor were they entirely cut off from the-10- political and social life of their neighbors in the Near East.6 ‘Since Arabia has never been effectively isolated, it is useful for one to examine the religions of its neighbors, especially their concept of spiritual beings, to ascertain any possible source for the word ‘jinn,’ or at least to discover any potential influence from outside Arabia which may have shaped the concept of jinn. In a way, it is following the rather unclear historical evolution and formation of the word ‘jinn! as a concept and as a representation of some kind of spiritual beings. 4,1. The spiritual beings of Mesopotamia Could the Arabian concept of the jinn have been influenced by the angelology and the demonology of Babylon and Assur? This area between the Tigris and the Euphrates was among the most prolific in spiritual beings. ‘There were legions, thousands of them, in the Mesopotamian pantheon: grotesque goblins, spirits blessed and unblessed, demons with claws, vampires, witehes, ghosts and guardian spirits. Does the Arabian concept of the jinn owe anything to these diverse spiritual beings? Some historians of religions seem to think so, though what they assert is not clearly explained. Lewis Spencer seems to think so, He ‘comments as follows on the diverse entities of Babylon: These malign influences were probably the prototypes of the Arabian jinn, to whom they have many points of resemblance. Many of these Assyrian spirits were half human and half supernatural, and some of them were supposed to contract unions with human beings like the Arabian jinn (1921: 276).ale Spencer does not offer much of a clue as to how, when, and why the Arabian concept of the jinn had been effectively influenced by the ‘Mesopotamian representation of spiritual beings. Other historians of religions think, like Spencer, that the Arabian concept of the jinn was indeed shaped by Mesopotamian representations. Campbell ‘Thompson, for example, acknowledges that there is a considerable Mesopotamian influence on the Arabian jinn: "In addition to the Assyrian demons known by distinctive names, there are the ‘Seven Spirits’ which combine in their persons almost all the traditional Eastern ideas of the jinn, aghwal, and ‘afariit" (1908:57). Further, Thompson adds: "The jinn and kindred spirits of the Arabs have ), Here again, as in Spencer's assertions, one is still in need of more the characteristics of the various demons of Assyrian times” (Ibi clarification as to how and when the Arabian concept of the jinn was shaped. Historians of the area tell us of continuous incursions and invasions of Assyrian troops into Arabia, They mention raids and wars between both people as did the historian of religions, Javier Teixidor, who wrote: ‘The Assyrian incursion into Arab territory continued through the reigns of Senharib (704-681 B.C.) and Esarhaddou (680-669 B.C.). The annals of Esarhadou in fact mention this important event: "From Adumatu, the stronghold of the Arabs which Senharib, king of Assyria, my own father, had conquered and from where he has taken as booty its possessions, its images as well as the priestess queen of the Arabs, and brought (all these) to Assyria, the king of the Arabs, came with heavy gifts to Nineveh, the town (where I-12- exercise) my rulership. He implored me to return his images and 1 had mercy upon him” (1977:91), From the current information available on Assyrian and Arab relations, it seems possible that there were religious and cultural exchanges between the two civilizations, Historians of Near Easter religions seem to imply that the Mesopotamian religion influenced all other religions in the area, especially the concept of spiritual beings in angelology and demonology. The Babylonians cultivated one of the most elaborate and intricate systems of ancient magic known to mankind.7 4.2. Spiritual beings in Persia ‘Was the concept of the jinn influenced somewhat by Persia? It is worth mentioning at this point that there is, in general, more material on the ancient Semitic heritage in the area than there is on Persia, though the religion of Persia played an important role in shaping some cultural ideas in the Arabian Peninsula. ‘Mazdean Persia was the place par excellence of angelology and demonology. In some centers, like Hira in Mesopotamia (around the fourth century A.D.), Mazdaism was known, Albert Hourani, the historian of the ‘Arabs mentions this fact: It is the product of a long tradition, in which not only tribal ‘gatherings and market towns, but the courts of Arab dynasties on the fringes of the great empires played a par, in particular that of Hira on the Euphrates, open as it was to’ Christian and Mazdean influences (1991:12).-1B- How can that have any influence on the concept of jinn? Daevas is the Persian term for demons. They were present throughout in the Mazdean ion, like the corresponding Babylonian Utukkus. Who were these daevas? The French historian of religion Duchesne-Guillemin asserts that they were "demons who had never been ancient gods" (1962:134). In the same book, Duchesne-Guillemin gives interesting examples of some Persian compound words, like favardigan, aftingan where the suffix gan means ‘soul What does favardigan mean? "It is the day when the spirits of the dead are supposed to visit the world” (Ibi :88). As for afringan, "it refers to the prayers recited for the souls of the dead" (Ibid.: 29). In a small dictionary entitled Persian Loan Words in the Arabic Language, the writer “Addi Shir does not mention jinn as a Persian loan word in Arabic. (1990:19), Interestingly enough, it is in the works of two Arab geographers, Yaqit and Mas‘tidi, that one finds references to the meaning of the suffix jan. Yaqit writes: As for the word shah, it is a Persian word, it means the soul of the Shah, for jan in Persian means the soul or the psyche ‘al-nafs’ (1957. vol. 5: 113). As for Mas‘idi, he asserts that: "Mahrajan is the soul of one of their kings called Mahr" (1965. vol. 5:113).-M4- Is there any correlation between the meaning of jn as soul in Persian, and the Arabic concept of jinn as invisible, powerful beings, and in particular between this same meaning in Persian and some Arab and Western interpretations of the jinn as souls of the dead? Some Arab references mention the fact that throughout the history of the Arabian Peninsula there have been exchanges between Persians and Arabs, Among them is the contemporary historian “Abd al-Aziz Dart who asserts: "In some Arab markets we encounter Persian religious ideas, mainly Manicheism." (1961:22).8 However, none of the references consulted, primary or secondary, assert that the word "jinn" is of Persi origin. 4.3. Spiritual beings in ancient Judaism Had the concept of jinn been influenced by the Hebrew view on spiritual beings? To answer this, one must first recall what most historians of Near Eastera religions assert, that the Hebrew concept of spiritual beings was shaped by Mesopotamian demonology and angelology, and by the Syro-Arab cultural area, It is possible to trace some Hebrew spiritual beings back to old Mesopotamian demons and angels as Jeffrey Burton Russell points out: “Among the most terrible Mesopotamian demons was Lilitu or Ardat Lili, the prototype of the biblical Lilith (Isaiah 34)" (1977:92). Like Russell, Edward Langton focuses on the influence of the Mesopotomian pantheon on Jewish concepts of demons and angels:-15- ‘The demonology of the Old Testament embraces conceptions which are known to have been common to the various branches of the Semitic race. Demonic serpents (Seraphim, Se’irim or Shedrin) and various other concepts are found among the Arabs, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians, or else they very closely correspond to them. Sufficient facts have been indicated io show that itis reasonable to ook to Arab demonology as the proximate source of some Jewish ‘conceptions (1981:97). Arab and Jewish concepts of spiritual beings have been both shaped by ‘Mesopotamian angelology and demonology. Arabs and Jews lived together, or at least in neighboring areas. They have influenced each other's religious views, as many historians of religions point out. The pre-Islamic poets themselves knew much about the Old Testament. What is one to conclude from these sources? None of them mention any Hebrew source for the Arabian concept of jinn. All of them insist on the Mesopotamian origin that shaped both Hebrew and Arab concepts of spiritual entities, This study, till now, indicates that the word ‘jinn’ is probably not derived from Persian or the old languages of Mesopotamia, nor is it derived from Hebrew. However, as a concept of spiritual beings, it has certainly been influenced by the diverse demonologies and angelologies of the area. 5. THE PALMYRENE CLUE This search into the origins of the word ‘jinn’ has, in reality, hardly begun, Perhaps the clue to the word, both etymologically and as a concept, lies somewhere in the Syrian desert, in Palmyra, which is called Tadmur in Arabic.-16- ‘The earliest mention of it dates from the beginnings of the second millenium B.C. A quick look at the geography of the region is important for a better understanding of the history of the word jinn and helps to clarify one's understanding as to how this lexical item traveled through time, Palmyra lies 230 kilometers from Damascus, half-way along the caravan route betwen ancient Emesa (modem Homs) and the locality of AbG Kimal on the Euphrates. It was an important commercial centre in the desert: caravans ‘coming from the south would exchange merchandise much-sought in the north, from India and China.10 Palmyra was in fact a crossroad of peoples and cultures. The Amorites, Aramaens, the Arabs and the Romans, in that order, settled there. Palmyra retained its status as an independent city and did not come under Roman suzerainty until the early days of the Empire. In that period, Palmyrene archers were recruited for the Roman legions, and separate units were formed until the times of Trajan, Around A.D. 129, the emperor Hadrian visited the city in person. ‘To look thoroughly into the origin of the word jinn, one must examine the chronologies of the peoples who settled in Palmyra through the years. Little, if any, information exists on the Amorites in Palmyra. But itis possible to raise the question for the other populations who have settled successively in Palmyra. Is the origin of the word from Aramaic or is it primarily Arabic? Could it have been derived from Latin?ate 5.1. The Aramaic hypothesis Some historians of religion and archeologists such as Jean Starcky assert that: In the 19th century B.C. the Arameans were already controlling Palmyra, and a thousand years later, when Palmyra had become a real city, the Aramaic language was still spoken in it. Besides, from the 6th century B.C. to approximately the 6th century A.D., that is to say throughout the Persian, Greek, Roman and Byzantine periods, ‘Aramaic spread as widely through the Middle East as Arabic was to do later (1948:13). Aramaic was the language of Oriental Christianity. It is a Semitic language related to Hebrew and Arabic; one of its forms is known as Syriac. ‘The earliest Arabic inscriptions, in Aramaic script, can be dated to the fourth century. ‘The Oriental Church used both Greek and Aramaic because both languages were related to the Gospels. Later on, Aramaic became the language of the Oriental Church. The question of interest here is, did the ‘Aramaens bring the word jinn with them when they settled in Palmyra? In short, is the term jinn of Aramaic or Some historians of religion seem to think so. Among them is W. F. Albright who, in his article “Islam and the Religions of the Ancient Orient,” suggests that: ‘The word is not Arabic, but a slight modification of Aramaic “gene” ‘hidden,’ plural "genen” ‘hidden things,’ and emphatic plural "gonayva," which appears as a class of deities in inscriptions from the third century A.D. at Dara and in the jabal al-sha’r northwest of Palmyra (1940:283),18" In the same article, Albright sharply criticizes Noldeke for asserting that the word is Arabic. He gives every possible detail to convince the reader of the Aramaic origin of the word jinn. He asserts: On Aramaic incantations bowls of about the sixth or seventh century from Babylonia, we find the 'gene’ appearing in the sense of ‘evil spirit.’ In Syriac, the derived substantive ‘genyata’ (emphatic feminine plural) means ‘pagan shrines’ and sometimes ‘female divinities’ (the passage from an Aramaic 'ganya' or ‘genya’ feminine geenita, ‘demon’ to Arabic jinniy(un). Jinniyat(un) offers no difficulty whatever when one remembers that Aramaic ‘gena’ and Arabic ‘Janna’ are synonymous and that a slight morphological adaptation would therefore be normal (Ibid.:283), Allbright is not the only one to assert a possible Aramaic origin of the word jinn. Jacques Waadenburg, in his article "Changes of Belief in Spiritual Beings, Prophethood and the Rise of Islam” writes: There is a possible borrowing from an Aramaic word used by Oriental Christians to indicate pagan gods degraded to demons. In the latter case, jinn would originally have referred to degraded deities (1984959). Even the historian of religions Javier Teixidor seems to acknowledge an ‘Aramaic origin for the word jinn: ‘The Arab gods of Palmyra are frequently styled ‘gny’, ginnaya (plural ginnaye), namely genii or tutelary deities. This Aramaic termi to be related to the Arabic jinn (1979:77).=19- * then Aramaic? Simply to answer in the affirmative is to oversimplify the problem. For one should remember that the ‘Arabs came to Palmyra after the Aramaens. At that time, Palmyra became a center for major Semitic groups among whom Aramaic served as a common link. 5.2. The Arabic hypothesis If the word jinn is not of Aramaic origin, is it then exclusively of Arabic ‘origin? It is known that the Arabs came to Palmyra after the Aramaens, It is also known that during the last four centuries of the first millennium B.C. the lands of the Near East were densely populated by Arab tribes, At a certain moment of Palmyra’s history, the semi-nomadic Arab tribes, attracted by the splendor of the city, came and settled in Palmyra, They soon became the major element in it. The Arab historian al-Aldsi, in his monumental work on pre-Islamic Arabia asserts that Palmyra later became the dwelling of Rabf'a, the kings of Syria (1924, vol. 1:209).11 Like the Canaanites when they settled in Palmyra, the Arabs brought with them their own gods and many of their nomadic traditions, In Palmyra they practiced ancestral cults of their own, Thus one notes that the three goddesses of the pagan Arab mentioned in the Quran, al-Lat, al-"Uzza, and Manat, are also found at Palmyra under the names Allat, Azizo, and Manama, In 1933 and 1935, the historian and archeologist Daniel Schlumberger excavated the area northwest of Palmyra and uncovered a great number ofinscriptions that were for the most part, votive. They often mention the ginaya as tutelary deities of villages, settlements, encampments, orchards, tribes, and so forth, ‘These ginaya are even represented at Palmyra, ‘Commenting on the discovery of the word ginaya found in inscriptions around Palmyra, another historian, Jean Starcky, wrote the following in an anicle entitled precisely "Genneas": "The term ginaya found in inscriptions around Palmyra was derived from Arabic. The Arabic origin is “jana” or "janiy” (1949:248-257).. Starcky thinks that the actual Arabic word jinn even has a very old Arabian origin. He asserts that the first inscriptions about the jinn are Safaiic ‘ones, from North Arabia. For Starcky, it is obvious that the Arabs borrowed neither word nor concept from Aramaic sources in Palmyra. On the contrary, they brought the jinn with them to Palmyra along with their other personal cults and gods. For Starcky, the word jinn came with the Arabs when the Syrian steppe was arabized, as a result of the Arab invasions during the second half of the first millenium B.C.12 ‘The French orientalist Régis Blachére has a similar opinion He also thinks that the Arabs neither borrowed their gods from Palmyra nor had been influenced by the local gods of this oasis when they settled in it, The changes introduced to the pagan religion of the early Arabs came in fact from another region: Il mest pas absurde de songer a un fait inverse, consécutif & Tempiétement de “Y'arabisme” sur le domaine araméen. Au surplus,-2- quel enrichissement, quelle métamorphose le polydémonisme et le polythéisme arabes purent-ils trouver ou subir au contact du aganisme minéo-sabéen ou palmyréen? Si le domaine arabe et notamment le Hedjaz ont été le berceau d'une religion nouvelle, ce n'est certes point & ces influences quils le doivent, mais aux courants monothéistes qui, du Yémen, de la Syrie et de la Mésopotamie, pénétrérent avec lenteur, dans ce sol aride, et le fécondérent inégalement (1952. vol. 1:51). Schlumberger, who was credited with the discovery of the Palmyrene inscriptions, agrees with Starckey's interpretation. He asserts: "The word is Arabic. As for the Palmyrene form ginaya, it is derived from the Arabic jinn” (1951:135). ‘Moreover, many primary sources, as well the works of Orientalists like Lammens point to the fact that Mecca and Palmyra were two great centers of exchange and trade, It is also a known fact that, throughout history, trade and religion were closely associated throughout the Semitic region, What does all this imply? That the word jinn is of purely Arabic origin? A great number of Orientalists seem to think so, not to mention the primary sources which are of that general consensus and do not even hint to the possibility of a foreign origin Commenting on the assertion of some orientalists that the word jinn is not of pure Arabic origin, the French anthropologist Joseph Chelhod justifies the Arab origin of the word jinn in these terms: Ajoutons & l'appui de loigine arabe de ce terme, qu'un emprunt ne se justifie et n'est vraisemblable que lorsqu’un mot similaire fait défaut dans la langue qui emprunte. Or, non seulement la racine arabe jun.n, exprime exactement lidée qu'on se fait des jinn Puisqu’elle s'applique A ce qui est caché, derobé aux regards,-2- enveloppé de ténébres, mais en outre elle donne naissance & deux ‘autres termes qui désignent ces mémes étres mystéricux: les jan: 8.15/27, 8.55/15, et les jinna 8.7/184; $.11/119, 8.23/25, $.33/13, S.37/158. L’hypothése d'une origine araméenne semble donc ccontestable, bien qu'une connection entre les deux substantifs soit possible, témoin de leur origine sémitique commune (1964:130). Shall one then acknowledge the Arab origin of the term jinn and conclude the search for its origins here? To do so would be to disregard related conceptual development, It was noted earlier on this chapter that the region in which the adventure of the word jinn was played out, has never been a closed one, What then were the possible foreign sources that enriched the concept of the Arabian jinn? The following section will address this issue. 5.3. The Latin hypothesis ‘The Amorites were the first inhabitants of Palmyra, followed by the Canaanites, the Aramaeans, the Arabs, and finally the Romans. In fact, at the time of the immigration of Arab tribes into the lands of the Near East (the last four centuries of the first millennium B.C.), Hellenization was taking place in Syria, and the Phoenician cities began to be reorganized as Hellenic cities. As a result of the Greek conquest of a large part of the world for many centuries, Greek flourished side by side with Hebrew and Aramaic, so that the peoples of many districts were bilingual. This simultaneous presence of two disparate cultures -Arab and Greek- blended rapidly into a new culture to which the Previous local tradition gave an adequate frame as “Irfan Shahid asserts:-B- The subjection of the Arabs to the processes of Romanization and Hellenization for four centuries or so naturally resulted in a considerable degree of acculturation and assimilation to Graeco-Roman civilization (1984:153), Palmyra itself participated in that great change, for it was under Tiberius Augustus (14-38 A.D.) that Palmyra became a city tributary to the Roman empire and given the name of Palmyra, meaning "palm tree.” Under Antonius (96-193 A.D.) and the Severan house (193-222 A.D.), Palmyra became one of the chief cities of the East. Jean Starcky refers to the changes in these terms: Caravans coming from Arabia, Persia, and even China would take the Palmyra road. In the Hellenistic period and up to the end of the first century of our era transit trade was in the hands of the Nabatean Arabs with Petra as its main center; but after the annexation of Nabatea to the Roman empire (106 A.D.), the Palmyrenes no longer had any rivals. ‘Their city became a vast Greco-Roman city until the middle of the third century (1951:135). How did these changes affect the religion of Palmyra? Starcky writes further: These contacts modified profoundly the creeds and beliefs of the Palmyrenes. ‘The Occidental costume replaced the local one, The religion itself participated in that great current of spiritualism that ‘was crossing the Mediterranean world. ‘The civilization of Palmyra became a mixture, There was great tendency to syncretism, The Arab goddess Allt was worshipped under the features of Athena (ibid. 85).13 How did these changes affect the concept of jinn in the area? Some Western authors emphasize the great influence of Hellenism in theare area, and to point particularly to the Roman role in Palmyra. They even assert that the word jinn has a Latin origin. In The Encyclopedia of Islam D. B. MacDonald criticizes both the Arab lexicographers and those orientalists who agree with them on the Arab origin of the word jinn: But this etymology is very difficult, and the possibility through borrowing from Latin (genius) is not entirely excluded. The expression ‘naturalem_deum_uninscuisq loci’ (Virgil, I, p. 302) exactly expresses the formal localization of the jinn (1991. vol. 2: 547). It is in fact rare to find such assertions in Western sources. On the contrary, it is more reasonable to assert that the word preexisted in the region long before Hellinization or Romanization started in the Near East.14 René Dussaud criticizes those who ascribe the term jinn to a Latin origin: existe aussi une quantité de divinités mineures, une série de "génies” ou plutét de "ginnaye,” car les deux vocables, pour sonner de meme n'ont aucun rapport étymologique. Ils se sont maintenus dans la ‘croyance populaire sous la forme de diinn que Islam a rabaissés au rang de démons (1955:90), Once again, is this search an etymological one only, or does it encompass the foreign influences on the concept itself? Even if one does discount a Latin origin for the Arabic word jinn, the similarities that exist ‘between the concepts of the Arab jinn and the Latin genius are striking. Javier Teixidor gives detailed parallels between the two concepts of spiritual beings both in Latin and in Arabic. He refers at length to the Classical-25- writers who acknowledged the existence of tutelary deities for persons and places: These ginnaye were comparable to the Roman ‘genii': they were deities who were titularies of persons and places believed to take care of human lives and enterprises. ‘They protected flocks and caravans and also those who had settled or were in process of sedentarization, Shrines erected for such ginnaye occur especially in the semi-nomadic surroundings of Palmyra in places which were centers of settled life and halts for passing caravans (1977:79). Again, what can one conclude from these parallels? Is it possible that the Arabian concept of jinn was influenced by the Latin representation of tutelary deities in Palmyra? In fact, the further one advances in this search, the more cone realizes that it is the shaping of the Arabian concept of jinn by other sources than Arabic that is of greater interest than the question of etymology. ‘What can one infer from the data collected at the ruins of Palmyra, and the primary sources on the jinn on the one hand, and from the Latin concept of the genius on the other, two sets of sources to keep in mind during this research? These two sources are deeply involved in the problem of providing an explicit definition of the word jinn, 6. SUMMARY As far as the concept of jinn is concerned, it encountered at Palmyra a similar form of spiritual beings and a similar concept of guardian spirit. The old original Arabian concept went into a series of metamorphoses through-26- which it changed somewhat from a Bedouin concept to a more urban one, from a purely Semitic one to a concept impregnated with Hellenism, and later with Latin representations. As far as the etymology of the term is concerned, itis apparent from this data, both primary and secondary, that the word jinn is an old Semitic one, either of Aramaic or Arabic origin. Moreover, as many of the sources assert, the root jzn.n, has in all Semitic languages the same meaning: 'to cover’ or ‘to protect.’ Be that as it may, the issue lies less in the etymology of the word than it does in the core of the concept. Whether the original form of the word were inn, ginnaye, or ginneas has litle to do with how the concept itself evolved. What this means is that the etymology does not necessarily entail a change in the concept, in the meaning, or in the creed itself. Commenting on the phenomenon of slight changes in nomenclature from one region to another in the Middle East, when referring to the same deity or the same spiritual entity, the French historian of religions, René Dussaud, remarked: La permanence du culte et son unité, qui caracterisent le monde sémitique depuis la Mediterranée et la mer Rouge a l’ouest jusqu’a T'Euphrate et le golfe Persique & l'est, sont parfois difficiles & saisir par suite de I’évolution des éphithétes (1955:20).. Both primary and secondary data agree on the difficulty of giving a clear Lashed! y anally LAGS Goo GAL! 9 yaselly doe Last Se Libel Yad ag Bay Gas JB ZI Sole Usb ll ooall Gal als Py Ls ‘The same story is also related by Ibn Kathir who specifies that: “Amt asked them to give him one of their idols, and he brought it back with him to Mecca, and the people worshipped it. The name of this idol was Hubal (1982. vol. 2:187). From that time onward, each tribe in the Arabian Peninsula had its own god or goddess. Quraysh acquired the property of Hubal who was the chief deity of the Kabah, It was painted red, and had the shape of a human being. al-Aldsi mentions that: "When Ibn Luhayy brought Hubal from Syria, his hand ‘was broken, so Quraysh gave him a hand of gold instead” (1924. vol. 2: 205). Each tribe in pagan Arabia worshipped a different god or goddess. Thus, the trihe of Hudhayl worshiped Suwa’. Rabi'a worshiped Nast. Himyar worshipped the goddess al-Lat and the goddess al-"Uzzah. The god Rudi was worshiped in Tayyi’, Kalb and Ta'laba, In addition to all these idols, the Arabs of pre-Islam worshipped minor gods and goddesses.13, In Mecca all the idols known in the Arabian Peninsula were represented. ‘The Arabs at that point in time used to bring with them idols from Mecca, each time they went there for trade or pilgrimage. In pre-Islam, Mecca was considered a sacred place for the Arabs.14 Itis possible to wonder if the Arabs in the Peninsula were without any idols before the comimg of Ibn Lubayy. It-42- is difficult to answer by the affirmative or the negative. Old poetry mentions few, if any of these gods, except for a few verses where an oath by the goddess al-Lat is mentioned, Many historians such as De Lacy O'Leary seem to believe that the introduction of idols into Arabia happened a short time before the rise of Islam: It seems fairly safe therefore to understand that the use of images was an instance of Syro-Hellenistic culture which had come down the trade route. It was a recent introduction in Mecca and was probably unknown to the Arab community at large (1927:196).15 Under these foreign influences, some of the Arabs replaced their original cult of stones with that of statues bearing human likenesses. Hubal’s arrival in Mecca led even many prominent Meccan families to introduce the images of their personal gods into their homes. What is of interest here is that in the settled areas, one of the most striking shifts away from Bedouin religion was the increase in the number of deities and a movement toward greater polytheism, Each family used to possess its own idol as Ibn Hishdm tells in his irah (Biography of the Prophet): Every household had an idol in their house which they used to worship. When a man was about to set out on a joumey he would rub himself against it as he was about to ride off: indeed that that was the last thing he used 10 do before his journey; and when he Tetumned from his journey the first thing he did was to rub himself against it before he went in to his family (trans.1955:38). ‘The most well-known idols in pre-Islam were the three goddesses al-Lit,- 43 - Mant, and al--Uzza. They were regarded by the pagan Arabs as "Allah's daughters" side by side with the angels. This triad had several shrines in the Hijéz and in Najd. In his al-Asndm, (The Idols) al-Kalbt describes in detail these three deities. He tells stories of how Muslims destroyed their shrines. al-Kalbi claims that Manat was the most ancient goddess while al-"Uzza was the most recent (1969:12). ‘The Arabs continued to worship them till the advent of Islam, Primary sources mention that the leader Abd Sufyin carried al-Lét and al-"Uzza with him into the battle of Uhud. al-Tabari mentions that, after the capture of Mecca, al-Lat was destroyed with her sanctuary in Téif by al-Mughfrah (Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam. 1965, vol. 2:287). ‘The Qur'an mentions these goddesses and addresses the pagan Arabs in $8.53/19-21: Have you, then, ever considered what you are worshipping in al-Lat and al-"Uzza (19) in Manat, the third and last of this triad? (20). In response to the assertion of the pagan Arabs that these goddesses are Allah's daughters, the Qur'an says: Why-for yourselves you would choose only male offspring, whereas to Him you assign female(20); that, lo and behold, is an unfair division (21).16 In opposition to this greater tendency towardpolytheism, one can findthroughout pre-Islam a tendency toward a kind of primitive monotheism. In fact, there was a widespread movement which resembles what may be called primitive monotheism referred to as “al- hanifiyyah.” In the Qur’én the term “hunafa’' refers to those before Islam who by the purity and uprightness of their nature did not succumb to paganism and polytheism. A short time before the coming of the Prophet, the old paganism of Arabia reached a point where it failed to meet the spiritual demands of the people.17 al-hanifiyah was mainly represented in the person of “Allah” as the one god, long before the rise of Islam, Allah was in fact venerated in the whole of Arabia as the creator of the world. Allah, the godhead, comesponds with El throughout the Semitic world, In Mecca especially, Allah was the principal deity, though not the only one, Meccans worshipped him as the creator and supreme provider. 18 ‘7. THE WORSHIP OF STARS Some of these goddesses, especially al-Lat and al-"Uzza started as simple idols sculpted very naively and ended by bearing a relationship with the sky which, in almost all religions, seems to be the favorite dwelling place of the gods. The North Arabian cults developed no mythology or cosmogony similar to that of the Babylonians, but the South Arabian cults show some astral features, elaborate rituals and sacrifices which represent a higher stage of development attained by sedentary society. In the South Arabian cults, al-Lat and al-"Uzza became two goddesses dwelling in the sky, ‘Many scholars focused on the relation of these two goddesses to theao planet Venus, the sun, and the moon. Some of them even considered that the religion of the Souther Arabs was entirely based on the worship of palnets. ‘Among these scholars is the orientalist Joseph Henninger who studied the civilization of pre-Islam from an anthropological and ethnological point of view. On this issue, Henninger wrote: Most scholars agree that the religion of the Southem Arabians was an astral religion, where the moon, the sun and the planet Venus represented the three most important deities. In this respect Nielsen goes farther, regarding all Southern Arabian, and even all Semitic deities to be at bottom identical with some of these three deities, which, genealogically, can be put in the following scheme: moon-god-father, sun-goddess-mother, Venus- _god-sun (1947:173).19 8. CHRISTIANITY AND JUDAISM IN PAGAN ARABIA 8.1. Christianity Christian influences were particularly evident in the case of some famous poets, al-Nabighah and ‘Ashd, for example, who had much intercourse with Arabian Christians, chiefly at the courts of princes on the northem frontier, where Christianity prevailed. Many other great bards of Arabia such as Tarafa ibn al“ Abd and al-hérith ibn Hillizah and “Ams ibn Kulthdm flocked to the court of “Amr ibn-Hind at al-Hira (554-69 A.D.).20 It is also possible to find information on the Christian tribes of Arabia in Ayyam al-"arab (The Days of the Arabs). In the earliest and most famous of these bedouin wars was the war al-Basiis, fought toward the end of the fifth-46- century of the Christian era between the Band Bakr and their kinsmen, the Band Taghlib in north eastern Arabia, Both tirbes were christianized, But it is mainly in the works of ‘Irfin Shahid that one finds comprehensive information concerning the situation of the Christian Arabs before the rise of Islam. Shahid provides information on the diverse tribal groups who converted to Christianity: To the world of pre-Islamic Arabia in which the Ghassanids of al-Jabiyah and the Lakhmids of al-Hira figure prominently, the Harithids of Najrdn must be added as a third group who, even more than the first two groups, were directly and intimately involved in the course of events in inner Arabia" (1971:11). In Rome and the Arabs, Shahid supplies the reader with even more information concerning the contrib n of the Arabs to "the progress made by Christianity in reaching the imperial court" (1984:155). From this book one realises how extensive the power of Arab Christianity was at that point in time. ‘One Jeams about great Christian Arab figures, such as Abgar the Great, the ruler of Edessa "who around A.D. 200 was converted to Christianity and in so doing became the first ruler in history to adopt Christianity and make it the official religion of a near Easter state” (Ibid.:155). 8.2, Judaism ‘The monotheism affecting Arabia was not entirely of the Christian type. Jewish colonies were present in al-Madinah, in various oases of northernane al-Hijéz, and in the fertile parts of southern Arabia. They were either refugees of the Hebrew race or Arab tribes who had adopted Judaism. Most scholars seem to agree that there were apparently very few Jews in Mecca. Particularly in al-Madinah, Jewish communities flourished. ‘The Band Nadir and the Band Qurayza were Judaized clans of Arabian and Aramaen stock. al-Jumahi (c. 845) mentions in his biography the Jewish poets of al-Madina and its environs (1916:70). ‘The most famous Jewish poet who left us a diwén (anthology of poems) was al-Samaw’al (Samuel). His Judaism has been suspected because it had nothing to differentiate it from the current pagan forms of worship. 9. DIVERSITY WITHIN PAGANISM The religion of pagan Arabia was not only polytheism. In fact, it was not one religion but several. What draws one's attention in the religious life of pre-Islam is the multiplicity and variety of religious forms. Despite its primitive forms, despite the absence of an organized pantheon, despite the lack of information on the topic, one cannot accept the notion that has been presented by Noldeke, Wellhausen, and other orientalists who characterized the bedouins of Pagan Arabia as "Unproductiv religiosos."21 ‘The contemporary Arab historian “Abd al-Aziz Dari depicted different facets of this religion, thereby emphasizing the richness, variety, and, most of all, a certain "religious conscience":-48- One notices in the religion a diversity between paganism and the belief in some forms of the old Semitic monotheism. Moreover, one finds the worship of the heavenly bodies, which can be traced back to the Babylonians, the reverence paid to the ancestors, totemism, and the belief that spirits dwell in trees and springs. There is also belief in jinn and devils (1961:33). Itis therefore in this religious environment, against a mixed backdrop of Paganism, Christianity, Judaism, and that which resembles monotheism that the jinn dwelled. Like the historian Da i, the orientalist Ringgren gives insights into the religion of pagan Arabia. For him too, the religions of the ‘Arabs at that point of time were not merely paganism: To the evolutionistic school of comparative religions, the origin and growth of polytheism is no problem. ‘There may be one-sidedness and doctrinairism, so that all kinds of religious beliefs are explained from a single fact such as the belief in souls and spirits (animism), the idea of an impersonal power (mana), totemism, or the like, But the research of the last years has made it quite clear that the evolutionistic pattem is a pure fiction, which does not agree with the facts, As investigation proceeds, it is apparent that the belief in higher gods would seem to be one of the primary factors-if not the primary factor-in religion. ‘The high god of destiny, fertility god, and all-seeing surveyor of man’s action seems to be dominant in the initial stages of religious history-at least so far as we are able to trace the latter (1947:7). ‘The abundance of cults and the multiplicity of divine names as described by Ibn al-Kalbf in his book al-Asném (The Idols) might reflect more than polytheistic practices: the worship of a one god who manifested himself in many ways. When were the jinn introduced into the religious tribal system of pagan13 Arabia? Albright in his article "Islam and the Religions of the Ancient Orient" leans towards the notion that “the belief in the jinn was introduced late in pre-Islam" (1940. vol. 60:233). Still others, like Waadenburg in his article "Changes of Belief in Spiritual Beings, Prophethood, and the Rise of Islam think that "the belief in the jinn may have been present since ancient times, although it was more developed among the settled people than the nomads" (1984:259), ‘The opinion of Waanderburg seems more acceptable. Given the story told by so many primary sources on “Amr ibn Luhayy who went to the Levant to bring idols on the orders of his own jinnf around the third century A.D. and given that several poets of pre-Istam, such as al-Ash4, al-Nabighah, Ta'abbata Sharran, and Umayyah ibn Abi al-Salt mention the jinn in their poetry, one can propose that the jinn have existed since ancient times in pagan Arabia, To return to the legend of “Amr Ibn Lubayy, the most important feature in this story is that the one who incited “Amr to go to Syria and bring the idols is his own jinni. “Amr went not only because he had some trade to finish but mainly because his raf, (one of the names given to the jinni who accompanies a priest or a poet) ordered him to go and bring the idols and call the Arabs to worship them. In fact, “Amr went on a sacred journey to accomplish a religious goal. Were the jinn then truly responsible for bringing pagan gods to Arabia? Was it an invention of Ibn Lubayy’s imagination? Or is it an invention of Islam itself to justify the later degradation of some of the jinn to demons? No matter when the jinn came to pagan Arabia, they eventually=50- became rooted in its daily life. Commenting on the relation of the jinn as spiritual beings and pagan Arabia as a special place for the sacred, the French orientalist André Miquel wrote: De ce peuple intermédiaire (les jinn) entre notre univers et une nature a 1a vérité inimaginable, I’Arabie est, j’y insiste, le pays privilégié, L"Arabie et plus précisement, celle du paganisme (1979. vol. 3:360). Itis in this pluralistic, relativistic, fragmented, and tribal society as 4 particular space belonging to a particular time, the time before Islam, that one must search for the jinn. For that, this study will not be looking at the Jahiliyah as pure heresy, but more as a space where, as Thales states: “Everything is full of gods" (Mille.194:74), Euripides closed his most famous play, The Bacchae, with the words: "Many are the shapes of things divine” (Ibid.:77). ‘The search for the jinn in pagan Arabia starts with this same spirit that animated both Thales and Euripides.ese ENDNOTES OF CHAPTER ONE OF PART ONE, . On this issue, see especially Philip Hitsi who refuses to see in the Jahiliyah a period of ignorance: "The term jahilivah, usually rendered “time of ignorance" or "barbarism" in reality means the period in which Arabia had no dispensation, no inspired prophet, no revealed book; for ignorance and barbarism can hardly be applied to such a cultured and lettered society as that developed by the South Arabians” (1943:87). .. See also Philip Hitt? who mentions some of these cuneiform inscriptions, such as the inscriptions of the Assyrian Schalmaneser III who led an expedition against the Aramacan king of Damascus and his allies Ahab and Jundub, an Arabian shaykh. Hitt states that the Arabian oasis Tayma’ is mentioned in several cuneiform tablets related to the fall of Babylon in 539 B.C. (1943:39). . One can find additional information on pre-Islam in the Semitic literature. ‘The Arabs are included in all kinds of Semitic studies. On this issue, see specially W. R. Smith whete the Arabs a a religious sroup are nt very different from the Hebrews, Babylonians, or other Semites (1927:151). See also Marie-Joseph Lagrange who tackles the same topic, but is fairer and more sensitive to the differences that seperate each Semitic group from another (1905:68). Finally, see G. Levi della Vida who criticizes Emest Renan for adopting ethnic views in his parallel betwen the dogmatic and intolerant Semites and the ingenius Greeks. ‘The pagan calendar of pre-Islam was lunar like the Muslim one, with the first three months of its spring session, dha al-Qa'dah, dhéi al-Hijjah, and ‘Muharram coinciding with the period of peace. . In the Qur'an, one can find also information on the religious beliefs of the Arabs. See especially $.3/154; $.5/50, S.33/33, and 8.48/26. On the religious importance of South Arabia, see especially the article of G. Ryckmans “I'Arabie préislamique” in Histoire Générale des Religions (1948:528). . It is interesting to note that the Classical writers divided the land into Arabia Felix, Arabia Petraea and Arabia Deserta, These divisions correspond to the tripartite political division of Arabia in the first Christian century. On this issue, see especially Philip Hitti (1943:44),-52- 8, Helmer Ringgren claims that: "The god Wadd appears in Sabean territory 100, especially on amulets and building inscriptions in the formula ‘Wadd is father"(1947:179), 9, These same gods are mentioned again in $.71/23. 10. Philip Hitti mentions that the god Wadd refers in South Arabian religion to a moon-god and also sometimes to "father" (1943:60). 11. On this issue see Lammens who mentions the great diffusion of "the cult of divine stones" in pagan Arabia (1928:101). 12. Tbn Hishdm in his Sirah (Biography of the Prophet) makes also Tbn Luhayy the importer of idols. But he specifies that: "Ibn Luhayy brought them from Moab and Mesopotamia, not Syria" (1384 H:50). 13. See René Dussaud who mentions other minor pagan deities such as the god Nasr (vulture) and “Awf (the great bird) (1955:42). Both gods have animal names and suggest totemic origin. 14, On the importance of Mecca as a sacred place in pagan Arabia, see “Abd al-Sattir al-Rawi who thinks that: “These idols were sacred because they ‘were brought from Mecca"(1980:181). 15. On the Syrian origin of these idols, see Philip Hittt who states that: "The Arabic word for idol sanam is clearly an adaptation of Aramaic selem,” Hitti mentions also that hubal is an Aramaic word meaning ‘vapour’ or ‘spirit (1943:100).. 16. Some scholars such as Philip Hitti think that the worship of these goddesses reflects an early matriarchal sysyiem in the Jahiliyah (1943:100) Its true that the ferninine names of certain Arab clans show traces of great importance accorded to mothers in the old society of Arabia. But on the ‘other hand, this pagan society knew the burying alive of little girls to which the Qur'dn addresses a harsh criticism as in $.81/8. On this issue of wa‘d (burying female infants alive), see especially Muhammad Asad (1984:933), 17, Some people were considered hunafé! in pre-lslam, such as the poet ‘Umayyai ibn ab al-Salt and Waraqah ibn Nawfah, a cousin of Khadijah, 18. Philip Hitt asserts that even the supreme god Allah was "imported from Syria toward the fifth century B.C,” Hitti attributes a major role to Syria in “developing” the religion of Pagan Arabia’ (1943:101). 19. See also Hubert Petersman who claims in his article "le culte du soleil chez534 es Arabes, suivant les témoignages gréco-romains” that: “al-Lat was worshipped under the features of the Greek goddess Athena.” In L’Arabie prchistrorigue et son environement historique et culturel (1989:231). See della Vida (1938:36); see also Muhammad Asad who claims that: “al-Lat may have been the prototype of the Greek semi-goddess Leto, one of the wives of Zeus and mother of Apollo and Artemis" (1984:814). 20. See Lammens who describes the Christian communities of al-Madinah (1928389), "See aslo abaart who gives in his Task | (Histon) information on Christianity in the Himyarite kingdom (nd. vol. 1:919). See also Montgomery Wait who claims that “apocryphal gospels and the like seem to have been floating about Arabia" (1960:28). 21. The religions of pagan Arabia were looked at not only from the point of view of"productivity" or from the point of view of "religious conscience" but also from the point of view of "sincerity.” Thus, the Arab American author Amin al-Rihdni criticized the hypocrisy of the bedouins: "Up to today, the bedouin never pay much more than lip homage to the Prophet" (1928:233). The Quran itself accuses the bedouins of hypocrisy in religion as in $.9/98.CHAPTER TWO. RELATION OF THE JINN TO PLACE IN PRE-ISLAM 1. PLACE AS THE DWELLING OF THE SUPERNATURAL IN GENERAL It is in pagan Arabia as a whole geographic and spiritual entity that the search for the jinn begins. Where exactly did the jinn dwell in this immense space? What were their favorite places? Did they like springs or arid places? Did they like obscure places or open spaces? Did they frequent houses full of people or did they, on the contrary, prefer to flee them for the solitude of the desert? To study the favorite places of the jinn is to gain insight into the connections of particular aspects of the sacred to the physical aspects of nature; itis to discover how certain places are rather than others the principal ‘supernatural seat, and how the jinn as supernatural beings have like humans a physical environment, on and through which they act, and by which their activity is conditioned. The choice of one place over another is the difference between the sacred and the profane. For the Arabs of pre-Islam, the space around them was not homogeneous. This means that some places carried in them a special power, a certain energy, more than others. ‘The Arabs approached them with awe and “54.-55- even paid reverence to these places and to the supernatural beings who were welling in them, Mircea Bilade explains this opposition between the sacred and the profane in these terms: "Il y a donc un espace sacré, et par conséquent ‘fort, significatif, et il y a d'autres espaces, non-consacrés et partant sans structure ni consistance, pour tout dire: amorphes" (1971:6). This relation of the sacred to place is visible also in the worship of gods.1 ‘The most well-known gods of the Jahiliyah such as al-Lat and al-"Uzza had their sacred tacts (himA and haram). For example, al-Lat had a special enclosure near al-Ta'if whither the Meccans and other Arabs came for pilgrimage and sacrifice. Around the goddess al-Lat no trees could be cut, no hhunt possible and no human blood shed. Animal and plant life participated of the sacredness of the deity there honored. As for the goddess al-"Uzza, her sanctuary consisted of three trees as mentioned by Ibn al-Kalbf: "al-"Uzza ‘was a she-devil which used to frequent three trees in the valley of Nakhlah" (wans.1952:24), ‘The relation of the sacred to a certain place has been commented upon by ‘Waadenburg in his article "Changes of belief in spiritual beings, prophethood and the rise of Islam in these terms: Among Semitic peoples the gods were named after the places where they were worshiped. The cult was directed not only to a particular idol but also to a particular altar (In Struggles of Gods 1984:263), In other words, if the altar is as sacred as the deity or the supernaturalESGe being, it is so because this divinity or supernatural being frequents it, and because he or she manifests himself or herself in it. It is this unmistakable presence or manifestation of the sacred that the Greeks denoted by the term epiphania (epiphany). The more a deity manifests itself in a certain place, the more the place becomes sacred in the eyes of those who dwell in it. The relation between humans and the sacred is subject to physical conditions. This implies that human worship of certain forms of spiritual beings or gods is not independent of the material environment. W. R, Smith comments on this relation with respect to the name Ba‘al so common in many Semitic religions. ‘The name Ba‘al refers in these religions both to a god and to a possessor of a sacred place. Smith asserts that: In Semitic religions, the relation of the gods to particular places which are special seats of their power is usually expressed by the title Ba‘al (pl. Ba‘alim, fem. Ba‘lath). As applied to men, Ba‘al means the master of a house (1927:93). Some places, then, were charged more than others with meaning for the Arabs of pre-Islam, These places inspired them with the sentiments of the fearful, the horribie, and even the tremendous, or, as Rudolf Otto puts it with “numinous awe" (1956:58). 2. THE WILDERNESS AS A FAVOURITE PLACE FOR THE JINN Itis striking that most of the primary sources speak of the preference ofess the jinn for lonely, desolate, deserted, and obscure places. In the preliminary chapter, it was evident from the definitions accumulated that the jinn are invisible creatures, hidden from human sight, When one looks for their favorite haunts, it is clear that these entities prefer places like their nature, which means hidden places, where the untrodden wilderness lies teeming with unknown perils. Maydénf mentions in his Maima‘ al-amthal (Anthology of Proverbs) ‘We let the country speak for itself, This might mean fertile countries and the many voices of the wolves. It might also mean wild deserts where no one lives except the jinn (1988, vol. 1:191). WA cl gual 335 y ued Oo alje Gt 5pee lua Coll sad YAS Y gle Gall ¥ all JBI G ola ol ssa ‘The primary sources tell us that the jinn dwell where the spontaneous life of nature is most actively exhibited in all its phases. The routes they follow are outside the known routes and pasture grounds of the tribe, and where only the boldest venture with terror. In primary sources the jinn seem to dwell specifically in the desert2 Bustini mentions that: “The expression someone ‘was hosted by a jinni means he or she stayed in a wild place, where no friendly person dwells" (1927:53). 6G Gah Y JE gla ed Ge ine Gat ol ‘The jinn dwell in wells, in holes, in deep valleys, under the earth, to the-58- point that they have been called ahl al-ard (the dwellers of the earth). Valleys especially seem to be among their favorite places. Mahmid Salim al-Hat mentions that the Arabs of pre-Islam expressed often their fear of the jinn when crossing a desert or a valley: "When an Arab arrived in a valley, the first thing he did was to draw a circle and then recite: ‘I seek protection from the master of this valley""(1979:225).2 al-Hidt gathered information from the primary sources which indicate that the Arabs of pre-Islam believed that: "The bottoms of the valleys seemed to be the most dangerous places where any peril can occur and where the strange voices of the jinn were heard” (1979:223). Jawd “Ali claimed that these strange voices mentioned in the primary sources “were similar to a bell, and sometimes to a drum in the night. ‘The Arabs told of mysterious buzzing, humming, or whistling noises caused by the Jinn. It was called ‘azif al-jinn” (1970. vol. 5:720). There was even a place called al-“uzaf referring to the strange music *azif3 produced by the jinn as mentioned by al-Zabidi in his Taj_al-‘aris (The Crown of the Bride) (1965.vol.6:197). In Kitib al-hayawén (The Book of Animals) of al: rich and detailed picture of these diverse noises produced by the jinn. ‘The iz, one can find a imagination of the poets of pre-Isalm described the impact of these noises on humans, especially in the night of the desert and how it was carried by the winds, al-Jahiz quotes the following verse of the poet Dha al-Rummah who "the jinn chant in its borders as if they were trees moaning in a windy-59- day" (1968, vol. 6:175). Had! 53 Jy » das sla ts” “padise casi poe cgls LS ‘Some of the primary sources speak of dense thickets as other special haunts of the jinn. They tell stories of jinn dwelling within the roots of certain ttees.4 al-Igbahini tells the story of the jinn who killed two people because they burned the trees where they dwelled: "When the flames appeared, people heard moaning and a sudden great noise: flying white serpents appeared on top of the fire” (1969. vol. 6:92), Equivalent creatures in neighboring Semitic civilizations preferred similar places. The utukku of the Babylonians like the jinni in Arabia used also to dwell in the wilderness, and likewise lurked in the desert in wait of unsuspecting travellers. ‘The ziyyim of the Hebrews was a kind of spiritual entity, a ‘desert dweller; ‘crier, or ‘yelper.’ 3, ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS AS ALTERNATE PLACES FOR THE.JINN ‘The locale of perished civilizations was another favorite dwelling place for the jinn. ‘That is to say that the place where a civilization disappears was immediately occupied by the jinn. The deserted Hijr is an example, This-60- town used to be a flourishing place for the people of Thamiid. The locales of ‘Yarin and Wabar are two other examples.5 Maydnt gives some information cconceming the place of Wabar. The jinn of this place used to destroy everyone who tried to pass by their country. Maydiint quotes the poet al-Farazdaq who said: "Similar to the one who perished while looking for the road of Wabér" (1988, vol. 2:484),. “gles Garb pushes dogs” ‘These places used to be inhabited by the people of “Ad mentioned in the Qur'an.6 All these cities were destroyed by God because of their heresy. After the punishment of God, the jinn came to inhabit them. It seems then as though the jinn search for places where disasters have happened. ‘They like to dwell in places abandoned by human occupants. Jawad “Alt mentions that: “All the countries inhabited by “Imlaq, Thamid, and *Ad are then conquered by the jinn’ (1970. Vol .6:718-773). al-Jahiz. even tells stories of humans trying to reconquer their lost realms, but in vain (1966. vol. 6:66). The jinn would throw sand in their faces (ibid. vol. 6:215). If humans insist and try again, they will bring madness upon them, al-Hamadhant (4. 334 H.) tells that: “These places are jealously defended by the jinn for they are the most fertile and beautiful countries of all” (1968:269).-61- 4, IMAGINARY PLACES: *ABQAR In the poetry of pre-Islam, it is possible to find various allusions to the finn. Omar Farikh in Tarikh al-jahilivah (History of pre-Islam) quotes some. poets who mentioned the jinn in their poetry such as Labi, al-Nabighab, and Zuhair ibn abi Salma who speaks of "some jinn of “Abgar riding on horses" (1964:1603.7 The name of ~abgar appears often in the primary sources cited as an imaginary dwelling for the jinn, YAqit describes “Abgar as follows: “Abgar is a place in Yemen. Some say that it was near Yamamah. May be it was an old country that was destroyed, It is a place known for its embroidery.” Farther on, Yéqiit adds this enigmatic phrase: "but since the Arabs did not gothere, they said itis the country of the jinn” (1957. vol. 4:79). Tbn Manziir in Lisin_al-’arab (The Language of the Arabs) gives additional information. " Abgar is a place in the deser, full of jinn. “Abgar is 5). “Abgar is not the only imaginary place where the jinn dwell. Other ‘written without a definite article because it isa proper name” (n.d, vol, imaginary places are mentioned in the primary sources such as al-bigar, al-badi, and jinn dhi samar. 5. THE JINN DWELL EVERYWHERE Certain primary sources cited assert that since the jinn are invisiblea5 beings, they used to dwell everywhere in the Jahilfyah. These authors assert that since humans do not see the jinn, it is difficult to know if they are living among us, Thus Jawéd *Alf asserts that it is true that the jinn prefer certain places to others, but that does not mean that they cannot live elsewhere, For the Arabs of pre-Islam, they dwelt in all places. On this question, he writes: ‘Those were the favorite dwellings of the jinn. But their countries are in fact unlimited, undefined, For they dwell in all places, even in peoples’ houses. ‘They dwell even in the sea, and in the sky. ‘Their kingdom is in fact larger than human kingdomm. If a jinnt entered a house, the owner would protect himself by presenting him some incense or whatever is like it. Otherwise, the jinn will harm him (1970. vol. 6:716). ‘The jinn who live with humans in the same house are called ‘umm al-buyat (the dwellers of houses). The house where they dwell by side with humans is called al-"amrah (the inhabited house). 6. SUMMARY It was already mentioned that in pre-Islam space is divided between the sacred and the profane, because the jinn seemed to prefer some places to others, and because humans seemed to attribute a special power to these places. However, some primary sources depicted the jinn as dwelling everywhere, taking full advantage of their invisible nature. How does one reconcile these two assertions? If the jinn are everywhere, then there is no special place to be sacred, and no profane one. If their place is no longer simply linked to a-63- proper name, then their dwelling is the most common of all. By uncovering the relation of place to the jinn, it is possible to search for some theories that try to explain the existence of the jinn, such as the theory of animism. This issue is perhaps best left for discussion further on in this study. It will specifically be raised in the general conclusion, ‘Most primary sources refer to the dwelling of the jinn as being earthly. ‘The jinn seem more likely to dwell close to a human environment, rather than in the heavens. Few primary sources mention the sky as their realm, What, then, is one to conclude? Are they of angelic origin? Are they earthly creatures? This question will be dealt further in the following chapter on the nature of the jinn in pre-Islam.-64- ENDNOTES OF CHAPTER TWO On the relation of both gods and spiritual entities to place in general, see James Frazer (1950, vol. 1:476).. ... The fear of the jinn in barren deserts has been commented on differently by Arab authors and orientalists. al-Hat claims that this fear led the Arabs to recite poetry to the jinn only in’ deserts and not in towns (1979:211). Joseph Henninger stated on the other hand that: "The bedouins were not afraid of the jinn in deserts. They usually know the desert very well. On the contrary, they dreaded their presence in towns" (1959:1 15). see Zamakhshari (1953:30). . Gods and goddesses of pre-Islam dwelt also in trees. ‘The sanctuary of al-“Uzza consisted of three trees. al-Hat tells the story of Khalid ibn al-Walid who destroyed her sanctuary and found in one of the trees the goddess in the shape of a woman" (1979:75). For more details on “ai Wabir has attracted the interest of orientalists also. See especially Régis, Blachéze (1966. vol. 3:743). See also Toufic Fahd who described the jinn of this place as "dotés d'une mobilité de formes et d'une étonnante ubiquité” (1978:124), ‘The Qur'an mentions that God punished the people of “Ad and destroyed their land, but there is no mention at all of the jinn occupying the place after it had been destroyed, . Despite it being a real place, Palmyra has been described by Arab authors as a fantastic place similar to “Abgar. See especially “Umar Farriikh who quoted the verse of some poets on Palmyra inhabited by the jinn.CHAPTER THREE KINDS OF THE JINN IN PRE-ISLAM ‘The jinn is a general name under which it is possible to list: gh shayt4n, si'lah, and shigg, these being the most well-known kinds of for ft, qutrub, and marid, they are much less mentioned in the J these varieties of jinn can be in tum good or bad, depending on the circumstances. Despite the fact that the jinn were sometimes considered to be ‘gods, sometimes to be demons, there was not a sharp distinction between evil jinn and good jinn in the minds of the Arabs at that time. 1. GHOL al-Jahiz mentions that: The ghil entices humans, especially by night, It is the most dangerous of all jinn (1966. vol. 6:20). He adds in this same volume that ghil means: "Every supematural creature that takes diverse forms" (Ibid, vol. ). al- Zabtdi (d, 1205) states that: "GhGl is a synonym to anything in general that keeps changing" (1965. vol. 8:51). ‘This term comes from a root which means "to destroy,” or "to assault." "The ghil has carried him off" is sometimes merely a poetic expression meaning simply “he has perished.” ee‘The Arab poets of pre-Islam gave full imagination to this notion. Thus, the poet “Ubayd ibn Ayyab, told of his encounters with ghiils, sa‘ali, and others. He relates how the ghii, the daughter of the jinn, came one night to the fire which he had kindled, and how he cut off her head.1 One can find similar stories in the poetry of Ka‘ab ibn Zuhayr, and of Imru al-Qays who depicted the “arrows sharp as the canine teeth" of the ghal, and even in “Antarah who insisted on the sudden appearance and disappearance of the ghil in the following verse quoted by Dawiid Dawid: ‘The ghil in my hands sometimes appears and sometimes disappears like the light of a torch (1981:365). eat oun Le soli aga y iu cas Jill g» ‘The most well known poetry on ghiil is undoubtedly the verse of ‘Tafabbata Sharran, the poet whose name means literally "he carries evil under his armpit,” alluding to the fact that he had a ghdlah (f.) with him, The critic ‘Shawqi daif mentions that: The poet alleges that he encountered the ghdlah, one dark night while he was travelling in the desert, He chased her until he finally killed her without knowing her. Then he recited the following verse: I spent the night leaning on her, waiting for the morning to see what I caught. Then I found two eyes in an ugly head, similar to the head of a cat with a forked tongue" (1977:95).2 eh tats phy Cale Ue) od Jy! i GI Tt a pe jay-61- : _ Way 54g Bb (SUT Ls Lees Sk Uyale Lisi ali Gall! Zpktie poll yu! S ced ls od HL I) Poets were not the only ones to have encounters with ghils. Primary sources mention also that some well-known figures of the Jahiliyah had also encountered the ghil. Mas'ddi for example, states that: ‘Some of the Companions of the Prophet mentioned that “Umar ibn al-Khattab -may God be satisfied with him- encountered the ghil one day on his way to Damascus. He killed it with his sword. This was before the advent of Islam, This story is well-known in their annals (1965. Vol .2:135). AU pny thal oo poe Gl local ge Leles S345 3° eine Lee GT y pl! PLA ol} ab pd sal ie pBoLS ph pase pete [by ped! ek Sad ally ‘What is the gender of this monster? Some of the primary sources mention that i is female, others claim that itis male, ‘The popular belief at the time of pre-Islam was that there was a ghél (masculine) and its female ghilah. al-Jahiz. seems to incline to the idea that it can be both, a kind of androgynous creature, By way of contrast, some lexicographers such as al-Zabidi and Tbn Manzi think itis a female3 2.STLAH ‘The poets mention also a kind of another female demon named al-Be of which the plural is sa°@li. Arab lexicographers mention her as being sdhirat alsjinn (the witch among the jinn), al-Zabfdi claims that: "As there are magicians among men, thus it is among jinn (1965. vol. 8:51). He claims that: ‘The sit is the most sneaky of all jinn. If she encounters a human, she keeps dancing with him or her and playing as does a cat with a mouse (Ibid. vol. 7: 375). Ibn Fitis states that she is "the most sneaky of all ghiln.” He mentions that: People believed in the Jahiliyah that the wolf hunts for the sa°alf in the night. When he approachs them, the silah starts screaming "the wolf is eating me! Who will save me?" (1368 H:74) al-Aldst tells a popular story about “Amr ibn Yarba* who fell in love with a ghilah: Yarbi’ married her, and she gave birth to human children, Itis said that one day, she saw lightening in the sky. It was a sign of her clan calling her, so she left children and husband, and returned to her clan” (1924. vol. 2:341), al-Alisi adds that an Arabian clan was supposed to have sprung from this marriage betwen Ibn Yarbi? and a si'lah. Whether this ancestry was originally regarded as an honor or the reverse is unknown, This clan was called band {lB (the sons of si'lah). ‘What are the differences betwen a si and a ghil? Damiri mentions-69- that the ghil appears to humans in the night, while the si'lah appears in the day. (n., vol. 2:223). al-Jabiz tells of another difference: "The fire that a ghil kindles in the night is different from the fire kindled by a sitlah" (1966. vol. 4:481), But he does not specify in which way. Is there any relation between a si'lah and a ghil? Some sources seem to think so. al-Zabi sserts that the ghil is a jinni, whose wife is a siIah (1965. vol. 8:51). 3. SHIOO: ‘This kind of jinn is the strangest of all. Mas*ddi mentions that the Arabs of pre-Islam described it as a man split in two, having half a body. As with the two other kinds, it seems to appear mainly during the journeys, in the desert (1965. vol. 2:140), Ifa shigg encounters a human, he beats him till he dies, al-Jahiz records this story ~Algama ibn Safwan ibn Umayya went in the time of the Jabiliyah to Mecca one day on a donkey. He arrived to a place called ha’ Hazmin, There, a shiga appeared to him, He had only one hand, one eye, one leg. They recited poetry to each other, then they hit each other, and both of them fell dead (1966, vol. 6:206). Interestingly enough, Ibn Manziir in Lisin al “arab (The Language of the Arabs) asserts that shigg is the name for a kahin (priest) in the Jahiliyah. It is not a kind of jinn. But this kahin was in fact like the shiqg himself, a person-10- split in two (n.d. vol. 10: 605).4 4, SHAYIAN It is noticeable that the word shaytfin occurs much less frequently in pre-Islam than the three other words mentioned above: ghil, si'Jah, and shiqq. In pre-Islamic poetry, the word occurs mainly in the poetry of Umayya ibn abi al-Salt (d. 624 A.D.) and “Adi ibn Zayd (d. 590 A.D.) who had vaguely monotheistic ideas. It seems that the first had access to some basic ideas of Judaism and Christianity. As for the second poet, he was himself Christian. It is possible then to relate the knowledge of the two poets of shaytan to ahl-al kitab (people of the book): Jews and Christians).5 Except for these two poets, the other meaning of shaytin in pre-Islam is generally different from the Judeo-Christian one that Islam in turn adopted. ‘The shaytan of the Jahilivah is not necessarily evil. He is smart and cunning. He is very powerful. Yaqit mentions that: The Arabs apply the term shaytin to every rebel among jinn, humans, and beasts. The term refers also to a branch of the tribe of Tamim (1975. vol. 3:281). slgall 9 atl y Gall Oe spe be SS geen pall ge ped oe by Slbad y Lae al-Jahiz mentions that: In pre-Islam, shaytén is not yet clothed with all the attributes of rebellion that one finds in Judeo-Christianity. The word itself-11- comes from a root sh-t-n which means to be clever, to be cunning (1966. vol. 1:153-291).. Ton Mangir relates in Lisdn al-‘arab (The Language of the Arabs) the root to the meaning of ugliness, too. He asserts that: "The Arabs of pre-Islam used to call the branches of an ugly tree ru’Gs al-shayétin (the heads of satans), an expression that one encounters later on in the Qur'an" (n.d. vol. 12:351). Despite the insistence of the majority of primary sources on the Arab origin of the word, some orientalists such as Noldeke point to a possible foreign origin of the term ‘shaytin' Noldeke states in The Encyclopedia of Religions and Ethics that: “Its form agrees so closely with that of the Ethiopian word shaytin, which is derived from the Hebrew Satan that we are forced to consider it a loan word” (1921. vol. 1:678).6 5. SUMMARY 5.1. The blurring of genders: the question of androgyny ‘The first thing that draws one’s attention is the confusion that exists between some kinds of ji in the Jéhiliyah. It is not clear from the primary sources what is exactly a ghil and what is exactly a silat Despite the efforts of Arab lexicographers, the boundaries are not clear between those two kinds of jinn. ‘There is a blurring of genders concerning them. Is the ghil a masculine, feminine, or both? Is it a kind of hermaphrodite creature that lurks in the desert? Concerning this latter question, it does not seem from the7s primary sources that the imagination of the Arabs at that point in time was as concerned with this kind of hermaphroditic creatures as one finds in Greck mythology as stated by the contemporary historian of religions Wendy O'Flaherty: The androgyne or hermaphrodite is popularly regarded as a universal, archetypal symbol. In fact, though it is widespread, beyond any single culture, many Teligions, particularly the “primitive” ones, have managed to survive without it (1980:284). In general, the relation of silah to ghil remains vague in the primary sources. Ibn Manzi is confusing on the question. For example, first he asserts in Lisin al-arab (The Language of the Arabs) that the name qutrub applies to the male of al-si‘léh (n.d. vol. 1:683) then he adds that the si'lah is the ghdl itself (n.d. vol. 11:36). Jawad “Alf also thinks that these two different names refer to the same kind of jinn (1970. vol. 6: 729). al-Jahiz is no less confusing. First, he claims that; "Silat is the female of a ghil” (1966. vol. 4:481). ‘Then he adds that: "Ghil can be a female or a male" (Ibid. vol. 6:158-9). Does that mean that ghdl has a female counterpart named “ghillah"? In The Encyclopedia of Islam, one can find a summary of this issue: Early sources, while observing that ghil denotes a male as well as a female being, make it clear that the Arabs tended to regard it as a female; later sources however make it into a diabolical jinn and certain of them prefer to apply the word ghiil to the male, of whom the female is called si'lah, while others consider the qurub as the male of the latter (1991. vol. 2:1078).-B- Despite this vagueness in the description of ghdll and siIah, one element keeps coming clearly in almost all of these primary sources: it isthe relation of ghilah and si'lah to women, For the people of pre-Islam, shape shifting in these creatures was understood as a dimension of feminity. A silah kept changing shapes infinitely till she attracted a man in the desert. al-Aliist ‘mentions that the Arabs at that point in time called any attractive, powerful woman a sitlih (1922. vol. 2:346). Tbn Manzir also claims in Lisin_al-arab (The Language of the Arabs): Ghilén and sa‘ Ali are similar to women, The Arabs used to say that the ghilén appear to them in the desert, keep changing shapes, and lead them astray from the road, so they perish (n.d, vol. 11:507). Oi do Goal LS voli! Joe Lally Sahel I” FOG yb gh Wyss Gad WU gol 3 Olli go! “pS 9 Gerbil Ge pple al-Aliisi wrote the following: "If they found the woman sharp of look and intelligence, quick of movement and slim, they would then say: she is a "(1924:346). Byes AS pall Leg pa GBI! y Gyo Bags Sil Lgl 1 pag eB IG 5.2. The blurring of species: the question of hybrid creatures If one reads detailed descriptions of these kinds of jinn, one is astonished to see how often these creatures are formed from two or even more species.74. ‘Thus a ghél is sometimes half a man, half a donkey. al-Alist mentions that it has the head of a cat and the tongue of a dog (1922. vol. 2: 342). al-Jahiz asserts that a ghil can change everything in its appearance, except its feet which remain a donkey's feet, no matter the shape it takes (1966. vol. 6:20). In all their representations of the ghil, the Arabs at that time pictured it as having a composite body. ‘The pre-Islamic Arabs were not the only ones to view the supernatural beings which they called the jinn as hybrid creatures. This representation of spiritual beings as composite creatures was something common to ancient civilizations and widely spread in the Mediterranean area as stated by C. J. S. ‘Thompson: Herodotus describes some people who were supposed to live beyond the region inhabited by the Scythians as having goats’ feet. The Babylonians and Assyrians had representations of monsters in their winged bulls or lions with human heads, which were often placed at the entrance of buildings to frighten away the spirits of evil (1968:20).7ese ENDNOTES OF CHAPTER THREE . Salim al-Hat claims that this personage was a renown thief in the Jahiliyah period. In his verse, he tells of his wanderings in the desert and of his several fights with the ghil (1979:274), al-Ma’arri considers that the poet had invented this story. He even thinks that all the poetry about intermarriages between ghils and humans in pre-Islam is mere fantasy (1950:351). W. R. Smith takes the opposite position, claiming that: "Ta’bbata Sharran is an historical personage and the incident also is probably a fact" (1927:129) . al-Jahiz mentions that this strange detail: the ghiil dies from one stroke, but ‘can come back to life if itis hit again. It remains then alive for ever, even after one thousand srokes (1966. vol. 6:158). . For more details on the life of this intriguing personage, see al-Aldst (1934. vol. 3:278), al-Zabidi (1965. vol. 6:396) and al-jabari in his Tarikh 911). . Although the term "abl al-kitab" (people of the Book) applies specifically to Jews and Christians, its use was later extended to the. Sabeans. and Zoroastrians, because it was thought that they too were “possessors of scriptures.” ‘See especially The Encyclopedia of Islam (1991. vol. 1:264).. (History) (wd. vol. Noldeke is not the only orientalist to speak of a foreign origin of the term “shaytin." See also Philip Hitti who wrote in tum that: "The term ‘shaytin’ points to Christian and Abyssinian influence on Moslem Hijéz. (1943:106). . On this belief in supernatural beings as hybrid creatures, see also René Dussaud who wrote on the genies guarding the entrance of the garden of Eden as :"ces acolytes de la divinité ont un aspect composite” (1941:55),CHAPTER FOUR NATURE OF THE JINN IN PRE-ISLAM ‘The question of hybridity raises many questions about the the nature of the jinn, It was shown in the preliminary chapter that these creatures are defined as being composed of two elements: fire and air, Are they some kind of heavenly beings, or on the contrary, as the descriptions from pre-Islam show, carthly beings, powerful creatures half beasts, half spirits? To investigate the mystery of the jinn belonging simultaneously to two opposite realms, that of matter and that of spirit, it is necessary to view in tur first to their relation to angels and second to their relation to animals, 1 RELATION OF THE JINN TO ANGELS 1.1. Difficulty of the topic It is difficult to study the relation of the jinn to angels. The pre-Islamic ‘Arabs did not have a developed cosmology with clearly defined notions of angelology or demonology. It is possible to find some information on this question in some primary sources, mainly in history books such as the Tarikh (History) of al-Tabari, in geography books such as the works of al-Qazwint and al-Damiri, in some chronicles such as in al-Azraq’s Akhbar Makkah (Tales of Mecca). However, it is in the Qur'an that one finds the greatest -76--11- amount of information concerning details of the religious life of pagan Arabia. In the preliminary chapter, it was mentioned that angels were called sometimes jinn because they were like them, veiled from human eyes. The characteristic of invisibility is shared by both angels and jinn, which led most of the Arabs at that point in time to confuse them, Ibn Mang in Lisin al-arab (The Language of the Arabs) mentions the following on this issue: “The people of the Jahiliyah called angels-peace be upon them-jinn because they were invisible from sight” (n.d. vol. 13:197). oe pea Lp plead pple SION ghey Cabal! Ua GIS 9° “osgall The relation of jinn to angels in pre-Islam is difficult to study because of this confusion which will continue somewhat in Islam as shall be seen in what follows. 1.2, Beli in angels in pre-Islam This blurring of boundaries between angels and jinn led some historians to say that the Arabs of pre-Islam ignored the existence of angels. They knew only the notion of jinn. Occasionally, some of them attributed the name jinn toa vague entity: malak (angel). Jawad “Alf in his al-Mufassal ff Térikh, al*Arab qabl al-Islam (The Detailed History of the Arabs before Islam) expresses the opinion that: ‘The belief in angels comes rather from Judeo-Christian sources than pure Arab sources. Except for those poets who were in contact with-78- ‘ahl al kitéb (The People of the Book), like the poet Umayya ibn abt -Sal, the rest of the Arabs at that point in time ignored the notion of angels (1970, vol. 6:738)- ‘Toufic Fahd thinks also that the Arabs of pre-Islam ignored the concept of angel. He does not think that the Arabs at that point in time took it from Judeo-Christian sources, but rather that: "L’angélologie n'est entrée en Arabie que par la voie de L'tslam naissant" (1971: 156). Joseph Chelhod, a French sociologist of religions, disagrees. He thinks that the concept of angel as. distinct from jinn existed already in the Jahiliyah: Bien que le mot mala‘ika (anges) selon toute vraisemblance, soit d'origine étrangére (il serait de l'éthiopien ou de I’araméen), il a di pénétrer ts t6t parmi les Arabes du Hijéz, au point qu’a la veille de I'Heégire, il faisait deja partie de leur vocabulaire religieux. Mais en s‘intégrant aux croyances arabes, cette nouvelle notion aurait subi de notables modifications (1964:78).1 In the Qurin, it is mentioned that the Arabs of pre-Islam were familiar with this concept of angel, since it says that Muhammad's Meccan opponents asked him to make them acquainted with his ‘angel in order to prove his prophethood to them. Consequently, they must have known that angels are sent to certain chosen individuals such as prophets. In $.6/8, the Meccans demand to see’ the angel of the Prophet: ‘They are saying, too, "why has not an angel visibly been sent down unto him?" But had we sent down an angel, all would indeed have been decided, and they would have been allowed no further respite for repentance,-19- In S.11/12, the Meccans repeat their demand to Muhammad which shows clearly that the concept of angel was widely known among them: Is it then, concievable, O Prophet, that thou couldst omit any part of what is being revealed unto thee because the deniers of the truth dislike it, and because thy heart is distressed at their saying: "why has not a treasure been bestowed upon him from on high” or why has not an angel come visibly with him?" In his comment upon this specific verse, Muhammad Asad wrote: Explaining this verse, Ibn “Abbas mentions that some of the pagan chieftains of Mecca exclaimed dersively: “bring before us angels who would bear witness to thy being @ prophet!” Whereupon the above verse was revealed (1984:313), 1.3. Angels and goddesses Several goddesses were worshiped as angels or daughters of Allah, mainly al-Lat, al-"Uzza and Mandt.2 Mubhiy al-Din al-Attar in Buldgh al-arab fi dthér al-‘arab (Attaining the Goal in Knowing the Traces of the Arabs) claims that: Every tribe among the Arabs had its own idol which they called ‘daughter of.’ These idols were worshipped as angels, as daughters of Allah (1913 :97). It is again in the Quran that one finds a wealth of details on the worship of goddesses as celestial beings in pre-Islam. The Qur'an asserts that the ancient Arabs believed that these three goddesses were considered a kind of-80- divine beings of a lower grade than Allah, ‘They were called "daughters of Alléh.” The goddess al-Lat was worshipped at al-Ta'if3 The goddess alUzza was worshipped at Nakhla near Mecca and Medina. al-"Uzza was worshipped in the first place by Quraysh. The goddess Manat had a shrine between Mecca and Medina and was worshipped primarily by the Arabs of Medina, These three goddesses were worshipped mainly at their shrines where ritual ceremonies were performed. ‘The pagan Arabs of pre-Islam flocked in pilgrimages to these shrines.4 ‘The Qur'an comments on several occasions on the beliefs in these goddesses as female angels, as daughters of Allah, God addresses the pagan Arabs in S.17/40: Has then, your Sustainer distinguished you by giving you sons, and taken unto himself daughters in the guise of angels? Verily, you are uttering a dreadful saying!5 In $.43/19, this same belief in angels as daughters of Allah is sharply criticized: ‘And yet they claim that the angels-who in themselves are but beings created by the Most gracious-are females: but did they witness their creation? ‘This false claim of theirs will be recorded, and they willbe called to account for it on Judgment Day! Finally, in $.53/27-28, it is said that: Behold, it is only such as do not really believe in the life to comeAGic that regard the angels as female beings (27). And since they have no knowledge whatever therof, they follow nothing but surmise: yet, behold, never can surmise take the place of truth (28).6 14, Angels, jinn, and Allah Another belief in angels was also prevalent in the Jahilivah. The Arabs of pre-Islam thought that the angels are the children of unions between Allah and the daughters of the jinn.7 In the Qur'an, one finds numerous allusions to the fact that the Arabs of pre-Islam, especially those of Hijéz, believed that Allah and the jinn were relatives. Some of them even worshiped the jinn because of this relation to Allah. In the Qur'én, in $.6/100, it is mentioned that the pagan Arabs ‘worshipped the jinn beside Allah: And yet, some people have come to attribute to all manner of invisible beings Ginn) a place side by side with God-although it is He who has created them all; and in their ignorance they have invented for Him sons and daughters. In S. 34/40 this same idea of the worship of the jinn is expressed. God asks the angels the following question: ‘And [as for those who deny the truth] one Day he will gather them all together, and will ask the angels: "Was it you that they were wont to worship?" (40). They will answer: "Limitless art Thou in Thy glory! Thou [alone] art close unto us, not they! Nay, [when they thought that they were worshipping us} they were but (blindly) worshipping forces concealed from their senses (the jinn); most of them believed in them.” (41)aoe In $.72/6, its clearly mentioned that the Arabs before Islam sought help ‘and protection from the jinn: ‘Yet it has always happened that ceratin kinds of humans would seek refuge with certain kinds of such invisible forces (the jinn): but these only increased their confusion. 1. Angels and humans Beside the belief in angels as daughters of Allah and as the result of union between the daughters of the jinn and Allah, the pagan Arabs believed that fallen angels interacted with humans and even had sexual relations with them, In some primary sources, one finds stories on fallen angels and their sexual relations with humans. One of the most widespread stories is the story of the tribe of Jurhum. al-Jahiz relates it as follows: They claimed that Jurhum is the result of union between the angels and the daughters of Adam. It is said that when an angel disobeys his God in Fieaven, God sends him down to earth in the image of a man and gives him a human nature, When an angel disobeyed God, he sent him down to earth in the image of a man. He married then the mother of Jurhum who gave birth to Jurhum (1969. vol.1:187). gepel cbs y TOU One Le CLES Ge GIS Lad pe Bi 1g S55” DIMI | Cal olan g¥ 5 eae 13] ESOL Gye lll GIS OR AGS Ul ewe EL ab gd ide y Bye gt “phon ha des Bye Sb ll deal 4 sill ‘The fact that the ancestor of Jurhum was a fallen angel took an extreme importance in the eyes of the pagan Arabs. This tribe played an important role-83- in the Jahiliyah. ‘The sanctuary of Mecca was of very old antiquity. It was controlled by Jurhum as expressed by Toufic Fahd in these terms: "Crest ainsi que Jurhum, ancétre de la tribu qui, selon la tradition régna sur 1a Meque aprés les descendants d'Tsmael aurait eu pour pére un ange déchu" (1966:70). ‘The story of Jurhum is linked in a way or another to the story of the Ka'bah itself. al-Tabari relates the story of the custody of the Ka'bah in these terms: It (thats, the Ka'bah] had not any custodians since its destruction in the time of Noah. ‘Then God commanded Abraham to settle his son by the Kabah, wishing thereby to show a mark of esteem to one whom he later ennobled by means of His Prophet Muhammad, Abraham, the friend of the Compassionate, and his son Ishmael ‘were custodians of the Kabah after the time of Noah, Mecca was then uninhabited, and the surrounding country was inhabited by the Jurhum and the Amaliga (trans. 1988. vol. 1:1131). al-Tabari mentions that Ishmael, in order to coexist with his powerful new neighbor, had eventually to marry a woman of the Jurhum, Sayyidah bint ‘Mudad, who bore him twelve sons (Ibid.:1139).8 2. THE RELATION OF THE JINN TO ANIMALS, OR, THE BESTIAL COMPONENT OF THE JINN 2.1. Introduction If the data concerning the relation of the jinn to angels is rather scanty and often contradictory, the data on the relation of the jinn to animals is on the-84- contrary prolific. In The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Barton mentions that: ‘The early Arabs believed in a great mass of spirits called jinn, these ‘were not pure spirits, for they were often represented as hairy and often as having the form of an ostrich or a snake, It was believed that, when a jinnf was killed, a solid carcass was left behind, Nevertheless the jinn had the’ power to appear and disappear, to assume temporarily any form that pleased them (1921. vol. 11:135). In pre-Islam, the jinn were either pictured as close to angels, as pure spirits, abstract emtities, divine powers, or, they were - on the contrary - pictured as concrete and tangible beings. This latter representation seems to have prevailed during pre-Islam. The fact that the jinn were embodied in animal forms has been commented differently by researchers on the religion of the pagan Arabs. W. R. Smith states that: ‘There is no great gulf between the jinn and wild beasts on one hand and human beings on the other. ‘The failure to distinguish clearly between human and animal is common among primitive peoples (1927:538). 2.2, Spiritual entities and animal power in the ancient Near East This representation of the supernatural powers as having an animal aspect is not in fact characteristic of what Smith calls ‘primitive’ peoples. Most civilizations, whether primitive or advanced, have linked the supernatural in ‘one way or another to animal power, or even to the genuinely savage. The great civilizations of the Near East from Egypt to Babylon to Canaan picturedeas" the spiritual entities as having animal forms. It was part of a view of nature as a whole, in which the several orders of natural and supernatural beings were mixed. It was a world in which animal and human shapes were interchangeable, where a jealous goddess could tum her rival into a snake. Voluntarily or involuntarily, humans became animals and animals became humans. One of the basic beliefs held that divine power could become manifest in certain animals and birds, especially bulls, snakes, cows, rams, and falcons. ‘There was also a belief that spiritual entities: gods, demons, and jinn took animal form or even a composite human-animal form when they visit the earth9 All the Egyptian gods had animal aspects and in some cases, although human in body, they almost never appeared except with the head of the appropriate animal. Animals were worshipped in Egypt because of their strength and also out of fear. E. A. Wallis Budge asserts that “The Egyptians developed the idea that individual animals were the abodes of the gods, and they believed that certain deities were incamate in them” (1969. vol. 2:345), The Babylonian pantheon was also rich in gods and demons having animal forms. ‘Thus, the demon Gallu had sometimes the form of a bull, while another one named Alu appeared often to humans in a composite form: half human, half animal.10 In the Babylonian legend of creation, humans and animals were formed of earth mingled with the life blood of a god. The Hebrews also represented their demons with animal aspects.11 It was thisot" belief in spiritual entities inhabiting animal bodies that led the Greek Porphry to become a vegetarian as stated by Edward Langton: Porphny, as a vegetarian, believes inthe virtues of abstinence from flesh-meats, in which, he says, the demons delight, and enter into those who use them. “The same writer also related that among the Egyptians and Phoenicians, the priests drive away the demons by giving them the breath or blood of animals, and by beating the air, ‘Thus the Greek belief in demons and exorcism is brought into connection with similar beliefs in Egypt and Syria (1981:84). 2.3. The Jinn as serpents 2.3.1. Serpents as the embodiment of spiritual entities in the Ancient Near East ‘The serpent is not a mythical creature. Yet, its position in the legends and superstitions is such that it can truly be said to have a supematural as well as a natural existence. It is also credited with having in its possession secrets of renewing life that are denied to humanity. ‘The serpent was believed to have no fear of old age, to be immortal because it casts its skin. It is thus a creature to be envied as well as feared, an evil genius perhaps, but one of infinite cunning and subtlety. Therefore, serpents were associated with spiritual entities throughout the ancient Near East, In many cases a demonic character is directly attributed to them. The idea of demons in serpent form was familiar to ‘many peoples in the ancient Near East from Egypt to Babel to Persia where in Persian mythology the serpent Dahaka is the incamation of evil spirit Angra-87- Mainyu. ‘The repulsion that a serpent causes to many humans, its size and strength, the mystery of its silent gliding movements made it an embodiment of supernatural powers. Both fear and fancy gave rise to certain beliefS in ‘mythical supernatural serpents as stated by A. Macculioch in The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics The origin of the cult of the serpent is to be sought in the effect which all animals more or less had upon the mind of early man-a feeling that they were stronger, wiser, subtler than he; in a word, uncanny. This was especially true of the serpent because ofits sw yet graceful and mysterious gliding motion without feet or wings, unlike that of any other animal, its power of disappearing suddenly. More recently, Elliot Smith suggests a theory of migration by which, along with megalith-building terrace-culture, and many other things, serpent-worship originated in Egypt about 800 B.C., was spread thence by the Phoenicians to other areas in the Middle-East (1921. vol. 11:400). In Egypt the serpent, more exactly the cobra of the lower Nile was named Wadjat and worshipped as a goddess of good. The figure of the serpent appears as a personal or house protecting amulet throughout Egyptian history. Many varieties of snakes were in fact venerated by the Egyptians. Serpents and snakes were kept in large numbers in temples.12. Serpents were both a symbol of deity and of evil as stated by E. A. Wallis Budge: ‘The great enemy of Horus, and Ra, and Osiris, and also of the deceased in the Underworld was the monster serpent Apep, or ‘Apohis, which directed the attacks on gods and men of numbers of serpent broods, and which was held to be the personification of all evil; on the other hand the uraeus was the symbol of divinity and royalty, for the walls of the abode of Osiris were surmounted by ing uraei,’ and the god Ra wore two uraci upon his forehead, and-88- every king is represented with a uraeus upon his forehead (1969:377). In Babylon, it is possible to find a similar belief in the serpents as chthonic powers. They were primarily associated with the nether world and ‘worshipped because of their secret knowledge, their power of healing. In the myth of Tiamat, of Sumerian origin, the goddess Tiamat herself is identified with the "evil serpent” or the " serpent of darkness.” The demonic aspect of the serpent is seen also in the myths of Labbu and in the serpent which stole the plant of immortality from Gilgamesh 13 ‘The Hebrews, too had their own representation of serpents as embodying powerful entities. Several passages of the Old Testament can only be fully understood when it is recognized that they refer to demonic creatures of serpentine form. ‘The myth of the chaos-dragon is found in the writings of the post-exilic prophets. In Isaiah 27:1, an oracle, introduced by the characterisite formula ‘in that day,’ declares: "Yahweh with his sure and great and strong sword shall punish Leviathan the swift serpent, and Leviathan the crooked (or, winding) serpent, and he shall slay the dragon that is in the sea.” In Numbers 21:6 it is said: "And the Lord sent fiery serpents (literally seraphim [serpents}) among the people, and they bit the people; and much people of Israel died.” In verse 8 it is told that the Lord commanded Moses to make a " fiery serpent” (literally a saraph) and put it upon a pole. When those ‘who had been bitten looked upon the bronze serpent they lived. In Isaiah 30:6-89- this “fiery flying serpent" is spoken of as inhabiting the southern desert between Palestine and Egypt. In Isaiah 6:2, the seraphim are a kind of semi-divine beings with three pairs of wings. ‘They stand, fly, and proclaim God's ineffable holiness before the divine throne. This description of serpents as fiery and winged creatures in the Old Testament has been commented on by Edward Langton as follows: There is no doubt that in these passages the reference is to a popular mythological conception associated with serpents as demonic creatures. ‘The Hebrew word ‘saraph’ comes from a root ‘meaning ' to bum, and in all probability the name was given to the serpent on account of its burning bite and the inflammation which arises therefrom. The word ‘flying’ which is added to the description in the Isaianic passage, may simply have reference to the swift daring movements of the serpent when in pursuit of its prey, but more probably it is to be understood as denoting such composite forms as are characteristic of Egyptians and Babylonian religion. (1981:38) Some authors think that there was more than the fear and veneration of the serpent in Judaism. They think that there was even a cult of the serpent, Among those scholars is S. H. Hooke, the eminent British scholar who based most of his research on recent archeological discoveries in the Midle East. Hooke states that: Certain features of the recent discoveries at Beth-Sahn - situated above the Jordan Valley in the vicinity of the plain of Esdraelon - are worthy of brief comment. The name of the place, as well as various objects found there, indicates that it was a center of serpent-worship, a cult which survived in Jerusalem as late as the time of Hezekiah (1933:76).-90- 2.3.2. The jinn as serpents in Arabia The Arabs frequently conceived of powerful entities as assuming the form of serpents which haunted ruins, graves and desolated places, and which appear and disappear so mysteriously about walls and the roots of trees as well as into caves, holes and water, as though making their way to the underworld.14 It is this underground nature of serpents which may account for their reputation, especially in regard to their possession of secret power. ‘The jinn are depicted as being able to dwell in different animal forms. But the serpent form seems to be the preferred one as stated by Noldeke: “The jinn are usually invisible, but are capable of assuming various forms, especially those of snakes, lizards, scorpions, and other creeping things; hence the word ian may be used to denote a snake." (In The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. 1921. vol. 1:669) Lane too gives the same meaning to jén in his Lexicon: “Jan is a white serpent or a small serpent or a great serpent or a species of serpent having black-bordered eyes, inclining to yellow, harmless and abounding in houses” (1863:464), Jawad “Ali mentions that; “In old Arabic folklore, snakes were regarded as the daughters of the jinn” (1970. vol. 5:47). In Majma’_al-'amthal (Anthology of Proverbs) of Maydani, it is the word shaytin which is equivalent to ‘serpent,’ and not the word jn. Maydént claims that: In the Jéhiliyah, shaytin was considered to be a serpent whom. nothing resists. It used to come to the Forbidden House of God and-91- hit the ground with its body. Anthing which passed by it was doomed to perish. It became a proverb for anything that perishes and does not leave any trace (1988. vol. 1:84).15 DS 5 tp Ul pgs Y aLalell 4b cals Ge Gla IG” Day Uh Ga WI eas Spd he SS cod pall ll se BS ES (oh AU Oy Gand aL YE “a Primary sources speak of wars betwen jinn and humans, These sources state that when a human kills a jinnf, the carcass remaining is a serpent. Noldeke quoting Jawad *Ali mentions that: It is related that the Meccan clan of Sahm once suffered injuries at the hands of the jinn, and accordingly marched out to a certain spot, where they proceeded to kill as many snakes, beetles, etc, that the jinn were forced to sue for peace; here the creatures slained are evidently regarded as being themselves jinn. When Harb, the grandfather of the caliph Mu’ awiyah, together with another man, are engaged in clearing a marsh for purposes of cultivation, white serpents were seen to fly out of the buming weeds; and when both persons died forthwith, everyone perceived that the jinn had slain them (1921, In The Encyclopedia of Religion_and Ethics, vol. 1:669-70), As for al-Altisi, he writes that: “after killing a serpent, some Arabs were afraid that the jinn might revenge the serpent" (1924, vol. 2:358). “oiby sity of Gall Ga LAME Lael! 195 13] [ysl pg Jawad “Ali mentions additional details concerning the relation of the pre-Islamic Arabs to the serpent. He claims that: ‘The scholars mention that Alldha is the name of a large serpent, and-92- that al-Lat (the well-known idol) was originally named Iaha, as if they wanted to call it serpent. The name of God Almighty is derived from this word. In the pre-Islamic legends, it is mentioned that Ps Arabs of the Jahiliyah worshipped the serpent (1970. vol. 727). Gig Raped Cyal gh pall pa (Lan) of Lab 453 5" stall paal Gis - Ley pau GIS MAY dhol Gy yall inal aasull Coal opealell Sd sak Le CALA Sabla ob 5 Ue All this data gives insights into the relation of the jinn to serpents as imagined by the pre-Islamic Arabs. But it does not help when one tries to find an answer to the following question: were the Arabs at that point in time worshipping the serpent itself or were they worshipping it only as the embodiment of a god, or a certain spirit, a jinnf, a kind of invisible power?16 2.4, The jinn as other animals ‘The serpent was not the only animal who had a connection with the jinn in the imagination of the Arabs of the Jahiliyah. Often, the primary sources mention that scorpions can also be jinn. When a jinnf is killed, its carcass can be either a serpent or a scorpion. Scorpions were much venerated in the ancient Near East. In Egypt, for instance, the scorpion was venerated ata very carly period, and the scorpion-goddess Serget or Selget was in some of her aspects associated with the powers of evil Most reptiles, lizards, and chthonien animals in general were thought to embody jinn’s powers. But one finds that also gazelles can embody jinn as-93- Jawad “Ali mentions: Gazelles are the cattle of the jinn. Some people allege that they hear and talk, They tell stories about them, (1970. vol. 6:817). coal ale LIN te HSS gone ek open ne gt “Uehe canal Dogs were also pictured as having a certain relation to jinn. Thus, ‘Noldeke mentions that: "A brave warrior is described as alarming the dogs of the jinn so that they growl" (1921. In The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. vol.1:670). The same author tells stories of jinn transformed into animals, such as hedgehogs or lions. al-Alisf tells of dialogues between these jinn-animals and humans. In ‘some cases, the jinn are not embodied in animals, but nevertheless they seem to care for them, defend them, and intervene when humans kill animals to blame them, There is a story told about an Arab in the Jahilivah who killed a hedgehog’s mate. When the animal was slain, the Arab heard the voice of a jini cursing him for committing such a horrible act (1924, vol. 2:357). Another feature of this jinn-animal relation is that the jinn choose certain animals as their mounts, especially ostriches. Several primary sources mention ostriches as being the favorite mounts of the jinn. It seems that the Arabs were not the only Semitic people to relate spiritual entities and ostriches as stated by Langton in his Essentials of Demonology: ‘The Hebrew term ‘benoth_ya'anamah’ for ostrich means literally “daughters of greed.” With two exceptions it is used only in the-94- plural. It fittingly describes the ostrich which is a very voracious bird. It is also appropriate to a demonic creature, for according to both the Arabs and the Babylonians, demons are’ characterized by voracity. By the Arabs, ostriches are definitely connected with demons which are said to ride upon them or to assume their form (1981:42). have also other animals as their mounts. Campbell Thompson writes that: "The jinn ride on foxes, gazelles, and porcupines" (1908:59). al-Aldsi mentions that: "The Arabs believed that the cock, the raven, the dove, the hedgehog, the rabbit, and the gazelle are either a kind of jinn or at Jeast mounts for them" (1924. vol. 2:376). Aig SAARI g Lalaall y OI aI y clo! i sates G yall y” coll os £93 US aba Ge ape y Gall Yale GAG Leakilly Ol Sl pe Sh Bas oe apie From the primary sources, it seems that any animal in fact could be a ‘mount for the jinn. Sometimes, the primary sources speak of strange and enigmatic mounts for the jinn called “adrafit, There is very litte information, if any, on this beast, except what al-Aliisf himself says: ""Adrafit is a small beast that the jinn use as their mount” (1924. vol. 2:360). 3, SUMMARY 3.1, The relation of the jinn to angels is one of the most complicated issues in the study of the evolution of the concept of the jinn, It will be seen later on in the second part of this project that this relation remains unclear in-95- Islam. In pre-Islam jinn were described as having relations with angels as well as with humans and with Allah, It was even mentioned that their daughters had relations with Allah. From these unions angels were born. 3.2. Jinn were often described in the Jahiliyah as embodying animal forms. The great diversity of animal forms in which they were believed to dwell as well as the diversity of their favorite animal-mounts is perplexing. Except for the insistence on the serpent as the most widespread form of jinn's embodiment, both primary and secondary sources seem 1o indicate that practically any animal, whether dangerous or harmless, whether domestic or wild is a potential vehicle for the jinn. It seems that the animal in which the iinni or jinniyah is supposed to dwell is characterized by a swift movement, sudden appearance and disappearance, as mentioned by Chelhod in Structure: Les jinn peuvent aussi prendre la forme de scorpion, myriapode, herisson, gerboise, rat, souris et autres animaux chtoniens. Mais ils sont également en rapport avec des animaux semi-célestes: corbeau, coq, pigeon. Ils ont pour monture l’autruche, le lapin, le daim et le lézard, animaux géneralement rapides qui déroutent l'esprit par leur apparition soudaine et leur disparition (1958:74).17 ‘The primary sources provide scanty and contradictory information conceming the nature of the jinn in pre-Islam. ‘These sources picture them, sometimes as angels and sometimes as dwelling in animals, Was there a certain dualism in the thinking of the Arabs at that point in time? Were the jinn-angels good, while the jinn-animals were bad? It is worth mentioning at-96- that point of the research that paganism in general does not ackowledge duality as Mare Augé puts it clearly in his book Le génie du paganisme: “le paganisme n'est jamais dualiste et n'oppose ni l'esprit au corps ni la foi au savoir’ (1982:14). It is only with the coming of Islam that the jinn will be separated into good and bad, into pious Muslims and heretics.75 ENDNOTES FOR CHAPTER FOUR OF PART ONE |. Philip Hitti thinks also that the Arabs of pre-Islam were familiar with the concept of angel. He states that the term ‘malak’ comes rather from ‘Aramaic sources than Jewish or Christian sources (1943:106). In the pantheon of Souther Arabia, angels come often as goddesses, mainly the sun, On this, see especially'al-Alist (1924. vol. 2:215), . From the primary sources, it seems that al-Lat was the most venerated among all goddesses in pre-Islam. Ibn Hisham states in his sirah that: “Her temple in al-Taif used to be venerated as the Kabah is venerated today" (wans.1955:24). On this relation of the goddesses to their temples, see especially Montgomery Watt who states that: "we hear of Medinian nobles having ‘wooden representations of Manat in their houses, but on the whole the Arabs of that period probably hardly ever thought of the worship of any deity apart from the ceremonies that took place at particular shrine” (1960:103). .. The idea of the Arabs of pre-Islam worshipping angels as goddesses and as female subdeities is one of the most perplexing ideas in the religion of pagan Arabia. It is known that the Arabs of the Jahilivah had a great contempt for female offspring and for women in general. One of their ‘most barbaric customs was the burying alive of infant girls which the (Qur’én condemns strongly in many places, especially in $.16/57-59. ;. What is condemned also in these verses is the concept of ‘intermediary.’ ‘The pagan Arabs believed that these female subdeities will ‘intercede’ for them before Allah, the supreme god of the Jahiliyah, It shall be seen in Part 2 that the concept of intercessor is totally rejected in Islam, . Some authors such as Joseph Chelhod think that this belief refers to a stage in the rise ofthe jinn to the heavenly spheres (1964:79). It is known that the Arabs of pre-Islam believed that the jinn are earthly creatures but that they tried to go to Heaven and steal news from the court of Allah. . FE, Peters studied this link of the Ka'bah to the tribe of Jurhum from yet another angle. Peter claims that Band Ismail are "the made Arabs" (al-musta'ribah) because they came from Uruk in Babylon and “spoke Arabic only after they have settled among Arabs” while Jurhum are "the genuine Arabs" (al-aribah) for whom Arabic was their native tongue (1994:7).10. u. 12, 13. 4. 15, 16. 17. -98- According to this view, the custody of the Ka’bah by the tribe of Jurhum. takes even a greater importance. If one agrees with Peters that Band Isma’il are not native speakers of Arabic, then the custody of the sanctuary of Mecca by Jurhum becomes the first custody of the Kabah by an Arab tribe. Henri Frankfort showed that cattle were venerated in most areas of the ancient Near East, especially in Egypt. Frankfort speaks of ‘cattle images’ and ‘cattle similes’ (1948:162). For a more detailed description of demons embodied in animal forms in Babylon, see especially Diane Wolkstein and Samuel Kramer where one finds descriptions of "the wild haired enkum creatures who seized the boat of Heaven” (1983:21). See also S, H. Hooke (1963:39). On the Hebrew representation of demons in animal forms, see especially Campbell Thompson who stated that: "according to the Hebrew tradition, demons proverbially had cock's feet" (1908:61). ‘The Romans also used to keep a large number of tame snakes in temples and houses. On this issue, see especially The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethies (1921. vol. 11:404). ‘This myth of the serpent as a demon of the underworld is present also in Palmyra. On this, see W. R. Smith (1927:168). Smith comes several times to the idea of a river as a huge dragon or a water-monster. He states in the same reference that: "The river the Orontes was also considered as embodying a supernatural serpent or a jini” (Ibid.:588).. On the relation of serpents to graves and desolated places, see Macculioch ‘who explains this relation as follows: "Ancestor worship also assisted, in so far certain snakes haunting houses or graves were associated with the dead" (The Encyclopedia of Religion and Bthics. 1921. vol. 11:399). Noldeke states that the use of the term 'shaytin' to refer to a serpent is even colder than the use of the term jinn to refer to the same reptile (In The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics.1921. vol. 11:670). It is also possible to find insights into the relation of the Arabs to serpents at that point in time in pre-Islamic poetry. On this issue, see especially al-Mat arti (1950:359), For additional interpretation of the animal form of the jinn, see especially Toufic Fahd (1978:125).CHAPTER FIVE INTERACTION OF THE JINN WITH HUMANS IN PRE-ISLAM Primary sources tell us that the Arabs of pre-Islam had regular encounters with the jinn, whether they appeared to them in an angel-like form or in an animal-like form, ‘The data collected from the narratives of the Jahiliyah shows that throughout pre-Islam, the early Arabs believed in the existence of a world of powers beyond, or alongside, the visible, tangible world of everyday life. For them nature literally teemed, at every level with supernatural beings. ‘They also believed that communication between the world of spirits and the world of consensual reality occurred frequently. This communication produced some effects in the material world, just as incarnate spirits did. Their effects had some bearing upon human interests and purposes: they were either helpful or harmful. Therefore, it was pragmatic for the early Arabs to protect themselves against the operation of unfriendly spirits and to induce friendly cones to act in the way they wanted. They were often trying either to incite the jinn or to combat them, depending on the circumstances. In pagan Arabia, the supernatural maintained a constant intervention in all that happened to the individual or to the group of which he was a part. The early Arabs recognized the intervention of these spiritual entities in the course -99--100- of natural phenomena and regarded it as very frequent and even continuous, ‘Whatever the form of these spiritual powers in their encounters with humans, they were never deaf or mute. Sometimes, they were even tangible. They could be touched, addressed, heard, and even loved or hated, as shall be seen later. At that point in time, the world of spirits, of unseen, supernatural beings, ‘was close to the world of humans.1 W. R. Smith developed this relation between nature and the supernatural. Applying it to the relation of the early Arabs to the jinn, he writes: ‘The jinn, like “demons” and their kind, serve conveniently to explain whatever is not due to “natural” causes, or that which has a supernatural origin, and cannot be associated with any of the known, gods or spirits! “Unusual phenomena will be ascribed either to jinn or demons, or to more friendly beings, according to the particular circumstances of each (1927:538). ‘The relations of the early Arabs to the supematural beings called jinn were rich and varied. The present chapter deals with these encounters. It investigates the question of ‘disappearance of some persons and how this was ascribed to the jinn. It shows how the relationships between humans and jinn were complex, consisting of emotions such as fear, love, and hatred, like relationships between humans themselves. The narratives about the Jahiliyah tell stories of marriages that occurred between ins (humans) and jinn. ‘Sometimes, the relations between human beings and jinn were violent; it was said that wars occurred between the two. Finally, this chapter deals with the question of diseases and madness, both ascribed by the ancient Arabs to the-101- action of jinn and how the Arabs at that time used charms and exorcisms and sometimes offered sacrifices to protect themselves from these spiritual entities. 1 THE POWER OF THE JINN ‘The Arabs of the Jahillyah felt that they were occasionally impelled by an obscure power which opposed their intents and led them to a final result they had neither prepared nor desired. That power was an indeterminate one; it was the power of the jinn. All supernatural knowledge and every large ancient construction was ascribed to them. Any miracle, in general, was considered to be the consequence of the jinn’s intervention.2 ‘The legend of Sulayman and his control over the jinn can be found in the poetry of pre-Islam. Salim al-Hfiit mentions some poets who were in contact with Jews and Christians, such as al-A'sha and al-Nabighah, al-’A’sha expressed in his poetry his admiration for Sulayman, the master of the jinn, as in the following verse: Bellas greet winds ha bon sob (1579264), TUSIAM CLI Gall y ail ge Uke gill plage tla" al-Hat mentions also that the poets of pre-Islam used to believe that Palmyra (Tadmur) was built by the jinn. He mentions the following verse of the poet al-Nabighah:-102- Exploit the jinn for I have permitted them to build Tadmur with iron and columns (Ibid.:265). anally CUsalle pass cote pel 5) od ol gall Gad 5” ‘The pagan Arabs believed that the jinn could move entire villages with extraordinary speed. For the Arabs of the Jahilfyah, this was not a simple mirage due to certain effects of the sun and the sand, but due to the extreme speed of the jinn who were pictured as having the ability of changing quickly places and shapes, free as they were from the constraints of time and place. It ‘was impossible for humans to follow them and take their children back, Salim al- Hat mentions the following: Many narratives speak of their strong belief in the jinn who move their villages from one place to another with extreme speed, They used to say: "we encountered people, we went to them and camped with them to rest. Then we left them, When we returned, we did not find any trace of them. Henceforth, we knew that they were inn” (1979:116). SEs paste! LEY SLE ope ll Lily Il alls 3285 9” Uglgis StS Ridanae Le pay 981 ll Se coe YLUSY Gall gy ay Use geal sald pS iptabe GAIL L559 py Lye Le all pa pest Galad 131 psf 95 pla Jal The jinn were perceived to be listening to the heavens and transmitting to hhumans the secrets of the gods. They possessed also the art of working metals, Tt was a common belief among the pre-Islamic Arabs of that time that a=103- powerful sword had been crafted by the jinn. Ibn Manzir mentions the following in Lisan al-arab (The Language of the Arabs): A sword called ma‘thar is that sword made by the jinn” (n.d, vol. 4:167). coal dae Gf Jl gil ga dy 81 Ge ed atl aay Ina number of primary sources, one finds detailed comparisons between ordinary swords and the magic swords made by the jinn, ‘The ordinary ones broke easily, whereas the jinn's swords could perform astounding feats. The jinn’s swords are described as follows by Fawzi al’Antabil: It s alleged that al-malthir and al-ifranji are two swords made by the jinn, One of the characteristics of al-ifranjt is that itis a ‘male sword and that it hits more strongly as they said (1978:356). ng ecoall Le Coe Legh Lyme sill ped BY! y J sSUN 5” US all pb oped le Gal gy SSE Gl at iY! Slice “hie ‘The Arabs were not the only ones in the Mediterranean area to hold such beliefs. Both the Greeks and the Jews possessed similar beliefs as mentioned by Edwyn Bevan: ‘There is, however, one kind of instruction which the Apocalyptists believed to have been given by supernatural beings in the remote past, and this is just the same kind of knowledge about which the Greeks, as we saw, had a similar belief-the arts of civilized life (1928:86). 2. THE ORGANIZATON OF THE JINN In studying the relation between jinn and humans, one should also focusios on how the jinn were organized, The early Arabs viewed the society of the Jinn as being very similar to their own society, based on a tribal system. These spiritual entities were grouped in tribes, like the tribe of Band Ghazwén and the tribe of *Asr_as mentioned by Ibn Manzér in Lisdn al “arab (The Language of the Arabs): Band Ghazwan is a tribe of jinn” (n.d. vol. 5:89). «Call 4 gm dl 93d sys 9 *Asr is another jinn tribe. Ibn Abmar said: "Men resembling the jinn of “Asr where *Asr is pictured as a tribe of jinn. Some say itis also a place where the jinn dwell.” (n.d. vol. 4:566). sored ol a8 oh pata JUG all BL Go Ud penal cane aks scald ou Ud pune fe paws JT aS Gliciyy Gall Gist gaI al-Zabidi in Taj al--aris (The Crown of the Bride) mentions another tribe called Dabrash3 Like humans, jinn are also organized in bedouin and sedentary populations. al-Zabidi mentions that: ‘They are like humans. Among them are the sedentary, people of decision, and those who move and they are called a'rib al-jinn (the bedouin of the jinn). There are those who walk in the day, and those who walk in the night, and they are called surat al-jinn (1965. vol. 4:310). PAs URL aga yo lpAll Lal pall ppd yal Le Qaly Sally sas a a SUIL yas Oo pad g Dall Sle!-105- Callaway ‘These tribes of jinn had their own kings and chiefs.4 Jawad “Ali mentions some of their most well-known chiefs like al-shaysabin and akshingandg (1970, vol. 6:711). al-Ma’arr tells in his Ris@lat_al-ghufrin (Epistle of Forgivness) of the encounter of his hero in Paradise with a shaykh. ‘The following dialogue occurs between them: He asked him: “what is your name, O shaykh?” The other replied: “I am al-Khayta‘dr, from Band Shaysaban. We are not the sons of Iblis. We belong to the jinn who were dwelling on the earth before the birth of Adam, peace be upon him" (1950:283), Sy sei ypc ae!” BS fet) GS) chau! Le yaad” Fst GoM! Gall Soe GSS y "Gabel hy Ooe Ld 5 Gloseatill “abe AU) lee pat ay Sad GS YI gS Like the early Arabs, the jinn also made wars and concluded treaties. If a human attacked a jinn, the whole tribe avenged him, They also made wars between themselves. ‘The Arabs believed that the sand storms in the desert were due to quarrels between tribes of jinn, Commenting on the similarity of the two societies of jinn and humans, Joseph Chelhod wrote in Les Structures du Jes Arabes: A leur téte se trouvent plusieurs rois qui les gouvernent et & qui il arrive de conclure des traités d’alliance avec les hommes. Leur conception de I’honneur est pareille a ces demiers. En particulier, ils doivent respecter le droit de voisinage, si cher aux Arabes, protéger celui qui demande leur assistance, venir au secours de leurs igs et au besoin se battre & leurs cétés. Chez eux également la té et la vengeance sont de rigueur (1964:75).S~106- 3. ACTS OF VIOLENCE: WARS AND KIDNAPPINGS ‘There are several stories about how jinn killed or simply carried off human beings in the Jahiliyah. For example, there is a story told about a man called Khurafah, His story became even proverbial: hadith Khurdfah (the saying of a man called Khurdfah) means an untrue, fantastic story, like the story of Khurifah. The story of his disappearance and subsequent return is narrated in most of the primary sources.6 Jawad ‘AI tells the following in al-Mufassal fi tarikh al-"Arab (The Detailed History of the Arabs): ‘They claimed that a man from the tribe of Band "Uzra or from the tribe of Band Juhaina was carried off by the jinn. He stayed with them. When they listened to Heaven, they would tell him and he ‘would tell the people on earth. It was said that the jinn kidnapped him. When he returned back to his people, he told them of what he saw. They were astonished and did not believe him. His story became proverbial. People would say: this an untrue story ‘khurafah’ (1970. vol. 6:822). call pee te ot Oe gh Bye ie Ge Mey ol pees” al eR ek oT call Ly bel SLB apne GaSe ISS Lay Sosa SE ag Al ey AS Sell Gabas! UL y La Y! A Rall ple 5a og Sh ul Gs ee se “Lil d ebay Another story is told on “Amr ibn “Adi, who was also carried off by the jinn. al-Tabari (d. 1173/1760) mentions the kidnapping of “Amr by the jinn in his Tarik (History): ‘While he was in a very good state, the jinn kidnapped him and fell in love with him. Jadhimah looked everywhere for him and did not-107- find him for a while (n.d. vol. 1:616).. (Gg qual Gall G Ubu! 5] le Quai gle pa Late “eabe guy Y LL GUY! pd dade UO pad ‘The same story is also told in al-Aghint of al-Isbahani (1969. vol, 16:5659), The uncle of “Amr was none other than the king of Hira. The personage of “Amr is an intriguing one.7 “Amr became king of Hira after his uncle's death. He became the protector of Manicheans. Unfortunately, there is not much material on the possible connection between his kidnapping by the jinn to his later interest in Manicheism. It is not known if “Amr considered the jinn who kidnapped him to be demons, enemies, or friends.8 In a recent book Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China writen by the contemporary historian N. C. Lieu, one reads: ‘The subsequent persecution occasioned another Manichean exodus from Mesopotamia. Many of them came to settle in the Eastern parts of the Roman Empire, bringing with them bitter memories of the recent persecutions against the sect, as manifested in their writings which have survived in Coptic translation. They seem to have managed to find a patron in the person of King Amaro who was almost certainly the then ruler of Hira, a Bedouin kingdom strategically situated on the edge of desert to the north of the great swamp of the lower Euphrates (1992:110). al-Rhaghib al-Isbahnf mentions in his Muhddardt'al ‘udaba’ (Lectures of the Writers) other names of humans kidnapped in pre-Islam by the jinn, such as Sinén ibn Abi Haritha and talib ibn félib and “Imarah ibn al-Walid ibn-108- al-Maghirah (1961. vol. 4:631).9 al-Jahiz mentions that: ‘The jinn killed also in the Jahiliyah Sa‘d ibn Ubadah ibn Dalim. People heard the voice of the jinn chanting: "We killed the master of the Khazraj, Sa’d ibn Ubda” (1969. vol. 6: 208), SB she HOU! Ngee y pals Os Balas Go dae Gall olay Bolus Qy au Gy 5AM! tae LS 4, STORIES OF LOVE AND MARRIAGE ‘The relationships between jinn and humans did not always spring from fear and power. Despite their superior abilities, and despite the fact that they inspired awe in the Arabs of that time, the jinn were also pictured as occasionally having strong emotions and tender, sincere feelings towards humans, Many stories tell of jinn falling in love with humans and vice versa. ‘The jinn share long lives with supernatural beings and rational minds and passions with humans. Despite their aerial bodies, they can become incarnate in human form when they fall in love with a human being.10 On the love of jinn for humans, Jawad “Alt wrote the following in al-Mufassal fi tirikh al-"arab (The Detailled History of the Arabs): The jinn may fall in love with humans. It is said that a jinniyah might follow a man and love him. She is called t4bi'ah (a follower) as when they si a tabi'ah with him which means a woman from the jinn. The tat is a jinniyah that follows a human. A woman can have also (a follower) from the jinn, who follows=109- her and loves her. A jini can love a woman and befriend her. Like the story of Manziir the jinni who loved a woman called Habbah and befriended her and taught her the arts of healing (1970. vol. 6:714).11 {odupagae Le gall “jg La. ees Pa glk peas Gs eect Bes 5. INTRUSION OF THE JINN AGAINST THE BODY AND THE MIND 5.1. Intrusion against the body: Diseases and spiritual entities 5. Diseases and spiritual entities in the religions of the ancient Near East ‘When one examines the early modes of behavior of the ancient Semites, cone discovers that they were not only occupied with general questions concerning the world but also with certain practical and pressing problems of daily life. ‘There were the general problems such as securing the means of subsistence and more personal problems, such as how to ward off disease and ill fortune. In order to meet these needs, the ancient Semites developed a set of actions directed towards a definite end: protecting themselves against the terrible aggression of these spirits which were viewed as greater and more-110- powerful than incarnate beings like themselves. One of the main concerns of the ancient Semites was how to behave in case a supernatural power became offended. ‘The latter could avenge itself in a supernatural way, by sending disease or madness, as shall be seen later. In his book Semitic Magic Campbell Thompson explains this relation of the spiritual entities to diseases in these terms: Throughout the Near East, from prehistoric times down to the present day, the inhabitants have been firmly convinced that Supematural beings, to use a general expression, ae capable, of icting grievous hurt upon them, and that the maladies and bodily ills to which they are subject are directly due to this baneful power (1908:1).. Commenting on the incantation literature found in the cuneiform tablets, ‘Thompson adds: "No one can read much of the incantation literature of the Assyrians without recognizing how sickness was ascribed to the attacks of jinn or spirits of different forms" (Ibid.:96). In fact, all diseases major and minor, from plague to fever and even headache were connected to the action of unseen powers. They were caused by male or fermale enemies against whom the sorcerer fought as a warrior. The instruments which he handled are compared to weapons, and for each human illness there was a corresponding spirit. The exorcists in Babylon who were responsible for chasing away these spirits called them by their names, ‘They distinguished one spirit from another just as a modem physician distinguishes one disease from another.12“Ml. The idea of illness as demonic possession or as coming from a demonic source was widespread in Ancient Greece as well. ‘The penetration of a hostile daimon that consumed the body in a morbid and painful manner is explicitly expressed by Homer in the Odyssey where the shipwrecked Ulysses is described as assailed by an angry power (1961:5/394-98).13 5.1.2, Diseases and spiritual entities in pagan Arabia ‘The Arabs of the Jahiliyah believed that the plague was caused by the intrusion of the jinn. al-Zabidi wrote that: "The plague is that kind of disease which the jinn bring to humans” (1965, vol. 1:478). al-AlGsi mentions that: “the plague is the spears of the jinn” (1924. vol. 23323).4 Fear of plague led the pre-Islamic Arabs to some strange behaviours Jawad *AIf relates the following in al-mufassal fi tdrikh al-~arab (The Detailed History of the Arabs): Before entering a village, and fearing an attack of the plague or of the jinn, a person would stop at the entrance and start braying like a donkey, then he would hang on him the heel of a rabbit, to protect himself from both jinn and the plague. This braying was called alta’ shir (1970, vol. 6:807). Ey UR gi Ube GG 2253 JS aly] Nal pasa GIS 5” wee ale Ble ph ees! Gags GH YS of Ld Gal ple No gam 9 scaly clsll oe Gay yd Bye eS GIS LS yi Sal Sagi-112- 5.2, Intrusion Against the Mind: Madness and Spiritual Entities Madness was conceived of by the Arabs of pre-Islam as a divine alternation from normal processes. To be mad meant to be possessed by the spirit of a powerful, unseen entity, be it god or demon, ‘The Arabs of the Jahiliyah ascribed trances and epilepsy to the jinn, But these beliefs were not as sophisticated or as deeply rooted as the beliefs found in Egyptian and Babylonian religions, or even in the ancient Persian religion, In fact they were somehow borrowed from these religions, primarily from Persian creeds, as Noldeke describes in The Encyclopedia of Religion and Frequently a jini enters into a human being, rendering him possessed or mad. But the belief, found as it was to the Arabs in historical times, seems to have been originally a foreign importation, or at least to have been greatly intensified through contact with foreigners. In the Old Testament scarcely a trace of such a conception appears, whereas in the New Testament, it is extremely common. The idea was introduced into Palestine from Iran. The Persian word for "madman" is devana, literally "demonize," (from dev, originally daiva, demon, whence comes the Aramaic daiwan, ‘on the other hand, the Aramaic shedhan (from shedh, which was used as the equivalent of the Persian dev) passed into Persian in the form shedha, In pre-Islamic times the Arabs borrowed from their northern neighbors not only many of the elements of civilization, but also much that was fanciful and superstitious; the latter class includes the belief in demoniacal possession (1921. vol. 1:670).. The term majnin (mad) in Arabic literally means ‘to be possessed by a jinn’ The jinn were believed to work against the ordinary course of events, mostly causing people various kinds of mishaps, including madness. There is-113- another term connected also to the action of the jinn on the mind of the early ‘Arabs - the word khabal (to be mad). Ibn Manzdr writes the following in Lisn al arab (The Language of the Arabs): al-khabal are a kind of jinn. They are also called al-khabil. The word ‘al-khabil’ means to become rotten or decayed. al-Khabil is also one of the names of shaytn (Satan) (n.d, vol. 11:197). sell aad JU all ne yu Jad # JUG" "gla gi SuUN ola SLA y How do the jinn bring madness upon a person? In some narratives from the Jahiliyah, one can find a relationship between the sounds uttered by the jinn and the loss of reason. ‘The jinn avenge their dead by inflicting upon humans strange sounds, similar to what sirens use to enchant sailors, The sounds produced by the jinn could be similar to the pounding of a drum, the humming of certain flies, a faint murmur, a twitter, or simply a loud voice coming from an invisible unknown source that the Arabs called hatif (a distant call or sound). Again, it is in Lisin al ‘arab (The Language of the Arabs) that one finds insights into this question. Hatmalah is the incomprehensible language of the jinn. Sometimes it is similar to the buzzing of the flies. “Ibn al-I'rabi chanted the folowing ver ‘You hear i the jinn saying zi zi zim@.” (n.d. vol. 11:689), SHAS Gall ol peel Wyk y Leasll gall GU pe eal” bul-14- “etlee¥l ou] asl y 4363.63 4 Oe ad ‘The sounds made by the jinn are also called in the primary sources “azif, or u'zff. Ibn Manzfir states in Lisin al-varab (The Language of the Arabs) that: al-~Azif is the sound of the sands when the winds blow over it The Arabs think that al--azif is the sound made by the jinn. Azif al-jinn is the echo of the jinn voices. It is said it is a voice heard in the night, similar to a drum. It is said also: it is the sound of the winds in the air. The bedouins in the desert imagine that it is the voice of the jinn (n.d. vol, 9:24), ess all scl! Ug he 15) Le I cage kal” 98 ded gill pel Gene Gall ajo y Gall ol paad Giga sal eh clad ogee gt ay Lob lS Jal pd pans cage “pall gue Toll Lal conga Yaqdt mentions that: ‘There is a place in Arabia called al-\azzaf, near Kifa. Its called by this name because the Arabs hear in it “azif al-jinn (1957. vol. 42118), These sounds of the jinn have been immortalized by the poets of pre-Islam. In many primary sources, one finds verses celebrating these strange voices of the jinn such as in this verse of the poet Jirdn al--awd: ‘They carried Jirdn al-‘awd and put him back ina high place where the jinn whistle.-11S- "GS cell USL i pb ey Gay de yall ole ole 5.3. Healing body and mind: the procedures of exorcism ‘The demonic origin of disease was a prominent feature of the religion of the early Arabs. In order to free themselves from any possible intrusion of the jinn in their bodies and minds, the Arabs of the Jahitiyah developed a whole series of possible measures which could be taken against these unseen powers, including the wearing of amulets and the pronouncing of charms. These practices had a purpose: to protect the bearer from all forms of harm and danger. Noldeke states that: ‘The mysterious tribe called Band Uqaish seems likewise to be a class of demons. In order to scare them, it was the custom to rattle a number of dry skin-bottles one against another. (In The Encyclopedia of Religions and Ethics. 1821 vol 1:670)- ‘The Arab author Dawid Dawid in Adyan al-‘arab qabl_al-islam (The Religions of the Arabs Before Islam) mentions that: "The early Arabs used beads, incense, bones and salt to chase away the jinn considered to be the spirits of disease and madness" (1981:375). Some primary sources mention that it was a widespread habit among the pre-Islamic Arabs to protect themselves and especially young boys from jinn's attacks by hanging around their necks teeth or even a bone of a dead animal. It was a kind of amulet which was supposed to frighten the jinn and keep them away from humans.-116- al-Alsi mentions that: ‘The Arabs believed that the jinn of the house will not harm one who hangs around his neck the fieel of a rabbit. The Arabs used also to hang the tooth of a fox and of a cat, around the neck of a young boy, for fear of the jinn (1924. vol. 2:324).. oS ta) eS cole Ge Oe oF Ggsbing Ip e¥l ats 5” ee epee gle GES Gall ats y (gall Le Y y slull Ug “Call Ge Lash Bp Saw y ob But itis mainly in kutub al-hayawén (books of animals) and in the works of Arab lexicographers that one can find insights into the diverse exorcisms practiced by the people of the Jahiliyah in order to expell the jinn. There is a whole set of specialized terms related to the exorcisms practiced by the early Arabs like al-nushrah (dispelling), naffara (to scare), tanjis (the act of soiling) ‘nazrah (the unseen jinn), and ‘azama (to call the jinn). In ib (The Language of the Arabs), there are explanations of each of these terms as well as stories and anecdotes related to their use in pre-Islam. Ibn ManzGr writes the following on each of these terms: al-Nushrah is a certain use of magic. It is a treatment to cure the ‘one who is thought to be mad, It is called ‘nushrah’ because it expelis from the person the sickness he or she has (n.d. vol. 5:209). OE NBs LS Gn lly Gabel gL oe pte A 9” all oe lean a-17- Naffara: To repel, to scare. It is the act of giving a name to a person that can scare the jinn and evil eye. One bedouin tells that ‘when he was born, the people said to his father: “Give him a name that scares evil." He called him hedgehog (n.d. vol. 5:227) we nally Ge p25 paste GUS LE Gd gl ie 3s” "NAS laws Sb oY 5 cally Us plyel Slay al-Tanjis: The people of the Jahiliyah used to hang a dirty garment ‘or bones from the dead around the neck of a boy or of any person afraid of the evil eye of the jinn. They would say: "the jinn will not come near them’ (Ibid. vol. 6:226-7). Googe abe GUS ny ppl le Qydley Galata Jal GIS y » Y all Gadeday Gull plies veal! G8 Oe yILGYl Sal ees ‘There is also a whole set of actions for protection against the evil eye of the jinn. The belief in the evil eye as a consequence of jinn’s intrusion was strong among the Arabs at that time. Nazrah: Ibn Manzér mentions that: “al-Nazrah is the evil eye of the jinn, and al-nizrah are those unseen jinn present among humans" (n.d. vol. 5:220). all ie SULIT gi & HS Bll y call ope BBA Tbn Manzéir writes the following on ‘azama: ‘They allege that the jinn do not respond to the person calling them unless he becomes wild, dwells in barren and ruined places, and unless he quits the society of humans, resembles the jinn, washes himself with pure water, perfumes his body, and watches Saturn. If the person becomes thinner and lighter, if he becomes wilder and-118- calls the jinn, then they will respond to him, that is after his. body has become a suitable temple for the jinn to enter, and after he rejoices at entering in their desolate places, and he does not refuse to be possessed. But if the person calls them without following these directions, then the jinn bring madness upon him and may possibly ill him (n.d, vol. 4:185-6). Ging ty ais ty Stl alee nas Y Dall ol Green 9” wall atts ye WLU Gs Fy gall | yell all sly tle oo SUI SLUG pata ge CI HUG Luis y US 9 call Ciylal p5e y ass y ib y Go GLa ys all ily pte Wh Se LH See ches Ga os ot oy Cpanel 58 LS ead GSI y nese 055s Hg I5Ln TALE Lay 9 hs al I Sab ly gladly In resorting to this rich repertoire of exorcisms, the Arabs of pre-Islam considered disease and madness to be two different names for spirit-possession in its widest sense, Since both phenomena result from an attack of the jinn, it naturally follows that to eliminate these spirits is the Proper means of cure. ‘Therefore the practice of the exorcist appears side by side with the doctrine of possession. The exorcist of the Jahilivah talks to the sinnt or jinniyah who possesses the mind or the body of a person. He or she threatens it, makes offerings to it, entices or drives it out of the patient's body, and induces it to dwell elsewhere.17 ‘The use of charms or conjurations with therapeutic intent, verbal formulas of magic character, recited or chanted in the presence of the patient has always been a part of almost all cultures of the ancient Near East. In the Odyssey, one finds various allusions to the magic use of charms and exorcisms, including the-119- following: Ulysses, while hunting with the sons of Autolycus, is wounded in the leg by a wild boar. His hunting companions gather around him, skillfully bind up (desan) his wound and by means of a charm (epaoide) stanch the flow of dark blood (1961:457).18 6, SACRIFICES OFFERED TO THE JINN ‘The Arabs of pre-Islam offered sacrifices to the jinn in order to protect themselves. These sacrifices were supposed, in addition to the concurrent use of amulets, charms and exorcisms, to frighten the jinn. al-Damirf mentions in +hayat al-hayawén al-kubré (The Great Life of Animals) the following: ‘The Arabs offered sacrifices to the jinn when they moved to a new place or when they extracted water from a new well. People of the Hihilivah believed that by doing so, the jinn would not harm the owner (n.d, vol. 1:196). In Taj al-“ariis, al-Zabidi mentions under the article dhabaha the same sacrifices. (1965,vol.2:138), But in general, one finds more information on sacrifices offered to gods rather than to jinn in the Jahiliyah. Camels, lambs, and sometimes flour or milk were offered to the god Wadd and the god Dhu al-Khalasah, In his book The Idols, Ibn al-Kalbi describes some of these sacrifices which used to be given to idols. The pagan Arabs used to offer sacrifices to the goddess al-"Uzza. Ibn al-Kalbi mentions an interesting detail concerning- 120- the Prophet Muhammad: "we have been told that the Apostle of God once mentioned al-"Uzza saying: "I have offered a white sheep to al-"Uzza, while I was a follower of the religion of my people” (1952:17). Ibn al-Kalbi mentions also that: al-"Uzza had a place of sacrifice called al-Ghabghab where they offered their oblations. al-Hudahli speaks of it in a satire which he composed against a certain man who had married a beautiful woman whose name was ‘Asma.’ He said: "Asma was married to the jawbone of a little cow which one of the banu-Ghanm had offered for sacrifice. As he led it to the Ghabghab of al-"Uzza, he noticed some defects in its eyes; and when the cow was offered upon the altar, and its flesh divided, his portion was foul." It was customary to divide the flesh of the sacrifice among those who had offered it and among those present at the ceremony (Ibid.:18).19 Ibn Hishdm in his Sirah mentions that the pagan Arabs used even to sacrifice to certain temples and not necessarily to gods and goddesses: Now along with the Ka'bah the Arabs had adopted Tawaghit, which were temples which they venerated as they venerated the Ka'ba. They had their guardians and overseers and they used to make offerings to them as they did to the Ka'ba and to circumambulate them and sacrifice at them" (1955:38), One wonders why the pagan Arabs seemed to have sacrificed more to gods rather than to jinn. It is possible that the reason for this behavior lies in that gods had known temples in certain places, where the early Arabs came to worship them. It was at these places of worship that the pagan Arabs offered their sacrifices, while the jinn were spiritual entities vaguely attached to certain places 20.-121- 7. SUMMARY Tt has been shown in this chapter that the pagan Arabs interacted often with the jinn. Wars occured between humans and jinn as well as stories of love and possesion, The early Arabs believéd in the power of the jinn and tried to free themselves from being possessed by these spiritual entities by using a set of exorcisms. Itis said that some of thems offered even sacrifices tor the jinn. But unfortunately, the data on this last issue is rather scant, while many stories are told on the sacrifices offered to gods and goddesses. In considering the practice of exorcisms and the wearing of amulets in the ‘ahiliyah, one wonders if they were part of a religious system or part of a certain magic. From the primary sources, it seems that the early Arabs scarcely discriminated at all between religion and magic. The two circles of religion and magic intersected each other and overlapped. Many authors on the history of religions think that the difference between religion and magic is not easy to draw as stated by Frank Whaling who approached the study of religion from an interdisciplinary angle : Religion, magic, and superstition are closely connected with each other. Religion is usually associated with positive values, while those beliefs and practices that do not seem to be compatible with these values are usually considered as magic and superstition (1983:243) 21. ‘Some scholars think that the division between the two disciplines is not antifici |. It pertains on the contrary to a different approach toward the sacred.-122- Such is the opinion of the historian of religions W.Warde Fowler: If we accept this distinction, as I think we may (though one school of anthropologists is hardly disposed to do so), it is plain that magical practices are of a totally different kind from religious practices, as being the result of a different mental attitude towards the supernatural; they belong to a ruder and more rudimentary idea of the relation of Man to the power manifesting itself in the universe 91147). In general, it seems from the data collected on pre-Islam that the religion of the early civilizations such as that of the Jahiliyah dealt more with simple Tituals destined to manipulate the forces of nature than it dealt with sophisticated spiritual doctrines or ethics.+123- ENDNOTES OF CHAPTER FIVE OF PART ONE . On this relation of supematural beings to nature in general, see especially Levy Bruhl :” in short, to judge by what he (the primitive) habitually thinks and fears, it would seem as if the supernatural forms part of nature to him"(1973:5). . The jinn are pictured in some primary sources as able to transform arid lands into fertile lands, On this ‘issue, see especially Yaqat(1957. vol.1:127), . On this issue see al-Ma'arri (1950:287); see also Shibli who mentions another tribe of jinn called “Ugaish (1988:157); see also Tabari who ‘mentions this same tribe of jinn in his Tarikh ‘History’ (n.d.vol.2:349), |. On the jinn kings , see especially W. A. Budge who claims that he found in Egypt an amulet on which the following was written:” the fifth line of the amulet contains the names of kings of the Genii: Mudhahhab, Marra’ ‘Ahmar, Abyad, Ma'miin, Buskan, Shamhurish."( 1992:43), It is noticeable that most of the primary sources place the jinn under the subtitle tribes and nations’. See especially al-Ma’sari(1950:602). For additional details on the personage of Khurdfa, see al-Zabidi(1965. vol.6:83). For more information on the personage of “Amru ibn “Adi see especially Mas’iidi(1965.vol.3:183); see also Encyclopedia _of Islam (1991. vol.1:450). ‘The French orientalist Régis Blachére looked at the rapt of “Amru from yet another angle. Blachére does not consider it as an illustration of the pre-Islamic belief in the power of the jinn but rather as a continuation of the universel belief in the lost child saved by the beasts:" sous son habillement arabe, peut-étre retrouve -t- on ici le theme de I'Enfant exposé a la mort et miraculeusement sauvé par des bétes farouches"(1966. vol.3:743), AL-Shibli mentions many stories of humans kidnapped by jinn in the Tahiliyah and remaining with them till after the advent of Islam. Such was the case of the daughter of al-Nadr al-Hirithi who was kidnapped in the Jahiliyah for a long period of time, One day, a war occured between ‘Muslim jinn and pagan jinn. Finally, a Muslim jinnt brought her back to her family (1988:106),10. i. 12, 13. 4. 15, 16. 17, 18. -124- ‘The love of the jinn for human women reminds one of the love of another kind of spiritual entities for human women. In Genesis 6:2, one reads :"it ‘was at that time that the Elohim, these beings from the spirit world looked upon the beautiful earth women and took any they desired to be their wives". On the strong love of jinn for women, see also al-Jahiz(1966. vol.6:218) ; see also Ibn Manziir (n.d.vol.8:29). On the issue of evil spiritual entities attacking the body in Mesopotamia, see also Walter Addison Jayne:"the Utukku were extremely vicious, and with several attendant fever-demons, they assailed the throat; Alu attacked the chest; Gallu the habd; Rabisu, the skin"(1962:104); See also John Gacer who studied the incantation bowls in Mesopotamia as a means to protect against the diseases brought by a certain class of demons (1992:228), ‘On the widespread belief in the demonic origin of illeness in Greece see Edward Langton:"by the Greeks as by the Babylonians and Assyrians, the sensation of nightmare was attributed to a demon, a belief still continues in the popular religion of Greece, as does also the belief in all kinds of disease spirits"(1981:80). This belief in the plague as "spears of the jinn” can be found also in the poetry of pre-Islam, On this issue, sce especially al-Jhiz. (1969. vol.6:218).. This same belief in the plague as sent by supernatural beings or gods can be found also in the Iliad. See especially Pedro Entralgo:" the disease visited by Apollo upon the Achaens thus consists of a defiling object, a material reality "divinely" superinduced upon the body of the sufferer, in short a physical stain. The realtionship between this conception of the disease state and the idea of the magical intrusion of a foreign and harmful ‘object cannot be denied" (1970:10). The anthropologist Edward Tylor describes the sounds made by some spiritual entities as a ‘twitter’ or ‘thin murmur’ (1970:36). For more information on the exorcisms of the Jahiliyah, see especialls al-Raghib al-Isbahdni (1961. vol.1:154), oS See Pedro Entralgo on the use of charms by the Companions of Ulysse:" the sons of Autolycus recite their epaoide to stanch the bleeding of Ulysses’ wound and address their charm to the power controlling the hemorrhage, to the daimon intended to be ‘bound’ or tied’ in a magical way by the bandage "(1970:27).