16th International Conference, DEXA 2005 Copenhagen, Denmark, August 2005 Proceedings DEXA 2005 a Santas‘Table of Contents Rotation and Gray-Scale Invariant Classification of Textures Improved by Spatial Distribution of Features Gouchol Pok, Keun Ho Ryu, Jyh-charn Lyu..... Zooming Cross-Media: A Zooming Description Language Coding LOD Control and Media Transition Tadashi Araki, Hisashi Miyamori, Mitsuru Minakuchi, Ai Kato, Zoran Stejic, Yasushi Ogawa, Katsurni Tanaka . A Histogram-Based Selectivity Estimator for Skewed XML Data Hanyu Li, Mong Li Lee, Wynne Hsu .......00cccceeeeeeeees Accelerating XML Structural Join by Partitioning Nan Tang, Jeffrey Xu Yu, Kam-Fai Wong, Kevin Lii, Jianain Li... Efficient Dissemination of Filtered Data in XML-Based SDI Jae-Ho Choi, Young-Jin Yoon, SangKeun Lee ..... Efficient Processing of Ordered XML Twig Pattern Jiaheng Lu, Tok Wang Ling, Tian Yu, Changging Li, Wei Ni A Flexible Role-Based Delegation Model Using Characteristics of Permissions Dong-Gue\ Pork, sYoush Lecinatse adlivaah vk renga saline we iile Provable Data Privacy Kilian Stoffel, Thomas Studer ......000..s00ceccceeeeceeeeneeeens Formalizing the XML Schema Matching Problem as a Constraint Optimization Problem Marko Smiljanié, Maurice van Keulen, Willem Jonker... ... 000005 Evolving XML Schemas and Documents Using UML Class Diagrams Eladio Dominguez, Jorge Lloret, Angel L. Rubio, Maria A. Zapata Building XML Documents and Schemas to Support Object Data Exchange and Communication Carlo Combi, Giuseppe Pozzi.......... ar dia epee cs Intensional Encapsulations of Database Subsets via Genetic Programming Aybar C, Acar, Amihai Motro Preferred Skyline: A Hybrid Approach Between SQLf and Skyline Marlene Goncalves, Maria-Esther Vidal ............+++022sce0eee xv 250 260 270 280 290 300Rotation and Gray-Scale Invariant Classification of Textures Improved by Spatial Distribution of Features Gouchol Pok?, Keun Ho Ryu®, and Jyh-charn Lyu® 2 Yanbian University of Science and ‘Technology, Department of Computer Science, ‘Yanji, Jin Province, China sgepokdyahoo.co.kr ® Chungbuk National University, Department of Computer Selence, Choongju, Chungbuk, Korea hryuedblab. chungbulk.ac.lor * Texas A&M University, Department of Computer Science, College Station, Texas, USA jeliudes. tanu.edu Abstract. In this paper, we present a framework for texture descriptors ‘based on spatial distribution of textural features. Our approach is based ‘on the observation that regional properties of textures are well captured by correlations among local texture patterns. The proposed method has been evaluated through experiments using real textures, and has shown significant improvements in recognition rates. 1 Introduction Texture is one of the fundamental properties of natural images, and useful for various applications including remote sensing, medical image analysis, industrial surface inspection, and content-based image retrieval. Although texture analysis and classification have been widely studied in the literature, many existing ap- proaches deal with limited problems that do not fully take into account the image variations with respect to orientation, intensity, and spatial scale (1| (2). Over the years, a number of approaches to texture classification have been developed to address rotation invariance problems. Porter and Canagarajah [3] developed the rotation invariant texture classification schemes for three texture analysis ‘models, ie., wavelet transform, Gabor filters, and Gaussian Markov random, fields (GMRFs). They achieved rotation invariance by discarding the orienta- tion information or by averaging of the features over the circular neighborhoods. Hayley and Manjunath [4] used multichannel Gabor filters to extract rotation- invariant texture features. They decomposed Gabor elementary functions into amplitude and phase components, and, from these components, developed the texture model of micro-features that describe the amplitude, frequency, and directional characteristies of textures. Dimai (5) applied the framework of the general moment invariants to non-invariant Gabor features, Due to high com putational complexity involved in extraction and classification of features, he KV. Andersen, J. Debenham, and R. Wagner (Eds): DEXA 2005, LNCS 8588, pp, 260-269, 2005 © Springer-Vetlag Belin Heidelberg 2008Rotation and Gray-Seale Invariant Classification of Textures 251 employed sampling of filtering positions and a feature selection step. Fountain ct al. [6] compared four different rotation toxture analysis methods in retrieving texture images from the image database of the Brodatz album {7}. Other exam- ples include the circular sirmultancous autoregressive (CSAR) model by Kashiyap ‘and Khotanzad [s), the multiresolution simultaneous autoregressive (MRSAR) model by Mao and Jain (9), the works by Pietikainen et al. (10), Fountain and ‘Tan [11], and Greenspan et al. (12). In addition to the rotation invariance prob- lem, several recent works also addressed the scale invariance problem. Pun and Lee [1] proposed a scheme using the wavelet energy signatures and the log-polar transform, In their approach, rotation and scale variance of the input image ‘were transformed to row shift variance by the log-polar transform, and then the rov shift variance was eliminated by applying an adaptive wavelet packet trans- form, Experimental results reportedly showed the overall recognition accuracy of 90.8 percent using 96 energy features extracted from the 25 natural images of the Brodatz album (7), Similarly, Leung and Peterson (14) used log-polar Gabor filters, and then estimated rotation and scale parameters using the mental trans- form. Cohen et al. [13] incorporated a likelihood function with the GMRF model to estimate rotation and scale parameters. Experiments were carried out with nine classes of the Brodatz album, which is rather a limited number of samples considering the wide variety of textures. Other works that address both the ro- tation and scale invariance problem incude Wu and Yoshida [15], Tan (26), and Manian and Vasquez [17]. Gray-scale invariant texture classification, which has received little attention in the literature, is also important to deal with images of great intra-class variability usually caused by light reflectance and uneven illu- mination, Chen and Kundu (18] employed the histogram equalization technique to achieve gray-scale invariance. Notable drawback of this approach lies in that local intensity variability within an image can not be addressed generally by the global histogram equalization. Wu and Wei (19} proposed a similar approach. Both approaches assumed that the underlying function of gray-scale variation is liner, which could limit the usefulness of the methods. Ojala et al. [2] proposed a simple method using local binary pattems (LBP). They showed that uniform pattems, which refer to uniform occurrences of local binary patterns, are fun- damental properties of local texture structures. More specifically, transition of gray levels in the circular neighborhood with respect to the gray level of the center pixel successfully capture primitive features such as edges, corners, and spots. Gray-scale invariance was achieved by using the relative measures of gray levels instead of directly using gray levels. However, gray levels are one of the essential properties of textures, as most feature-based and statistical approaches have been designed based on gray levels. ‘We propose that correct classification rate can be significantly increased by using co-ocewrrence relations of local textural features. The local textural features ed in this study are the LBP and gray level intensities, The LBP operator [2] is excellent in capturing the spatial structure of local texture, but it discards, by definition, gray level information. Therefore, in general, the LBP per se is282 G. Pok, ICH. Ryu, and J-e. Ly not appropriate for representing rotation invariance property. To compensate for this loss of gray level information, Ojala et al, (2} incorporated the variance of gray levels into the feature set for achieving rotation invariant classification of textures. In contrast, we have used co-occurrence of gray levels as well as that of the LBPs on a circular neighborhood system. The performance of the proposed approach has been evaluated using the same test sets of real texture images as those published in [2] [22] ‘The results have shown significant increase of correct classification rate compared to the ones obtained by Ojala et al ‘The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the framework to eap- ture spatial distribution of local features, Section 3 presents experimental results, and Section 4 draws conclusion of this paper, 2 Rotation and Gray-Scale Invariant Texture Descriptors 2.1 Cireular Neighborhood System A circular neighborhood system Ny. of radius r with respect to center pixel pe is defined as the equally spaced P points, p = 0,1,-+-,P 1, on a circle of radius r, as illustrated in Pig. 1. Corresponding gray levels are denoted by GP = (90,914"-- .gp-1), and by ge for a center pixel. Some points have non- integer coordinates, and their gray levels are computed by the linear interpolation of the four neighboring pixels as shown in Fig. 2 (20). The gray level of point (z,y) is computed as, Gay = thgur + a(1 — B)gia + (1 — a}bgar + (1 — a)(1 — Boa, @) where weights a and b are coordinate differences, a= yz2 ~ y and b = 22 ~ =, and giy are gray levels. 2.2 Local Binary Patterns Ojala et al. [2] proposed a texture operator called loeal binary patterns (LBP) that use gray level differences between the pixels of a circular neighborhood and ‘the center pixel. This section will review the procedure to compute the local Circular neighbor aystem. Black points constitute a neighborhood of 0), and white ones represent that of (P=16,r=2.0)Rotation and Gray-Scale Invariant Classifiation of Textures 253 e 2 Fig. 2. Linear interpolation scheme binary patterns as described in [2]. LBP with respect to the gray levels GP in Ny, is defined as, LBP? = (sgn(go — ge), 890(91 — Gc)s°** 897 9P—1 — de))> 2) ‘where sgn(z) is a sign function, soto (2420 ° ‘Thus, LBP? is by definition a binary pattern in which bits of value 1 (value 0) correspond to pixels whose gray levels are greater than or equal to (less than) that of the center pixel. From the bit patterns of LBP)’, we compute the number of transitions from 1 to 0 and vice verse in the circular order, pa U(EBPP) = \sgn(gr-s de) S990 -G)|+ J [89M ~9e)—39(Ip-1 ~ de) = ) ‘Then, the pattern code of LBP is defined as, pot 2 sua _ { Dpca 40"(p ~ 9.) if U(LBPF) <2 sarge {Prt eee © Because signed differences gp ~ ge are not affected by changes of luminance, gray-scale invariance property can be achieved by considering only the signs of the differences instead of their values. The distinct values of uLBP,” is P +2 according to Eq, (5). For example, for P = 24, which is the aumber of pixels on the rectangular boundary of radius r = 3, the number of distinctive uLBPs is 26. 2.3 Improved Rotation Invariant Texture Descriptor Once the LBP#Ms for all pixels in the input image are computed, they are collected to form a histogram which is used as rotation-invariant texture fea- tures, Although the LBP? operator is excellent in capturing the textural structure in a local region of images, it does not consider the spatial relations of the textural features because the features are represented as a histogram. In254 G, Pok, K.H. Ryu, and J- are Al A 16/4 b fae Netes S z 1. d® ONE tate a OO | | B sae wee 6 ea iota fos sae eae se ae Fig. 3. Contour map of cooccurrence matrices obtained from gray levels quantized at 64 levels contrast, we propose a method which considers spatial relations through @ co- occurrence matrix of texture features. Let COMAT (i, ) be the clement of a co-occurrence matrix at #-th row and j-th column. The value of COMAT(,4) is computed by accumulating the number of pixels whose texture features have value J over the circular neighborhood around the center pixel of value #. The co-occurrence matrix obtained by relating LBPS%? and LBPE2 is denoted by COMATS 2" (i,j). It should be noted that COMAT operator is different from the usual Gray Level Cooceurrence Matrix (GLCM) [23] in the sense that COMAT does not consider the relative direction between two co-oceurrences of features, Therefore, COM AT? (i, #) can achieve rotational inavariance property, whereas GLCM does not in general. Moreover, COMAT operator can achieve higher rates of classification accuracy as the discriminant power is pictorially illustrated in Fig, 3 for 24 different texture classes whose details are described in Seetion 3. 2.4 Classification Measure ‘The similarity of two joint-histograms (generated from a test image and model images) is measured by a test of goodness-of-fit [2]. Given a test feature T and a model feature M, the G(log-likelihood ratio) is defined as, # 2) [ilogTs — ThlogM), (6) mt where H is the number of joint-histogram bins and T, and My are probabilities of T and M at bin h, respectively. Note that the term Tylog, in Equation 6 is constant, and therefore ean be ignored without any effects on the classification‘Rotation and Gray-Scale Invariant Classification of Textures 255 Fig. 4. Forty classes of textures from Bonn University image database result, Therefore, a test sample S is assigned to the class of the model M that ‘maximizes the log-likelihood statistic, LT, M) @ 3 Experimental Results ‘The performance of the proposed algorithm was evaluated using two different sets of natural textures, one set provided by [21] and the other one replicated from the Outex texture database [22]. The Outex includes a large collection of natural textures and test suites for comparison of several types of texture analysis, together with the experimental results of published algorithms. We computed the average of cooceurrence matrices (COM AT) for each class, and used them as model features to which the testing image features are compared. ‘This is in contrast to the scheme adopted by Ojala et al. [2] in which all sample instances are stored as references to be compared with the input image. This scheme is unrealistic for practical applications, even though high rate of correct classification can be achieved. 3.1 Experiment 1: Rotation Invariant Texture Classification The objective of the experiment is to evaluate the performance for the rotation invariant texture classification, The test data include 40 classes of natural tex- tures from the Bonn University [21], as shown in Fig 4. From each 512 x 512 texture image, 25 non-overlapping sample images of size 198X128 were extracted, and five images were used for training and 20 images for testing. The images in286 G. Pok, K-H. Ryu, and J-c. Lyu. ‘Table 1. Classification Accuracios(%) for Experiment 1 Deseipior FAR [Average] Descipter (PUP RY roa ei) aa iD, BZ) | 90 2 | 25 (0, Gia) | 955 a3 | 939 (0, Ge) | 964 navi? s1+162| 9. ||comargie sz), (243) | 963 sis24a] 4s (062), 4a) | 95. 16,2 + 24,3] 93.6 (24,3), (34,4) | 93.2 the training set were rotated by eight different angles (0°, 15°, 50°, 85°, 110°, 125°, 140°, and 170°), while those in the testing set were rotated by another set of eight angles (5°, 20°, 45°, 80°, 100°, 130°, 150°, and 175°). Therefore, the training set include 1600 images (8 angles x 5 samples x 40 classes), and the testing set 6400 samples (8 angles x 20 samples x 40 classes). ‘The classification accuracies are summarized in Table 1. One can see that cooceurrence matrix-based COMAT consistently outperform the LEPE"* op- erator for different values of P and r. This observations show that the textural properties over a local area are better represented by cooceurrence relations than I —D histogram. As remarked by Ojala et al. (2). LBP have diff culties in disciminating strongly oriented textures because ditectional charater- istics of textures appear over local area wider than radius r. ‘This resulted in the performance degradation for recognizing rattan, straw, and wood textures ‘As expected, combining two COMAT descriptors with different values of P and r and thus forming multiresolution scheme improved the classification per- formance. The superior results of our approach demonstrate its suitability for rotation invariant texture classification, 3.2. Experiment 2: Gray-Scale and Rotation Invariant Texture Classification In this experiment, we evaluate the performance for gray-scale and rotation invariant texture classification using texture image set Outex-TC-00010 from the Outex database [22]. The 24 classes of test images are illustrated in Fig. 5. Most of the texture images are canvases with strong directional structure. Some texture classes (0.g., oanvas025, canvas098, and canvas038) show considerable local gray-scale distortions. Such characteristic of test data presents a challenging problem for gray-scale and rotation invariant texture analysis. From the texture image database, 480 images (24 classes x 20 images pet class)of size 128 x 128 were randomly extracted and used as a training set, and 3840 images (24 classes x 160 images per class)of size 128 x 128 were extracted in such @ manner that they were not overlapped with the training images, and used as a test set. ‘The experimental results are summarized in Table 2. ‘These results are favor- ably compared with the results obtained by the LEP operators.Rotation and Gray-Scale Invariant Classification of Textures Fig. 5. Twenty-four classes of textures from Outen-T'C-00010. Row 1: Canvas0t, Can- ‘va8002, Canvas009, Convas005, Carwas006, Canvas009. Row 2: Canvas011, Canvas021, Canvas022, Canvns023, Canvas025, Convas026. Row 3: Canvas031, Canvas0'#2, Can- 103039, Canvas095, Canvas038, Canvas099. Row 4: Tile 005, Tite 006, Carpet 002, Carpet 004, Carpet 005, Carpet 009, ‘Table 2. Classification Accuracies(%) for Experiment 2 [Deseriptor PR [Averagel] Descriptor —(P.R).(P", R)[Aversee| BI SOL (i), (162) | 892 162 825 (Bi), (243) | 912 4g 882 (1), (44) | 95.3 reps 34162 | 916 |CoMATy," (162), (243) | 949 814243 | 931 (16.2), (344) | 93.0 1624243 | 926 (243), (344) | 93.4 814162 +243) 922 4 Conclusion We have shown that gray-seale and rotational invariant texture classification can be improved by using cooccurrence information of local binary patterns. ‘We developed a generalized gray-scale and rotation invariant texture descriptor COMAT, which allows for detecting local structures in a cireular neighbor- hoods of any quantization of the angular space. The discriminative power of the proposed texture descriptor can be seen from pictorial illustration of COMAT shown in Fig. 6 Excellent experimental results obtained in the two experiments demonstrate that good discrimination can be achieved with the cooceurrence statistics of local binary patterns.ere eae eee. he roe Fig. 6. Pictorial illustration of COMATT for textures in Outer-TC-00010 Acknowledgment ‘This work was supported by the Regional Research Centers Program. References 1. CoM, Pan and M-C. Lee, "Log-Polar Wavelet Energy Signatures for Rotation and Scale Invariant Texture Classification,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis ond Machine Intelligence, vol. 25, no. 5, pp-590-603, May 2003. 2. T. Ojala, M. Pietikainen, and T. Maenpaa, "Multiresolution Gray-Scale and Ro- tation Invariant Texture Classification with Loeal Binary Patterns,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol. 24, no. 7, pp.971-987, July 2002. 3. R. Porter and N. 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